PW 1943 03

PRACTICAL WIRELESS, March, IMS.
SHORT-WAVE TWO-VALVER
Practical
Wireless
fc
Regd. Trade Mark

ELECTRICAL
MEASURING
Universal AvoMinorD.C. AvoMinor
INSTRUMENTS
'J'HE world-wide use of "AVO " Instruments is striking
testimony to their outstanding versatility, precision
and reliability. In every sphere of electrical test work
they are appreciated for their dependable accuracy,
which is often used as a standard by which other in-
Some delay in delivery ol struments are judged. There is an "AVO" Instrument
Trade Orders is inevitable, for every essential electrical test.
but we shall continue to do
our best to fulfil your require-
ments as promptly as possible. Sole Proprietors and Manufacturers :—
The AUTOMATIC COIL WINDER & ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
Co., Ltd., Winder House, Douglas Street, London, S.W.I.
Phone : Victoria 3404-7.
PREMIER RADIO
NEW PREMIER S.W. COILS PREMIER
4-willandfit6-pin types now Octal have octal pin spacing*and REPLACEMENT Battery PREBVIER Model4 S.W.
t VALVE DE LUXE
Internattonal
4-pin Type
valve-holders,
e-pin Type VALVES 2-volt Valve, Coils. Receiver,
Coveringcomplete with
12-170 metres,
Type Range Price 4-volt A.C. - types, 011 St
04 m. . 2/6 Type
9-15 m. 06 Kangre Price 5-pin. ACHL, 5 6 tax
9-15m. chassis and Panel. 55/- including
04A
04 B 22-47 12-26
m. . 2/6 06B
2/6
06A 12-26 m. ... 2/6 each ELECTROLYTIC CONDENSERS
04C 22-47 m. Tubular wire end type. 8 mf. 125v.. 1/6 each : 25
04D 41-94 m.
76-170 m. .. 2/6 26 06D
06C 41-94 m.
76-170 m. BAKELITE DIELEC- 50v., mf. 25v.. 1/6 each ; 50 mf. 12v.. 1/6 each ; 50 mf.
3/- each.
04E ]50-350m. . 3/- TRIC REACTION
04P 255-550m. . 3- _ Chassis Mounting CONDENSERS PREMIER MICROPHONES
0404HG 490-1,000m... 4/- Octal Holders Transverseunit.Current Mike.45-7,500
High-grade
1.000-2,000m... 4/-
IVcw Premier 3-Band S.W. Coil, II 25-38, 38-
lOid. each. .0003 ml'., 2/6
.0005 mf., 2/9 each. output Response cycles. large
Low
86 m., 4/9. hiss lever, 23/-.
.000." mf. Differential, Premier Super-Mnvingr Coi! Mike. Permanent
Rotary Wave Change to. suit above, 1/6. 2/11. Magnet model Impedance
requiring no15 energising. Sensi-
SKORT-WAVE CONDENSERS tivity 56db. ohms. Excellent
Troiitnl insulation. Certified superior to ceramic. "LEARNING MORSE ?" Mlerophone reproduction of speech and music, £5/5/-.
All-brass Transformers, 10/6 each.
15m.mfd. construction.
... 2/4 Easily ganged. ... . 3/.
lOOm.mfd. Then purchase one of the Cbrrumum Collapsible Type Microphone Stand,
i"-"402aj»-mAL-
m.mfd. ...
... 2,6 ^6 160 m.mfd. ...
250 m.mfd. ... 4/- 3,7 new practice Oscillators. Mains Resistances. 660 ohms .3A, tapped 360 +
Prcraier 2-gang. S.W. Condenser, 2 x .00015 mfd. with Supplied complete 180 + 60+60 ohms., 5/6- 1,000 ohms. .2A. tapped at
integral slow-motion, complete with pointer, knob with valve on nf /£ 900. 800.. 700. COO, 500 ohms. 4/6. 1 ohm 4- 1 per
andH.F.
scale.Chokes.
10/6. 10-100 m., 10'd. steel chassis * • / 0 2-Way cent., Line
suitable for Bridges,
Cored 5/- each.50 ohms per
Resistance.
S.W. loot. Screens,
Price 1/4forperInternational
foot.
Brass Shaft Couplers, din. bore, 7*d. each. Practice Key, 3/3 ; TX Valve and U.S.A. types,
Flexible Couplers, fin. bore, lid, each. Key, 5/9. 1/2 each.
MOVING COIL SPEAKERS Super Model, on Wooden Posh-Back Connecting
Rcsin-cnrcdSleeving,
Solder, 2mm.. Wire, 2d.
7id. per2/6coil. per yard.
Rola Sin. P.M. Speaker, 25/-. Base, 11/6, Sysfotlex per doz, yards.
Celestion 8-in. P.M. Speaker. 25/-*; H aterproof Covered Cable. 3-way, 1/3 per yard :
Plcssey Sin. 2.000 ohms Field Speaker. 25/-.
Above Speakers are complete with output trans- Brown's19 6 Headphone^,
formers. pair.
5-way. 1/6 per yard.
Screened Braided Cable. Single, 1/S per yard ;
Rola 5in. P.M. Speaker. 3 ohms Voice Coii 21/- 3 Henry Chokes, 10/-. twin., 1.6 per yard ; maximum lengths, 6 yards
approx.
Rola
Rola 65in. P.M. Speaker.
8»n. P.M. Speaker, 33 ohms
ohms Voice
Voice Coil,
Coi). 25'-'
25 -' 7-pin Ceramic Chassis Mtg. English type Valve
Good Quality Buzzer, 3/- holders, 1/6 each.
ALL ENQUIRIES MUST AtX POST ORDERS TO : JUBILEE WORKS, 167, LOWES CLAPTO?! ROAD,
BE ACCOMPANIED BY LONDON, E.5. (-JmAe/s, 4723}
A 2 Id. STAMP. CALLERS TO : Jubilee Works, or 169, Fleet Stroet, E.0.4. {Centml ZSW).
March, 1943 PRACTICAL WIRELESS 133
EVERY Slaif ;
vpl, XIX
No. 441. MONTH
MARCH, 1943. C and PRACTICAL
cTTTT" TELEVISION T L. O. SPARKS.
Cfkbyc. f.j.cA/nin FRANK PRESTON.
COMMENTS OF THE MONTH BT THE EDITOR
The Battery Shortage

ONE or two magistrates have protested against the has consented to' act as chairman of the appeal, and
battery shortage as it affects cyclists. Large a personal letter from Lord Hirst is now being sent out
numbers of cyclists have beep prosecuted for
riding cycles without lights when they have no option, to The all units of the industries.
initial working committee was tormed under the
where they live a considerable distance from their homes, clnarmanship
but to break the law. Many of them are war workers of B.E.A.M.A.),of with Mr, V. Watliugton, M.I.E.E. (director
who have to waste time going to Court to answer a of E.D.A.) and Mr. H. Mr. V. W, Dale (business manager
charge of committing an offence which they cannot the appeal), acting asS.joint Pocock, M.I.E.E. (who initiated
secretaries.
avoid committing. Some indeed have been stopped whilst Lord Hirst's appeal letter is accompanied by a
on their way to work during blackout, and have thus statement of the. purpose and aims of the appeal, and
arrived late, thereby committing another offence, particular attention
these protests have a wider significance in that they ing into a coveaant tois subscribe drawn to the advantages ol enter-
annually for seven years
draw attention to the general shortage of batteries, not or the duration of the war. By this means whatever sum
to know that the Board of Trade have promised to tax), because the Red Cross are able to recover the tax
investigate and possibly remedy the matter.
It is almost impossible to obtain certain types of high The gross amount is credited to the subscriber as his
Single or occasional donations are of
tension battery, and large numbers of battery sets have, contribution.
therefore, been out of action for months. It is observed course, welcome, but they have not this special advantage
and do not give the Red Cross the same assurance of a
that there are literally dozens of types of high tension regular annual revenue. The official form of covenant is
batteries, and we think that this is the main cause of being sent with each appeal letter.
the trouble.
Set designers design their sets without reference to Mathematical Tables and Formulae
standard sizes, and then call upon the battery manu- A NEW Vest Pocket Book, entitled " Mathematical
facturers to make a special battery to suit the space , Tables and Formula! for Engineers and Technical
available.
With fewer types it is possible that there would be a Students," has just been published from this office at
3s. 6d.. or by post at 3s. yd. The book contains 137
greater supply, because more people and plant are pages, including a 16-page index. Contents include
required to make a large number of types than a smaller Standard Mathematical Symb'ols; Mathematical and
number. We are aware certain battery materials are in General Constants ; Approximation ; Trigonometry
short supply, and that the demands of the Services must Calculus ; Progression; Permutations and Combinations
be met first. Interest, Discount and Annuities ; Binomial Theorem
After the war we hope that the - Algebraic Identities ; Mensura-
various component manufacturers tion Velocity; Acceleration,
will get together and agree on Editorial and Advertisement Office? : Force, Energy and Power ; Horse
certain standard sizes and capaci- "Practical
Tower House. Wireless," GeorgeStreet,
Southampton Newnes,Strand.
Ltd.,
ties. There is no sound reason for W.C,2. 'Phone : Temple Bar 4.163. Power ; Electrical Units; Electrical
such a large variety of types, some Telegrams : Newnes, Rand, London. Equations; Ohm's Law; Heat,
of which too small to yield Registered at the G.P.O. for transmission by Time and Velocity; Pressure :
Canadian Magazine Post. Equivalent Pressures; Water:
long life. The Editor will be pleased to consider Force, Energy and Power ; Units
articles of a practical nature
publication in Practical Wireless. Such suitable for and Equivalents ; English Weights
Electrical Industries Red Cross articles should be wriiten on one side of the and Measures ; Metric System ;
Appeal paper
address only, and
ofhimself should
the sender. contain the name
Whilstforikemanuscripts,and
Editor does Metric Conversion Factors ; Metric
TUfANY of our great national not hold responsible Equivalents; Metric Conversion
industries have already re- every effort will be made to return them if a of Fractions ; Standard Density ;
sponded to the appeal of H.R.H. stamped
All and addressed
correspondence envelope
intended for istheenclosed.
Editor Slide Rule Gauge Points ; Specific
the Duke of Gloucester for the should be addressed : The Editor. Practical Gravity and Weights ; Density of
Red Cross and St. John Fund by Wireless, George Newnes,
Southampton Street, Strand, W.G.2.Ltd., Tower House, Solids and Liquids; Weights of
organising appeals within their Owing to the rapid progress in the design of Various Substances; Weights of
industries with gratifying results. wireless apparatus and to our efforts
our readers in touch with the latest develop- to keep Woods ; Table of Elements ; Prop-
It was felt that the electrical ments, we give no warranty that apparatus erties of Elements ; Comparison of
industries should take part in this described in our columns is not the subject . Thermometers ; Temperature Con-
scheme, and an appeal is now of letters patent. version Table; Values of Single
being launched with the widest Copyright
articles in allindrawings,
published Practical photographs
Wirelessandis
support of the associations repre- specifically reserved throughout the countries Degrees ; Chords and Radians ;
senting all branches of electrical signatory to the Berne orConvention and the Table for Converting Minutes into
activities, including electrical U.S.A. Reproductions imitations of any Decimals of a Degree; Natural
ofPractical
these areWireless
thereforeincorporates
expressly "Amateur
forbidden. Sines ; Logarithmic Sines ; Natural
manufacturers, radio manufactur- Wireless." Cosines ; Logarithmic Cosines ;
ers, electricity supply undertakings, The fact that goods made of raw materials Natural Tangents; Logarithmic
tind wholesalers, contractors and in sMrt supply owing to war conditions are Tangents; Chords of Circles;
retailers. asadvertised in this paper
an indication shouldarenotnecessarily
that thf.y be taken
Powers and Roots ; Prime Numbers
At the joint invitation of the available for export. and Factors ; Powers and Roots of
associations, Lord Hirst of Witton rt and g ; and Decimal Equivalents.
134
ROUND THE OF WIRELESS
Wireless Licences Women Make Sets

IT is interesting to note that the number o£ wireless WIRELESS equipment for the South African Arn»y
licences, which commenced to decrease soon after is now being mass produced in South African
the outbreak of war, now shows an upward trend. It factories, and most of the workers are women.
was stated in the House of Commons laSt December that Back fo the B.B.C.
on August 31st, 1942, there were 8,836,724 licences in
force, and since that date the number has increased to AFTER an absence of 13 years, the Hon. David
over nine millions. Tennant has just rejoined the B.B.C. staff as a
The comparative figures are; home announcer. From 1924 to 1929 he took part in a
1939 8,947,570 number of radio plays, and frequently read the epilogue.
194 0 8,904,177
B.I.R.E. Paper
194 1 AT a members' meeting8,625,579 of the British Institution of
Edison's Collaborator Radio Engineers, held at 11, Upper Belgrave
DR. NICOLA TESLA, who once worked with Street on Saturday. January 2.3rd, a paper on Modern
Thomas A. Edison, has just died in New York, Condenser Technioue was read by J. II. Cozens, B.Sc.,
A.M.I.E.E.
aged 86. He championed alternating current against More B.B.C. Dance Music
Edison's theory of direct current—and won, living to
see his principle embodied in the great Niagara Falls WE understand that the B.B.C. is to broadcast more
power plants. Austrian born, he, had hundreds of dance music, in accordance with the new policy
electrical inventions to his name, and was a pioneer of of substituting a contract band for the " Band of the
Week." This assurance was
given to a deputation of
i dance band directors who
; met the B.B.C. recently to
discuss the matter. The
B.B.C. agreed to arrange
for broadcasts to lake place
from provincial studios by
bauds on theatrical tours.
Polish Listeners
AREPORT from a German
source reveals that in
that part of Poland occupied
by Germany only 20,000
people are licenced to use
receiving sets. This gives
a good idea of the situation
in this country with its
population of over ,. ten
millions. Before the war
Poland had more- than a
million listeners.
Station WGEO
HE recent inauguration
l
T of the new ico kW.
transmitter- WGEO has
resulted in a considerable
improvement in the power
and quality of transmissions
Mr. Andrew Walter, who was recently awarded the B.E.M, He has worked on lathes and from the Schenectady short-
drilling machines, and general efficiency marked him out, and he was promoted to .supervisor. wave station of the General
He \is also Cpl. Walker in the Home Guard attached to the works, and is Chief Fire Guard at [he Electric Company. The new
works. In the illustration he is seen at work gauging large condensers. transmitter has been built
radio-telegraphy, One of his ideas was to use cosmic to replace the one transferred to KWID, San Francisco,
energy in workin; ; machinery to eliminate the need of. to counteract Japanese broadcasts in the Pacific.
fuel. Empire Radio Communication
Bogus Radio Australian Premier, Mr. Curtin, has
BRAZZAVILLE Radio, the Fighting French station Themended the Gommonwealth .Communications
in French Equatorial Africa, warns its listeners Council to consider life freedom of the partner Govern-
regarding a secret radio station, operating on 49 metres, ments to establish direct wireless coimnunication with
and claiming to bo Brazzaville. It is stated that the other countries in the Empire, and also with foreign
bogus station is situated in Bourges, France. countries.
Rail Radio-'phone first to be Televised
A RECENT report from Stockholm states that radio- DR. ALF.XANDER RUSSELL, former principal of
telephone eommunications between traffic con- Faradny-House, whose death at the age of Si was
trollers and engine drivers are to bfe tried out by the mcently announced, believed that he was the first man
Swedish Saltsjoe Railway- Company. An ultra-short to be televised. His irnase was Hashed on-a.,SGreen at
wavelength will he used. IBaird's old sUulios in St. Martin's Lane.
Radiolocalion in New Zealand work there under the supervision of the signal com-
TT was revealed by the Dominion Defence Minister in mander, with a few naval signalmen. The Wrens
* Wellington, recently, that New Zealand now uses wireless telephonists, cypher officers, teleprinter operators
despatch riders, etc.—handle hundreds of vital messages
10n Witl1 womeI1 :Eormin most
staff ' g of the operating daily, to and from ships at sea, naval bases, and posts
all over the United Kingdom. Most of the messages are
Music Aids War Production in code—coding and decoding is handled exclusively by
jyp. WYNFORD REYNOLDS, who has been in 35 Wren officers, who deal with over 3,000 confidential
charge of Music While You Work " since May signals a week. Signal City was specially designed bv
1941, relates how, in one most important shop in a the signal commander.
large engineering works, an increase in production of
over 22 per cent, was obtained within a week of intro- Progress of Shcri-wave Broadcasting
ducing these programmes—and this increase was main- THE B.B.C. is now using 44 wavelengths in its short-
tamed over a period of 12 months. Many other such * wave services, and the number of transmitter hours
stones could be told indicating the value of music in put out per day is 356. These figures contrast with the
industry, eight wavelengths used 10 years ago at the first station
1
"Music While You Work" .u.,the
with broadcasting
23 transmitter hours atoday
Empire
whichcountries, and
its two trans-
T^R. REYNOLDS
Musi : While You
has just written a booklet about mitters sent out. The actual number of transmitters
i * at i Work," published by the being operated may not be given in wartime, but some
made and ?"•>
is which
the most summarises
comprehensivethe publication
research he that
has idea of the comparison can be got from this fact : the
n s en issi cost of the first station was about one-fortieth of the cost
^ J?® ied on the subject. The various advantages
ot different types of musical combinations are dealt ot the plant by which our programmes are now bein"
with, and the kind of music best suited to these pro- transmitted. The bare principles on which : this first station was
grammes.
" Hot " music, Mr. Reynolds points out, must be designed the
10 years ago are still much the same to-day for
much vaster stations which several countries are
avoided, likewise vocal and organ music. A steady operating.
rhythm or tempo must be aimed at, with a constant tone- limits 13 to Wavelengths in several groups within the
50 metres are still used, except for the
level or volume. The music chosen must be bright 100-metre transmissions to Canada. The principle
cheerful and melodious ; dance-music, though it helps' of transmitting on directional beams, taking various
to provide a gay background to work, and is'a valuable parts of the world separately in turn following the clock
stimulant, is not the only kind of music suitable for this still more or less applies to-day.
purpose.
B.B.C. Women Operators Aerial Design
' | 'HL next 12 months will undoubtedly see an increased TECHNIQUE and methods improve as experience is
* number of women filling the gaps on the operation
and maintenance side of the B.B.C. engineering depart- the T design
,gained. Much has
of aerials, andbeen
howlearned, for example,
to construct them, soabout
that
ment made by the withdrawal of men for the Services they shine, or radiate, a beam of the right width and
Only one quarter of the original established staff remains' depth, and as nearly as possible at the right angle to the
Replacement has been effected partially by taking on earth, so that they will be reflected back to earth bv the
youths under 19 (who go to the Forces at 19) and in part ionosphere, and arrive in that part of the world for which
by women operators, of whom 600 are now employed by they, are intended.
the Corporation. Discussing the future of shortwave broadcasting Sir
Training School Noel Ashbridge, the B.B.C.'s controller of engineering
THE majority of these came to the B.B.C. with more that in says that if progress in the next 10 years is anything like
enthusiasm to do a job of war work than the wheri reGeption- the last 10 years, we may look forward to the day
technical knowledge of how to do it. Therefore a training as from the localfrom far-off countries is almost as good
station.
school had to be set up to
provide them with this know-
ledge and a training manual
had to be Written.
The women operators are
doing well, and are showing
themselves to be very pains-
taking in their work. They
are employed particularly
in control rooms at studio
centres and at transmitting .
stations ; and a large number
of them have already become
expert operators of sound-
recording equipment. Some Wj
of_ them have a natural
flair for these operations
which need a sense of pro-
gramme presentation, and
have thus become successful m
" programme engineers." Si
Signal City ills
CIGNAL CITY, where
^ Wrens handle the
Navy's messages, is the Si
busiest naval station outside
the Admiralty. Situated in
the grounds of an old house ill
in the North, 200 Wrens A Wren wireless telegraphist and a naval w/o receiving messages from ships on the Atlantic,
136 PRACTICAL WIRELESS
Chassis Construction
Some Hints on the Easiest Methods of Cutting, Drilling and Bending
By S. BRASIER
AN all-metal chassis is not an easy thing for the in depth. In Fig. 1 the top consists only of iron, or
constructor to make unless a proper bending press steel sheet of about \l64in. thickness, no wood being
is available, therefore this article shows how necessary. The front is made from a piece of the same
suitable chassis may be constrneted with the tools that metal. The wood strip A in Fig. 2 is for the purpose of
are in the possession of the average constructor. laying a piece of copper foil lin, wide along its length
Aluminium is by far the easiest metal to work, but in such a manner that perfect electrical connection exists
since it is scarce and its use not conducive to the war between the top and front plates. The foil is bent to the
effort, one resorts to sheet iron or steel. Unless of thin shape shown at 13 and laid along the wood strip. The
gauge, this is extremely difficult to bend and not easy metal top and front are then placed in position covering
the foil, and screws may be passed through the metal
Fig. I.—A typical and foil into the wood. A rather better method would
chassis of the be to replace the wood strip by a piece of angle brass—
metal and if this is obtainable—and secure by means of nuts and
wood type. bolts.
Cutting the Metal
To cut the metal sheet to size, it is best to use a
hacksaw with a fairly line blade, finishing with a smooth
file. Many constructors make the mistake of using a
coarse saw" blade in the belief that, they will get through
the work quicker. This is a fallacy, because much
pressure has to be used, the work (unless securely
clamped) slides about and the result is a rough edge
that needs a lot of smoothing. A fine blade, however,
is not so liable to jam, is easy to'guide and produces a
smooth finish which only needs a touch with the file.
to cut, so that any construction which will obviate Aassist little oil run along the line of cut will also materially
the process. With the chassis top and front
work in these directions is to be recommended. cut to size and marked out, it vnll be necessary to attend
to the drilling and cutting of the larger holes. The
Wood Framework Cfampmg Bo/ts
Let us suppose that an ordinary box type chassis is
required of, say, 16 by 8 by cin. In order to retain
most of the advantages of a metal chassis, it
is sufficient to make only the top and the Wood
front of metal, and a suitable method of S/ocks
construction is shown in Fig. 1. The first
procedure would be to make a framework
of wood for the sides, front and back (Fig. 2),
the outside measurements being to the
required size of the chassis. In this case
ample strength would be secured by using
material of |in. thickness—the front strip
being of |in. square section—as anything Metal
thicker would greatly restrict the space under the Sheet
■ chassis and limit component mounting, etc. This may
seem a small point, but consider for a moment
a chassis made completely of |in. plywood. The Fig. 3.—Showing how the metal is clamped between pieces
available space underneath would be decreased by of hard wood prior to bending.
nearly rin. on the length, lin. on the width and |iri.
on the depth. A simple calculation will show that quickest method is to drill a small hole, say, i/iCin.,
20 square inches of space is lost—disregarding the loss through every point where a hole is required, the drill
for this purpose being quite short in order that plenty
oT pressure may be exerted without fear of the drill
breaking. It is a good idea to keep a special one for this
purpose. Any hole may then be enlarged to the necessary
size by gradual steps. An ordinary twist-drill would,
in all probability, wander to some extent so
that the hole would not be where it is wanted
and far from circular. Consequentiy it is wise
to .adopt the method outlined above by starting
with a T/iCin. drill, next a |iri. or 3/i6in., followed
by a lin. or '5/1610., and finally the required
pn. It is all a matter of how hard the metal is;
if you are working on soft iron sheet or aluminium,
then a Jiiv, pilot Tollowed immediately by a fin. drill
would probably suffice, but, better still, use a fluted drill.
In dealing with the square hole marked C in Fig. 1,
Fig. 2.—The which might be required for mounting a mains trans-
wooden framework former, there are three methods which may be adopted.
of the chassis shown in Fig. 1. One is to use an adjustable drill or cutter. This tool is
the type of blade used. These are all interchangeable
with a well-designed handle, and the whole outfit is quite
Metal Sheet mexpensive.
The second- method of dealing with a square hole is
one that is often advocated for a round one, namely
drilling small holes all round the edge, so placed that
Fig. 4.—The they practically join one another. "The piece to be
assembly of Fig, 3 removed is then knocked out, and the edges filed to shape.
Toady for bend* It is, to say the least of it, a most laborious business and
ing. is not advocated, except when no other tools are available.
Wood Blocks The third method, and one that is, in the writer's
Chamfered to opinion, the best of all, makes use of the ordinary fret-
allow for Bending saw in a frame of about 14m. as used for fret-sawing
m wood. It is not generally appreciated how adaptable
these little blades are to metal work ; the manner in
which they cut their way through quite tough steel is
amazing; furthermore, any shape may be cut out exactly
to the pattern and the result is a fine smooth edge
which needs little finishing.
When buying fret-saws for this type of work, one Should
asK for metal" blades, and select brittle ones where
possible. These can generally be distinguished by their
colour, which is black or which sometimes has a blue
steel appearance. Other types which can be bent in
two without breaking, and which have, as a rule, a
brownish colour, do not possess the cutting qualities,
provided with a centre drill of about 3/i6in. or Jin. but arc not so liable to break in use. The brittle saws
diameter, and a cutting arm is .so arranged that it may however, are much more satisfactory and, with care and
a an a little practice, it will be found possible to do quite a
What is known as ay" desired radius
tank cutter " is within
designeditsonrange
much lot of work with one blade.
the same principle, is usually cheaper to buy and should Any round holes for valve holders, condensers, etc
be suitable. are best dealt with by the above method. In this case
a further tip which might be useful is to first use the
Cutting Square Holes adipstable cutter so that a line is scored round the
If the hole C were, say, 4in. square, a drill of the same circumference of the circle. ^ When the fret-saw is used
diameter as the centre drill of the cutter would be it will then practically guide itself and the cutting
passed through the exact centre of the square. The will be much-easier, especially if the metal is thick.
cutter is then adjusted to a radius of a little under sin. In all metal work of this nature a trace of oil run along
the line of cut will help matters considerably, and when
using aluminium it is really essential since it helps to
prevent the clogging of the saw or file.
Fis. 5.—A useful type of small hacksaw. Chassis Design

and the cutting commenced. After a reasonably deep An interesting chassis design and one that is very
cut has been made in the metal, the plate should be suitable for short-wave work is shown in Fig. 6. All
the controls, including tuning condensers, etc., are
turned over and the cutting continued on that side. mounted under the chassis, under a cover of perforated
Before going right through, the metal is turned once zinc, which protects the components on the top, and
again and the operation completed. One disadvantage affords quite an effective screen for any coils, etc
of the adjustable cutter is that owing to the pull or Since there is not a great deal of bending to be' done
drag imposed on the centre drill by the cutting arm, the the metal portion might well be made in one piece.
central hole enlarges, thus the
cutting circle is thrown out of Station
true. The trouble can be obviated, Perforated Zinc Cover
however, by replacing the drill Identification
with a short length of steel rod Chart
of the same diameter, as the drill
is usually secured in the cutter by
a set screw. The work must be
securely clamped and the tool
used in an Ordinary brace.
Having thus removed the
greater portion of the hole C, it
will be necessary to cut away the
remaining corner pieces. This is'
best accomplished by
means of a hacksaw of a
type similar to that
shown in Fig. 5, finally
smoothing up the edges
with a file. While on.,
the subject of hacksaws,
a very useful tool for
general metal work is
the " Eclipse " 4S tool,
so named because pro- Wooden
vision is made for sawing, ,. . ,
slotting, shtting and l'ls-6.—Anovel Sides
scraping, according to d^'^ f'tbine.
138 PRACTICAL WIRELESS March, 1943
The front of the chassis needs to be at an angle of about pieces of wood will be required. Plywood, Jin. or in-
140 deg. for ease of operation of the controls and the thick is very suitable owing to its strength, and the fact
best way to tackle the bending is as follows : that it is usually dead flat. The four pieces should be
Having marked off the portion to be bent, the line as long or longer than the length of the chassis and two
should be scored on each side of the metab and for this of them may be about 2in.' wide, while the remaining
it will be necessary to use a sharp, hard, steel instrument two will need ,to be qin. or roin. wide. Chamfer those
in conjunction with a steel rule. The scoring on the top edges of the underside pieces which will be level with the
s de should not be too deep. Just a well-defined line is, scored line in order to allow for the bending.
a II that is required in order to get through the " skin " The metal sheet, together with the four pieces of wood,
of the metal. The underside demands a rather more are assembled as in Fig. 3, using two bolts for the
severe treatment, so that the scoring can be considerably small part and three for the large and positioned roughly
heavier but consistent with the gauge of the metal. as indicated. or The whole assembly may be placed in a
The scoring should not be carried so far that it weakens vice—Fig. 4— two in line if available, and the bending
the. metal unduly. For the actual bending process four to the desired angle will then be a simple matter.
Colour Television
J. L. BairdV Latest Developments ■
GOLOUR television is no new achievement. As far
back as 1928, J. L. Baird demonstrated to the
British Association a television receiver which tjiMi
produced a coloured image. Since then, however,
much has happened in the world of television, a fact
which was brought home to those who attended the recent
demonstration by J. L. Baird and who remember his
early efforts.
Hitherto, coloured television has been accomplished by The lens
the use ®f rotating discshised in conjunction with cathode- assembly with IP
ray tubes. In Mr. Baird's latest apparatus the rotating 1 wo filter - colour
discs have been eliminated and the coloured television
images are produced entirely by electro-optical means.
Images corresponding to the primary colours, blue,
red and green (or blue-green and orange-red where a
two-filter process is employed), are reproduced side by
side in sequence on the fluorescent screen of the cathode-
ray tube at the receiver. Lenses with their optical
centres on perpendiculars through the centres of each of
the three images, and at a distance from the images
equal to the focal length of the lenses, project parallel
beams on to a large lens separated from the receiving
screen by a distance equal to its focal length. The
pictures are thus caused to overlap on the screen, fhe
arrangement is shown in the diagram as applied to a
two-filter process. initial difficulties, as great accuracy is necessary, but
these experimental problems have been solved and very
Two Filter 600 Line accurate registration is now obtainable. The system is,
The apparatus demonstrated were receivers adapted of course, equally applicable to the transmitter, but at
to receive a 600-line two-filter transmission (blue-green present a revolving disc is still employed, the same
and orange-red). The two images corresponding to the transmitter being used both for the old type colour
Lens covered with orange-red filter ^
Lens covered with blue-green filter disc and the new discless type.
-1
Demonstration
Cathode-ray tube Converging lens Three different types of colour
and stereoscopic jeceiver produced
by Mr. Baird during the war were
demonstrated, arranging, from a small
popular model with a screen sin. by
4in., to a De Luxe model with a
Image corresponding picture 2ft. 6in. by 2ft., the pictures
to orange-red being in natural colours, and by
putting on special glasses the pictures
image corresponding to blue-green Receiver screen upon which became stereoscopic, acquiring depth
coloured images overlap and relief' to a surprising degree, so
The electro-optical system for a two-filter process. that instead of looking at a flat
surface, one appeared to be looking at
blue-green and orange-red components appear in sequence a scene through a window.
one above the other on the flat face of a roin. projection It is most encouraging to note that neither of these
type cathode-ray tube operating at 26,000 volts. In the important developments has ever been shown, except
lens system, which is shown in the photograph, single in England, and, in spite of the many difficulties imposed
lenses have been employed (owing to the difficulty of by war, Mr. Baird is continuing—in his own private
obtaining special lenses in war-time), and this entails a laboratories—extensive research work which will help
certain loss of. optical efficiency; the actual aperture to keep Britain well ahead in the development of this
has nevertheless the large value of approximately 3.3. comparatively new science, whose importance in oost-
Proper registering of the two pictures presented several war planning can hardly be overestimated.
March, 1943 139
A Two-valve Short-wave Receiver

A Fine Headphone Set of Tested Efficiency, Ideal for the-Baffery-operated Station
By F. G. RAYER
THIS receiver is the outcome of a number of practical action and band-set condensers are located adjacent to
experiments. It is entirely free from hand- each other to simplify and shorten wiring.
capacity effects under all normal conditions; it
is sensitive and most easy to handle. The layout follows canIf be an L.F. transformer of reliable make is to hand, it
sound lines, the connection from coil-holder to handset provide used in place of the R.C. coupling, and it will
slightly louder signals ; a separate H.T. con-
nection should be taken from its
M/ +/?Oir primary so that a suitable voltage can
be applied to the detector.
SD.OOO/i The band-set condenser has the
/O.OOO/i HFC. i2 great advantage of being set in defi-
nite steps—thus assuring accuracy of
00/ r hfq $: I iscalibration. The locating mechanism
easily contrived; the flexible
mfd couplers will be found to consist of
two cranks with centre boss bolted to
00006
mfd. ■OOOfmfd Of/ two thin discs of flexible material.
mfd One should be dismantled and reas-
sembled with a metal or ebonite disc
of, say 2ins. diameter, replacing the
flexible disc. Around one-half of the
circum
H.T— ference of the disc, 14 notches
■1 ' ''fc are filed, and a catch made from
springy brass is arranged to locate
-IT ■00025 G.B+ with them. The slight labour in-
000/6 mfd. volved. will amply be repaid by con-
rnfci venience of operating.
L.T- The spindles of the controls are ex-
0/5 mfd. tended with lengths of în. diameter
2 LT-y 1 ebonite rod, secured with shaft-coup-
lers ; wooden dowel could be used, but
G.B~
//ere is the circuit of the re- Aerial
ceiver. Quire simple and Phones WIRING PLAN
Very efficient. ± -Gl SW Chokes
Eatfh
and bandspread condensers Octal Co//
is only ijins. long. AU 00/ Base
the components can be mfd. O Preset
obtained from firms whose Switch \
advertisements regularly HT+ and 0+ Blank
appear in the pages of H.T- u
Practical Wireless. LT.
G.B-k iOPOOn
Construction
The chassis—gins, by SO,000a- m..
xiins.—is made from
4-ply and has runners lin.
deep. The small sub-
panel is mounted sins. ^0/
" from the rear edge of the GR— mfd.
chassis and is supported 5Msx a a a
by stout brackets, and the
layout shown (right)
should be followed as . inOjk
closely as possible. The
coil-holder is mounted Band-set
ijins. above the chassis by Locator
means of long bolts and
insulated sleeves of ap-
propriate length. The
variable condensers should
be fixed to the sub-panel
so that the soldering-tags Centres Centres
which are connected to
the fixed vanes are at the fV
I I1
same height as the tags
of the coil-holder. It
should be noted that [the
soldering-tags of the re- Psaction . Band-set Band-spread
it can only be regarded as a substitute. The method groove into, which a cardboard disc can be fitted—if the
o; arranging the bandspread condenser's pointer and coils are thus identified and placed in the coil-box they
diai is not shown, as this is a matter for individual will be saved from possible damage and will always be
preference. The band-set condenser should be equipped to hand.
with one of the small knobs supplied with the It should be noted that a pentode may be placed in
epicyclic drives and a scale marked from 1-14. These the L.F. stage, without altering the wiring, but the grid-
details will become apparent when the actual com- bias must be adjusted to suit.
ponents are to hand.
Operation LIST OF COMPONENTS
A valve ot the H.L. type can be used as detector ; ; One each S.W. variable condensers ; .000015, .00016 t
the L.F. valve is of the detector or L.F. type—the former : and .00025. j
for preference. The aerial-series condenser must be ■| One each 1 watt resistances : 2 meg., 10,000, 50,000 1
and 500,000 ohms. t
adjusted until entire freedom from dead-spots is obtained i One
with all coils, and then securely locked. The 'phone i mfd.each mica fixed condensers : f.001, .0001 and .01 !•
leads should not be rim near the receiver or batteries as * Two 2in. diameter control knobs. i
this will tend to partly remove the advantages obtained ? Two epicyclic reduction drives. •
from the two H.F. chokes connected in series with the i Two S.W. high-frequency chokes.
leads. There will be no hand-capacity troubles, even if *i Six flexible couplers. . . I
60 mmfd. prc-set condenser, Steatite insulation. ■
the receiver is used without an earth—this being a * One One octal coil base, coils type 06, 06A, 06B, 06C i
valuable point when listening to low-power DX. I (or as required).
The receiver should be housed in a cabinet; if. an • One small stand-off insulator. All above items from !
existing cabinet is to be used, it is well worth while to i " Premier Radio." I
make it dustproof—thus assuring that the receiver will ' One 4-pin ceramic valve-holder, " Webb's Radio.' i
not become noisy in operation. It is also a sound plan |I On-ofF
One 5-pin ceramic valve-holder, " Webb's Radio."
switch, connecting wire, etc.
•
to make a coil-box having individual compartments
lined with felt. Near the top of the coils will be found a
In Answer to Querists
Resistors- Resistance
RESISTAXCE, when used in connection with current flowing in milliamps (raA.s), one milliamp
electrical circuits, denotes the property of a representing the 1,000th part of an ampere—the unit of
material to oppose the flow of an electric current. current. To calculate the voltage dropped by the
A resistor is the name given to a component which is resistance of the circuit, or by any resistor introduced
specifically designed to possess resistance. The two into the circuit, when the current is expressed in milli-
terms are often misused ; resistance is not a component amps and the resistance as so many thousand ohms
any more than a resistor is a property of a circuit. simply multiply the thousands figure or figures of the
We speak of an electrical circuit having a certain resistance value by the current figure. Example, a
resistance—see " Elementary Electricity and Radio (i)," resistor of 50,000 ohms is in a circuit in which is flowing
mA.s ■ what voltage will be dropped ? Answer:
page ioi ; and there is a law connecting resistance with 550x5 = 250 volts. This simple form of calculation will
voltage and current, known as Ohm's Law. be found useful when dealing with decoupling resistors,
The unit of resistance is the ohm, but when dealing voltage dropping resistors in eliminators, and so on.
with radio circuits this is too small or too clumsy to
express resistance when hundreds of thousands of ohms Wattage
are concerned. A grid-leak might have a value of Resistors are many in various types, each of which is
x,ooo,ooo ohms, which, if written in full, would not only
look terrifying to the beginner, but it would also take up intended
addition
to satisfy some particular requirement. In
to their various forms, each resistor has a
space and time. To remedy this a larger unit is used, certain wattage rating—this is specified by the manu-
namely, the megohm, which is simply another way of facturer, and should not be ignored. If a circuit calls
writing x,000,000 ohms. for a 1 watt resistor, which, incidentally, could be of any
Supposing a resistor has a value of 500,000 ohms, value as regards its resistance, then it would be asking
well, this can be expressed far more neatly and quicker for trouble to use a resistor having a J watt rating,. as it
as a decimal part of a megohm. (If your decimals are
rusty see " Refresher Course in Mathematics;" page 106, would be, so to speak, overloaded, and would soon be
destroyed.
February, 1942.) Now, 300,000 ohms is exactly half The wattage required can be calculated quite easily
of 1,000,000 ohms, or 1 megohm, therefore, we simply if the resistance and current are known. This is the
write it as 0.5 megohm. Carrying this example further, formula: Watts=I2XR when I represents the current
250,000 ohms is 0.25 megohm; ,100,000 ohms is 0.1 in amperes and R the resistance in ohms. If the current
megohm ; 50,000 ohms is 0.05 megohm ; and so on. is in milliamps then decimals must come into use again,
Now for a simple conversion tip. If the value in ohms remembering that xmA. is equal to 0.001 ampere, i.e.,
consists of six figures simply put a decimal point in front one thousandth
of it to convert it to a decimal part of a megohm. If An alternative method is:
five figures form the value in ohms then put 0.0 in front
1
of it. ' . \Vatts=-Mi -an-P-2xR. '
1,000,000
Voltage Drop So you can take your choice.
It does happen that one gets hold of a resistor of known
Ohm's law will show that the resistance in a circuit resistance
will produce a voltage drop, the value of which will maximum and wattage rating, and wants to find out the
current which can be passed through it. In
depend on the current flowing and the value of the this case the following calculation can be applied ;
resistance. This is important in radio, where high
values of resistance are often encountered. In the Milhamps = 1,000 x /Watts
majority of calculations one usually has to measure the
Frequency Meters
Heterodyne Meters, A Simple Trlode Arrangement. The Electron-coupled Circuit
{Concluded from page 113 February issue)
By L. O. . SPARKS
THE absorption wavemeter—discussed last month- (4) the constancy of the sources of H.T. and L.T. and
cannot act as a signal generator ; its uses, there- finally, (5) the construction of the unit.
tore, are restricted, and in spite of its recognised
utility value, it cannot claim to be so universal as those Constructional Notes
instruments capable of producing a signal. This does Because the circuit is so simple, it does not follow
not mean that the absorption type is obsolete : in fact that its assembly and wiring can be " hooked-up."
there are many tests which demand the use of a meter For the most reliable results, the constructor should
01 this kind, and it is usual to find an absorption waye- arrange the components so their associated wiring
me e n a Slgnal ene
n L? ? amateur transmitting
weil-ntted g rator among and/or thereceiving
equipment of a islocated
station. short and rigid. The coil and valve holders should be
close to the tuning condenser, if necessary usin"
Heterodyne Wavemeter distance pieces to raise the holders to reduce length of
If the buzzer type of meter is ignored, the. single- terminals Beforewiring. fixing, rotate the holders until their
are close to or in direct line with other points
valve heterodyne wavemeter ranks next in simplicity, of connection ; don't have " wandering wiring "
ine fundamental circuit of one type is shown in Fi" i The inductances L and Li can take the form of a
standard type of four-pin S.W. coil—assuming the
meter is to be used on the S.W. bands—L being the grid
■? winding and Li the normal reaction section It is
essential, however, for the coil to be of good make other-
wise appreciable H.F. losses will be introduced bv a poor
'0003 quality coil former.
mfd. ■— Speaking of plug-in coils raises a point about which
there are various opinions. When it is desired to use the
meter on another frequency-band, it would appear to
o be. quite feasible to remove the existing coil and plug in
003 another one to cover the new band, in the same manner
megn '006 mfd as one would do with a set. In practice, this does not
o> 5P / -00 always prove too satisfactory, as there is the grave risk
mfd of upsetting the. calibration, although if a reputable
/7 make of coils is used the risk is reduced, provided the
coils are handled with care so that their windings
are not damaged, i.e., turn spacing affected, etc.
Ffe. /• A simple heterodyne circuit utilising a triode valve and An alternative arrangement uses one coil, which is
fixed ' throttle " control. wound to cover the lowest frequency band of the normal
where it will be seen that it bears a marked similarity to be checked, S.W. range, and when higher frequency bands have to
a single-valve 'receiver. harmonics of the fundamental frequencies
A triode valve, having characteristics of the H.L. amateur, are used. This method is not liked by every
type, has a tuned circuit across its grid and filament, harmonics, but whatever as some think there is a risk in identifying the
the values of the inductance. L and the variable con- idea, is said against the single coil
denser C governing the frequency band covered by the vided itthedoes possess one very important feature—pro-
circuit. The anode is coupled to L by means of the factors arecoilconstant, Is well made—it scalibration, assuming other
will retain its accuracy. The coil
fixed reaction winding Li, thus providing—in con- must
junction with the fixed condenser C2—the requisite assembly and itsinconnectionsbe robust construction ; securely fixed in the
rigid and soldered. It
amount of feed-back to keep the wholecirc uit
in a smooth state of oscillation.
As every reader knows, it is an easy matter (too 20 mm fa
easy in many instances) to make a single-valver H.T+/
oscillate round the dial by adjusting the tuning
and reaction controls. Such a set cotild, there-
lore, be used as a heterodyne wavemeter, were it
not for the fact, that it would be very unreliable
and most annoying to nearby listeners. The
circuit under discussion (Fig. i) is essentially an qp
oscillator, so it is necessary to take certain k->
precautions so that it performs only the func- O
tions for which it is intended.
The first precaution, is to ensure that the
oscillations produced do not radiate over distances kr>
greater than the immediate vicinity of the meter.
The second is, to secure stable" or constant 0/ mfd, each mfd
oscillation over the whole frequency-band
covered by the meter. This is very essential
otherwise the calibration will not hold and
unless frequent checks are made against some
standard frequency, the results will be" very
misleading. To secure consistent oscillation ■
particular attention must be given to (i) the Fig. 2. An A.C. version of the "electron-coupled'
goodness of the coil; (2) the quality of the oscillator which possesses many superior features
components ; (3) the characteristics of the valve; tor most satisfactory adjustment, the screening-grid
voltage should be obtained via a potentiometer.
preferable to use a slotted or threaded former so that to take output from the anode with practically negligible
the turns forming the windings cannot move ; if one is effect'on the oscillator frequency. The output terminal
forced to use a smooth tubular former, it is advisable to is marked O i« Figs. 2 and 3,, the connection being made
anchor each turn with a spot or two of shellac varnish to the anode via the .small lixed condenser, C3.
or other suitable adhesive. One of the worst offenders as regards causing frequency
The objection to working to the harmonics of the instability in self-controlled oscillators is a varying
fundamental frequency is not always without foundation, source of H.T. supply. When considering the S.G.
as some valves are not so good as-others as regards valve it is possible to increase its impedance by increasing
harmonic generation and, of course, there is always the its anodq H.T., but, by increasing the H.T. applied to
reduction in output from the oscillator as value of the the 'screen-grid,, the impedance will be lowered. This -
harmonic is increased. This, however, is usually turned characteristic is turned to good account in the circuit in
to good account by using it as a check on the tuning of question, as it is possible to find a ratio between anode
the meter. For example, the. oscillations produced when and screen-grid H.T. potentials which will cancel out
the meter is tuned to the second harmonic will not be any variations in the impedance of the valve created by
as-powerful as those generated on the fundamental fluctuating source of H.T. This, combined with the
frequency. Similarly, the output on the fourth harmonic qualities of the circuit, ensures a very high degree of
will be less than that of the second, and so on, therefore frequency stability being obtained. If the screen voltage
it should not be a difficult matter to determine on is provided via a potentiometer across the H.T. supply,
which harmonic the meter is working. its value can readily be varied until the correct ratio is
With a meter of this type it is really essential, to use a reached. The potentiometer can have a resistance in
dial capable of giving split division readings, and having the region of 50,000 ohms provided its wattage rating is
a smooth and efficient and slow-motion control. It is in keeping.
useless going to a lot of trouble during the construction The electron-coupled oscillator is capable of producing
of the meter to secure stable calibration if means are strong harmonics in its output, thus overcoming, or, at
20 mfd I least, considerably reducing, the objection to harmonics
mentioned in connection with, the simple triodo arrange-
A/TV ment.
Construction
• IOOjOOOjx. v- Little can be said about construction, as all the
-MA/W/V points stressed for the previous circuit apply equally to -
Figs. 2 and 3, and, in fact, to any frequency meter.
The construction must be sound electrically and mechani-
cally ; good rigid connections, high-grade components,
a first-class dial and a metal cabinet or case which is not
flimsy.
Quite a number of amateurs have the idea that
frequency meters and like apparatus can be knocked-up
/tF -oo from odd parts out of the junk-box ; such ideas are
likely to prove most unsatisfactory, or,- at least, involve
a far greater amount of work than if reasonable thought
H.T- and selection had been given in the first instance.
The coil is best wound on a liin. diameter former, and
all connections brought out to soldering tags anchored
to the coil former by means of short 6 B.A. bolts. The
completed coil should then be mounted securely to the
baseboard in the most convenient spot for short wiring
LT to the grid and tuning condenser.
The cathode tapping point is best determined by
experiment, the correct one being that which produces, a
Fig. 3.— The battery operated counterpart of Fig. 2. Note the reasonably constant reading on a milliammeter when one
filament circuit. is connected,in series with the negative H.T. line to
not provided to enable the exact setting of the tuning indicate the anode current. Usually a i or 1 of the total
number of turns is satisfactory, when counted from the
condenser to be observed and if due care is not exercised earthy end of the coil.
when making such observations. To protect the meter— With the battery-operated circuit it should be noted
and rough handling must be avoided—and to reduce its that both sides of the filament are returned through
held of radiation, a metal case should be constructed to windings.
house it, the case being connected to the common tuning, coil One—the negative side—is tapped into the
similar to the cathode in Fig. 2 : but for
negative side of the circuit. Battery leads should be the other side—the L.T. positive—another winding
kept short. must be added, and it can be wound over the negative
The Electron-coupled Oscillator section, and have the same number of turns.
Mention has been made about the necessity of securing An alternative method is to wind the top portion of
stable oseillatiohs in a heterodyne frequency meter ; in single the coil (from the grid end to the tapping point) with
fact, the point cannot be stressed too strongly. One. straqdswire in the normal manner, and then use two
of the same wire for the bottom section. One
oscillator which is'particularly good in this respect,
provided it is adjusted correctly, is the " electron-coupled connected to the ofadjacent
of the top ends this double winding would then be
end of the grid winding and
oscillator." A suitable circuit is shown in Fig. 2 (for A.C.
operation), and its battery valve counterpart in Fig. 3. to the negative side of the filament, while the remaining
It will be recognised as a Hartley or Colpitts oscillator top end of the double section would be taken direct to
using a screen-grid valve. The output is taken from the the positive side of the filament. Care, must be taken
to see that the two bottom ends are connected cor-
an de proper, but the screen-grid acts as the anode of the rectly,
oscillator, and, as regards H.F., it is anchored to earth i.e., the first one to the earth-L.T. negative line
by means of the condenser Ci. The cathode of the valve In some and the second to the.positive supply of .the L.T. battery.
is at an H.F. potential above earth but lower than that eliminatedcircuits, interference with the tuning coil is
by using special low-resistance H.F". chokes
of the control grid, and it is the H.F. potential of the in the filament
latter, which swings over a very wide range of values, obtained from the makers ofSuitable
circuit. components .can be
which controls the amplitude of the anode (proper) The point X in Figs. 2 and 3the " Eddystone " products.
denotes where headphones
current. Due to the characteristics of the circuit and the can be inserted if it is required to,use the meters as
screen-grid acting as an electrostatic screen between monitors. ■
the anode and the actual oscillator section it is possible
March, 1943 143
Elementary Electricity and Radio-2

The Effects of Electric Current: Sources of E.M.F,: Primary and Secondary Cells
By J. J. WILLIAMSON
(Continued from page 102, February issue*
Power There are four main effects of an electric current,
THE statement that a car would do 50 m.p.h. would namely, heating, chemical, magnetic and electro-
mean little, if no consideration of what weight the magnetic.
car could carry at this speed was given.
Similarly, consideration of the voltage actings or TheAsHeating Effect
current flowing taken separately would give us no true currentmentioned under the heading of fuses, when a
of electricity encounters resistance, heat is
indication of what work could'be done.
In the case of the car, if we had said that it would produced. By a careful choice of materials and conditions under
carry 1 ton at 50 m.p.h., then we have a clear idea of which
the work it could do. Again, if we say .that a certain possiblethese materials are used, the heating effect makes
electric lamps, fires, toasters, etc.
circuit has a current of so many amperes at such-and-such
a voltage then we have a good idea of the rate at which The Chemical Effect
Supply D.C. If a current of electricity is passed through certain
solutions chemical action takes place. In the case of a
solution of copper-sulphate and water (CuSOg+HnO)
we find that copper is deposited at the negative pole, the
T" (dj SO4 moving and usually combining with the metal of
the positive pole; oxygen is evolved, and sulphuric
acid forms. This chemical effect Of an electric current is
termed " electrolysis," the solution is an " electrolyte,"
while the complete apparatus wherein electrolysis takes
place is a " voltameter."
Electro-plating, electrolytic condensers, etc., utilise
C1/SO4 + this effect. See Fig. 6 (a).
HzO The Magnetic Effect
An electric current is always accompanied by a
Cu magnetic field, which extends as a region of force around
Cross-section oj a the conductor, and acts at right angles to the direction
current-carrying of the current. See Fig. 6 (b).
SO-f conductor showing the The magnetic effect makes possible such things as
magnetic field pro- electric clocks, trains, motors, radio, and many other
duced. important items.
voltameter. The Electro-magnetic Effect
Whenever electrons change their speed, i.e., the«
work can be done, i.e., the power. Power is, therefore, magnitude of the current alters, electro-magnetic
the rate of doing work. The unit of power is the watt. waves are produced.
Power 11' watts. Electro-magnetic waves are capable of existing
Replacing I with the Ohm's Law equivalent V/R independently of connecting wires, and hence make
radio communication possible.
we get P—V/R V watts--2 L> 2/7i watts.
Similarly, P=/x/x i?=/ A watts. Sources of E.M.F.
As can be seen from the last two formulas, the power chemical, Once 'again, four sohrces are available; heating,
expended in a circuit is not proportional to the current magnetic and electro-magnetic.
or voltage, but to the square of I or V—an important. The Heating Source oi E.M.F.
fact. If two unlike wires have one pair of their ends twisted
In the case of Fig. 4 (a) R3 has together, and the junction heated, then an E.M.F. will
appear across the free ends.
123- = 24 watts
/'=I2R=226=24 watts
or >
T =/F=2 X 12 = 24 watts
R (Fig. 4 (a)) has :
P=/I/=2X 18 = 36 watts Magnetic
,etc. Field Movement
General Examples
1. In Fig. 5 (a) calculate the total
resistance and current flowing.
2. What power is being dissipated in
Ri Fig. 5 (a) ?
3- A ro.oooiJ Jwatt resistor is
available. What is the maximum Fig. 7.—Conditions necessary for
permissible current this resistance can Moverfient the production of an E.M.F. by
take ? magnetic means.
A- Tn Fig. 5 (b) what power will the m
lamps consume, (a) in series; (b) in (<>) A wire, cutting lines of nmgnetic (b) A wire travelling parallel to the
parallel ? /orce at right angles, has an lines of force has no E.M.F. produced
produced across it. ends. across its ends.
The two dissimilar conductors form a " thermo- Let Re—iQ. Ri = 2Q. E.M.F.=%v.
couple," such as antimony and bismuth. I_—V/Rt=813 — 2f amps.
The principle is used in high-frequency meters, pyro- P in Re=I2 Re—y110 watts, (approx.)
meters, etc. Case 3.—Re larger than Ri.
The Chemical Source of E.M.F. Let. Re=4.0. Ri=ip. E.M.F. = 8v.
If two unlike conductors are placed in an active T— V/Rt=8/6—1^ amps.
liquid, i.e., an acid or an alkali, an E.M.F. is produced P in Re=I2 Re=y1li(S watts, (approx.)
across these conductors. Thus, only when Re=Ri does the power in the external
Accumulators, flash-lamp cells, etc., depend upon this circuit reach a maximum.
principle for their action. Primary and Secondary Cells
The Magnetic Source of E.M.F. A primary , cell is chemical source of E.M.F., which
Whenever magnetic lines of force cut or are cut by a cannot be recharged by means of a reverse current,
conductor an E.M.F. appears across the ends of that while a secondary cell is rechargeable by a reverse
conductor. current.
The meaning attached to the word " cut" is What is meant by recharging with a reverse current ?
important; first, either the lines of force or the When a cell discharges or " runs down," chemical
conductor must be in movement; and, secondly, the changes occur within it which either make its internal
conductor or lines of force must not be moving parallel resistance so high that its P.D. for a useful, current
to one another ; maximum E.M.F. being produced becomes negligible, or alters the chemicals so that the
when they are moving at right angles to one' another. dissimilarity between its poles diminishes, and hence its
See Fig. 7. E.M.F. falls..
Dynamos operate upon this principle. If it is possible to return the chemicals to their original
The Electro-magnetic Source of E.M.F. state by electrolysis, i.e., passing a current through the
Whenever an electro-magnetic wave strikes a conductor cell, in the opposite direction to that which the
in the correct plane an E.M.F. 1
is induced in that con- "" rechargedischarge " current flows, then the cell would
" and thus be a secondary cell.
^ , ductor, due to the electric
and magnetic "fields of the itsAexhausted primary cell can only be recharged fully by renewing
chemicals.
—|-AVWWW\A--i-. wave. We shall deal more theTheLeclanche only primary cell of practical importance to us is
V thoroughly with this in a will deal with cell, while cur study of secondary cells
Lead-Acid and Nickel-Iron or NiFe
future article. accumulators.
E.M.F., IR drop and P.D, Leclanche Cells
E.M.F. refers to the The Leclanche cell (see Figs. 0 a, b and c), is composed
total energy of a supply, of : (1) Positive pole—carbon ; (2) Negative pole—zinc ;
expressed in volts. (3) Electrolyte—ammonium chloride or sal ammoniac f
IR drop refers to the (4) Depolariser—manganese dioxide, fke E.M.F. of a
Lamp voltage produced across a Leclanche cell is approximately 1.5 volts.
Fig. 8.—The effect of the internal resistance through which The chemical action of the cell is as follows :
resistance of a cell. current IS flowing. Zn-\:2.NH±CT~ZnCl'2-\-2NHzJrH2
P.D.. or potential differ- (Zinc) -f (Ammonium Chloride) l= (Zinc Chloride)-f (Am-
ence, refers to the voltage produced by the product of monia) 4-(Hydrogen).
resistance and current, or is another way of speaking of The hydrogen which is set free is the cause of a great
IR drop. deal of trouble, as it is a good insulator and is attracted
to the carbon rod, forming a high resistance film around
* The Internal Resistance 0? a Source of Supply it. Obviously, the internal resistance of the cell
In using any source of supply its internal resistance increases enormously, and the P.D. of the cell for a
must be taken into consideration. useful current falls to a very low value. This effect is
Suppose that in Fig. 8 the cell had an internal re- called polarisation, and any method of overcoming it,
sistance of and that it has an E.M.F. of 2V. and is depolarisation.
supplying 1 ampere to the lamp. Ihe formula for the process of depolarisation, using
Now, 1 ampere through produces an IR drop of manganese dioxide as the depolariser, is :
^ volt, which represents energy wasted as heat in the IT'2. - p 2 M nOi — MrtfyOq -(- H%0
resistance of the cell, therefore, (Hydrogen)4-(Manganese dioxide) = Manganese sesqui-
P.D. = E.M.F.-IR oxide)4-(Water).
From this equation, it is clear that the manganese
thus only i £ volts are available
across the lamp. (a) Wet Lec/anche (t>)Dry_ Lecfenche (c)Inert Lec/anche,
P.D. oj a supply = E.M.F.— IR
E.M.F. „ „ = P:D.-\-IR
IR drop in a -r +
supply =E.M.F.-PD.
The Conditions for Maximum
Power from a Supply
Maximum power is obtained
from a supply when the external
resistance of the circuit is equal
to the internal resistance of the
supply.
Let us investigate the truth of
the statement by means of Fig. 8.
Case i.—Re=Ri, and Rt~ Zinc
Total resistance
Let Ri}~R\—2.P. E.M.F. of Po/c
supply 8 v. *
1 = ViRt =8/4=2 amps.
Power dissipated in Re=I~ Re ~
8 watts. Solution of Sal-Ammomac Paste of SePAmmoniac Crystals of Sal-Ammoniac
Case 2.—Re smaller than Ri t ig.. 9— Sectional diagrams of Leclanche cells.
dioxide is constantly being converted, and hence the is due to the necessary presence of moisture m tne so-
life of the cell is mainly governed by the amount of called " dry " ceil. Cells and batteries ®f the " dry "
depolariser available. The internal resistance of the cell Leclanche type and of good manufacture are usually
is still high, because of the poor conductivity of the date-stamped.
manganese dioxide *. therefore, powdered carbon is
mixed with it to reduce its resistance. As the depolariser The Inert Leclanche Cell
is only able to get rid of the hydrogen at a definite rate, This cell can withstand long storage or use in hot
the cell is only suitable for small currents and intermittent climates. As the cell's name imp'ies, it is "inert"
operation if polarisation is to be avoided. until " activated " by the addition of water. Fig. 9 (c).
Types of Lsclanohe Cell in General Dse Points to note are ; (1) That crystals'of sal-ammoniac
There are three types: (i) Wet, (2) Dry, and (3) how replace the paste of the dry cell or the solution of
Inert. the wet cell; (2) that two vents fitted with " stoppers "
for the access of water have been fitted. The cell
The Wet Leclaaohe becomes ready for use within a day, after activating.
The Wet Leclanche is generally used in cases where long
life and short periods of operation are required, i.eL Cells in Series and Parallel
door bells, etc. (Fig. ga). In order to obtain higher E.M.F.s than one cell could
The cell will keep running for many months provided give, a number of cells may be connected in series, when
that the electrolyte level is maintained with water to
allow for evaporation. The cell is unfit for many
purposes because of its spillable and cumbersome nature.
Local Action ^ Impurities
In the case ot the wet Leclanche the zinc rod can
become badly pitted due to the presence of impurities
in the zinc. -These impurities ; iron, lead, arsenic, etc.,
together with the zinc and the electrolyte, will act as
miniature cells, and in the running down process of these
cells, the rod becomes badly eaten away. Fig. 10 (a) and
(h). Local action can be prevented by coating the >
rod with mercury, when only pure zinc will be able to
reach the electrolyte, thus the rod wears evenly, except,
perhaps, for a slight taper due to the greater density
of the electrolyte at the bottom of the cell. Fig. 10 (c).
)|
The Dry Lecianche Cell
This provides a compact and portable means of pro-
viding a source of E.M.F. (6) (c)
It is used for H.T. batteries, flash-lamp cells, gas-
lighters, etc. Fig. 9 (b). Fig. 10.—Diagrams showing effects of local action.
Note that the zinc rod has been replaced with a (a) Arrows indicate the local currents due to impuritie-
zinc pot or container and that the cell is sealed with (b) Imparities eaten away causing badly pitted rod.
pitch ; that most of the space in the cell is occupied by (c) Tapered wearing ]of an amalgated rod.
the depolariser sack ; that a cardboard disc is placed
between the bottom of the sack and the zinc pot, and their total E.M.F. is equal to the sum of the individua
finally, but most important, the electrolyte is in paste ■ cell's E.M.F. Fig. 11 (a).
form—sal ammoniac and gelatine, etc. Cells should never be placed in parallel unless their
Local action is of little consequence in this case, E.M.F.s are equal, and they are similar, because, as
because the cell is usually exhausted before the zinc shown in Fig. n (b), wastage continually occurs.'
is seriously affected. When cells of the same E.M.F. are connected in
The advantages of the dry cell are; Portability, parallel, the current which can be taken for a "iven
compactness, and readiness for instant use, but, unfor- time is increased, but the E.M.F. of the combination
tunately, one serious disadvantage exists, namely, the remains the same as that of a single cell.
ceh starts to deteriorate as soon as it is made and thus
has a limited storage or " shelf " life. This deterioration General Examples
+ + - + (1) In Fig. 8. Calculate the internal resistance ot the
fl 1 supply, if one ampere passes when the P.D. of the suppiv
1 1 is 10 volts. Rp = 8.50.
(2) By how much does the power dissipated in Re
fall when the internal resistance of the cell is doubled
as a result of polarisation taking place as the depolariser
(3) becomes exhausted ? Fig. 8. (ifa = rofl, [. = i/5 amnP •
E.M.F. o) cell, 2.2 volts.) '
Answers to general examples (Page 143):
1. Total Resistance, 6.a1!1 ohms.
—-0 Total Current, 8.048 amperes.
+ 2. 11.9072 watts.
3. 7 07 milliamperes (approx'.J.
4. 161.3 watts in series, 726 watts in paralle1
1 „ (To be continued.)
—
L- CT J (b)
+ + EVERYMAN'S WIRELESS BOOK
By F. J. CAMWI
3v -O NEW EDITION.
4v 6/- or 6/4 by post from George Newnes, Ltd.(Book
c- 11,—If the E.M.F.5 of, the cells(t)areCells
tig. in parallel,
unequal, wastage occurs Dept.), Tower House, Southampton Street, Strand
continuously. London, W.C,2.
Potentiometer Problems
Correct Use of Graded Volume-control Potentiometers: Calculating the Values of Resistors
Required for Fixed Potentiometers and Potential Dividers
THE ordinary potentiometer is such a simple com- variable S.G.-voltage potentiometer, it should be
ponent that the constructor is apt to overlook Connected to^ H.T. positiye (either directly or through
some of the points concerning its correct use. a fixed limiting resistor), and in the case of .the L.F.
In the case of variable potentiometers, such as are control, it-should be connected to the "grid" terminal
often used for variable-mu bias control in battery sets, of the L.F. transformer or to the grid condenser, accord-
input volume control to an L.F. amplifier, and sometimes ing to whether transformer or R.C. coupling is employed.
for controlling the screening-grid voltage, there are very It is not always easy to tell which is which of the
few pitfalls ; provided that the correct overall value is two outer terminals, but in the case of a wire-wound
chosen and that the potentiometer is well designed, it component, the fibre strip or similar material on which
is not easy to make a mistake. the wire is wound will be found to taper towards one
Even here, though, it is well to remember that a end. The terminal connected to the narrower end is
'' graded'' type of component is generally to be pre- that which should go to the " maximum-volume " point.
ferred. The chief feature of this kind of potentiometer The reason for control being smoother when the
is that the variation of resistance over any given angle potentiometer is correctly wired is not difficult to
of rotation of the knob is smaller toward one end of the understand. Consider a variable-mu control in con-
resistance element than it is toward the other. This junction with the anode current-grid volts curve of the
feature of design is incorporated so that a smoother controlled valve. The curve is reasonably straight
around the point of zero grid volts, but flattens out
toward the maximum G.B. negative voltage. Thus,
+2001/. there is a marked drop in anode current between, say,
zero and one volt negative, but only a small variation
/?./. between, say, four and five volts negative. Our need is
11,430*1 to reduce the variation at the upper end and increase
120V. it correspondingly at the lower end. This same general
principle will be found to apply to potentiometers
3mA used in other parts of the circuit.
If there is any difficulty in tracing, the connections
I by visual inspection it is an easy matter to find the
correct wiring by trial, reversing the leads to the two
>RV. outer terminals and checking the smoothness of control.
02. T Fixed S.G. Potentiometers
3OP00.O. It is customary in all reasonably modern receivers to
provide a fixed voltage for the screening grid. For
reasons Which need not be discussed here, this avoids
distortion and gives better results than are obtained
when using a variable S.G. voltage. Additionally,
of course, better volume control is obtained by making
Fig. I.—A fixed potentiometer, comprising R.I and R.2, used to use of variable-mu valves. We can readily find the
supply the screening-grid voltage to an H.F. tetrode. most suitable S.G. voltage from the valve-makCrs*
control of volume is permissible. But this improvement instruction sheet, and if the S.G. current at that voltage,
will be obtained only if the potentiometer is correctly and with a given anode voltage, is known, the values
wired ; if the connections to the two outer terminals of resistors required to make up the necessary fixed
Should be reversed, control will, be far more awkward potentiometer At
can be calculated.
this-point it should be mentioned that it is usually
than when using an ungraded component. better to use a potentiometer for S.G. supply than
Volume-control Connections merely to feed the screening grid through a fixed voltage-
It is easy to remember the rule for correct connection. dropping resistor. The reason is that a potentiometer
The terminal connected to the end having the lower maintams a more-nearly constant S.G. potential than
resistance per unit length should go to the '' maximum (Continued on page 149)
volume " point in the circuit. For example, in the case
of the variable-mu control, the terminal in question
should be wired to the earth line, or to G.B.-h ; with a HT*
+2001/..
7mA
:/?./. Fig. 2. — (Left) An equivalent
circuit to that in Fig. 1. It shows
how the current is distributed.
4mA<- ' Fig. 3. — (Right) An alternative

\R2. method of connecting the S.G.
*RV. potentiometer when using an
\ ^ 3mA indirectly-heated variable-mu valve.
v-M.
Conr
HT
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VOLUME CONTROLS. Wire wound,
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PHILIPS Mica-dielectric .0003 mfd. to be independent of the battery situation.
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PAXOLIN PANELS. Thin panels. 5/6 doz.
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EX-TELEVISION manufacturer. Heavy
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A.C. tappings at 5,000 v, 5-8 milliamps., PHILIPS TRIMMER PHILIPS 3-GANG CONCENTRIC
and for supplying filament of Mullard CONDENSERS SPIRAL VANE CONDENSER
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VARIABLE RESISTANCES. Well-made suitable for S.W. work. in Philips well-known Push
resistances with wiping contact. Will Plus postage, 3d. Each U3
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SPEECH COIL RIBBON WIRE. Enam-
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5i thou. Per 1 lb.' reel, 3/-. Finest quality. Turn These Jacks have powerful phosphor-
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Govt. low-resistance single earphones, 2/6 shank, 3în. Supplied with1 nut for
each; microphone buttons, well-known panel
make, 21- each. TUNING CONDENSERS .3d. -mounting. Postage, etc.,
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PHILIPS Wire-wound Potentiometers, 450. signed for UNITS
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(Continued from page 146.) This shows why y mA can pass through R.i when on
can be obtained by other means. We know that if two 4 mA is passing through R.2, which is in series with
resistors are Wired in series the potential between one The difference of 3 mA passes through the valve
end of the pair and the junction is proportional to the between the cathode and the screening grid.
value of the resistors and applied voltage. When using a variable-mu valve of the indirect)
. example, if two 50,000-ohm resistors were wired heated type it is often better to wire the potentiomet
m series across a 100-volt supply, the potential between as shown in Fig. 3. Here it will be seen that the fix<
the negative fermihal of the supply and the centre potentiometer is in series with the V.M. potentiomet
point of the two resistors would be 50. Similarly, if or variable resistor (either will serve).The reason f
the resistors had values of 25,000 ohms and 75,000 connecting the potentiometer in this manner is that tl
ohms, the corresponding voltage would be three-quarters resistance between the screening grid and earth remaii
of the total, or 75. constant. From this it would appear that the S.(
Effect of S.G. Current voltage would also remain constant. In practice it do
_ It is in this connection that a fallacy often creeps in. not of necessity do so, due to the fact that the S.<
The facts just set out assume that no current is being current is reduced to a certain extent as the bias voltaj
drawn from the centre-tapping, and that the voltage is is increased. Nevertheless, this is probably the be
being measured with a meter of infinite resistance. If that can be done without adopting an unnecessarr
current were being drawn—as it is in the case of a complicated arrangement.
screening grid—our calculations would be entirely upset. Artificial Centre-tap
This can be understood by making reference to Fig. 1. Another use for a potentiometer, this time a Variab
Here we have an H.T. supply of 200 volts, and we or pre-set component, is in conjunction with the filamei
supply to a directly-heated output valve in an A.C
operated receiver. s-x vj.txs If
x-.. i. .thevtiJiJU.1115 la VVltlJtJlis withot
L.T. winding
a centre tap, or, if the tapping point is not at tl
electrical centre " of the windincr IVA TIC A o
" artificial" centre tap, as shown in Fig. 4. A 15-ohi
potentiometer is connected in parallel with the filamei
Fig. 4.—A 15-ohm terminals of When the transformer, and the slider is eartl
potentiometer used to, connected. the receiver is being set up initial]
'provide an "arti- longer be heard, or isuntil
this potentiometer adjusted until mains hum can r
it reaches its lowest level. It
ficial" centre tap for
/5-0 a transformer winding. not without interest that the optimum setting is m
<r> The normal centre- always at the precise centre of the resistance, but
tap is shown in broken often offset from it. It is the electrical centre of tl
^3 lines. winding which is required.
The Potential Divider
Fig. 5 shows a, potential divider, which is simply
modified form of potentiometer. A device of this kir
may be used with a mains unit to enhance the volta'
stability of the various tappings. The necessary valui
require a voltage of 120, at 3 mA, for the screening0 of three resistors forming the potential divider can 1
grid. If we overlooked the fact that current was bein " calculated by adopting a procedure similar to th;
drawn we should deduce that since R.i had to drop followed when determining the values for our S.C
volts and .R.2 120 volts, that R.i should have two- potentiometer. First we must know how much standir
thirds tne resistance of R.2. For example, values of current is to be allowed. It is best to allow as much ;
20,000 and 30,000 ohms would give the desired result. possible, and it would normally be the difference betwec
This assumes that vye can afford to have a standing the maximum output from the rectifier and the tot
current of 4 mA passing through the potentiometer. H.T. current required. Very often the potential dividi
, Fhese values are, in fact, entirely incorrect. This is used as a " bleeder ' 'or as a load resistor to prevent tl
is because of the screening grid taking current; this D.C. voltage rising above the rated voltage of the rectifie:
has to be drawn through R.i in addition to the standing I u. ^bii
current, with the result that the voltage dropped across 2 SO I/,
R.i would be m excess of 80. Let us work out suitable +3501/
values for these two resistors. We must start with R.2 33mA R3. *3,OOOSX
basing our calculations on the amount of standing F<S- 5.—A t
current which is to be taken. With a battery set we tential divid
shoukl not normally wish to pass more than about one IOOV. 5mA . made up fr
railliamp but with a mains set we could generally I/.3. ^ ^333X1 three separ*
spare about four milliamps. And within limits the fixed resisfc
higher this standing current, the more accurately is the and used f
S.G. voltage maintained at a constant figure. regulating ,
H.T. supplyfr
Calculating the Values !/./. 60 R „. a rectifier.
Assume, then, that 4 mA is taken as the steady ' 10 m A
current. We can find the value required for R.2 by ^ A
straightforward application of Ohm's Law, knowing
that the voltage to be dropped is 120. The resistance For present purposes we may assume that t
would be E/I multiplied by 1,000, where E is 120 volts rectified
and I is 4 mA; the answer is, therefore, 30,000 ohms whereas voltage is 250 and the output current 50 m
the total consumption by the receiver is on
The screenmg grid takes 3 mA, which means that 40 mA. The
R.i has to pass 7 mA in all. Its value will thus be 80 ihe current load on divider potential must therefore pass 10 m
the various tappings is shown
(volts) divided by 7 (mA) and multiplied by 1,060 Fig-
which is approxmaateiy 11,430 ohms. In practice, we R.i, 5)wealong with the required voltages. Starting wi
see that this must drop 60 volts, and we kne
should choose the nearest standard value available that it has to passriq mA ; its value will thus be bm
probably 12,000 ohms.
It may appear that there is a " catch " in this. If ohms. R.2 has to drop 40 volts (V.2 minus V.i) and
so, look at Fig. 2, which is what is known as an equivalent required to pass 12 mA. Its value will be 3,333 ohr
circuit for that shown in Fig. 1. It will be seen here (3,500 would probably be near enough). R.3 is to dr<
that a Tlli3resistance
13
marked R.V is shown in parallel with 17 mA inand150 volts must pass 10 mA, plus'2 mA, plus 5 mA
all. Its value will therefore be 150/17 tim
the equivalent resistance of the valve. 1,000, or approximately 9,000 ohms.
Transmission Lines
' =0 K? r"*^ . Slanchng Waves, Imput Impedance,' Matching
1 By S. A. KNIGHT
(Continuedjeom page 108, February issue)
sequently there can never be a voltage developed across
it, the termination being, in fact, a voltage node In
ha™ to - suffeT-, "'h 1116 reflected voltage wave will
Tim'^ ic com a rabi i P reversal at the termination
for the openPcircuit
foi . l® case,
with and
the Fig.
case 7ofcan
thebecurrent
used inwave
this
t-Tf2^ instance to indicate the voltage variatfoL fo? the
short-circuited line. Thus volta|e nodclfor tlm oiicn
cucmt coincide with current nodes for the short circuit
anc. voltage antmodes for the open circuit coincide
with current antinodes for the short circuit.
Current Considerations
TorTdrafiLwiU ^
t--T
spends to that of the voltage in the, open cfocuft lfoe
A new diagram is unnecessary, and Ffo 8 can he
Initial travelling wove - "VA—TrfS S
Returning >. , „ Input Impedance of a Length of Line
Resultant standing wave
PiS. S.~ ■Vollase standing waves set ufi by the travelling and circuited Unf RM^ iine and the short-
rejiected components. ■
THIS energy is given to the electric field, and so the ssss^SSSSSIS
voltage at the termination is greater than the
56 d u 0 the
SmTT fl V , wave
oince the reflected Âal travelhrig
of current nmstwavT
have the ^
same amplitude as the forward wave, the voltage at the T
~Unu me Clrcl,ited an
termination is doubled. vuma?e at the Voltage of the generator ~<i of^ length A/a 1(Fig-t5* ua)^
Thus no-phase reversal of voltage occurs at an oner. Current of the generator a maximum
, .w t^mniiauuu ana, as Detore, the resultant voltW _Input
t " impedance gjlt zi = V/TV /I ==: oO
SaiLTLv addin^nofrft^4? 2
v 116 0 en circuit
rctî^ffintLLls.' the f0rWard a d Voltage at generator = amaxinmm A/a (Ffo^ nbl1
ii ? «' and of length
It should be noted that voltage nodes occur "at Current at generator = o
distances ^4, 3a/4} etc., from zi = V/I= max/o= infinity.
M16 termination, and voltage • Vfoit hort circuited
antinodes occur at distances J' Voltage atf generator = of length A/4 (FigS 1 jc)
a maximum ^
*/2, etc., from the termina- 3/ Current
zi
at generator = o
tion. Again, any two points *'• = V/i = max/o=infinity.
on the line are either in
pnase or antiphase. to) t
The above types of waves,
which are due to a conibina-
tion of two or more travelling ^ Current'^ ^
waves, are known as Standing -w- r* t Wms.
^current
Waves. jt „ - ^^^^^yoltage-, :j
R.M.S. Considerations fo generator
Fig- 9 gives the R.M.S. tb)
values for current and voltage Term/pat/on
o t!r instruments
K.M.S. ':;)e obtained
placed at in j 1 Cur re n RMS.
1%
k.ai.s. cPOin 'S 0,1 arethealways
voltages
lina
- V 1i _^ fage 1
positive, so the reversal of
phase of cuitciu or voltage (C)
which occurs at every half 1 A4 Termination
cycle is not indicated. S an
A Line Short-circuited and A Current ^ ^rf 'n ^ ^ (Above).—
I he R.M.S. values of the
m Length open-circuited and short-
Consider first the voltage Vo/tageS circuited lines respectively,
variations. The termination
m this case is a short-circuit ^ effect(Left).—Showing
ana has zero impedance, con- y2 the of line length
on input impedance.
March, 1943 PRACTiCAL WIRELESS 151
Current^ Case 2.—Short-circuited line less than
greater than A/4.
This case is represented as the previous one
vectorally, in Fig. 15, the input impedanc
Voltage) being a pure capacitance.
Case 3.—Open-circuited line less than A/4.
voftage'f It would be possible to construct simila
rt vector diagrams remembering that in this cas
y the current vector has a phase reversal at th
termination instead of the voltage. We shoul
find that the input impedance this time vvoul
Current' be a pure capacitance.
Figs. 12 and 13.— Voltage and Case 4.—Open-circuited, line less than A/
current curves for ot>eh-circuited S) greater than A/4.
and short-circuited lines. The input capacitance would be a put
inductance.
Fig. 14 {Below and Right).-— General Cases
Vector representations of the It can be shown that for the general case of
nature of the input impedance loss-less line of characteristic impedance zl
for a s/c line less than A4. terminated in an impedance zr and of any length ,
m is given by:
• ==: k{zr+jzk. tan 2Tr//A)
h zk+jzr. tan 2nl\X
(D Take as examples: a short-circuited line, z
being zero. Substituting this value for zr in the abov
equation:
(31
Zi^tk^pi±
zk
*=jzk. 2nip.
4—A short circuited and of length A/2 (Fig. nd) Now : an open-circuited line, zr being infinity. Thi
Voltage at generator = 0 time we can re-arrange the equation by dividing num
Current at generator = a maximum erator and denominator by zr.
zi — V/I = o/max .z+j.zk/zr tan znlj*
= o. ^ zk/zr+j. tan znljl
Consider the cases 1 and 4. These" can be compared
with a series-tuned circuit, while cases 2 and 3 can be Now, if zr equals infinity :
compared with a parallel-tuned circuit. zi =zk.i+6lj. tan. anip.
= —j. zk cotan. zjiip
General Case for an Open-circuited Line Fig. 16 shows curves which give variations of zi a
Fig. 12 gives the voltage and current waves for any the length of the line is varied, both open and short
length of line I. The current can be represented by a circuited cases. They are plotted from the formulae ;
cosine expression, / being measured from the termination. (i) zi—j. zk tan 2~lp. for the S.C. case.
If now we look into the line at any distance I from (ii) zi——j zk, cotan. 2nl[X for the O.C. case.
the termination, the input impedance zi will be a ratio These formulas assume loss-less lines and perfec
of a cosine to a sine expression, i.e., a cotangent expres-
open and short circuits. In practice these ideal condi
sion. tions cannot be obtained and the curves fall short of thi
General Case for a Short-circuited Line true representation of zr, for zi will, in general, contait
This time (Fig. 13) the voltage is represented by a resistive components.
sine and the current by a cosine expression. Zi will Take a specific length of line, / being Ip.
therefore be a tangent expression. Thus, in general, Then zi=.zkzr+j- zk tan ^
for a length of line other than multiples (of fA/4, the zk+j. zr tan 2a///.
input impedance can have a magnitude which varies —zk. zr/zk
between zero and infinity. =zr
i.e., zi=zr
Nature of the Input Impedance Thus this length of line can be used as a r : i trans-
Case 1,—Short-circuited line less than A/4. former.
Consider the vector diagrams of Fig. 14 which are Take a specific length of line, / being >.p.
for the initial travelling wave at the termination and Re-writing the equation, by dividing by znlp
the generator respectively.
The first pair represent the wave reaching c ft
the termination- a short time after it has (I)
left the generator. This is represented by P
which has a value between o degrees and go- (3) ffg
degrees for a fine less than A/4. V
S\
The reflected wave is obtained by re-
versing the voltage vector Vr at the termina- X
tion (second pair)., and this wave now reaches
the generator again with a phase lag of p.- (2)
The resultant voltage and current at the fs)
generator by the combination of (2) and (4) 'I.
is shown in the fifth diagram. We see from
this that the resultant voltage leads the
resultant current by 90 degrees ; thus the Fig. 15.— Vectors of the short-
input impedance of a loss-less short-circuited circuited line, the input imps
line less in length than A/4 is a pure dance being a pure capacitance.
inductance.
PRACTICAL WIRELESS March, 1943
trtductive Thus tlie Rk increases very rapidly with d/r up to
d/r approximately equal to 100. For larger values
of d/r, the Rk remains fairly constant (Fig. 17).
,i < The lines are referred to as balanced because at
any point along them the current in the two wires is
in antiphase, this tending to reduce radiation from
S.C o.c. S.C o.c. ! the transmission line.
The effect of a dielectric is thus : the Rk of a
transmission line is given by Rk^x/LJC, but if a
dielectric is introduced, L is unaffected since ^
(permeability) for most substances is very nearly
I unity. If the dielectric has a fi K, the effective
capacitance per unit length is increased K times.
Thus Rk^CLfKC
= 1/ VKXVLI'C
Rk—il VK x Rk for air.
(2) The Coaxial Line.—This has two conductors,
the second forming a tube around the first (Fig.
18). It can be shown that for an air-spaced
cable:
Rk= 138 login. R/r.
Rk is normally of the value of 80 ohms and is
3A not so constant for variations in Rjy as is the balanced
Capscitive ^ line feeder. Also the cable is self shielding, i.e.,
currents flow on the inner surface of the cuter
Fig. 16,—Curves showing variations of zi as length of line is varied, conductor and no external radiation occurs.
for open- and short-circuited cases. (3) Twisted Pair.—This consists, of a two-wire
hue composed of twisted rubber-covered wire. Since djy
{zrltan 2Trlp.)+j.zk can be made quite small the Rk is fairly small,
'{zkltan 271///.J f-j.zr generally from 100 to aoo ohms.
When i = A/4, tan 2rzlj?. is infinity. The application of transmission line theory to aerial
zi=zk.2 j.zk/j. zr. systems must come under a later heading.
zi. zr=zk
zk= Vzi.zr.
Matching PRIZE PROBLEMS-
Consider the case of an aerial whose resistance is
8o ohms fed from a 6oo-ohra transmission line. The Problem No. 441.
required zk lor the /i/4 of the matching device is given by : "DOYCE built a four-valve'superhet using all the correct parts, but
zk =Vzi. zr when first switched on he could obtain no signals. He therefore
borrowed a signal generator and commenced lo line-up the receiver.
He adjusted the second I.F, transformer and (hen connected the generalor
to the grid of the frequency-changing valve but could not obtain a signal
Rk in the output stage. He tested the secondary of the I.F. transformer
Radius and this was in order, and then he found also that the primary was in
order. A D.C. test showed that the frequency-changer was passing anode
9 current correctly, but no adjustment of the trimmers could enable him
to'obtain the note from the generator in the oscillator stage. What
was wrong ?
Three books will be awarded for the first three correct solutions
opened. Entries must be addressed to The Editor, Practical Wireless,
George Newnes, Ltd., Tower House, Southampton Street, Strand,
London, W.C.9. Envelopes must be marked Problem No. 441 in the
top left-hand corner and must be posted to reach this office not later
than the first post on Monday, February 15th, 1943.
Fig. 18.—The
d/ coaxial line,
where Solution to Problem No. 440.
Fig. 17.—Rk. increases very rapidly with d/r Rk~138 login On testing his receiver. Nash found that the oscillator section of the frequency-
up to djr approximately eyual to 100. Rlr. changer did not functioncoil.
on the long-wave band owing to a defect in the gfid
winding of the oscillator
Thus we see that by suitably choosing the value of have Theaccordingly
three following readers
been forwardedsuccessfully
to them. solvedLilian
Problem No.40, 439, andStreet.
books
zk by the 1/4 length of line, we can obtain the required c/o Aluwick, Northumberland ; L/Bdr. S. A, Miss
Longhuret.Knox,
E.A. : L.Howick
F Hallidav'J
matching for the 6oo-ohm line. We have, in effect, an G.P.O. '
impedance transformer, and is in fact called a Quarter
Wave Impedance Transformer.
We have :
zi —zk^lzr MASTERING MORSE
therefore, the impedance is changed from zr to zk2lzr. By the Editor of PRACTICAL WIRELESS
3rd EDITION
Practical Types "of Lines This handbook, written with special regard for service
(1) The Twin Balanced Pair.—Consists essentially of requirements, will enable even the beginner rapidly
a pair of parallel wires. It can be shown that the to become proficient in sending and receiving.
l oks e s or b ost
characteristic impedance (resistive) is given by; 1 //- EEWNES,
9C?r ,ir£9. LTD.
?ll L - (Booky VDept.),
1'2 from GEORGE f /
Rli=276 login 4/r (air-spaced). Bet Southampton Street. London,Tower W.C.2. House Jlnet/"
fZ
rS -f1' ¥
Yiis Mm n
: v
; :'
By THERMION
1LISTENED-IN the other morning to the 7 o'clock valuable stocks obsolete. I implore the B.B.C. 10
news, and I wish to complain to the B.B.C. that, as suppress this information, and save an industry, and a
the result of a particular news item I thought I was
dreaming, and T therefore missed, my physical jerks. technical press from disaster.
The item to which I refer drew attention to the ex- Slush
periences of some Servicemen who found themselves A '' '11'-f'fGH the B.B.C. has set its face against
wandering through the Bush far from their unit. One debilitated music, otherwise known as cryning or
of them happened to be a radio operator, and the B.B.C., slush, I have not noticed any great diminution in the
in all seriousness, told us that this man had made a surge of this silt from the sewers of music. In fact there
transmitter from some pieces of string, some cocoa tins, seems to be more ot it. The B.B.C. also announces that
and pieces of bamboo ! ! ! ! Now this, I am certain you it opposed the pirating of classical music. I notice
will agree, is careless talk, dt is giving valuable informa- however, that Handel has been jazzed. They are
tion to the enemy. The secret has been so well kept that giving Mozart a rest.
even I had not heard of it, and here is the B.B.C. broad- The British Sound Recording Association
casting this valuable item to all and sundry. The 'X'HE British Sound.Recording Association was formed
Germans now know 'hat we have invented a means of in 1936 by a number of engineers and amateur
making radio transmitters out of cocoa tins, string and
bamboo, and I have no doubt that their Teutonic enthusiasts body
with the primary purpose of uniting in one
all those engaged or interested in the art and science
cunning will enable them too to produce superior trans- of sound
mitters made from these rawest of raw materials. I had until the recording. The membership was steadily rising
outbreak of war, and there were members in
for a long time wondered why the Government had many parts of the world. A quarterly journal and a '
issued an order making it an offence to waste string, but bi-monthly bulletin were issued, but since 1940 the
I can now see that every inch of it was required to build activities have been curtailed because
this new secret weapon. Perhaps this is the reason why members have been scattered by wartheservice. officers and
All
it is almost impossible to purchase a bamboo pole for officers acted in an honorary capacity. For the past two
drawing-room curtains, and why cocoa is becoming years or so it has been decided not to enrol or accept any
scarce. They want the tins for these transmitters.
Why the B.B.C. should give this information away to subscriptions from new members in fairness to them, but
the Germans I do not know, and I can only hope that full they
details are listed, and as soon as conditions permit
will receive application blanks and the latest
the Mystery of Inflammation have severely reprimanded
the B.B.C. news editor who had been so culpably information. Earlier members maintain contact through
negligent. Here have we all these years been building correspondence, and technical questions are still dealt
expensive transmitters, from equally expensive apparatus with.me that
I mention these points because D. W. Alduce tells
a rumour has been going round that the club
when we could have achieved superior results from has suspended activities. Although it may bo in a
materials rescued from the dustbin. For all I know, state
the B.B.C. may be radiating its programmes by means dying.of animation it is still in existence, and is not
of these transmitters. The string may provide the
necessary degree of distortion to convert a normal •'Sound the Loud Pibroch"
singer's voice into that of a cryner. Here I want to [Press item.-~Referring to musical compositions, it is curious that
registeir a protest on behalf of the technical press of this in some of the less civilised parts of Europe even semi-tones were
country. I demand to know why we have not received until recentlySend hardly used.]
roond the Fiery Cross ainee mair,
details of this wonderlul transmitter to pass along to our Tae summon up each clan 'f
various publics. It is true that readers of technical And march wi' kilts and pipers braw.
papers may not be so credulous as numbers of B.B.C. Until they find the man
listeners. I rang the B.B.C. on the matter, and after Wha this fresh insult tae the Scot
being shunted about from department to department I Has jealously devised.
eventually got through to the chief office boy, who Och aye ! And daurs tae tell the wurruld
informed me that the only thing he knew about string Scotland's no ceevilised!
was that it was useful to have people on 1 Whit kens he o' the bagpipe's charrrms,
f also want to enter a vigorous protest on behalf of •Contemptuous o' half-tones;
the publishers of Technical Books whose stocks of books Whit ither eenstrument sae weel
For Scotsmen shrieks and groans,
dealing with transmitters and transmitting will be Expressing thus their attitude
rendered obsolete, I met Mr. F. J, Camm the other Tae ither lesserr races,
day walking along the corridors of Tower House in a Wha should, in common modesty,
thoughtful mood, and when the Editor is in a thoughtful Frae Scotsmen hide their faces ?
mood he is either going to write a book, or trouble is Was Bobby Burrrns nae ceevilised,
brewing. When trouble is brewing I make myself as Wha Shakespeare pits tae shame ?
scarce as during an air raid. Tactful inquiries from fs haggis not a royal dish
his retinue of private secretaries elicited the information Tae silence hunger's pain ?
that the publishers wished to know why his various And whusky—there's a drink for ye
wireless books did not include the string-tin-bamboo Nae savage could invent;
transmitters. The Publishing department had been And wha like Scots so weel inforrrmed
answering urgent telephone calls all day from dis- Hoo bawbees should be spent ?
gruntled purchasers of books who presumed that F. T. C. Forbye, let's waste nae furrtherr time
Aboot this feckless loon.
was holding out on them. The usual excuse that the But leave him tae his blathering
Censor had refused to pass the information would nol Awa in London toon !
wash. He doesna need tae fash himself—
On behalf of the wireless industry who manufacture Oor parritch still is prized ;
transmitting valves and components I protest that the And all the wurruld may see from this
Hoo farr we'rrr ceevilised !
disclosure by the B.BIC. of this new invention is rendering '* Torch."
1 The Talks
1 I
sss- m
-
m
%
wmm
Where the recordings /or talks With
North America are made: Many of
the speakers give their talks during
the night—" live." But recordings
are also made so that the talk?
can be transmitted again.
IN a building that was once a well-known West End each night, hours' non-
store, the North American Service of the British stop service of news, talks, Radio News Reel goes on the air : A
Broadcasting Corporation now functions. The main features, and variety goes day's news. This nightly programme is
hall of the shop is now partitioned off into nests of out to America. feature.
offices like an egg box. The bare walls are roughly
painted, and the marble staircase—which used to lead Underground Studios
to the basement—now looks as ludicrous as if it were - The studios arc underground. On your way to them,
furnishing a hay loft. you are guided through narrow passages lined with
The Nprth American Service is one of the B.B.C.'s compartments like a railway coach. Through half-open
most ambitious programmes. Starting at 11.15 p.m. doors, you occasionally catch a glimpse of a shirt-sleeved
The night's programme begins : Broadcasting a An outdoor broadcast: America n
London letter. Every week* an outdoor tecordim
London streets to colled unreh
ordinary Londoi
A
<et!. mn
■m
March, 1943 PRACTICAL WIRELESS
North America
®: : > •, *i si
... ■1
*
m
WJMSSSSSSSS
The B.B.C.'s other Brains Trust—
Answering You"—on the North
American service. Every week,
experts meet to broadcast answers
to
leading questions, sent in by
U.B. listeners, on Britain's war
effort.
figure behind a battery more girls are in charge of a formidable control board
: A sound picture of the of telephones; a Finally, you re shown into a little cell heavily lined with
le is anmportant overseas tousled-haired body- some sound absorbent material, from where you make
probably belonging to your broadcast. A few minutes before your zero hour
, a producer onwith
early morning programme to see to—resting an
a camp you are joined by an announcer. As the second hand
bod; a trousered secretary dividing her attention between climbs the last quarter-minute before you make your
a typewriter and beef t-ea. It,is the night staff on duty. talk, the announcer says " Quiet, please," in a mechanical
Down below, on the studio floor, you see engineers—• voice. Then he announces : " This is the North American
men and girls—bending over turntables cutting discs. Service of the British Broadcasting Corporation," and
\ou go into a room labelled Red Network, where two you are left with the microphone.
ca meets" John Londoner." •*—
thanoutthe■
eu s
ding van goes out into the I? ll'L^'news
' Room, ten minutes he/ore
nrehearsed interviews with O.e.C. to America is shorter andasnaopier
bullelln noes
nd oners. "."V"'"—^ news on the Home Service programmes-
PRACTICAL WIRELESS March, 1943
156
Radio Examination Papers-16

Another Series of Questions, Taken at Random, with Suitable Replies by THE EXPERIMENTERS
ii- .1 i .— ^^r. /-.T o n-inl + i-i-vnci+inr
1. Audio-ireciuency Loss , these also being controlled by means of a multi-position
THE effect of long leads m the secondary circuit ot Another use of crystals in a superhet receiver is in
the step-down transformer would be to cause an the I.F. circuit. In this case a crystal, or a pair of crys-
appreciable reduction in signal strength. This is tals, would be chosen that
because the transformer resonated at the required
secondary, the leads and intermediate frequency.
the speech coil are all in QUESTIONS The crystal would act as
series, as shown in Fig. I. 1. What would be the effect of using long leads between a " gate " and so allow
Thus, instead of the whole the secondary of a high-ratio step-down transformer the passage only of signals
output from the trans- and the speech coil of a low-impedance moving-coil at crystal frequency. When
former beiilg develpped speaker? J , , using this arrangement the
across the speech coil, a 2. In what principal ways can a slice of quartz crystal oscillator and input tuning
proportion of it would be be used for frequency stabilisation ? circuits would be of con-
lost in the leads. For ex- 3. Why is it very important to switch off the tl.l. ventional design, and the
ample, if the speech-con before moving a grid-bias plug, especially when the tuning of the' receiver
impedance was, say, 20 plug to be moved is that for the bias supply to an would not be limited by
ohms and the impedance output pentode or tetrode ? the number of crystals
of the leads also 20 ohms, a If the signal strength obtained from a good receiver available.
onlv half .the available out- provided with A.V.C. were just the same whether
put voltage would be ap- using a loft, or a 60ft. aeiial, it would still be 3—Current Surge
plied across the ends of advantageous to employ the longer aerial. Why ? When the bias supply is
the speech coil. 5 When using an A.C. power pack, what faults would removed from a valve, the
Should the impedance you(a)suspect if the following sy mptoms were observed : anode current rises to
of the leads be, say, 100 Output D.C. voltage too high? many times its normal
ohms, only one-sixth of (b) Voltage iiovyyiai wndet no-load conditions, uUv value, and there is a dan-
the available output would falls rapidly to less than half the rated figure ger of the valve being
be applied to the speaker. as the load is raised to the rated output damaged. If the.breaking
The current with which we current? of the G.B. circuit is
are dealing is audio-fre- 6 For how many hours should a 2 volt., 40 a.n. accu- repeated a number of
quency, but the principle ' mulator, fully-charged and in perfect condition times damage is inevita-
is just the same as that operate a five-valve receiver the filaments of winch ble, with any type of
which applies when a D.C. take .13 A., .15 A., .1 A., .1 A and.2A, respectively ? valve designed to operate
is passed through a num- What should be the no-load voltage of the accu- with a negative grid bias.
ber of resistances in series. mulator when fully charged, and to what figure will In the case of a pentode
This is shown in Fig. 2, the voltage fall after the set has been in use fo-' ap- or tetrode 15the rise in anode
where a 20 volt battery is proximately 55 hours ? current is accentuated
WM, —'
shown connected to three because of the high ampli
resistors of 10, 20 and 10 fication factor of the. valve.
ohms each respectively; At the moment the bias is removed, there is a sudden
tne
the battery
oauery represents
lepieoJR, the
uw output from the trans- surge of anode current, and, in certain circumstances,
former and the resistors represent the two leads the valve mav be ruined immediately. This is most
the ^pcskcr. likely if the valve is receiving its maximum rated anode
The voltage across the 20-ohm resistorI0will be only 10, and screen voltage.
and the voltage across each of the uohn\/fhs's^ It is because of the facts given above that the valves
will be five. These give a total of 20 volts. If the .wo should be made inoperative—either by switching off the
10-ohtn resistors were short-circuited the voltage across
the 20-ohm resistor would be 20 volts—assuming that -HI+
the battery was a source 'of constant voltage.
In terms of power, the wattage developed across the
20-ohm resistor in the first instance would be 20 watts,
in the second instance it would be only 5 watts
S. Crystal Frequency Contro
The most frequent use of a quartz crystal is m the
oscillator stage of a transmitter. It may be connected Step-Down
in the grid circuit of a valve having a tuned anode circuit, Speaker
or it may be connected between the grid and auod®- Transformer
In either case, the valve is caused to oscillate at the
resonant freouencv of the crystal (and harmonics of that
frequency, of course). It is not proposed to explain the
reason for that here, since that has been done fully m
previous issues of this journal. Fig. 1.—The output circuit oj
A crystal can also be used in a receiver. It might be a receiver, where there are
connected in the grid circuit of the oscillator valve oi a long leads between the output
transformer and the speech
superhet, if fixed tuning is provided for the input circuit. coil of the speaker.
In that case, the crystal would require to have a resonant
frequency higher or lower than the frequency ot the signal
to be received by the I.F. In practice, a number ol crys-
tals would probably be used, a selector switch hemg
provided to bring each into circuit as required. At the E HI-
same time, a corresponding number of pre-set condensers
would be fitted in the input circuit to the first detector.
set or removing the H.T. supply—before the grid-bias anee in some part of the circuit. It could also result
wander plugs are removed from and connected to the from the omission or open-circuiting of a smoolhin"
.. bias battery. coBdenser in certain circumstances,
4—The Aerial and A.V.C.
Signal strength, considered alone, is not a criterion. 6—Accumulator Problems
More important for comfortable reception is the ratio torA 10 40 a.h accuinulator will give a current of 4 amps,
hours if fully charged and in perfect condition.
ot signal strength to " background " noises, A signal of In general,
ln
pocrate strength free front background noise, "mush " current loadthe " life " will be increased pro rata as the
is reduced. That is, the accumulator would
and ' hiss " is far more easily understood than a very
loud signal accompanied by extraneous noises. give over. 40 hours' service if the current drawn from it
Now in the ease of a sensitive receiver with effipicnt were 1 amp. In passing, it should be noted that, as a
automatic volume control a number of high-frequency general rule, the " life " is reduced dispronortionately if
and/or intermediate-frequency amplifying valves is the load exceeds one-tenth the a.h. capacity. For
example,
essential. And every valve introduces a certain amount at 10 amps, if the accumulator in question were discharged
of noise m consequence of the electronic emission from it would not last for four hours—and
the cathode and slight vibration of the electrodes. possibly not for two !
Moreover, this noise increases rapidly as the maximum
sensitivity of the valves is approached. Si/, 2-5 w.
It is clear, therefore, that background noises will be
least in evidence if the valves are " running light " or
not providing their maximum amplification. And'it is
known that the effect of A.V.C. is to reduce the am- /On
plification, or gam, of the controlled valves as the signal
strength at the second detector is increased. The increase
may be due to the greater arapiification provided by the
valves preceding it, or by the greater pick-up by the
aqnal system.
The advantage of using a good aerial will now be
apparent, as will the reason for using the 6oft. as against 20 V /OV
the loft, aerial wire. It is being assumed of course, that 20n
the aerial in both cases is being placed in the most 514/
suitable position, and that the receiver is so designed
that it has adequate selectivity when the longer aerial
•S connficted; any properly-designed sensitive receiver
with efficient A.V.C. would certainly meet tins require-
ment.
Another incidental advantage of the longer aerial, in /On
most modern houses, is that it would, for a good deal of
its length, be well away from electric cables and equip-
ment, which may produce a - certain amount of iuler-
lerence. 51/ 55 IV.
5—Power-pack Faults F'S. .-4'j " equinahnt " circuit to that in Fig. I, showing the
The excessive D.C. output would generally be distribution of voltage and power dissipation.
attributable to using the incorrect primary tapping for
connection of the A.C. mains supply. In that case the The five-valve set referred to in the question takes a
output voltage could easily be reduced by connecting total
the A.C. to a /ligfer-voltage tapping on the primarv of for, atofleast, .7 a., therefore, the accumulator should last
40/.7 hours, or approximately 37 hours. In
the mains transformer. Another reason for excess've practice, a really good accumulator mav'run for loimer
D.C. voltage might be that the current load was less than this when used
than that for which the power pack was designed. As only about one-sixth intermittently and'when delivering
an example of this, a power unit designed to give 250 the ten-hour rate. Butofallowing its maximum current based on
• volts, 60 mA would probably produce a voltage of about tor the figure calculated aboveforshould an average accumula-
be sufficiently
340 if the current load was only 30 mA. In such a case accurate for all practical purposes,
it is unlikely that sufficient " correction " would be A fully-charged 2-volt accumulator, off load, should
obtained by stepping up the primary tapping.
The second fault could be due to a rectifier which had read about 2.2 v. immediately after being removed
from the charging board. This voltage will fall to 1.8
become faulty; for example, a valve which was losing on load, by the time the accumulator is fully discharged.
its emission. It could also be caused by the use of a Dealing
smoothing choke of much too high a resistance, or to a voltage with the question as set, it may be state*! that the
of the 2-volt cell would be approximately i 8
bad contact in the wiring which produced a high resist- after it had been in use with the set for 55 hours.
A Letter To You Fro n The Prime Minister

FOR the men and women of the Forces at home and The procedure is quite simple. Almost any post office
abroad I make an appeal to which every family in will take your books and magazines if handed in
the Kingdom can respond. unwrapped, unstamped and unaddressed.
I do not ask for money. I ask only for books, magazines They will then be distributed to all the Services where
and periodicals. most leqmrcd. Malta, the Middle East, Iceland, and a
If you had seen, as I have seen on my many visits to dozen other places abroad will welcome your gifts and
the Forces, and particularly in the .Middle East, the need there are lonely stations at home to be supplied.
tor something to read during the long hours off duty and Will you contribute from your shelves, and remember
the pleasure and relief when that need is met, you would when you buy a book or magazine that there are manv
gladly look, and look again, through your bookshelves waiting to read it after you ? '
and; give what you can. If you hesitate to part with a
book which has become an old friend you can be sure (Signed)
that it will be a new friend to men on active service.
Winston S, Ctorcihll.
158 PRACTICAL WIRELESS March, 1943 "
Practical Hints
Bandspread Slow-motion Dial r bolt is soldered over the middle hole
FACED with the problem of ob- THAT DODGE OF YOURS! f in the strip of metal, the strip being
taining an effective slow-motion ! Every Reader ol "PRACTICAL WIRE- ! then bolted to the earpiece sind
dial for a miniature set (built in an (LESS "which
dodgenot must would
have originatedother somereaders.
little SI locked with nuts. The diaphragm is
Army mess tin) the following gadget = Why pass it on tointerest
us P We pay £1-10-0 ~
was. devised. A bushing taken from " otherfor the best hint submitted, and for every | scraped and sandpapered all round
the edge so that it beds down and
item publishedTurn
an old knob was soldered to a segment | pay half-a-guinea. on that
this idea
page ofwoyours
will | makes a good electrical contact with
of tin (as shown) and into the grub 1 to the account by sending it in toWIRELESS,"
us addressed I= the base. On the other side the paint
screw hole a long screw was fitted, ) toGeorge Editor, " PRACTICAL is scraped away iri the middle and
with an Jin. milled-edged washer s ampton Newnes, Street, Strand, W.C.2. PutSouth-
Ltd., Tower House, your I" then a blob of solder is dropped on to
soldered to the end. This was (name and address on every item. Please
note that every notion sent in must be i reassembled, | make the contact. The whole is then
slipped on to condenser spindle and 2 original. Mark envelopes!" Practical Hints." i one wire of the earphone
then the knob was replaced. A drive | DO NOT enclose Queries with your hints, fl is soldered to the earphone itself,
was devised from a piece of -|-in. the other wire being taken to a
brass tube, a washer A being SPECIAL NOTICE battery. Another wire is connected
soldered to spindle while the other, All hints must be accompanied by the to the' bolt on the top from the bat-
B, was left floating and held against coupon cut from page iii of cover. tery, and the buzzer is then ready
the segment by the spring C. A 6 J for use. Slowly screw the middle bolt
B.A. screw was slipped through the down until the buzzer starts to work,
tube and bolted to the panel. The, method of tuning then gradually tighten the screw for the required pitch.
is to slacken off the screw in bush D and rotate the dial If the buzzer just gives a " click " and nothing more,
until the desired waveband is found. Tighten up screw reverse the connections to the battery. In the original
I fitted silver contacts and a condenser to eliminate
sparking, but these, of course, are optional.—A. B. West
(Winchmore Hill),
Simple Voltmeter
AN easily made voltmeter can be constructed as fol-
lows : Make a wooden box, of a suitable size,, and
cut a pointer A from thin aluminium, and pivot it to the
back of the box. Next make the lever B from thin iron
strip, and solder a piece of thin wire to A and B. Obtain
a solenoid, and screw it to the back of the box in a
suitable position under the lever B. Attach a weak
spring to the pointer A, and fix to the box ; then put a
Pointer A
Peg O
A simple slow-motion dial arrangement.
D, and select stations with the slow-motion drive knob. Weak
Spnng £"
It will be seen that a ratio of something like 12 to 1 can
be obtained without using much panel space. The seg- Wire C
ment can be cut to spread over 10 or 20 degrees according Lever B -
to requirements.—J. A. Robinson (Salford).
An Improvised Buzzer Solenoid
IJERE is a small buzzer I devised from the junk box.
* It is a high-note buzzer with a pleasant musical
tone which I find ideal for morse practice. UO'J
The sketch is self-explanatory, but here are a few
words on construction. An earphone is taken to pieces,
and in the earpiece two small holes are drilled each side
of the centre hole for taking two bolts which are fitted
with lock-nuts, as shown. A fairly thick strip of A useful voltmeter made from odd parts.
metal is then drilled with three holes corresponding small nail or peg on the back of the box, to prevent the
with the holps in the earpiece, and a nut to take a small pointer from being pulled right back. To complete,
Nut soldered to make a small scale and stick behind the pointer. If
Mete! Strip desired it can be calibrated with a standard voltmeter.—
v:^ S W. W. Smith (Plymouth).
Soldered
Contact
Radio Engineer's Vest Pocket Book
3/6 or 3/9 by post, from
& GEORGE NEWNES LTD., Tower House,
Leod soldered here Southampton Street, Strand, London, W.C.2.
A Ugh-note luzzer contrived from an old earphone.
PITMAN'S
WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. Notes for Students
Compiled by W. E. Crook, A.M.I.E.E., A.F.R.Ae.S. This
book represents the theoretical part of the Wireless Course given
in England's Air Training Centre, and sets forth in simple language,
with no more than the necessary minimum of formulae and
mathematics, all that the candidate need know in order to satisfy
the examiner of the adequacy of his knowledge. Third Edition
73. 6d. net.
VALVEHOLDERS ELEMENTARY HANDBOOK FOR WIRELESS
Manufactured under " Amphenoi " OPERATORS
Licence. By W. E. Crook. Presents a general view of radio communication
Preferred by radio engineers with an introduction to its technique, and enables the recruit
because of their Strength, and the
.he wireless operator to '"see
"see where they are going " and
Efficiency and Uniform to gain a sound, all-round knowledge of the subject, even though
Contact. they might be without previous technical knowledge. Second
Send for list of English and Edition. 4s. net.
American types.
THE SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER
By Alfred T, Witts, A.M.I.E.E'. This is an essential book for
all who are interested in modern radio. It is a practical and handy
guide to superhets and tells you all about their working, con-
struction, and maintenance. An excellent book for Radio
Mechanics serving with the Forces. Fifth Edition. 5s. net.
SHORT WAVE RADIO
By J. H. Reyner. A comprehensive, practical survey of modern
BRITISH
MADE developments in the use of short, ultra-short and micro-waves.
It provides a great deal of valuable data concerning the practical
¥ # ■%; ■ AV' methods of their use in radio and television transmission. I0s.6d. net.
Write for Pitman's Radio List. It contains details of thirty
books dealing with every branch of radio and television. This
CELESTION LTD. and their graded list—Books About Jobs—will be sent post free
on request to Pitman House, Parker St., London, W.C.2
.KlfJCSTON-UPON-THAMES SURREY
KINgston S6S6-7-8.
II O O K S
'//if/
1
# "fe UNIVERSAL TAYLOR.
METER MODEL 90—
38 ranges.
Sensitivity 1,000 ohms per Delay in delivery is un-
volt A.C. and D.C. avoidable, but every effort
Fitted with Taylor 4|-inch is being made to meet
square-type Moving Coil Trade requirements.
Meter. Size Sin; by Sin. by B^-in.
Nett Price : £1111s. Weight 4ilbs.
meters
Write for complete details to :
TAYLOR ELECTRICAL INSTRUWENTS, LTD., MONTROSE AVENUE, SLOUGH, BUCKS.
SLOUGH 21331
Greenwood
* * * ELEOTRADIX ★ * *
Panel
3 amps., Switch Rheostats.
6 volts. Dimmers,''Off"Charger
and 0 Sub-circuit
to 1 ohm, GALPINS
Regulators, Model Speed
and extra bracket for rack. Hollow control, etc., 1 hole flying
knob has base for min. bulb to glow ELECTRICAL STORES
when " on." Makers Aetna Co., 21, WILLIAM STREET,
U.S.A. New for 2/6. Worth 5/-.
40
gridAmp.
type Rheostats.
with heavy 10-stud Large ironclad
switch, SLOUGH, BUCKS.
drops 230 volt mains to 50 volts. 'Phone; SLOUGH 20855.
Size : 33in. x IGin. x 14in., £5 10s. Od.
110 volt ditto, size 16in. x 14in. x 16in., TERMS: Cash with order.
£2 103. Od.
Relays. Telephone No. 6 twin bobbin
polarised S.P. Change-over, 6 volts 25 m/a, 8/6 SHEET EBONITE, size 12in. by llin. by
No. A " on-off" S.P. 2 volts, 5/-. Less contact l/32in., best quality. Price 4/- per doz.,
blades,
10.000 ohms,1,000 ohm coil C.T.,
enclosed, new,2/6.
22/6. Photo Cell Relays, post free.
Haudcorabs. Ex Government. All- ELECTRIC LIGHT CHECK METERS,
metal Field or Pocket
microphone combinations. hand-telephone- OUR well-known makers, first-class condition,
Microphone-Telephones orThese are
Trans- electrically guaranteed, for A.C. mains
ceivers for use with portable or fixed GENERAL STOCK 200/250 volts 50 cy. 1 phase 5 amp. load,
telephones. They are the famous of components, valves, both British and 10/- each ; 10 amp. load, 12/6, carriage 1/-.
No.
Field16Sets.Handcomb
Sturdilyused builtinwith
so many
mike U.S.A., is unsurpassed. Sorry no com- 1 K.W. FIRE ELEMENTS mounted ready
finger switch4-wayandflexible
they cord,are 15/-.
fine. prehensive list available these days, please for use, size 16 x If x lin., 220v., easily
New, with inquire
will for ANYTHING RADIO. WEBB'S
assist. mounted in any cover, as new. Price
Ditto
to refit there are a number able
less cord, 12/6. For those less Slow motion dials, panel escutcheon 8/6 each, post free.
finger switch and cord, for 7/6. complete,
Three gang indicator scalecondensers
.0005 tuning in degrees 3/6 CROMPTON DYNAMO, 50/75v. at 25
Long or short 4-way Cords, 2/6. withBand
trimmers amps., 4 pole, shunt wound, speed 1,750
More Radio Outfit
Ceils, 21-. Sundries. Raycraft
with Relay, 42/-.Selenium
CrystalPhoto
Sets, S.W. Spread Condensers, ceramic' 7/6 r.p.m., condition as.new. Pfice £8 10s.,
15/- and 25/-Steel each.double Headphones for 2/6.
same,Single
12/6. end-plates. 20 or 40 mmfd. both ... 3/6 carriage paid.
Headbands. Browns type, Similar forwire
tuning, 85 mmfd 12yds. for each
4/6 AUTO TRANSFORMER, 1,000 watts,
Receivers, 4/6. Crystal Catswhisker Detectors, 2/6. Push back 1/- tappings 0-110-200-220-240 volts, for
Spare Crystal. 1/-
Carborundum, 7/6.'tin.. Intsrvalve
Perikon permanent,
Transformers, 2/-. Dubilier Imfd. 2,000 v. Wkg. paper step up or down, condition new. Pride
Ericsson type, 5/-. Loud Speaker Units, magnetic condr. 9/- £3 15s., carriage paid.
type, Dubilier
condr. 2 mfd. 1,000 v. Wkg. paper 9/-
Dials,res3/6.
low
Telsen
4/6.switch Telenor Dials,607/6.m/a.,Slow
Instrument
Rheostats,Fuses, 2/6. Panels 4d.
Motion
Panel
cut square Valve screening cans, height 5iin.. 1/6
POWER PACKS for smoothing, etc.,
consisting of two 300 ohm chokes and
and finished, some drillings jin. thick, 6Jin. x 13in. dia. ISin two 2 mE. condensers. Price 7/6 post free.
aluminium, 3/-. Bakclite ditto, 6fin. x 7iin., 2/6. Modulation
6,000 ohms Transformers,
to 6.600 50 watts, 48/-
ohms expanders, LOUD RINGING BELLS, working on
Magnets
steel, various for meters,
sizes, etc.
3/6 andHorseshoe
4/6 each.permanent
Intense R.M.E. DM36X Frequency 110 volts D.C., 8in. dia. gong (bell metal),
Midget convert
10-metreany S.W. receiver for 5with
and
in. dia.,Disc
2/6 orself-jumping
4/6 pair. magnets, 2 ozs., 1 3/l6th
Electric Soldering Irons, operation, complete
self-contained power-pack ... £14 10s,
plated, waterproof, absolutely as new.
Price 30/-, carriage. 2/-.
GO watts, copper and heaters stocked, 12/6. 1 K.W. TRANSFORP/IER, input 100 volts
Plugs and Sockets. Radio 2-pin socket and plug, SPECIAL—
9d.
5 pairpair.socketSockets
strip mounted
panel andononepanel, plug,4/62/-.doz. Model
pairs. U.S.A. type Metal keys, modelled on at 100 cycles, Single phase, output 10,500
5-pin plugs with panel socket and cords, compact famous
L.F. McElroy
chokes, idealkeyfor ...preliminary 4/6 volts, centre tapped to earth. Price
type, 4/6 pair. 14-way plug and socket with cord, smoothing for amplifiers or re- £4 10s., carriage forward.
7/6. 4-way flex cord, 5 ft., 2/3. HEAVY DUTY CABLE, V.I.R., and
Transformers.
C.T. 150 m/a. L.T.220winding, volts 50approx.
cycle to7 volts
4,0004 amps.
volts, ' 45h at 10 m/A D.C.,70h
ceivers. Inductance 28hatatzeroD.C.,
25 m/A braided, in first-class condition, size 37/13,
70/-. d.O 8/6 lengths 30 to 40 yards. Price by the
Condensers. Solo High Grade Variable .0005 mfd. length 6/- per yard, carriage paid, or
in original carbon, logarithmic We carry ST@€KS 7/6 per yard for short lengths, carriage
vanes. Formo
lator and single tuning S.W.,P for oscil- paid.
4/6. Condensers 2 mfd. of specialized radio components 1 K.W. TRANSFORMER, input 200/250
Fixed for supply against volts, output ;62 to 76 volts, tapped at
smoothers
lier and T.C.C. G.P.O.,.25 2/6.
mfd., Dubil-
cased, OFFICIAL NEEDS every two volts, in new condition. Price
2/-. H.T. Mica .25 mfd. for £5, carriage paid.
4,000 volts, 10/-. Large 1 mfd. A few examples only can be given from D.C. MOTORS, HOv. approx. 1/10 h.p.,
metal our wide and varied stock :—
1 mfd.cased, 2,000 volts,
oil filled case, 10/6.
B.I. Microammeters, various ranges.
series wound, iq perfect working order.
Price 13/6 each,' carriage paid.
6,000 volt condensers, 35/-. 2 Milliammeters.
mfd., 4,000 volts, 45/-.
Chargers. We. have som e specially large Westinghouse Instrument
Avo and Taylor Dials0/1multi-range
to O'Indicators.
and l.OOO.
Test Instru-
ROTARY CONVERTER, D.C. to D.C.;
input 220 volts D.C. ; output 12 volts at
230
at 8volt
voltsRectifier Chargers
for priority for 15from
delivery amps,stock.
and 32 amps, ments. 50 amps. D.C., ball bearing, condition as
Dynamo Bargains. We have a large stock of all Polystyrene IJ,od, tube and sheet. new. Price £10, carriage forward, or
sizes. Special Rotax4iin.6 todiameter,
12 volts, weight
8 amps.11D.C., Transmitting Tuning Condensers, various 17/6 passenger train.
3rd brush, Sin. long lbs., capacities, from 500 to 5,000 volt working. EX R.A.F. ROTARY CONVERTER, D.C.
Unused, 17/6. L.T.-H.T. Double-current G.E.C., Crystals and holders,
I.F. resonator types. both oscillator and
Dynamos, D.C. 6 volts and 600 volts, Concentric U.H.F. cable, polystyrene bead to D.C., input 12 volts; output 1,200
17 lbs., 27/6, carriage paid England and Wales. insulation. volts at 30 m/amps., condition as new.
Motor Price 50/-, carriage paid.
in stock.Generators and Rotary Converters for radio, Transmitter
air gap .100 type flxeJ padder condensers.
and .238. HEAVY DUTY knife switches, D.P.,
Tanks, etc. Open water tanks for engines, storage, Modulation transformers, multi-match D.T., quick break, 100 amps., in first-
fire, 14in.forbyany
bottles 5ft.,pressure,
with fittings,pint45/-. Welded
size 8Mn. steel
x 2$in., types. class condition. Price 20/-, carriage paid^
new from 4in.
lin. belt, works, 3/6. 4/6,
outside, Vee Pulleys
Endlessturned
Belts,steel for
rubber- 200 AMP. SWITCH FUSE, 3 way, iron-
ized, 7/6. All EHOYSTONE clad, new, 400 volt, size overall 30 x 12 x
Petrol 12m., £5, carriage paid.
cyl., fanEngines
cooled,for21 h.p.,
Dynamo or Pump-driving,
governor, magneto, oiltwin and components generally available, ALTERNATOR, output 220 volts, 1 ph.,
fuel tanks. Light weight portable, with extension 50 cycles at 180 watts, will give 1 amp.
box—aluminium bed, £15. though OFFICIAL requirements must easily, speed 3,000 r.p.m.; self-exciting,
Pumps.
D.C. towithoutStuart
230 Motor
A.C., Pumps,
voltsmotors, centrifugal
£4£3.4s. Od. 12 volt
R Twin-piston take priority.
pumps Motors on priority condition as new. Price £8, carriage paid.
Eeresford Stork electric pump, 300 galls on 40ft. Additional charge of I/- for postage and I WATT WIRE END Resistances, new
£17 10s. Od. packing on orders below 10/-. and unused, assorted sizes (our assort-
" Nitnday
The Leadix" Mains
Nitndays Chargers.
are theAbest rangeandfor cheapest
all jobs, ment), 6/6 per doz., post free.
trouble-free chargers. Any A.C. mains voltage to WEBB'S RADIO, 14, Soho St., Oxford St.,
2, 4, 6 or 12 volts. Steel chassis. Safe for ever. London, W.l. Telephone : Gerrard 2089 EPOCH SUPER CINEMA Speaker, 20 watt,
15in. cone, 15 ohm speech coil, 6 volt field
Please add postage on all mail orders, and Open 9 a.m. to 4 p.m. Sots., 9 a.m. (NO energising) in first class condition.
send stamped envelope for replies to enquiries. to 12 noon Price £7 10s. 0d., carriage paid.
ELEOTRADIX RADIOS
19, Qroughton SL, Battersea, London,S.W.8 NOTE.—I regret to say no orders can be
fsesaesBTelephone : Macaulsy 2159.3 accepted from Eire or Northern Ireland.
*
Permanent Magnets
Magnets Play an Important Part in Radio, and this Article by L. SANDERSON Describes Hov(
Various Types are Made
NOTHING is more astonishing in the history of Laboratory, Cambridge, and weighed approximately
metallurgical research and its application to 21 tons complete.
industry than the progress in the design, use and •We shall deal later with the materials now being used
composition of permanent magnets, as well as in the for magnets, but it is important to note that by far the
processes by which they are manufactured. The writer majority of the magnet alloys being used to-day are cast
can remember, some 30 years or so -ago, when the only to form owing to their inability to be forged.
available types of permanent magnets were made from
a steel containing tungsten, and how numerous were the Electric Meter Magnets
complaints of breakage in hardening ! While it is untrue Electric meter magnets constitute a typical example.
to say that tungsten steel magnets cannot be successfully
hardened, it remains a fact that the old types of These are first moulded in an oil-bonded sand, specially
permanent magnet needed great skill in. hardening, and suitable for the casting of small objects. The moulds
are mechanically produced by manually-operated
even so, a percentage of fractures was then regarded as moulding
inevitable. Moreover, the uses of these magnet? were plates. Bymachines in which are incorporated stripper
the adoption of an ingenious system, as many
limited.
To-day, not only are materials being used for permanent as 24 castings can be obtained from a single built-up
mould. A typical meter magnet is shown in Fig. 1.
magnets that were never dreamed of in those days, but The
the properties obtainable from such magnets seem stem,magnets, when cast, are grouped about a central
and are severed from this by means of a series- of
light hammer blows.
The method of building up the mould is interesting.
The first item is the base (Fig. 2), on to which is placed
a series of five intermediate moulds (Fig. 3), the whole
being crowned by a cap or top piece having a funnel-
shaped pouring hole. The base contains four impressions,
and, consequently, produces four magnet castings. The
same is true of the five intermediate moulds, which,
however, have, in addition, a hole cored through the
/4 rr middle to allow the molten metal to flow (Fig. 4).
Sometimes magnets are cast, as more convenient, in
gap sets of eight, employing the base, an upper mould and
a top piece. A mould of this type is capable of being
easily conveyed by means of a roller conveyer. Pairs
of assembled moulds are placed on steel strips spanning
approximately four rollers. The alloy is then poured
Fig. I .—A typical meter magnet. into the moulds, which are allowed to cool. On comple-
tion of cooling they are conveyed by the roller conveyer
through an opening into a knock-out shed. The three
incredible by comparison with what was formerly thought portions
possible. Moreover, the applications of these magnets wooden wedges. of eagh mould are secured by clamps and
have multiplied and spread, until to-day their manu-
facture constitutes one of the most vital and important
new industries of the north and Midlands. Permanent Electric Crucible Furnace
magnets are used to-day in speedometers, magnetic The magnet alloys are usually melted in a high-
compasses, miners' lamps, radio and gramophone sets, frequency electric crucible' furnace, the advantages of
electric measuring apparatus, electric clocks, telephonic which in purity of metal and facility of . operation are
apparatus, and many other fields. well enough known to need no special enumeration here.
A permanent magnet is one that keeps its magnetism Each furnace holds approximately 5 cwts. of metal, tilts
even after the magnetising force has been removed. bodily, and teems the magnet alloy into ladles, which
There appears to be no definite rule governing the are then transported to the mould assemblies on the
length of time a magnet retains its magnetism. Much roller conveyer.
depends, of course, upon the application and the The casting cooled down, the moulds are broken open
treatment given to it. In general, however, it used to and the castings cleaned up ready for machining. There
be considered that an ordinary loudspeaker magnet are five machining stages. In the first the rough casting
would retain sufficient magnetising force to fulfil its is ground on sides and ends. The magnet is then sub-
effective function for a period of nine to ten years, by jected to a necessary heat treatment and 4 later
which time it was assumed that design would
have altered and- improved so radically as
to render the magfiet obsolete, anyhow.
How Permanent Magnets are Made
Before we embark upon the intricate details
of magnet application an^l design, it is advis-
able to indicate as clearly as possible how
permanent magnets are made. It must be
borne in mind that magnets are of numerous
types, weights and dimensions. Magnets may
weigh as much as celbs. or more, and as little
as the fraction of an ounce. Edgar Allen and
Co., Ltd., of Sheffield, manufactured some
time ago the largest permanent magnet in
the world. This was made for the Cavendish Fig. 2.—Mould base. Fig. 3.—Intermediate mould.
secondary treatment, and' ground again, after which it is illustrated in Fig. 5. These are made from strip magnet
drilled, finish-machined after hardening, and the gap cut. steel by means of a punch and die. Where the magnets
The first grinding operation comprises grinding both are of relatively large dimensions, the strip material is
faces on a surface-grinding machine, 36 magnets being heated up to a suitable temperature, and the punching
ground simultaneously by means of a magnetic chuck, carried out hot, but the smaller pieces are punched out
using a rain, diameter segmental wheel running at a cold. Extreme accuracy is essential in the manufacture
spindle speed of 1,450 r.p.m. The wheel segments last of these magnets, and as a rule it is seldom that a greater
on average about eight hours. tolerance than plus or minus o.ooiin, is allowed on the
The sides and ends are next ground on an end-grinding , overall external diameter and the thickness. The
machine, the magnet being positioned by means of a central hole has a diametral allowance of plus or minus
right-angle plate and clamped in position. A three- o.ooisin.
segment wheel is employed for this work, running at Magnetisation and Test
the same speed as the surface-grinder, and measuring A different type of apparatus is, however, required
lain, in diameter. This operation completed, the magnet tor their magifetisation and test. The apparatus includes
is stamped with the manufacturer's name and other a magnetising fixture, a testing fixture, and a fluxmeter,
marks as required. After heat treatment the next stage the latter providing a reading of the magnetic strength
is surface-grinding the work on a single face in a surface- of the magnet in the testing fixture. These particular
grinding machine. The same number of magnets is clock magnets are of what is termed the six-pole variety,
ground simultaneously on a magnetic chuck. Drilling alternate points forked and having opposite polarity.
of the hole is carried out on a Thus, the piece possesses three north poles and three
sensit've drilling machine with south poles, north and south being alternately spaced.
a 5 mm. drill of super high- The magnetising fixture has six electro-magnets whose
speed steel, and specially short cores run radially from the centre where the magnet is
and stubby design. The jig located. By means of a lever, the brass table on which
carries a screw which engages the magnet is laid is elevated to facilitate loading and
one side of the magnet and unloading. When the magnet is correctly located on
presses the other side up the table, the latter is lowered, and the current is
against a stop. The magnet passed through the coils for a brief period, thus strongly
is clamped from the back, the magnetising the magnet. The magnet is then removed
plate pulling it back against to the testing fixture. Here, the magnetic circuit is
a ground plate which positions completed from the magnet poles through a six-poled
the face ground at the earlier jig, the poles of which register with the poles of the
operation. piece under test. The jig poles are coil-wound, the coil
wires being linked up in series with the fluxmeter
Magnets Cooled in Air Blast terminals. By means of a second lever, the table carrying
After being hardened the the magnet is elevated and indexed through 60 deg.,
magnets are cooled in an air then permitted to descend. This breaks down the
blast; magnets, such as those magnetic field, and builds it up again in the contrary
used for electric clocks, are direction. As this field is cut by the coils, a current is
clamped in place on trays of necessarily generated through the wires, and is measured
wire gauze. The method of by the fluxmeter.
cooling is to provide air ducts Before we come to discuss the modem materials used
of cylindrical form in which lor permanent magnets, it will be of value to outline
are perforated an adequate briefly the early history of magnets. Magnetism was
number of holes. The neces- studied in extremely ancient times. The Greeks knew
Fig. 4. Magnets grouped sary air blast is furnished by about magnetic iron oxide, and a certain shepherd
around a central metal core, an electric motor-driven fan, namhd Magnus is said to have discovered by chance the
produced âjtngle bmlt-up and the flow ^ regulated by
means of a damper. The action of magnetic iron oxide on his iron-shod boots
when he was tending sheep on the slopes of Mount Ida.
ducts are placed over the cooling trays, and a horseshoe The Romans also knew this same " loving stone," which
magnet is employed as a means of deciding when the was later described by a French troubadour, Guyot de
magnets have cooled sufficiently to be magnetic. Provins, in 1180, as " an ugly and brownish stone to
The next stage is sand-blasting, followed by surface which iron joins itself willingly." It was, however, only
grinding of the bottom face, using a surface grinder and towards the twelfth century that the magnetised needle
segmental wheel. Some accuracy is demanded of this and the compass employing it were known to the
operation, the effective tolerance on, magnet thickness navigators of Europe, at first
being plus or minus o.oocin. The gap in the magnet is in a most rudimentary form.
then cut by means of an abrasive wheel, the gap width In 1675 lightning striking
being 2,5mm., and this again is held to a tolerance of an English ship reversed, it
plus or minus 0.01mm. Accuracy is also essential in is said, the poles of the
regard to the location of the gap, vis-d-vis an end magnetised needle of the
of the magnet, and here the tolerance permissible is compass, and made the ship
plus or minus 0.075mm. involuntarily return towards
The final stages cover magnetisation, testing, gauging, its point of departure. At
demagnetisation, and re-magnetisa' on for dispatch. theft time the phenomena of
The procedure for magnetising is of interest. A number magnetisation and demagnet-
of the magnets are strung over an assembly of three isation were almost unex-
copper rods each insulated from its neighbour and bound plained, and remained so right
together. When placed in the magnetiser, the extremities
of these rods are clamped to insulated copper contacts. Fig. 5.—Extreme accuracy is up to the beginning of the
Tie magnetising current is furnished by an electric necessary in the production of jgtih century, running parallel
generator operating at a low voltage. In effect, the these magnets for electric clocks. with electrical phenomena.
current is virtually short-circuited through the copper By" degrees the work of Oersted, Arago, Ampere,
rods, passing at 4,000 amps. Thus, the three rods produce Faraday and numerous other workers in this field,
in combination an effect of 12,000 ampere turns, fully founded the science of magnetism and electro-magnetism.
adequate to saturate the magnet. The electric telegraph was one of the first applications
Small Magnets for Electric Clocks to derive benefit from this science, the others still
Somewhat different methods have to be used when constituting simple curiosities that employed only the
the magnets are of extremely small dimensions, such as carrying power of the magnets.
those employed for electric clocks and other purposes, (To be contimied)
PRACTICAL WIRELESS 163
A Refresher Course m
Mathematics
By F. J. CAMM
(Continued from page 124, February issue.)
Annulus, Ellipse, Prisms, Pyramids, Cones, Spheres, Etc.
Area o£ Annulus approximately. The formula yielding a fairly close
THE area of an annulus is the difference of the areas result is:
. of the two circles. Thus, in Fig. i, the area of
the outer circle is and the area of the inner Where a is half the major7i(a-\-h)
axis, and h half "the minor axis.
circle is rrr2. Hence : In other words, the length of the circumference of an
Area of annulus =7iR2 —nr2. ellipse is found by multiplying half the sum of the major
As tc is common to both, we may write : and minor axis by
Area of annulus =:7tCR2—r2)
_ i =nlR+r) (R—r). Centre of Gravity
Here it will The centre of gravity of a body is that point through
be seen that the bracketed quantity has been which the resultant of the gravity of its parts passes in
factorised, as explained in the chapters on algebra. It every position
will be seen from this last formula that to find the area every particle of a body can assume. It is well known that
of an annulus we multiply together the sum and the and the weight• of a given body is attracted by the earth,
difference of the two radii which gravity exerts the body represents the total force
and then by on the particles. The forces
acting on the body are directed towards the centre of
Length of Coil of Belting the earth, and their resultant, in other words the weight
The rule, to find the of the body, will act through a definite point, known as
length of a rolled coil of the centre of gravity. It is obvious that With a sym-
belting is L= {D+d) metrical figure the centre of gravity will coincide with
the. geometrical centre. With a circular disc of metal,
where L—length of belt or any other substance, the centre of gravity will be the
in feet, n=$lli7, n = num- centre from which the circle is struck, provided the
ber of turns and fractions disc is of uniform thickness.
of a turn in the coil, With a triangle, the centre of gravity will be in a line
Z) = outside diameter of which joins the vertex to the middle point of the opposite
roll in inches, £f=inside side, as in Fig. 4. The centre of gravity of the triangle
diameter of roll in is the point of. intersection of the two bisecting lines,
Fig. 1.—Annulus. inches. As, however, — Tig-With 4- ,
an irregular figure, suspend it from any two
is constant the formula may be rewritten thus: points, as in Fig. 5 ; the point of intersection of the two
L=.139/1 (jp-M). lines will be the centre of gravity.
Area of an Ellipse
The area of an ellipse is r.ah (Fig. 2), This can be Area of Sector of'Circle
proved in a manner similar to that already given for theA area circle contains 360°. It therefore follows that
of . a sector will bear the same relation to the
proving the area of a circle.
Another practical proof is to draw two ellipses of area of the circle as the included angle A bears to 360°
identical size, and to circumscribe one of them with a is ur-) it is easythis
(Fig. C). From, (remembering that the area of a circle
rectangle. Divide this into four equal rectangles. Now of a circle. The to arrive at the formula for a sector
divide one rectangle into seven equal strips, and cut in degrees of the formula sector):
is (letting A denote the angle,
away the shaded part (Fig. 3). Now cut out the other A
ellipse, and place it in one pan of a pair of scales, and 2
the other in the second pan of the scales. It will be 360
found that the weights of each are equal. As the In circular measure it is more usual to denote the angle
shaded portion has an area equal to s1/? x the area of one by 0. We have seen that 360° = 271: radians, and
rectangle, it is "bvious that -the area of an ellipse is therefore
r.ah.
The circumference of an ellipse can only be calculated
-*1 X, ■** ""

Fig. 2.—Ellipse. Fig. 3.—Diagram to prove formula for area of ellipse.
we can rewrite the
formula:
360' 2jt
__era
Example. —■ The
diameter of a circle
is 6 feet. What
Fis..4.—The centre of gravity of a is the area of a
triangle. sector containing
45°?
Area of circle =jt32
Area of sector=4^ nf?
360 J
= ijt33
=3X3.1416X9
=3.5343 sq. ft.
We can also calculate the area of a sector if we are
given the length of the arc (such as BC, Fig. 7), for the
length of the arc bears the same relation to the circum-
Fig. 5.—'Finding centre af gravit
vK of irregular figure.
A
Fig. 6.—Area of segment of Fig. 8.—Dividing a line into

circle. number of equal parts.
terence as the area of the sector does to the When the angle and radius are found the
total area. Hence, if the length of the arc' BC tength of the arc' can be calculated.
(Fig. 7) is 4.5 ft. the area of the sector will be
2 To Divide a Line'' into Equal Parts
^XJtr
7ta Suppose it is required to divide a line into ;
4.5,. number of equal parts, say n. Draw a line at anj
Fig. 7.—Finding angle from A (Fig. 8) and step off with the divider;
radius and length (opened to any convenient distance) n equa
=6.75 sq. ft. of circular arc. distances, and connect B to C. Lines draw:
parallel to BC from the points marked on AC will cu
Length of Circular Arc AB into equal divisions."
1. is often necessary to find the centre of a circle when Volume, Weight and Density
only a circular arc is given. Let BAC be the arc. Draw It is well known that the volume of a rectangular solid t.
the line BC to cut the arc at any two convenient points. tound by multiplying the length, breadth and heigh
Using B and C as centres and any convenient radius, together : the units of length, breadth and height must
bisect AC and AB. Produce the bisecting lines, and the of course, be similar. If one dimension is given in ft
point O at which they intersect is the centre of the and another in ins. the ft. must be reduced to ins., or thi
circle. ins. to ft. Thus, in Fig. 9, which repre
sents I cubic ft., the volume or cubica
content is 12X12X12 = 1728 cubic ins.
The gallon is the British unit of volum
and capacity ; it is the volume occupiei
by rolbs. of chemically pure water at
temperature of 62°F. Nearly all bodie
expand when hot and contract whe:
cold.
Thus, when hot, rolb. of water woul
occupy a greater volume than 1 cubic ft
and when cooled to a temperature lowe
5^ than 620F. it would occupy less than
cubic ft. Hence, it is necessary to stat
the. temperature of the water i
defining its volume.
Fig, 9.— Volume of cahe. Fig. 10.—Right and oblique cones. (Continued on gage 166)
T^><M
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Solids
The regular solids are the cube, tetrahedron, octahedron
dodecahedron and icosahedron.
A cube has six equal and square faces.
A tetrahedron has four equal faces, each of which is
an equilateral triangle.
The octahedron has eight equal faces, each of which
is an equilateral triangle.
The dodecahedron has 12 equal faces, each of which
is a pentagon.
The icosahedron has 20 equal faces, each of which
is an equilateral triangle.
Other solids are the cone, cylinder, pyramid, sphere,
and prism or parallelopiped.
When one end of a line, as XY (Fig. 10), passes through
a fixed point, whils't the other describes a®curve, the
figure described is a pyramid ; and if the curve described
is a circle, the figure traced will be a right cone if the
fixed point is exactly over the centre of the circle. If
the fixed point is not so located, the figure traced will
be ah oblique cone.
Various prisms are shown in Fig. 11.
If a line, as XY (Fig. 12), traces the contour of any
rectilinear polygon, the figure so described is a prism
and the prism is designated according to the shape
of its ends. Thus, there are hexagonal, pentagonal,
triangular, etc., prisms.
A right prism (sometimes termed a parallelopiped) has
its ends perpendicular to its side faces. If the ends are
not perpendicular it is termed an oblique prism.
The volume of a. right prism is found by multiplying
Fig. II.— Various prisms. together the length, breadth and height; and the volume of
0 an oblique, prism is the area of the base multiplied by the
At 320F. the weight of a cubic ft. of water is 62.4181bs. altitude
At 62 F. (Fig. 13).
0 the weight of a cubic ft. of water is 62.355lbs. The volume of a cylinder is found by multiplying the
At 2i2 F. the weight of a cubic ft. of water is 59.64lbs. area of the base by the height, or:
For ordinary calculations the weight may be taken as nr-h
62.3lbs, Often the weight of 1 cubic ft. of water is taken The surface of a cylinder consists of the area of *he two
as 1,000 ounces (62.5lbs;), which equals 6J gallons. ends, plus the area of the curved surface.
A pint of water weighs i{-lb.
The metric unit of volume is the litre, which is (very Area of curved surface 2
or 2nrh.
approximately) a cubic. decimetre (see section on the Area of two ends ===27rr
,2
.
metric system), or 1,000 cubic centimetres." This equals Total area =27^r/z-f27tr .
1.76 English pints. = 2nr{h-\-f).
Mass The volume of an oblique cylinder (Fig. 14) is :
The quantity of matter a body contains is known as Area of base X height =7rr'2/z.
its mass. The pound avoirdupois is the British unit of A cylinder cut by a plane not parallel to the base is
mass. termed a frustum of a cylinder. The volume of a frustum
The metric unit of mass' is the kilogram. It is the of
m.-^s of a platinum cylinder deposited in the French areaa ofcylinder (Fig. 15) is found by multiplying the
the base by the mean height h.2
archives. 0 Volume of frustum of cylinder =7tr ^.
A litre of pure water weighs, at 4 C., 1 kilogram,
or 1,000 grams. =nrz•C-?)
l '
The weight of a body is defined as the attractive force
exerted (at the surface of the earth) upon it. The The end surface of a cylinder cut by a plane not
force is greatest at the poles and least at the equator. parallel to the base is an ellipse.
This force is known as gravity. The force of gravity
varies with the distance from the centre of the earth.
At this point the force of gravity is nil, and there the
weight of the body would also be nil.
The acceleration due to g, of a free falling body, is
32.2 ft. per sec./per sec.
Density
The mass of the unit of volume of a body is known
as its density. If the unit of mass is 1 lb., and the unit
of volume 1 cu. ft., then the density is the number of
pounds in a cubit foot of the substance ; in the metric
system the density is the number of grams in a cubic Fig. 12. Regular polygon.
centimetre of the-substance.
Specific Crravity
The relative density of a substance is the ratio of its
weight to that of an equal volume of another, and standard,
substance. Distilled water is the standard substance
adopted. The relative density of a substance-is known
as its specific gravity. If the specific gravity of a substance
is stated to be 9.7, then the weight of 1 cubic foot of that
substance is 9.7 times /the weight of a cubic foot of pure
water. Hence, the weight would be :
9.7x62.3=604.31 lbs. Fig. 13.—Oblique prism.
167
i h
Oblique cylinder. Fig. 15.— Cylinder and frustum of cylinder.

The volume of a hollow cylinder is obviously the Let n represent the number of sides.
volume of the outer cylinder, less the volume of the,
imaginary inner cylinder= 2 2 Then lateral surface of all the trian^les= nal'~
.7854 (D r-d )/2. In other words the total [surface of the triangles
Pyramids equals half the perimefer of the base X the slant height.
Draw a cube as Fig. 16, and from a point representing The" total area = area of base + area of triangles.
the centre of the cube construct the square pyramid The slant height OP (Fig. 17) can be calculated from
shown. From inspection of the diagram it is obvious the trigonometrical formula previously given.
that the cube contains six such pyramids, and therefore If a pyramid be cut across a plane parallel to its
• the volume of the pyramid is } the volume T the cube. axis, each face wilb form a trapezium (Fig. 18). We
If the length of one side of the cube be x, then the have already seen that the area of a trapezium is found
volume of the pyramid will be : by multiplying half the sum of the parallel sides by the
distance separating them. Let this distance be I, the
length of the smaller side ah, and the longer AB. Then
Taking half the cube, the volume of the pyramid will Area ofc eachu trapezium= • ab+AB
—— X/
be : And, letting n represent the number of sides, the total
-x* X 2- surface of all the trapeziums will be;
3 3 -(db+AB)!.
(k being the height of the pyramid).
Therefore, Expressed as a rule, the total area of the trapeziums is
Volume of pyramid = |- (area of base X height). found by multiplying the sum of the perimeters of the
The total surface area of any pyramid is the sum of end polygons by half the distance between them.
the areas of the triangles plus the area of "the base, and if Cone
the latter is a regular polygon, the_ triangles will be A pyramid on a circular base is a cone and the same
isosceles triangles. Draw perpendiculars from the rule for volume applies:
vertex O (Fig. 17), from which the area of each triangle
will be : Vol. of cone=- (area of base and height)
Length of side X OP
= ^m-2h
The total surface of all the faces Will be: 3
(sum of all the sides\ The volume of a cone is therefore one-third the
\OP volume of a cylinder of the same base and height.
2 )' The lateral surface of a cone is found by multiplying
Letting I equal OP, and a the length of one side » the circumference of the base by the slant height.
Total area of all triangles = -S#. The slant height of a cone is found from the formula :
s = v'(fr2+rb
5 P C
Fig, 16.—Pyramid. Fig, 17.—Calculating slant height of pyramid. Fig, 18,—Pyramid
3
Where s=slant height, vertical height of cone, The volume of a cylinder is 2nr , and dividing this
and r=radius of base. by |r, we obtain which equals ^ds.
As with a frustum of a pyramid, the Curved surface
of a cone may be considered as consisting of a number Circumscribing Circle
of trapeziums, the circular ends forming the parallel
sides, and the slant side being the distance between The radius of a circle which may be inscribed in a
them. Therefore, the curved surface of a frustum of triangle is found from the formula:—
& con© p_ ^
(sum of perimeters of ends X slant side) 4 x area of triangle
= | (23ir+2jrf?) / Where a, b and c are the lengths of the sides of the
=jt (R+r) / triangle.
i? and r represent the radius of the base and of the
small end respectively. Inscribed Circle
Total area (curved surface plus area of ends) is found This is found from the formula:
from the formula :
ji(R+r) l+7t (R2+r2) R- Area of triangle
(s—a)Cs--fc)(s—c)
A B , v C
=(j—a)tan—=(i—fc) tan 2 <s-c) tan -
Where s = sum of lengths of sides.
Escribed Circle
To find the radius of the circle touching side a and
sides b and c produced ;
area of triangle _ /s(.s—b) (s- -c)
s—a 'v (s-a)
A
-—-B Figs. 21 and 22 show two examples of the construction
of triangles. It is very important to remember the
point illustrated in Fig. 21, as it frequently occurs in
P examinations.
Fig. 19.—Solid ring. Area of Irregular Figures
A reliable method of calculating the area of irregular
Solid Ring figures, such as the diagram ABDC (Fig. 23) is given
A solid ring may be considered as a cylinder bent into here.
circular fornu and'it is apparent (Fig. 19) that the height Divide the baseline AB into any convenient number
of such a cylinder will be equal to the mean diameter of equal parts. The greater the number the more
of the ring. The mean diameter may be found by adding accurate the result. At the centre of each part erect
together the inner and outer diameters and dividing ordinates, as shown dotted. Now measure the height of
by two. the ordinates aa, bb, cc, dd, ee, ff, gg, hh, and add them
The surface area is equal to the circumference of a cross together. Divide their sum by the number of ordinates.
section multiplied by the mean length. This will give the mean height H, or mean ordinate AJ.
The mean length is nC.
. A+B
Mean diameter is —
Therefore total atsa^znrXznR, where r=
radius of cross section and R=mean radius.
znr x znR =47i"Rr.
The volume of a solid ring is the area of a cross section
multiplied by the mean length.
Area of cross section
Mean length=2jiR
Volume =3ir22 xznR
=2Ji Rr2
Also, if the solid ring is rectangular the mean diameter
is multiplied by the area of the cross section to obtain
the'volume.
Sphere
A sphere is a semicircle rotated about its axis (the
diameter). Any plane section of a sphere is a circle, and
if the plane passes through the centre of a sphere, the
section will be a great circle. Now, the area of the great
circle is, as we have seen, it/2, and the area of a hemi-
sphere is 2-/2. Therefore, the area of a sphere will be
twice that, namely |aw2, or nd2.
The area of a sphere is the same as the area of a cylinder
which exactly encloses the sphere (Fig. 20).
The volume of a sphere is f the volume of the cylinder Fig. 20.—The surface area of a sphere is equal to the surface area
enclosing it of its circumscribing cylinder.
\
\
A
\
Fig. 22.— To construct a triangle where the

lengths of the three sides are kwwn, draw one
side, and from each end describe arcs of a
radius equal to the length of each of the other
Fig. 21.—The ambiguous case, when two sides of a triangle and one sides.
■angle are given ; there can be two solutions, as shown here.
A simple method of obtaining the total length of the In some cases, where the irregular figure is bounded by
ordinates is to use the edge of a piece of paper, starting two curved lines, it is convenient to divide the figure
with aa and adding bb, cc, etc. The area is then found into two parts, and calculate the area of each inde-
by multiplying AB by AJ. pendently.
The Trapezoidal Method.—Divide the base into a When the area is completely bounded by an irregular
number of equal parts (say 8), spaced a distance s apart. curve, parallel lines are drawn, touching the top and
Let the height of each ordinate be hi, h% hz, hif etc., bottom of the curve, and vertical lines touching the
and the mean height h. Then : sides. The figure is thus enclosed in a rectangle, and by
means of ordinates the area can be found as before.
+^9) +^2 +^4 +/*3 -}-^6 ~\~Ji7 }
(1) For any reasonably smooth curve the ordinate y
(The number of ordinates is always 1 more than the at a distance x from the origin can be represented very
number of parts.) Expressed as a rule : Divide the base nearly by an expression of the form y=a + bx -{-ox.
into any number of equal parts, and add half the sum of Now the area of any vertical strip of height y and
the end ordinates to the sum of all the others. Multiply width dx is.ydx and so the area under the curve between
the result by the common interval s to obtain the area, and
divide by the number of spaces to obtain the mean ordinate. x~o and x=L is—
Simpson's Rule.—Probably the most accurate method. rL hJ* rl3
Divide the base AB into an even number of equal parts I ydx- {a -}-bx -\-cx2)dx—aL + 2- -\ 2
(say, 6) to produce an odd number of ordinates (7), / o /:
spaced a distance s apart. Then :
Area ABDJ=^ [h, +^7+4(^2 Ah +/j6) +2(Ji, +/A5)} =|(6<j+3W,+2cZA).
This reduces to: Now the ordinate at the left-hand end where x=o is
5 fl4-&xo-}-£Xa2=fl.
-|-2C)3 The ordinate at the right-hand end is a-FbL-FcLfi.
Where y4=sum of first and last ordinates. The sura of these is za-FbLÂ-cL^, and subtracting
i?=sum of even ordinates. this from the quantity in the square bracket above
C=sum of odd ordinates. the remainder is-
Expressed- as a rule :
Add together the extreme ordinates, four times the sum 4<2-I-2&L+3cL2=4â
of the even ordinates, and twice the sum of the odd ordinates y
{omitting the first and last) ; then multiply the result by The mid-ordinate is
one-third the space between the ordinates.
In the case of an irregular figure in which the end
ordinates are zero, then A is zero, and the formula then «'KI) Kir
becomes: which is just one-quarter of the remainder. Hence ;
^ /left-hand ordinate
Area=z( 4 X mid-ordinate +
" Vtight-hand ordinate )
If a figure is divided into four equal widths the formula
is applied first to the left-hand half and then to the
right-hand half, and the total area for an overall length
L is then:
■|^(a+4S+C)-l-|^(C+4D+£)
L,
i2(A-F4B+2C-FaD+E).
b c d e f g where A and E are the end ordinates, and B, C, and
Fig. 23.—Area of irregular figures. D the equidistant intermediate ones.
{To be continued.)
170 March, 1943
WISH TONGniSTANCEriSTENERS'fiLUB
The S.W. Register. A V/orkshop Den. Correspondence

The Short-wave Station Register It is with this idea in mind that we publish the illustra-
SEVERAL members have submitted details concerning tions shown on these pages. They form a very useful
their stations and activities in response to the basis for the planning of individual stations and, we
suggestion we made last month, but .we are hope, will bring to light some items which might
deferring comment on the matter to afford other have otherwise been overlooked. We would remind
readers an opportunity of submitting suggestions and members that.-we are always pleased to receive details
ideas. of their workshops/dens, especially when some novel
features or labour-saving devices are included in the
A Workshop Den layout or equipment. Sketches to illustrate the descrip-
BELOW we illustrate a suggested layout for a work- tion are really necessary, as they help to make the
shop den which utilises the space available to the subject matter more interesting and easier for others
greatest advantage. While admitting that the drawing to follow.
fLjo;
EFFICIENT LAY-OUT FOR A WORKSHOP DEN.

No. 1.—Work bench. No. 8.—Scrap box. No. 15.—Aerial lead-in. No. 21.—Light plug and switch.
2.—A useful cuphoard. 9.—Testing' bench. 16.—Insulated hook. „ 22.—Adjustable lamp.
3.—-Tool drawer. 10.—Battery compartment. 17.—Stout galvanized wire. „ 23.—Electric soldering iron.
4.—Sheet of zinc. 11.—Bookshelf. 18.— Sliding Clip. „ 24.—Loud-speaker.
5.— Vice. 12.—Universal terminal strip. 19.—Three-way adaptor. ,, 25.—Headphones.
6.—Tool rack- 13—Shelf.
7.—Bench stool. 14.—Lead-in tube. 20.—Wall-plug and switch. „ 26.—A set under test.
conveys the impression that the room is somewhat Lindley
spacious, further study of the layout will soon reveal MEMBER No. 7,227, H. B. Alderson, has been
that this is not necessarily so, and that'all the ideas doing some constructional work. Here are his
and equipment shown are intended to save space. remarks.
The time taken to build up a station varies between " My short-wave work so far has mainly been concerned
months and years, in fact, with the majority the job is with receiver construction rather than actual reception.
never finished. There is always something to add, The first set I made was a simple one-valver, using home-
improve or alter, and one's activities are usually limited made four-pin coils. Later I added an L.F. stage
by time, available supplies and, of course, finance. The transformer, coupling it to the detector. I then converted
building-up process offers great interest; it provides a the set for six-pin coils to enable me to use a dipole
wide field for the exercise of ingenuity and craftsmanship, aerial which I had erected for the 20-metre band. This
but to avoid a lot of unnecessary work, and possibly the increased signal strength slightly. My next step was
wastage of material, it is a good plan to map out the lay- to add an untuned H.F. stage, but this didn't seem to
out and equipment before too much work is expended. make much difference. I found later that, instead of
which is just under oscillation point. The reaction
condenser is an air-spaced .0005 mfd. with a fixed
' condenser .0005 mfd. capacity in series.
Snrina " Here -are some of my latest entries in my log-
Carm/n Tok hook: 16-mctre ' band : PMA, Batavia1 ; JLS4,
Runner yo; WCRC,
ITance, ' Vichy. WNBI,
18.9 m.WRUL,
: WCW,TheNew Voice of
York.
19 m. : Radio Berne, Switzerland ; OIE, Lahti; WOE A,
WRUL, WLWO, WRCA, Radio Metropole, WCjBX,
Moscow, SM5XX. 20 m. : WLA, WCD, Kuibishev.
m.
Supportcnq
Sracket
Satten for
Sugportmg
Fig. 1.—A shelf enables the halteries and'or mains unit to be
kept out of harm's way. A curtain covers the front to protect
them from dust, etc. Fig. 4.—A steel rule fixed thus
taking tlê output from the top cap I was taking it from proves most handy. It cannot
the base and using the top cap as auxiliary .grid. As Stee/ Rule. get lost.
my detector valve was getting poor, I decided to use a
screen grid valve instead. This meant slight alteration 23 m. ; Kuibishev, Radio Maroc, Rabat^ Morocco. 2=? m:
of the wiring, taking the reaction coil to the auxiliary Radio Brazzaville, WCDA, OFD, JZJ, WLWO, WRUL,
grid instead of to the plate, I was pleased to lind the Radio Algiers, WGEO, WBOS, Radio Saigon, WNBI,
performance was better in all respects. Radio Congo-Beige, ' The Voice of France,' TAG,
" I often read in club notes members describing sets Ankara. 28 m. : Lahti, Finland, Moscow, Radio
-22"
150 120 90 60 Scnews Molding
Bracket 75 Wall
Fig. 2.—A useful distri- H.T— | 1 LT- LT+
bution board, the terminals j r
of which are connected to E
their appropriate supplies,
etc., thus allowing quick
connections to be made VA / fbTMETER.. VA
without taking up bench Aerial Series Cono'r.
space. Ft
■'SeMKE
Detail Oe
74* Supporting
Bracket
as of the o-v-2 type, etc. I would be very grateful if De-bunk. 31 ra.: Radio Algiers, JZI, 'The Voice of
you could give me some information on this subject." Spain for Europe,' Radio Mozambique, Lahti, Radio
Regarding the meaning of o-v-2, we refer No. 7,227 to Budapest, Moscow, Radio Metropole, TAP, Ankara.
the Query page in the February issue, where the matter 37 m: Radio Maroc. 38 m. : SUX, Cairo. 41 m. :
is dealt with.—Hon. Sec. Moscow. 43 m.; Moscow. 49 m. : Emissora Catholiea
Newcastle de Portugal, OAX4Z, Lima, Peru; Radio Metropole,
G. FERGUS, Moscow, Radio Andorra, HVJ. 59 m. ; Moscow.
No. 7,024, " I would like to draw your attention to WJP, on
gives details of 34 m., as I have not seen it reported before. It is situated
his outfit, and at New York and is owned and operated by Press Wireless,
some of the Inc. It broadcasts the News in English every hour on
stations he lias the hour and would appear to commence operating at
logged, , in his midnight B.S.T."
second report.
'' X am basing
my second re-
port to you on
the subject of
short-wave DX.
My receiver is a
o-v-i, screen
fig. 3.—.4 simgle holder grid detector
for loots in frequent use. tran s f o r m e r -
coupled to a
pentode output. It uses 4-pin coils and operates satis-
factorily with a 60ft. inverted ' L' aerial pointing
east. Tuning condenser is .00015 mfd. with .000015
mf4. bandspread. The bandspread control is operated
with a 12-x sjow-motion dial, which gives very accurate toot
and well-spaced tuning. ;Slow motion is also used in
conjunction with the reaction condenser, which enables
me to get the set working at its most sensitive spot,
Review of the Latest Gramophone Records

H.M.V. FB2885. On the other side, this star comedian of the
E. J. MOERAN'S <{ Symphony in G Minor new London Palladium show, " Best Bib and Tucker,"
recorded under the auspices of the British Council, records the song out of his big scene, in which he
and performed by the Halle Orchestra conducted burlesques Carmen Miranda, the Brazilian Bombshell,
by Leslie Howard—occupies n sides of six 12m. C series " No, No, No, No, Columbus." Remember the number,
records. The numbers are H.M.V. C7566-71. Columbia FB2885.
With a work of this magnitude I cannot attempt to
review it in detail in the space at my disposal, therefore Decca
my remarks must be confined to the briefest details. ON Decca Kio2g Moura Lympany, the nbted pianist,
The symphony, which was completed in 1937, and has recorded two more preludes in the series
first performed at a Royal Philharmonic Society's Concert " Rachmaninoff : 24 Preludes," and, as with previous
at Queen's Hall, London, in January of last year, consists recordings, shows great understanding of this composer's
of four movements : Allegro, lento, vivace and,, finally, works. The two preludes selected for this record are No.
lento and allegro molto. 15 in E minor (Op. 32, No. 4) and No. 16 in-G major
The work is scored for a moderate-sized orchestra (Op. 32, No. 5).
(double woodwind), and does not—like " programme The Merry Macs have made a good record with
music "—possess a story ; in fact, it could be said that " Idaho " and " Praise the Lord and Pass the Ammuni-
its inspiration is due to the natural surroundings in tion " on Decca 8249.
which it was planned and written. In " The Music While You Work "series, Nos. 13 and 14
T\\e tweltlh side ot the six records is " Tour "Bagatelles
fox VvauS"' v.Wxtv , tctAcwA a. for which they selected "Marigold" and "Sweet
solo by Denis Matthews. William." Recommended.
In the roin. series T have only three H.M.V.s this Ambrose and . his Orchestra, on Decca F8245, give us
month. The first, BDio2g, is of " Hutch " singing " A Taxi Driver's Serenade " and " Praise the Lord and
" Ev'ry Night About This Time " and " My Devotion." Pass the Ammunition." 1 shall soon begin to realise that
" Praise the Lord and Pass the Ammunition " and the latter is popular; still, Ambrose makes the most of both
"We'll,Smile Again"—both fox-trots—are played by numbers, and 1 suggest that you hear it for yourselves.
Joe Loss and his Orchestra on H.M.V. BD5786. Two For a vocal we have Anne Shelton—with orchestral
very popular numbers well presented. accompaniment—singing " Constantly " and " At Last,"
" Hot Lips " Page provides vocal and trumpet soios the former from " The Road to Morocco " and the latter
in " St. James Infirmary Blues," Parts 1 and 2, which from " Orchestra Wives."
is recorded in true swing style by Artie Shaw and his
Orchestra.
Parlophone
Columbia GERALDO and his Orchestra presents two good
MANY of the great composers have written variations arrangements of " My Devotion,"-—slow fox-trO't—
on themes—perhaps their own work or that of an and " Der Fuehrer's Face"—as a quick step—on
earlier master—but not all have produced something Parlophone Figdo.
possessing outstanding musical merit. Speaking for " Tin Pan Alley Medley, No. 52 "—Ivor Moreton and
myself, I find many variations far from entertaining; Dave Kaye on two pianos—is on Parlophone Fig^8,
runs, flourishes and such like are all very well in their and a very pleasing medley it is.
place, but one can have too much, and that, I think, is The Organ, the Dance Band and Me offer " Three
why some of the variations border on boring one. There Minutes of Heaven "—fox-trot—and " Fox-trot Medley "
are, of course, works which reveal exceptional originality, on Parlophone FT959. Recommended.
calling for great skill to weave such diverse and beautiful In the 1943 Super Rhythm-style Series, Nos. 59 and
patterns around a simple theme. High in this class must 60 are recordings of " Boogi " and " Ain't Misbehavin' "
be placed " Variations on a Theme of Joseph Haydn " by Harry Parry and his Radio Rhythm Club Sextet.
by Brahms, which has been recorded by Malcolm Sargent The record is Parlophone R2860.
and the Halle Orchestra on .Columbia DXno^ and 1106.
as it is an amazing work and beautiful to listen to. Brunswick
To open up the dance music from the Columbia releases A GOOD record by Bing Crosby is Brunswick
I have selected .FB2884, on which Victor Silvester and -o34io--4—B, and I recommend it to all who like
his Ballroom Orchestra have recorded " Serenade in this popular artist's style. He sings " The Road to
Blue"—slow fox-trot—and "9.20 Special" quick step. Morocco " and " Moonlight Becomes You."
I follow this with another" of his recordings, " My
Devotion "—slow fox-trot—and " Constantly "—quick Regal
step—on Columbia FB28S3. Four good tunes in strict GEORGE FORMBY—with, of course, his ukulele—
dance tempo. has recordgd two bright and breezy numbers on
Carroll Gibbons and the Savoy Hotel Orpheans give us Regal MR&z. They are " When the Waterworks
their version of " Praise the L6rd and Pass the Ammuni- Caught Fire " and " The Baby Show." A good record
tion " and " Serenade in Blue " on Columbia FB28S7. to chase away the blues.
Both are fox-trots.'
In the vocals there is Turner Layton at the piano Urgent
singing " Daybreak" and " Will o' the Wisp" on THERE is a great shortage of material for making
Cohintbia FB2886. A nice record. records.
Monte Rey—with orchestra—has made a good All your old and unwanted records are required.
recording of " Romanesca " and " My Serenade." The Take any H.M.V., Columbia, Parlophond' and Regal-
number is Columbia FB2881. " Der Fuehrer's Face," Zonophone to the nearest record dealer : he will make
featured in the film of the same name, is one of the you an allowance for them.
numbers' Selected by Tommy Trinder for Columbia
March, 1943 PRACTiCAl. WIRtLtSS 173
en Is cuss ion
The Editor does not necessarily agree with the opinions expressed by his correspondents. _ All letters mast
be accompanied by the name and address of the sender (not necessarily for publication).
The " Harkness " Reflex Circuit will agree that this is brought about by the use ot tuning
condensers, which, although rated at the same capacity,
STR,-—I have been extremely interested in some of the have diffepent minimum values. The layout of the
old circuits yon have revived. Some I* remember receiver itlso has a great effect on the waveband
trying out were " Hop wood," " Chitos," and " Trina- coverage on short waves.
dine." I tried out the suggested Reflex one-valver Power factor of condensers was the other point
described in June, 1941 (page 282), which you had not brought up. This would appear to have most bearing
tried out. I find it exceptionally good both in volume and
on the electrolytic type of condenser, whether wet or dry,
quality and it is not too critical m this position ; moving
and gives an indication of the " goodness " of the conden-
the cats-whisker does not make the set burst into ser, a good condenser having a low power factor. Of
oscillation. I kept the two tuned circuits at each end of
course, discretion must be used in judging , condensers
set and did not gang them. I wonder if any reader has this way, as high capacity condensers such as are used in
tried the " Harkness circuit, shpwii in the accom- bias circuits may have a power factor of 30 or more (as
panying diagram. The grid coil is directly grounded measured on a Hunt's Analyser) and still be quite
and there, is also the addition of a grid bias battery. satisfactory. The power factor, of course, has no
I can get quite comfortable reception on the loudspeaker
direct bearing on the capacity of a condenser.
with a Lissen G.P. valve.—N. A. Webb (York).
There are many obscure factors that affect the power
Yugo-slav Freedom Station factor of condensers, but I believe the most important
is the increase in the series resistance caused by drying
SIR,—T wonder if any Teaders have heard a Freedom up of the electrolyte.—Alex Bartholomew (Chapel by
Station in Yugoslavia broadcasting in English ? Kirkcaldy).
I heard this station at 2.30 p.m. on . -
Saturday, January 9th, giving details of \ /
• the guerilla fighting in Yugoslavia. .The
announcement ended with these words, 1
" You are listening to the' Freedom
Station of Yugolavia, on the 25
metre band."
In conclusion I hope you will keep
up the fine standard maintained in
Practical Wireless. It is a fine paper, D os
and has taught me all I know about
radio.—J. McCloy (Stranraer).
Two Kinds of Electricity ?

STR,—Scientists have proved beyond III
doubt that all atoms of any substance I i ll
are made up of a certain number of
electrons, stated to be " negative " elec-
tricity and a number of protons, which ±
are particles of " positive " electricity. o"
Apparently our old friend Thermion, X
along with Mr. Andrews, who delivered
the Cantor lecture this year, do not agree
upon this even, for they state that there The " Harkness *' Reflex circuit.
is only one kind of electricity. In the case ^
of an atom of hydrogen, which is a- single substance, whose Cossor Coils
atomic number is one, and which, unless I am mistaken,
consists of one proton only, in the nucleus, and one SIR,—In the February issue of Practical Wireless
electron rotating round this proton, and which is attracted I note that one of your querists is desirous of
to it, thereby balancing the whole atom perfectly, this information relating to a pair of coils numbered E.G. 1109
atom could not exist at all if Thermion's statements and E.G. n 10. These two coils were produced by Messrs.
were correct, namely, that there is only one kind of A. C. Cossor for use in their " Melody Maker " Model 234,
electricity, as the two particles would have no attraction which was a screen-grid detector, power circuit, coil
for one another. Wishing your paper all success in the No. F.C.i 109 being employed as aerial coil and No.
coming year.—A. Stapleton (Derby). F.C. 1110 as H.F. transformer between the S.G. H.F.
[A most iinconvincing argument!—Ed.] stage and the detector. Both coils time the L.W. and M.W.
bands.—E. Horton (W. Bromwich).
S.W. Listening; Condenser Calculations
SIR,—After reading the" Open to Discussion " section An Appreciation
in the January" issue of Practical WmELfess, I SIR,—I would like to express my appreeiation of this
would like to air my opinion on subjects discussed by . extremely handy little journal, and I like the present
two of your correspondents. size much better than the old one. 1 was very pleased
First, I do not think there is any mystery attached at the series of Maths, articles, and I also enjoy " Ther-
to the fact that similar coils do not always cover the mion's " notes ; his rein arks are very entertaining.—
same wave-bands. I am sure the majority of readers A. J. Crickmere (Newmarket).
Repli es to Queries
Cutting Out Rectifier

" I have an A.C./D.C. set which has been used on A.C., but the RULES
rectifier valve has now broken down. I am told I can cut out
rectifier and use set on D.C. Please will you tell me how to do this, We wishistointended
draw theonly
reader's attention
also if there is any extra resistance needed in place of valve ? "— solutiontodescribed
arising from the construction ofthereceivers
Service for oftheproblems
fact thatorthedifliculties
Queries
in our pages, from
R. R. (Brighton). articles appearing in our pages, or on general wireless matters. We
IF the receiver is to be used solely on D.C. supplies then the regret that we cannot, for obvious reasons :—
rectifier can be eliminated. To do this it will be necessary to (1) Supply circuit diagrams of complete multi-valve receivers.
connect the positive side of the supply to the rectifier side of (2) Suggest alterations or modifications of receivers described in
the smoothing equipment in the H.T. line. A resistance must our contemporaries.
be inserted in series with the heater supply to compensate for (3) Suggest alterations cr modifications to commercial receivers.
the removal of the valve. The actual value of the resistance will (4) Answer queries over the telephone.
depend on the current consumed by the heater of the rectifier. (6) Grant inter\iews to querists.
S.G. Detector and P.U. A stamped,
sketches addressedwhich
and drawings envelope musttobeusenclosed
are sent for the
should bear thereply.
name and All
" 1 purpose constructing a two-valve (all mains) as a spare address of the sender.
and for use with a gramophone pick-up. I thought of using an Requests for Blueprints must not be enclosed with queries, as they
S.G. valve as a detector. How is this wired up and is it advisable are dealt with by a separate department.
with a pick-up ? If not, 1 will cut but the pick-up.
" I have just obtained blueprint of A.C. Twin (D. (Pen.) Pen.) Send your queries to the Editor, PRACTICAL WIRELESS, George
P.W.18 and should like to try this circuit, but cannot obtain the Newnes, Ltd., Tower House, Southampton Street, Strand, London, W.C.2.
300 HV choke. Can substitutes be used instead ? "—R. G. (S.E.6). .he Coupon on page iii of cover must be enclosed with every query.
IT is quite in order tp use a screened grid, or an H.F. pentode;
in the detector position, provided care is taken to select ff this takes place, a form of L.F. instability is created, which
the right operating voltage for the screen. A low value in the manifests its presence by the howl to which yoti-refer.
neighbourhood of 20-36 volts is usually sufficient. Try placing the " mike " behind the speaker, and arrange
If you contemplate using a magnetic type of pick-up, it would some form of "sound screen" (curtains, etc.) between the
be advisable to connect a volume control across it, otherwise two components.
there will be the danger of overloading the S.G. valve.
In place of the high inductance L.F. choke a resistor could Modifying a Meter
be used ; we would suggest a* value of 80,000 ohms. "I was looking over my spare parts and came across an old
milliammeter having a full scale reading of 500 mA.
Midget Universal Receiver " I wish to rewind the moving coil so that the maximum reading
" With reference to the Midget Universal Receiver appearing will be I mA. The coil former dimensions are 13/32in. x 10/32in.
in the current issue, all valves in the heater chain are rated at x 3/32in.
0.2 amp. with the exception of the Tungsram PP2018, which has " What gauge of wire should I use and how many turns will
a rating of 0.18 amp., and in the case of this valve the excess be required for the new coil ? I am going to try and make up the
current of 0.02 amp. is absorbed by a shunt resistance of 1,009 Multi-range test meter, which was in the March issue, 1942."—
ohms. J. O. H. (Surrey).
" Under the circumstances,'why have 6-volt .3 amp. pilot lamps FROM the details provided, we cannot determine the number
been specified in the component list ? Pilot lamps wired in series of turns required to reduce the maximum scale reading of
with the valves must have a current rating identical with the valve the meter from 500 mAs to 1 mA. If you noted the number <>
heaters, and so, in the case in question, the .3 amp., bulbs would turns you removed from the moving coil former, you should
not illuminate to capacity."—H. C. S. (Surrey). be able to approximate the number required, but in view of the
THE use of the pilot lamps is quite in order, as it is usually great difference between the two scale readings, it-is doubtful
advisable to under-run them to prevent breekdown. In whether there will be sufficient room- on the existing coil former
.many Universal circuits trouble is often experienced through the to accommodate the new winding.
collapse of the pilot bulb filament, and the writer of the article Coil Connections
in question evidently had this in mind. " In the receiver I have just built 1 have come across a difficulty.
L.T. From D.C. Mains The circuit is the ' A.C. Leader,' P.W. 35c. Unable to buy the
"I have for some time been trying to get a unit that would specified coils I am using the home-made coils described in your
work from D.C. mains supply and do away with using accumu- book ' Wireless Coils, Chokes and Transformers.'
lators. The unit, of course, must be 2 volts. I was looking through " All I can get out of the set is a low-pitched hum. The valves,
the list of blueprints in " Practical Wireless " and noticed that being new, are above suspicion, and I think it is something to do
there is one advertised as a Radio Unit 2v. for WM392 (No. 398), with the coil connections. On the mains transformer, there is
price Is. 1 shall be pleased if you will let me know if this unit a lead marked S.P., could you please tell me to where it is
would suit my purpose, also, if it is for D.C. mains."—C. R. connected ? "—A. W. (Farncombe).
(Shoreditch). THE theoretical circuit you enclosed appears to be fundament-
THE blueprint to which you refer is Of an A.C.-operated ally correct; therefore, we are wondering if some fault
two-valve radio unit (receiver 1-V), for use in conjunction exists in the coil connections. If you have not already tried a
with an amplifier. pick-up across the detector circuit, we would advise you to do
We have not published any constructional details of a unit ' so, as it would prove whether the deteetor and L.F. stages are
suitable for use on D.C. mains for the supply of the filament in order. Should satisfactory results be obtained, then the aerial
voltage; in fact, we do not recommend such procedure, owing could be connected to the H.F. coupling condenser, thus using
to the fluctuations which are experienced and the possible the receiver as a t-\vo-valyer. This would enable you to prove
danger to the valves. if the H.F. coil, reaction circuit and detector are operating
normally. If no faults are evident, the aerial can then be
Microphone Howl transferred to the aerial coil and the H.F. stage brought into
" Could you please answer the following queries ? I have just pur- circuit.
chased a G.E.C. Home Broadcaster microphone, and wish to use as The lead marked S.P. is evidently intended to denote the
an amplifier an Ekco A.C. mains 2-valve radio, model No, 312. connection of the screen between the primary and secondary
Unfortunately, I am experiencing a lot of trouble with " how! windings; it should be connected to earth.
back," even on low volume, between speaker and microphone. P.W. 94
The G.E.C. .people suggest in their leaflet that " howl back " can " I purchased a Wireless Blueprint No. 94, and in the cop-
be cut out by having the microphone at a distance from the speaker, structional notes, the list of components includes a fixed condenser
preferably in another room. This is impossible for the use to which
i wish to put it, so could you please make any alternative sugges- of 0001 mfd., but in the blueprint I cannot see where it should be
tions ? "—J. H. S. (Hull). connected. Will you please explain."—J. C. C. (Essex).
THE trouble is due to the fact that you are using the microphone THE fixed condenser is included in the list of components for
and the loudspeaker in the same room. To eliminate the use if any interference is experienced from stations other
feed back it is essential to provide adequate sound screening than that to which the receiver is tuned. If the condenser is
between the microphone and the speaker, otherwise the sound connected in series with the aerial lead-in, the selectivity will
from Jhe latter will be fed back into the circuit via the.microphone. be improved, but the signal strength will be reduced slightly.
" H.A.C." Short-wave Receivers. Fam-
Ciassifled Advertisements Look ous for over ten years. Improved one-
valve model now available. Complete kit
of precision components, accessories, with
LITERATURE, MAPS, etc. to your full instructions—only 16s.., postage 6d.
Easily assembled in one hour. CatV.Iogues
free 'on request.—A. L. Bacchus, 109,
TVIAKE (and sell) yonr Own Torch Battery, Hartington Road, London, S.W.8.
Cigarette, Pipe and Gas Lighters. No f titiire • * <*
awkward wheels, wicks, flints, springs to RECEIVERS AND COMPONENTS
fit. Tested, reliable, lasts 5-G months. TRAINED men get good jobs. Hundreds
Diagram and fall instructions for easy of our students write to thank us for COULPHONE Radio, New Loiigton, Nr.
home construction, 2/9. Element included their successes and increased earnings. Preston. Brand new goods-only. P.M.
FREE.—P. W. Barham, Hilltop, Brad- Now, qaore than ever before, men with a Speakers with transformer, Sin. Rola and
more Green, Coulsdon, Surrey. good knowledge of radio or mathematics Celestion, 24/6. 5in. Rola, 21/-. Electro-
are urgently needed. lytics, 50 mfd. 50 v., 3/3. Eric 1 watt
RADIO SOCIETY OF GREAT BRITAIN Even if you are already in the Forces, or resistors, all value 3d. each. Push-back
invites all keen experimenters to apply engaged on work of national importance, wire, 100ft. coils, 6/-. Barreter resistors,
for membership. Current issue " E..S.G.B. you should think of your future. A sound 6/-. Parafeed L.F. Transformers, 4 : 1, 4/9.
Bulletin " and details, 1/-. technical training is the best insurance Tinned copper wire, £11). reel, 2/3.
AMATEUR Radio Handbook (300 pages), against the risks of unemployment. Mains Transformer, 350-0-350, 100 m.a.,
paper cover, 4/- ; cloth, 6/6. Radio Our simplified method of Home-Studying 0.3 v. 3 a., 5 v. 2 a., 25/-. Resin-cored
Handbook Supplement (140 pages), paper is a proved success. Even if you know solder, lib. reels, 4/6. Output Trans-
cover, 2/9 ; cloth, 5/-.—10, Ashridge nothing about radio or mathematics, you formers Power-Pen, 6/9. Tungsram Valves.
Gardens, London, N.13. can master these subjects, and you will 8.A.E. for stock list.
really enjoy studying.
Post coupon now for free details of our GEE GEE GEE GEE GEE GEE
WEBB'S Radio Map of the World. Locates Home-Study Courses in Mathematics, 15, LITTLE NEWPORT STREET, W.C.2.
any station heard. Size 40" by 30", 4/6, Radio Calculations, Radio Reception, RESISTORS. Flat metal type, 150 ohms,
post 6d. On linen, 10/6, post 6d.— Servicing,- Transmission and Television. heavy duty, 1/6 each.
Webb's Radio, 14, Soho Street, London, TOGGLE SWITCHES. Brand new, single
W.l. GERard 2080. pole, on-off, slotted head, 2/- each.
T. & C. RADIO G0LLECE ROLA P.M. SPEAKERS, 5 inch, Super
7,000 Members of the Scientific Book 29, Market Place, READING Quality, brand new, less transformer, 21/-
Club believe that Knowledge is Power. each.
ASSORTED Tubular condensers and
Are you a member ? Particulars from
121, Charing Cross Road, London, W.G.2. ■ (Post in unsealed envelope. Id. stamp.) j resistances, ex-manufactnrer, various
I Please send me free details of your i values, 5/- doz.
Home-Study Courses AMERICAN & B.V.A. VALVES. Many
types available. Send requirements for
MORSE & S.W. EQUIPMENT iNAME. quotation.
MAINS TRANSFORMERS. Brand new, .
FULL range of Transmitting Keys, prac- input 200/220v., output 350-0-350, supe-
tice sets and other equipment for Morse rior quality 4 v. 0 amp. and 4 v. 2£ amp.
training.—Webb's Radio, 14, Soho Street, 150 m.a., 25/-.
London, W.l. 'Phone ; GERrard 2089. {Continued on page 176.)
WHAT
BIT TtMPERAHiR*
SHOULD Bt USED
PERTRIX fOR 40/60 ALLOY?
K
—the dependable "T"HIS and numerous
' other queries are
answered in reference
A T T E R 1 E S sheet 2 of "Technical
Notes on Soldering,"
published by the manu-
facturers of Ersin Multi-
FOR core — the A.I.D.
approved solder wire
RADIO, CARS with three cores of
non-corrosive Ersin acti-
MOTOR CYCLES vated flux.
Firms engaged on Gov-
COMMERCIAL ernment contracts are
invited to write for a
VEHICLES copy of this reference
sheet and samples of
ETC. Ersin Multicore solder
wire.
Sales Concessionaires :
-.v#
HOLSUN BATTERIES LIMITED £3
137 Victoria Street, London, S.W.I D.9 The Solder Wire with 3 cores of Non-Corrosive Ersin Flux
MULTICORE SOLDERS LTD.. BUSH HOUSE, LOHPOH ffiC.E T..tl.;-..5S8a
ML gr. '

MAINS DROPPERS. .2 amp., suitable for 150v., 3/- ; 50 mfd. 12v., 1/3 ; 50 T.
bissen, Pye. etc., brand new, 3/9 each, 25v., 1/3; 75 mfd. 12 v., in metal v
also .3 amp. for Deeoa, Ferranti, Maestro, single hole fixing, 3/6 ; 200 mfd. 1 .
brand new, 5/6 each. 3/6; 50 mfd. 50v.. 3/6. f ,
TUBUi-AR CONDENSERS. 50 mfd. 12 v. T.C.C. TUBULAR Wire-end condens'
working, brand new, 1/- each. Also 25 brand new, .00015 mfd., .0002 hv..
mfd. 25 v. working, 1/6 each. .00025 mfd., .0003 mfd., .0004 mfo
PENTODE. Output speaker transformers, Whatever your age, you can now study .0006 mfd., 6/- doz. "
brand new, reduced price, 5/- each. DUAL RANGE Coil, by well-lmf ivl../ i,
T.C.C. TUBULAR CONDENSERS. .1 mfd.
for the all-important Matriculation maker, 6-wlre type, some with rear:.', UI1
96. each, 8/- dozen. Examination at home on " NO PASS— condenser tuning, others with variomeix sis
).F. TRANSFORMERS, brand new, 465 NO FEE " terms. tuning, fully screened in copper can,
kc. iron core, absolutely first class, 9/- " MATRIC " is the accepted pass- each. No circuits. tiTmeis'
pair. port to [all careers, and opens up 3 GANG CONDENSERS, Superhet 465 kcj. .. pyr
STAMPED Envelope must accompany opportunities which would otherwise .0005 mfd., screened, 3/6 each. /-en)
all enquiries. Add 1/- extra for all parcels. be completely closed to you. ELECTRO-MAGNETIC COUNTERS. Ee0.Valvc
SEE ELECTRIC, 15, LITTLE NEWPORT Ensure the Future success and sistance 500 ohms. 1-1999, size 41 x iji signc
STREET, W.G.2. GERRARO 6794. security of you and yours by X H", 5/6.
writing for our valuable " Guide to PLUGS, Ex-telephone Jacks, 1/- each.
BRITISH and American Valves, many types Matriculation " immediately—FREE. SPEAKER GRILLES, Till, x 3}m. Chrdg™"]
in stock, Mains Dropping Uesistanees mium-plated, cheap to clear, 1/6 each. ^ peilt
for all acts,'Speakers, Condensers, Volume B. T. I. (Dept. 113), SOLDER, lib. reels, fine all-tin in3trumen|pen),
Controls, etc. Everything for the service- 356, Oxford Street, London, W.I. solder, 3/6 lb.
WIRE, Silk-covered, 2 oz. reels, 40-2^
man and experimenter. Stamped envelope gauge, 1/3 reel. Three
with all enquiries, picase.-Ô. Greeulick, CRYSTAL DETECTOR, New type o^nieo
34, Bancroft lload, Cambridge Heath
Road, E.l. Stepney Green 1334. ebonite base, 2/6 each. ( ■Trari
Postage must be included. No. C.O.o
MULLARD, Marconi. Tungsram, Cossor' relays— FRED'S RADIO SABJN yORÊARGAMf;, //-Jk
Brimar, Mazda, Valves, Speakers, Pickups' TWO STEP RELAY LF/FS 75, Newlngton Suits, S.E.11. Rodney 218"
Volume Control, etc., S.A.E. and require- (Heavy Silver Contacts) TUSTiON
ments.—Smith, Shaukiin Drive, Nuneaton. First mpulse " On."
econd impulse "Off." LEARN MORSE CODE the Dandier wa.
VALVES. Hundreds in stock at list A.C. and D.C. See advertisement on this page.
prices plus tax. Include Ull, MU14, CL4 ALSO AETHAL
AC/TP, PeuA4, EBL1, ICTGl, U31 .ANGB-OVER RELAYS " RADIOLOCATION."—Students of bothVhe
S.A.E. for enquiries.—-E. W. Lawrence, Ask8SA/P.W.
for leaflet sexes trained for important war-time1 '2 j-
Station Street, Saffron Walden, Essex.
FRED'S RADIO CABIN. LOîOEX Radio Appointments. Also for peace-
time careers in all branches of Radio
COMPARE OUR PRICES. j .LTD. Television. Boarders accepted. Lov^ (H
FUSES, glass, 1, inches long, 2 amp. and inclusive fees. College in ideal peacefnSr- •)
14 amp., 3/- doz. Ancrley
London, 8.11.30WorRs- surroundings. 2d. stamp for Prospectus, ^
MAINS DROPPERS, 0.2 amp,, Pye, 3/6. —Wireless College, Colwyn Bay. (g
TRIIVllVIERS. 100 rn.mfd, small type on PRACTICAL Postal Radio Course- "T
paxolin base, id. each, 3/9 dozen. New. coaching for I.P.R.E. exams, and post-war Fou
PUSH BUTTON, li-way, no knobs—a appointments, booklet, stamp.—Secre- Bet
really fine job, 2/- each. New. tary, I.P.R.E,, Bush House. Walton <:
CONDENSERS. " Plessey " 4 - gangMORSE CODE TRASHING! Avenue, Henley-on-Thames Nu
screened, 04" x 3J", 4/6, S-fcang 6K x Si'Numerous Candler trained radio operators
unscreened," 2/6. AU brand new and are now serving in the Army,JNavy, Air WANTED lia
include trimmers. Force and Mercantile Marine. Full details WANTED.—New or secondhaud Jackson
TRIWIIVIERS. 4 on bank 1-400 m.mfd., of the Candler
Operators are s"t out in the Courses for Beginners and Bros. All wave Battery Tuner.—Webb,
6d. each. 4, Clarence Street, Manchester.
HENLEY" Electric Soldering Irons FREE ' BOOK OF FACTS"
new, with pencil bit, 14/6 each. Resin Fill in the Coupon and secure your copy. VARLEY B.P.114 Coil or 2 B.P.80 Coils.
cored solder, 4/- lb. reel. Get your Morse Code
METAL Spade Tags, 3d. dozen. way.
way itof isbecoming
definitely thetraining
quickestthe andCandler
easiest —Wilde,Surrey.
Mayfair, Ifleld Road, Charlwood,
SLEEVING. 3.',d. per yard length. 1 doz. graphy
lengths, 3/-. Braided sleeving 8d. per yard operator. a skilled wireless tele- WANTED.—New or secondhand Mazda
length, 7/- doz. lengths. , Read what these students say
T.C.C. Tubulars, 0.1 mfd., 7d. each, 6/6 A GRAND COURSE. Pen 453 D.D. for A.C./D.C.—Gilmour,
doz. also .01 mfd. at 6d. each, 6/- doz, "realise
Yoursthe is adeficiencies
grand Course, of my makes me 41, jSTicolson lload, StoFuoway.
andtelegraphic
CONNECTING WIRE. Heat resisting, training in the old das'-s. even though I was WANTED. Small portable American
tinned copper, as used by Government, aInstudent at one of the best colleges- Radio, 4 valves, for headphone use. Cash
6d. coil of 12 ft. this country." Ref-wireless
7849. A.L.S. waiting.—T. Mair, Queen Street, Newton-
TRHVIMERS, 50 m.mfd., 3ii. each. Also PERSONAL INSTRUCTION,
250 m.mfd., 3d. each. " I am delighted to report that due entirely Stewart, Scotland.
VOLUME CONTROLS, less switch to
passed yourout personal instruction
atthe35precision
w.p.m. and Iwas
havecongratu-
recently
1 meg., meg., i meg., 3/3 each. lated upon of my sending [by RADIO SERVICE
COPPER" WIRE, tinned, 20 gauge, 1/- the Board adjudioattqg' w ED p REWINDS.—Mains and Output Trans-
' J/ lb. reel. formers. Fields, Coils, Pick-ups
VOLUME CONTROLS, few only, various REMAUKAliLL PROGRESSIONS. promptly executed.
sizes, some with switch, 1/- each. "sending
I suppose it seems very unusual
you all the reports on Lessons 3 to to be VALVES.—Good selection — we may
SOLDERING TAGS, 2 BA, 4/- gross. 10so that
together in one letter I have done this have the one you want. BranT new
T.C.C. TUBULARS, brand new, 10 mfd., you may see the series of remarkable in Makers' cartons, plus tax—-post-
50v. wkg. Paxolin former, 2/6 : 10 mfd. progressions I have made with each lesson. age and packing, I/-. Send S.A.E. to
i00v., 2/6; 25 mfd. 12 v.,' 1/3; 25 mfd. ICandler
had no knowledge of Code before
Junior Course Now I have a per- taking the A.R.D.S. Co., 261/3/5, Licmield
2)V,. 1/3; 25 mfd. 50v., 1/6; 40 mfd fectly spaced sending speed of 26 w.p.m., Road, Aston, Birmingham, 6.
(Continued 'n column 3.) and a receiving speed my of 25P.M.G.
w.p.m. Special
A few
weeks
Certificate, ago I andobtained
1 am going to sea very booksellers to the world
shortly as a 2nd P.adio Officer."^ ^ ^
Makes 30 COUPON YI.US
important tests, Ii addressSend this Coupon and your name arid i
andcopy by return FOR BOOKS ON WIRELESS
100 to 750 volts,
A.C. or D.C. Used Ii receive your of the of post ofyou
' Book ynll;•
Facts.'' AND EVERY OTHER SUBJECT
everywhere by Electricians, THE CANDLER SYSTEM CO. "f 119-125, CHARING CROSS ROAD,
Wiremen, etc. From Wholesalers ;• 131, Kingsway, (Room 5 L.O.) LONDON, W.C.2.
or direct. Send for leaflet " A.24." ? Candler System Go. London, W.C.2 !
Denver, Colorado, \ Open 9 a.m.—6 p.m. including Saturday.
RUNBAKEN - - MANCHESTER -- I ? U.S.A. (343) ■ Tel.; Cerrard 5660 (16 lines)
u943
Practical Wireless
50 r. SPEOPAL NOTICE
^ metal , THESE
> mfd. i BLUEPRINT SERVICE size. blueprints
The issues are drawn full
containing
JiMndens PRACTICAL WIRELESS 2fo of P. J. Camm's A.C. Superhet 4 ... — PW69 descriptions of these sets are now out
•0002 m. Blueprint. P. het
J. Camm's Universal £4 Super- — P.W60 of print, but an asterisk beside thS
4 blueprint
structional number
details denotes
are that con-
available, free
•000i mtl, CRYSTAL SETS " Qualitone " Universal Pour ,. — PW73* with the blueprint.
jiints, 6d. each. — rw?! Four-valve
"^lWeJI-Imrw''rystal
pga^ Junior Receiver " Crystal Set — PW94* Push Button: Double-sided
Push Button 4,4, A.C.
Battery Blueprint,
MainsModel
Is. 6d. -rmrA-*
Model. . j^ ~ PW9o
The index letters which precede the
Blueprint Number indicates "the per-
i ervariomr, STRAIGHT SETS. Bailers Operated. iodical in which the description appears;
' Can, .2y-valve : Blueprints, Is. each. SHORT-WAVE SETS. Battery Operated, Thus P.W. refers
WIRELESS. A.W. to Amateur Wireless., to PRACTICAL
Wave Unipen (Pentode) One-valve
PW31A Simple S.W.: Blueprint,
One-valverIs... .. — PW88* V4M,
Jerliet lan ivC I .dinners'
'" Pyramid One-valver
" One-valver (HP PW85* Two-valve : Blueprints, Is. each. Send to(preferably)
Wireless Magazine.
a postal order to
Midget Short-wave
PW93* The " Fleet" Short-wave Two Two (D, Pen) — PW38A cover the cost of the Blueprint
(stamps over 6d. unacceptable) to
[ ^6 U X "^valve 1^ Signet :Two Blueprint,
(1) & I Is. P) (D (HP Pen), Pen)
PW76* Three-valve : Blueprints, each. — PWSl* Dept.,
Is, Three
PRACTICAL WIRELESS Blueprint
George Newnes,Street, Ltd.., Strand,
Tower
ei7 „ "ê-valve : Blueprints, Is. each Experimenter's Short-wave House,
W.O.2. Southampton
i '/" each. f;tone Trans Battery Three (D, 2LP (SG, D, Pow) .. ,. ..
fp- Chrb )) •
i 1/6 each lin"t J'hree (HP Pen, D. Pen) Prefect..3 (D,..2 LF (RC and — PW30A*
TheTrans))
> <HF Pcn
. '° PW39 The Band-Spread S.W. Three — PWG3* SUPERHETS
(HP Pen, D (Pen), Pen) . . — PWU8* Battery Sets : Blueprints,
U Mark Cadet
reeis, 40-2 J. Camm's Silver Souvenir (HP CD, LF, Pen (RC)) PW48
Three-valve : Bltwprmts,PORTABLESIs. each. "Varsity Four .. ..Is, 6d.—each, — WM395*
JT'-
ew r" -'Tliree)
Pen, D (Pen), Pen) (All-Wave The Request All-Waver .. ... — WM407
type
''I oinaeo Midget Three (D, 2 LP PW49 P. Portable
J. Camm's ELP Three-valve
(HP Pen, D, Pen) .. — PW65 Mains Sets : Blueprints, Is. each.
m - _ Trans)) .. PW31 Parvo Flyweight Midget Portable
(SG, D, Pen) .. .... — PW77* Heptode Super Three A.C. WM359*
cp.— >« •-' "•'' 'Soujiuiuuc ono n J. iiice-ruui ^xix"
ARGA/hh yen, HPt"Pen, e Three-Four
Westector, Pen) (HP PW53 Four-valve
"Imp" Portable : Blueprint, 4 (D,Is.LP LP PORTABLES
Rodney 218 " utery All-Wave Three (D, 2 LP (Pen)) — PW8C* Four-valve : Blueprints,
' .eW))MonitorThree (HP(HP Pen.Pen,1>, Pen) PW55 Holiday Portable (SG, Is.D,6d.LPeach.
e Tutor D, Pen).. PW61
PW62 Blueprint, Is.
MISCELLANEOUS Class B) — AW393
e Oeiitaur Three (SG, I), P) PW64 S. W. Converter-Adapter (1 valve) — PW48A* Family Trans) Portable (HP, D, RO, AW447
er wa Three J. Camm's Record
(HP Pen, D, Pen) All-Wave Tyers Portable (SG, D, 2 Trans) WM367
.e " Colt " All-Wave Three (D, PW69*
AMATEUR WIRELESS AND WIRELESS SHORT-WAVE SETS. Battery Operated
n01p .Oftfehe
7" 2 LP"Rapide" (RC & Trans)! Straights .. (D. PW72* MAGAZINE ' Onc-valve : Blueprints, Is. each.
. forWar-tinii 2 LB (EG & Trans)) . . PW82* CRYSTAL SETS. S.W. One-valver for America AW429*
peace ■ T}!:ree J- Camm's Oracle All-Wave Blueprints, 6d. each. Roma Short-Waver ., AW 452
I Itadio aivf (HP, Det. Pen) .. Four-stat ion
PW78 1934 Crystal Set .. ... Crystal Set ... « — AW427 Two-valve ; Battery
Blueprints, Is.(SG,each.det
— AW444 Ultra-short
fced ea T 'CCS " Triband " All-Wave Three
Li„ Pn.. Cei (HP Pen, D, Pen) PW84 loO-mile Crystal Set — AW430* Pen) Coil TwoTwo
Home-made (D, Pen)
— WM402*
..- — AW440
j. Camm's " Sprite " Three PW87 Onc-valve STRAIGHT SETS. Battery Operated.
prospectus.
h (HP Pen.
The "Hurricane" D, Tet) : Blueprint, Is. Three-valve : Blueprints, Is. each.
(SG, D (Pen), Pen)All-Wave Three PW89 B.B.C. Special One-valver each.., — AW387 TheTrans,
Experimenter's G-metre ..Set (D,— — AW438
Super-regen)
Course-r ' '■ Tliree
fn! post-w;i "f- Canmi's
(HF :Pen"Push-Button"
' I> Tet) Two-valve
Melody ; Blueprints,
Ranger Two
PW92 Pull-volume Two (SG det. Pen). , (D, Is.
Trans)-. AW388 Carrier Short-waver (SQ,
In.—SorT/.' Pour-valve : Blueprints, Is.D,each AW392 D, P.) - •— WM390
nr,,. Beta Universal Pour (SG, LF, A Modern Two-valver WM409* Four-valve : Blueprints, Is. €d. each.
•Vaiton ci.B) Three-valve : Blueprints,
£5 08. S.G. 3 (SG, D, Trans) ... Is. each. AW A.W. Short-wave World-beater
"* — Fury
• Nucleon Class B Four (SG, D
(SG),FourLP,Super Cl. (SG,
E) SG, D, Pen) PW34B Lucerne Ranger (SG, D, Trans).. AW 412* (HP, Pen, D, EC, Trans)
422 SlandardPour-valver Short-waver .. — AW436
PAV340 £5 (SG,D,
os. Three Trans) De Luxe Version AW435* (SG, D, LP, P) .. ... — WM3S3*
:— —. Battery Hall-Mark 4 (HP Pen, PW4G Transportable Three (SG, D, Pen) WM271 Superhet : Short-wave
Blueprint, Is.Super 6(1.
•.—Wpi
Jackson h, Puah-Pull)
i " Acme " All-Wave 4 (HP Pen, D Simple-Tune Three Three (SG, D,(SG, Pen)D, . WM327 Simplified —- WM397
(Pen), LP, CI. E) PW83 Economy
Pen)
Pentode Mains Operated
: The " Admiral " Pour (HP Pen, PW90* " W.M." (1934 Standard Three — WM351* Two-valve Two-valve Mains
: Blueprints, Is. each.
80 Coils, HP Pen, D, Pen (RC)) - £3(SG, D, Pen))
3s. Three (SG, D, Trans) — WM354 Pen) A.C. Short-waver (D, — AW453*
larlwood, Mams Operated 1935 jC6 6s... Battery
Two-vaive
-rA.C. Twin Two:(DBlueprints,
(Pen), Pen)Is. each- PWIS* D, Pen) .. Three .. (SG, — WM371 WM389
Three-valve(SG,
Emigrator : Blueprints,
D, Pen) A.C. Is. . . — WM352
A.C.-H.C. (SG, Pow) PTP ThreeThree
PW31* Certainty (Pen,(SG, D, Pen) ... . — WM393-
Sfclectone A.C. Radiogram Two Minitube Three (SG, D,D, Trans) Pen) — WM39G* Four-valvePour-valve : Blueprints,A.C.Is. Short-
6d,
(D, Pow)
Three-valve : Blueprints, Is. each. All-wave
Pen) Winning Three (SG, D, — WM400 Standard waver (SG, D, RC, Trans) ... — WM391*
Double-Dlode-Tricde Three (HP PW23 Four-valve : Blueprints, Is. 6d. each. — AW370 MISCELLANEOUS
Pen, DDT, Pen) 66s. Pour (SG, D,
D.C. Ace (SG. D, Pen) .,
A.C. Three (SG, D, Pen) ..
PW25 Self-contained
PW29 PourRC.(SG, Trans)
D, LP,.. S.W. One-valve Converter (Price
Cd.) — AW329
A.C. Leader CL B) ..
PW35C* Lucerne Straight Pour (SQ, D, — WM331
D.C. Premier-(HP (HPPen, Pen,D,D,Pow) Pen)..,... PW35B LP, Trans)
PW36A £5 os. Battery Four (HP, D, 2LP) — WM381' (1/6) — WM350 Enthusiast's
Listener's PowerA.C.
5-watt Amplifier
Amplifier(1 /6) — WM387
Unique
Armada(HP Mains Pen.Three
D (Pen),
(HP Pen, Pen).D. — WM392*
:e Per.)) 'rwss The H.K. Straight
Pour (SG,Pour SG,(HP,
D, Pen) — WM384 Radio: Unit (2v.) for WM392 (1/-). — WM398*
P. J. Camm's A.C. All-Wave Silver TheHP,AutoPen, DDT, Pen) Pen, — WM404* Harris
plifierElectrogram
(1/-) battery am- — WM399*
rans- Souvenir Three (HP Peq, D, Pen) PW30 Five-valve : Blueprints, Is. 6d. each. De Luxe Concert A.C. Electro-
c-ups " All-Wave, " A.C. Three (D, 2
may LP (RC)) .. .. PW54* Super-quality
Trans)
Five (2 HP, D, EC, — WM320 New gramStyle
(1/-) Short-wave
... ...Adapter — WM403*
A.C.Pen,1936Westector,
SonotonePen) (HP ..Pen, HP.. Class B Quadradyne (2 SG, D, LP
new Mains Record Ail-Wave 3 (HP
PW5G
NewClassClaAB) B Five (2 SG, D, LP — WM344 Short-wave Adapter.. (1/-)... ..... —
(1/-) .. — WM388
AW436
)ost- Pen, D, Pen) PW70 Class B) — WM340 B.L.D.L.C. Short-wave Converter
to Four-valve : Blueprints, Is. each. <i/-)
Wilson Tone Master (1/-) ...
.. —— WM405
WM406
ie!d A.C. PW20
A.C.D, Fury.Four
Fury (SG, SG, D, Pen)
Pen) Four Super (SG, SG,
Mains Operated.
Two-valve : Blueprints, Is. each.
PW34D Consoelectric
The W.M. A.C, Short-wave Con-
verter (1/-) — WM408
A.C. Hall-Mark (HP Peri, D, Economy A.C. Two
Two (D,
(D, Pen)
Trans) A.C.
A.C. —
— AW403
WM286
.Puah-Pull)
rld Universal Hall-Mark (HP Pen, D, PW45* Three-valve : Blueprints, Is. each. 1
Push-Pall) PW47 Home ThreeLover's
(SG, D, New Trans)All-Electric
A.C. .. — AW38S* ! FREE BUREAU GOOPOM
SUPERHETS. Mantovani A.C. Three (H.P. Pen, — WM374
Battery
P5 : Blueprints, Is. each. — PW40 £15D, 15s.
Sets (Three-valve)
Superhet
Pen) 1936 A.C. Radiogram f This coupon is available Until' March
P. J. Ofum's 2-valve Superhet .. — PW52 Four-valve : Blueprints, Is. 6d. each. — WM401 i| all
(HP, D, Pen) 13th, 1943, and must accompany
Queries and Hints.
Mains Sets : Piueprints, Is. each. All Metal Four (2 SG, D, Pen) .. — WM329
A.C. £3 Superhet (Three-valve) ., — PW43 Harris'Pen D,
Jubilee Radiogram (HP,
LP. P) .. .. .. — WM386 J PRACTICAL WIRELESS, MAR., 1943. «
day D.C. £o Superhet (Tliree-vaive) .. — PW42
AH applications respecting Advertising in this Publication should be addressed to the ADVERTISEMENT DIRECTOR.
GEORGE NEWNES. LTD.. Tower House. Southampton Street, Strand, London, W.C.2. Telephone : Temple Bar 4363.
HAVE YOU HAD COPY OF
ENGINEERING OPPORTUNITIES " ?

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The Handbook contains, among other
intensely interesting matter, particulars
of B.Sc„ A.M.I.C.E., A.M.LMech.E., SOUND
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other important Engineering Examinations ;
outlines courses in all branches of CIVIL,
(iM MECHANICAL, ELECTRICAL,
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lightening guide to well-paid posts NOW—FREE. G1NEERING OPPORTUNITIES."
BRITISH INSTITUTE OF NAME...... „ „.
ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY ADDRESS

Principal ; Professor A. M. LOW
409a. SHAKESPEARE HOUSE
17, 18 & 19, STRATFORD PLACE, LONDON, W.i
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inland 10s. ea. per annum , Abroad IDs. per annum. Registered at the General POst Oflice tor the •

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PRACTICAL WIRELESS, March, IMS.

Regd. Trade Mark

The Battery Shortage

ROUND THE OF WIRELESS

Wireless Licences Women Make Sets

Fis. 5.—A useful type of small hacksaw. Chassis Design

A Two-valve Short-wave Receiver

Elementary Electricity and Radio-2

4mA<- ' Fig. 3. — (Right) An alternative

LONDON CENTRAL RADIO

Radio Examination Papers-16

A Letter To You Fro n The Prime Minister

-*1 X, ■** ""

Fig. 6.—Area of segment of Fig. 8.—Dividing a line into

March, 1943 PRACTICAL WIRELESS 165

COMMUNICATIONS DEPEND ...

The '" Fiuxitc Quins" at work,

THE FLUXITE GUN puts

FLUXITE PEG IS T" E RED . TRADE ' MARK

Oblique cylinder. Fig. 15.— Cylinder and frustum of cylinder.

Fig. 22.— To construct a triangle where the

The S.W. Register. A V/orkshop Den. Correspondence

EFFICIENT LAY-OUT FOR A WORKSHOP DEN.

Review of the Latest Gramophone Records

Two Kinds of Electricity ?

Cutting Out Rectifier

176 PRACTICAL WIRELESS March, 1943

ENGINEERING OPPORTUNITIES " ?

"NO PASS—NO FEE"

BRITISH INSTITUTE OF NAME...... „ „.

ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY ADDRESS

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