PW 1943 03
PW 1943 03
PW 1943 03
SHORT-WAVE TWO-VALVER
Practical
Wireless
fc
PREMIER RADIO
NEW PREMIER S.W. COILS PREMIER
4-willandfit6-pin types now Octal have octal pin spacing*and REPLACEMENT Battery PREBVIER Model4 S.W.
t VALVE DE LUXE
Internattonal
4-pin Type
valve-holders,
e-pin Type VALVES 2-volt Valve, Coils. Receiver,
Coveringcomplete with
12-170 metres,
Type Range Price 4-volt A.C. - types, 011 St
04 m. . 2/6 Type
9-15 m. 06 Kangre Price 5-pin. ACHL, 5 6 tax
9-15m. chassis and Panel. 55/- including
04A
04 B 22-47 12-26
m. . 2/6 06B
2/6
06A 12-26 m. ... 2/6 each ELECTROLYTIC CONDENSERS
04C 22-47 m. Tubular wire end type. 8 mf. 125v.. 1/6 each : 25
04D 41-94 m.
76-170 m. .. 2/6 26 06D
06C 41-94 m.
76-170 m. BAKELITE DIELEC- 50v., mf. 25v.. 1/6 each ; 50 mf. 12v.. 1/6 each ; 50 mf.
3/- each.
04E ]50-350m. . 3/- TRIC REACTION
04P 255-550m. . 3- _ Chassis Mounting CONDENSERS PREMIER MICROPHONES
0404HG 490-1,000m... 4/- Octal Holders Transverseunit.Current Mike.45-7,500
High-grade
1.000-2,000m... 4/-
IVcw Premier 3-Band S.W. Coil, II 25-38, 38-
lOid. each. .0003 ml'., 2/6
.0005 mf., 2/9 each. output Response cycles. large
Low
86 m., 4/9. hiss lever, 23/-.
.000." mf. Differential, Premier Super-Mnvingr Coi! Mike. Permanent
Rotary Wave Change to. suit above, 1/6. 2/11. Magnet model Impedance
requiring no15 energising. Sensi-
SKORT-WAVE CONDENSERS tivity 56db. ohms. Excellent
Troiitnl insulation. Certified superior to ceramic. "LEARNING MORSE ?" Mlerophone reproduction of speech and music, £5/5/-.
All-brass Transformers, 10/6 each.
15m.mfd. construction.
... 2/4 Easily ganged. ... . 3/.
lOOm.mfd. Then purchase one of the Cbrrumum Collapsible Type Microphone Stand,
i"-"402aj»-mAL-
m.mfd. ...
... 2,6 ^6 160 m.mfd. ...
250 m.mfd. ... 4/- 3,7 new practice Oscillators. Mains Resistances. 660 ohms .3A, tapped 360 +
Prcraier 2-gang. S.W. Condenser, 2 x .00015 mfd. with Supplied complete 180 + 60+60 ohms., 5/6- 1,000 ohms. .2A. tapped at
integral slow-motion, complete with pointer, knob with valve on nf /£ 900. 800.. 700. COO, 500 ohms. 4/6. 1 ohm 4- 1 per
andH.F.
scale.Chokes.
10/6. 10-100 m., 10'd. steel chassis * • / 0 2-Way cent., Line
suitable for Bridges,
Cored 5/- each.50 ohms per
Resistance.
S.W. loot. Screens,
Price 1/4forperInternational
foot.
Brass Shaft Couplers, din. bore, 7*d. each. Practice Key, 3/3 ; TX Valve and U.S.A. types,
Flexible Couplers, fin. bore, lid, each. Key, 5/9. 1/2 each.
MOVING COIL SPEAKERS Super Model, on Wooden Posh-Back Connecting
Rcsin-cnrcdSleeving,
Solder, 2mm.. Wire, 2d.
7id. per2/6coil. per yard.
Rola Sin. P.M. Speaker, 25/-. Base, 11/6, Sysfotlex per doz, yards.
Celestion 8-in. P.M. Speaker. 25/-*; H aterproof Covered Cable. 3-way, 1/3 per yard :
Plcssey Sin. 2.000 ohms Field Speaker. 25/-.
Above Speakers are complete with output trans- Brown's19 6 Headphone^,
formers. pair.
5-way. 1/6 per yard.
Screened Braided Cable. Single, 1/S per yard ;
Rola 5in. P.M. Speaker. 3 ohms Voice Coii 21/- 3 Henry Chokes, 10/-. twin., 1.6 per yard ; maximum lengths, 6 yards
approx.
Rola
Rola 65in. P.M. Speaker.
8»n. P.M. Speaker, 33 ohms
ohms Voice
Voice Coil,
Coi). 25'-'
25 -' 7-pin Ceramic Chassis Mtg. English type Valve
Good Quality Buzzer, 3/- holders, 1/6 each.
ALL ENQUIRIES MUST AtX POST ORDERS TO : JUBILEE WORKS, 167, LOWES CLAPTO?! ROAD,
BE ACCOMPANIED BY LONDON, E.5. (-JmAe/s, 4723}
A 2 Id. STAMP. CALLERS TO : Jubilee Works, or 169, Fleet Stroet, E.0.4. {Centml ZSW).
March, 1943 PRACTICAL WIRELESS 133
EVERY Slaif ;
vpl, XIX
No. 441. MONTH
MARCH, 1943. C and PRACTICAL
cTTTT" TELEVISION T L. O. SPARKS.
Cfkbyc. f.j.cA/nin FRANK PRESTON.
COMMENTS OF THE MONTH BT THE EDITOR
Chassis Construction
Some Hints on the Easiest Methods of Cutting, Drilling and Bending
By S. BRASIER
AN all-metal chassis is not an easy thing for the in depth. In Fig. 1 the top consists only of iron, or
constructor to make unless a proper bending press steel sheet of about \l64in. thickness, no wood being
is available, therefore this article shows how necessary. The front is made from a piece of the same
suitable chassis may be constrneted with the tools that metal. The wood strip A in Fig. 2 is for the purpose of
are in the possession of the average constructor. laying a piece of copper foil lin, wide along its length
Aluminium is by far the easiest metal to work, but in such a manner that perfect electrical connection exists
since it is scarce and its use not conducive to the war between the top and front plates. The foil is bent to the
effort, one resorts to sheet iron or steel. Unless of thin shape shown at 13 and laid along the wood strip. The
gauge, this is extremely difficult to bend and not easy metal top and front are then placed in position covering
the foil, and screws may be passed through the metal
Fig. I.—A typical and foil into the wood. A rather better method would
chassis of the be to replace the wood strip by a piece of angle brass—
metal and if this is obtainable—and secure by means of nuts and
wood type. bolts.
Cutting the Metal
To cut the metal sheet to size, it is best to use a
hacksaw with a fairly line blade, finishing with a smooth
file. Many constructors make the mistake of using a
coarse saw" blade in the belief that, they will get through
the work quicker. This is a fallacy, because much
pressure has to be used, the work (unless securely
clamped) slides about and the result is a rough edge
that needs a lot of smoothing. A fine blade, however,
is not so liable to jam, is easy to'guide and produces a
smooth finish which only needs a touch with the file.
to cut, so that any construction which will obviate Aassist little oil run along the line of cut will also materially
the process. With the chassis top and front
work in these directions is to be recommended. cut to size and marked out, it vnll be necessary to attend
to the drilling and cutting of the larger holes. The
Wood Framework Cfampmg Bo/ts
Let us suppose that an ordinary box type chassis is
required of, say, 16 by 8 by cin. In order to retain
most of the advantages of a metal chassis, it
is sufficient to make only the top and the Wood
front of metal, and a suitable method of S/ocks
construction is shown in Fig. 1. The first
procedure would be to make a framework
of wood for the sides, front and back (Fig. 2),
the outside measurements being to the
required size of the chassis. In this case
ample strength would be secured by using
material of |in. thickness—the front strip
being of |in. square section—as anything Metal
thicker would greatly restrict the space under the Sheet
■ chassis and limit component mounting, etc. This may
seem a small point, but consider for a moment
a chassis made completely of |in. plywood. The Fig. 3.—Showing how the metal is clamped between pieces
available space underneath would be decreased by of hard wood prior to bending.
nearly rin. on the length, lin. on the width and |iri.
on the depth. A simple calculation will show that quickest method is to drill a small hole, say, i/iCin.,
20 square inches of space is lost—disregarding the loss through every point where a hole is required, the drill
for this purpose being quite short in order that plenty
oT pressure may be exerted without fear of the drill
breaking. It is a good idea to keep a special one for this
purpose. Any hole may then be enlarged to the necessary
size by gradual steps. An ordinary twist-drill would,
in all probability, wander to some extent so
that the hole would not be where it is wanted
and far from circular. Consequentiy it is wise
to .adopt the method outlined above by starting
with a T/iCin. drill, next a |iri. or 3/i6in., followed
by a lin. or '5/1610., and finally the required
pn. It is all a matter of how hard the metal is;
if you are working on soft iron sheet or aluminium,
then a Jiiv, pilot Tollowed immediately by a fin. drill
would probably suffice, but, better still, use a fluted drill.
In dealing with the square hole marked C in Fig. 1,
Fig. 2.—The which might be required for mounting a mains trans-
wooden framework former, there are three methods which may be adopted.
of the chassis shown in Fig. 1. One is to use an adjustable drill or cutter. This tool is
March, 1943 PRACTICAL WIRELESS 137
the type of blade used. These are all interchangeable
with a well-designed handle, and the whole outfit is quite
Metal Sheet mexpensive.
The second- method of dealing with a square hole is
one that is often advocated for a round one, namely
drilling small holes all round the edge, so placed that
Fig. 4.—The they practically join one another. "The piece to be
assembly of Fig, 3 removed is then knocked out, and the edges filed to shape.
Toady for bend* It is, to say the least of it, a most laborious business and
ing. is not advocated, except when no other tools are available.
Wood Blocks The third method, and one that is, in the writer's
Chamfered to opinion, the best of all, makes use of the ordinary fret-
allow for Bending saw in a frame of about 14m. as used for fret-sawing
m wood. It is not generally appreciated how adaptable
these little blades are to metal work ; the manner in
which they cut their way through quite tough steel is
amazing; furthermore, any shape may be cut out exactly
to the pattern and the result is a fine smooth edge
which needs little finishing.
When buying fret-saws for this type of work, one Should
asK for metal" blades, and select brittle ones where
possible. These can generally be distinguished by their
colour, which is black or which sometimes has a blue
steel appearance. Other types which can be bent in
two without breaking, and which have, as a rule, a
brownish colour, do not possess the cutting qualities,
provided with a centre drill of about 3/i6in. or Jin. but arc not so liable to break in use. The brittle saws
diameter, and a cutting arm is .so arranged that it may however, are much more satisfactory and, with care and
a an a little practice, it will be found possible to do quite a
What is known as ay" desired radius
tank cutter " is within
designeditsonrange
much lot of work with one blade.
the same principle, is usually cheaper to buy and should Any round holes for valve holders, condensers, etc
be suitable. are best dealt with by the above method. In this case
a further tip which might be useful is to first use the
Cutting Square Holes adipstable cutter so that a line is scored round the
If the hole C were, say, 4in. square, a drill of the same circumference of the circle. ^ When the fret-saw is used
diameter as the centre drill of the cutter would be it will then practically guide itself and the cutting
passed through the exact centre of the square. The will be much-easier, especially if the metal is thick.
cutter is then adjusted to a radius of a little under sin. In all metal work of this nature a trace of oil run along
the line of cut will help matters considerably, and when
using aluminium it is really essential since it helps to
prevent the clogging of the saw or file.
Colour Television
J. L. BairdV Latest Developments ■
GOLOUR television is no new achievement. As far
back as 1928, J. L. Baird demonstrated to the
British Association a television receiver which tjiMi
produced a coloured image. Since then, however,
much has happened in the world of television, a fact
which was brought home to those who attended the recent
demonstration by J. L. Baird and who remember his
early efforts.
Hitherto, coloured television has been accomplished by The lens
the use ®f rotating discshised in conjunction with cathode- assembly with IP
ray tubes. In Mr. Baird's latest apparatus the rotating 1 wo filter - colour
discs have been eliminated and the coloured television
images are produced entirely by electro-optical means.
Images corresponding to the primary colours, blue,
red and green (or blue-green and orange-red where a
two-filter process is employed), are reproduced side by
side in sequence on the fluorescent screen of the cathode-
ray tube at the receiver. Lenses with their optical
centres on perpendiculars through the centres of each of
the three images, and at a distance from the images
equal to the focal length of the lenses, project parallel
beams on to a large lens separated from the receiving
screen by a distance equal to its focal length. The
pictures are thus caused to overlap on the screen, fhe
arrangement is shown in the diagram as applied to a
two-filter process. initial difficulties, as great accuracy is necessary, but
these experimental problems have been solved and very
Two Filter 600 Line accurate registration is now obtainable. The system is,
The apparatus demonstrated were receivers adapted of course, equally applicable to the transmitter, but at
to receive a 600-line two-filter transmission (blue-green present a revolving disc is still employed, the same
and orange-red). The two images corresponding to the transmitter being used both for the old type colour
Lens covered with orange-red filter ^
Lens covered with blue-green filter disc and the new discless type.
-1
Demonstration
Cathode-ray tube Converging lens Three different types of colour
and stereoscopic jeceiver produced
by Mr. Baird during the war were
demonstrated, arranging, from a small
popular model with a screen sin. by
4in., to a De Luxe model with a
Image corresponding picture 2ft. 6in. by 2ft., the pictures
to orange-red being in natural colours, and by
putting on special glasses the pictures
image corresponding to blue-green Receiver screen upon which became stereoscopic, acquiring depth
coloured images overlap and relief' to a surprising degree, so
The electro-optical system for a two-filter process. that instead of looking at a flat
surface, one appeared to be looking at
blue-green and orange-red components appear in sequence a scene through a window.
one above the other on the flat face of a roin. projection It is most encouraging to note that neither of these
type cathode-ray tube operating at 26,000 volts. In the important developments has ever been shown, except
lens system, which is shown in the photograph, single in England, and, in spite of the many difficulties imposed
lenses have been employed (owing to the difficulty of by war, Mr. Baird is continuing—in his own private
obtaining special lenses in war-time), and this entails a laboratories—extensive research work which will help
certain loss of. optical efficiency; the actual aperture to keep Britain well ahead in the development of this
has nevertheless the large value of approximately 3.3. comparatively new science, whose importance in oost-
Proper registering of the two pictures presented several war planning can hardly be overestimated.
March, 1943 139
In Answer to Querists
Resistors- Resistance
RESISTAXCE, when used in connection with current flowing in milliamps (raA.s), one milliamp
electrical circuits, denotes the property of a representing the 1,000th part of an ampere—the unit of
material to oppose the flow of an electric current. current. To calculate the voltage dropped by the
A resistor is the name given to a component which is resistance of the circuit, or by any resistor introduced
specifically designed to possess resistance. The two into the circuit, when the current is expressed in milli-
terms are often misused ; resistance is not a component amps and the resistance as so many thousand ohms
any more than a resistor is a property of a circuit. simply multiply the thousands figure or figures of the
We speak of an electrical circuit having a certain resistance value by the current figure. Example, a
resistance—see " Elementary Electricity and Radio (i)," resistor of 50,000 ohms is in a circuit in which is flowing
mA.s ■ what voltage will be dropped ? Answer:
page ioi ; and there is a law connecting resistance with 550x5 = 250 volts. This simple form of calculation will
voltage and current, known as Ohm's Law. be found useful when dealing with decoupling resistors,
The unit of resistance is the ohm, but when dealing voltage dropping resistors in eliminators, and so on.
with radio circuits this is too small or too clumsy to
express resistance when hundreds of thousands of ohms Wattage
are concerned. A grid-leak might have a value of Resistors are many in various types, each of which is
x,ooo,ooo ohms, which, if written in full, would not only
look terrifying to the beginner, but it would also take up intended
addition
to satisfy some particular requirement. In
to their various forms, each resistor has a
space and time. To remedy this a larger unit is used, certain wattage rating—this is specified by the manu-
namely, the megohm, which is simply another way of facturer, and should not be ignored. If a circuit calls
writing x,000,000 ohms. for a 1 watt resistor, which, incidentally, could be of any
Supposing a resistor has a value of 500,000 ohms, value as regards its resistance, then it would be asking
well, this can be expressed far more neatly and quicker for trouble to use a resistor having a J watt rating,. as it
as a decimal part of a megohm. (If your decimals are
rusty see " Refresher Course in Mathematics;" page 106, would be, so to speak, overloaded, and would soon be
destroyed.
February, 1942.) Now, 300,000 ohms is exactly half The wattage required can be calculated quite easily
of 1,000,000 ohms, or 1 megohm, therefore, we simply if the resistance and current are known. This is the
write it as 0.5 megohm. Carrying this example further, formula: Watts=I2XR when I represents the current
250,000 ohms is 0.25 megohm; ,100,000 ohms is 0.1 in amperes and R the resistance in ohms. If the current
megohm ; 50,000 ohms is 0.05 megohm ; and so on. is in milliamps then decimals must come into use again,
Now for a simple conversion tip. If the value in ohms remembering that xmA. is equal to 0.001 ampere, i.e.,
consists of six figures simply put a decimal point in front one thousandth
of it to convert it to a decimal part of a megohm. If An alternative method is:
five figures form the value in ohms then put 0.0 in front
1
of it. ' . \Vatts=-Mi -an-P-2xR. '
1,000,000
Voltage Drop So you can take your choice.
It does happen that one gets hold of a resistor of known
Ohm's law will show that the resistance in a circuit resistance
will produce a voltage drop, the value of which will maximum and wattage rating, and wants to find out the
current which can be passed through it. In
depend on the current flowing and the value of the this case the following calculation can be applied ;
resistance. This is important in radio, where high
values of resistance are often encountered. In the Milhamps = 1,000 x /Watts
majority of calculations one usually has to measure the
March, 1943 PRACTICAL WIRELESS 141
Frequency Meters
Heterodyne Meters, A Simple Trlode Arrangement. The Electron-coupled Circuit
{Concluded from page 113 February issue)
By L. O. . SPARKS
THE absorption wavemeter—discussed last month- (4) the constancy of the sources of H.T. and L.T. and
cannot act as a signal generator ; its uses, there- finally, (5) the construction of the unit.
tore, are restricted, and in spite of its recognised
utility value, it cannot claim to be so universal as those Constructional Notes
instruments capable of producing a signal. This does Because the circuit is so simple, it does not follow
not mean that the absorption type is obsolete : in fact that its assembly and wiring can be " hooked-up."
there are many tests which demand the use of a meter For the most reliable results, the constructor should
01 this kind, and it is usual to find an absorption waye- arrange the components so their associated wiring
me e n a Slgnal ene
n L? ? amateur transmitting
weil-ntted g rator among and/or thereceiving
equipment of a islocated
station. short and rigid. The coil and valve holders should be
close to the tuning condenser, if necessary usin"
Heterodyne Wavemeter distance pieces to raise the holders to reduce length of
If the buzzer type of meter is ignored, the. single- terminals Beforewiring. fixing, rotate the holders until their
are close to or in direct line with other points
valve heterodyne wavemeter ranks next in simplicity, of connection ; don't have " wandering wiring "
ine fundamental circuit of one type is shown in Fi" i The inductances L and Li can take the form of a
standard type of four-pin S.W. coil—assuming the
meter is to be used on the S.W. bands—L being the grid
■? winding and Li the normal reaction section It is
essential, however, for the coil to be of good make other-
wise appreciable H.F. losses will be introduced bv a poor
'0003 quality coil former.
mfd. ■— Speaking of plug-in coils raises a point about which
there are various opinions. When it is desired to use the
meter on another frequency-band, it would appear to
o be. quite feasible to remove the existing coil and plug in
003 another one to cover the new band, in the same manner
megn '006 mfd as one would do with a set. In practice, this does not
o> 5P / -00 always prove too satisfactory, as there is the grave risk
mfd of upsetting the. calibration, although if a reputable
/7 make of coils is used the risk is reduced, provided the
coils are handled with care so that their windings
are not damaged, i.e., turn spacing affected, etc.
Ffe. /• A simple heterodyne circuit utilising a triode valve and An alternative arrangement uses one coil, which is
fixed ' throttle " control. wound to cover the lowest frequency band of the normal
where it will be seen that it bears a marked similarity to be checked, S.W. range, and when higher frequency bands have to
a single-valve 'receiver. harmonics of the fundamental frequencies
A triode valve, having characteristics of the H.L. amateur, are used. This method is not liked by every
type, has a tuned circuit across its grid and filament, harmonics, but whatever as some think there is a risk in identifying the
the values of the inductance. L and the variable con- idea, is said against the single coil
denser C governing the frequency band covered by the vided itthedoes possess one very important feature—pro-
circuit. The anode is coupled to L by means of the factors arecoilconstant, Is well made—it scalibration, assuming other
will retain its accuracy. The coil
fixed reaction winding Li, thus providing—in con- must
junction with the fixed condenser C2—the requisite assembly and itsinconnectionsbe robust construction ; securely fixed in the
rigid and soldered. It
amount of feed-back to keep the wholecirc uit
in a smooth state of oscillation.
As every reader knows, it is an easy matter (too 20 mm fa
easy in many instances) to make a single-valver H.T+/
oscillate round the dial by adjusting the tuning
and reaction controls. Such a set cotild, there-
lore, be used as a heterodyne wavemeter, were it
not for the fact, that it would be very unreliable
and most annoying to nearby listeners. The
circuit under discussion (Fig. i) is essentially an qp
oscillator, so it is necessary to take certain k->
precautions so that it performs only the func- O
tions for which it is intended.
The first precaution, is to ensure that the
oscillations produced do not radiate over distances kr>
greater than the immediate vicinity of the meter.
The second is, to secure stable" or constant 0/ mfd, each mfd
oscillation over the whole frequency-band
covered by the meter. This is very essential
otherwise the calibration will not hold and
unless frequent checks are made against some
standard frequency, the results will be" very
misleading. To secure consistent oscillation ■
particular attention must be given to (i) the Fig. 2. An A.C. version of the "electron-coupled'
goodness of the coil; (2) the quality of the oscillator which possesses many superior features
components ; (3) the characteristics of the valve; tor most satisfactory adjustment, the screening-grid
voltage should be obtained via a potentiometer.
142 PRACTICAL WIRELESS March, 1943
preferable to use a slotted or threaded former so that to take output from the anode with practically negligible
the turns forming the windings cannot move ; if one is effect'on the oscillator frequency. The output terminal
forced to use a smooth tubular former, it is advisable to is marked O i« Figs. 2 and 3,, the connection being made
anchor each turn with a spot or two of shellac varnish to the anode via the .small lixed condenser, C3.
or other suitable adhesive. One of the worst offenders as regards causing frequency
The objection to working to the harmonics of the instability in self-controlled oscillators is a varying
fundamental frequency is not always without foundation, source of H.T. supply. When considering the S.G.
as some valves are not so good as-others as regards valve it is possible to increase its impedance by increasing
harmonic generation and, of course, there is always the its anodq H.T., but, by increasing the H.T. applied to
reduction in output from the oscillator as value of the the 'screen-grid,, the impedance will be lowered. This -
harmonic is increased. This, however, is usually turned characteristic is turned to good account in the circuit in
to good account by using it as a check on the tuning of question, as it is possible to find a ratio between anode
the meter. For example, the. oscillations produced when and screen-grid H.T. potentials which will cancel out
the meter is tuned to the second harmonic will not be any variations in the impedance of the valve created by
as-powerful as those generated on the fundamental fluctuating source of H.T. This, combined with the
frequency. Similarly, the output on the fourth harmonic qualities of the circuit, ensures a very high degree of
will be less than that of the second, and so on, therefore frequency stability being obtained. If the screen voltage
it should not be a difficult matter to determine on is provided via a potentiometer across the H.T. supply,
which harmonic the meter is working. its value can readily be varied until the correct ratio is
With a meter of this type it is really essential, to use a reached. The potentiometer can have a resistance in
dial capable of giving split division readings, and having the region of 50,000 ohms provided its wattage rating is
a smooth and efficient and slow-motion control. It is in keeping.
useless going to a lot of trouble during the construction The electron-coupled oscillator is capable of producing
of the meter to secure stable calibration if means are strong harmonics in its output, thus overcoming, or, at
20 mfd I least, considerably reducing, the objection to harmonics
mentioned in connection with, the simple triodo arrange-
A/TV ment.
Construction
• IOOjOOOjx. v- Little can be said about construction, as all the
-MA/W/V points stressed for the previous circuit apply equally to -
Figs. 2 and 3, and, in fact, to any frequency meter.
The construction must be sound electrically and mechani-
cally ; good rigid connections, high-grade components,
a first-class dial and a metal cabinet or case which is not
flimsy.
Quite a number of amateurs have the idea that
frequency meters and like apparatus can be knocked-up
/tF -oo from odd parts out of the junk-box ; such ideas are
likely to prove most unsatisfactory, or,- at least, involve
a far greater amount of work than if reasonable thought
H.T- and selection had been given in the first instance.
The coil is best wound on a liin. diameter former, and
all connections brought out to soldering tags anchored
to the coil former by means of short 6 B.A. bolts. The
completed coil should then be mounted securely to the
baseboard in the most convenient spot for short wiring
LT to the grid and tuning condenser.
The cathode tapping point is best determined by
experiment, the correct one being that which produces, a
Fig. 3.— The battery operated counterpart of Fig. 2. Note the reasonably constant reading on a milliammeter when one
filament circuit. is connected,in series with the negative H.T. line to
not provided to enable the exact setting of the tuning indicate the anode current. Usually a i or 1 of the total
number of turns is satisfactory, when counted from the
condenser to be observed and if due care is not exercised earthy end of the coil.
when making such observations. To protect the meter— With the battery-operated circuit it should be noted
and rough handling must be avoided—and to reduce its that both sides of the filament are returned through
held of radiation, a metal case should be constructed to windings.
house it, the case being connected to the common tuning, coil One—the negative side—is tapped into the
similar to the cathode in Fig. 2 : but for
negative side of the circuit. Battery leads should be the other side—the L.T. positive—another winding
kept short. must be added, and it can be wound over the negative
The Electron-coupled Oscillator section, and have the same number of turns.
Mention has been made about the necessity of securing An alternative method is to wind the top portion of
stable oseillatiohs in a heterodyne frequency meter ; in single the coil (from the grid end to the tapping point) with
fact, the point cannot be stressed too strongly. One. straqdswire in the normal manner, and then use two
of the same wire for the bottom section. One
oscillator which is'particularly good in this respect,
provided it is adjusted correctly, is the " electron-coupled connected to the ofadjacent
of the top ends this double winding would then be
end of the grid winding and
oscillator." A suitable circuit is shown in Fig. 2 (for A.C.
operation), and its battery valve counterpart in Fig. 3. to the negative side of the filament, while the remaining
It will be recognised as a Hartley or Colpitts oscillator top end of the double section would be taken direct to
using a screen-grid valve. The output is taken from the the positive side of the filament. Care, must be taken
to see that the two bottom ends are connected cor-
an de proper, but the screen-grid acts as the anode of the rectly,
oscillator, and, as regards H.F., it is anchored to earth i.e., the first one to the earth-L.T. negative line
by means of the condenser Ci. The cathode of the valve In some and the second to the.positive supply of .the L.T. battery.
is at an H.F. potential above earth but lower than that eliminatedcircuits, interference with the tuning coil is
by using special low-resistance H.F". chokes
of the control grid, and it is the H.F. potential of the in the filament
latter, which swings over a very wide range of values, obtained from the makers ofSuitable
circuit. components .can be
which controls the amplitude of the anode (proper) The point X in Figs. 2 and 3the " Eddystone " products.
denotes where headphones
current. Due to the characteristics of the circuit and the can be inserted if it is required to,use the meters as
screen-grid acting as an electrostatic screen between monitors. ■
the anode and the actual oscillator section it is possible
March, 1943 143
/'=I2R=226=24 watts
or >
T =/F=2 X 12 = 24 watts
R (Fig. 4 (a)) has :
P=/I/=2X 18 = 36 watts Magnetic
,etc. Field Movement
General Examples
1. In Fig. 5 (a) calculate the total
resistance and current flowing.
2. What power is being dissipated in
Ri Fig. 5 (a) ?
3- A ro.oooiJ Jwatt resistor is
available. What is the maximum Fig. 7.—Conditions necessary for
permissible current this resistance can Moverfient the production of an E.M.F. by
take ? magnetic means.
A- Tn Fig. 5 (b) what power will the m
lamps consume, (a) in series; (b) in (<>) A wire, cutting lines of nmgnetic (b) A wire travelling parallel to the
parallel ? /orce at right angles, has an lines of force has no E.M.F. produced
produced across it. ends. across its ends.
144 PRACTICAL WIRELESS March, 1943
The two dissimilar conductors form a " thermo- Let Re—iQ. Ri = 2Q. E.M.F.=%v.
couple," such as antimony and bismuth. I_—V/Rt=813 — 2f amps.
The principle is used in high-frequency meters, pyro- P in Re=I2 Re—y110 watts, (approx.)
meters, etc. Case 3.—Re larger than Ri.
The Chemical Source of E.M.F. Let. Re=4.0. Ri=ip. E.M.F. = 8v.
If two unlike conductors are placed in an active T— V/Rt=8/6—1^ amps.
liquid, i.e., an acid or an alkali, an E.M.F. is produced P in Re=I2 Re=y1li(S watts, (approx.)
across these conductors. Thus, only when Re=Ri does the power in the external
Accumulators, flash-lamp cells, etc., depend upon this circuit reach a maximum.
principle for their action. Primary and Secondary Cells
The Magnetic Source of E.M.F. A primary , cell is chemical source of E.M.F., which
Whenever magnetic lines of force cut or are cut by a cannot be recharged by means of a reverse current,
conductor an E.M.F. appears across the ends of that while a secondary cell is rechargeable by a reverse
conductor. current.
The meaning attached to the word " cut" is What is meant by recharging with a reverse current ?
important; first, either the lines of force or the When a cell discharges or " runs down," chemical
conductor must be in movement; and, secondly, the changes occur within it which either make its internal
conductor or lines of force must not be moving parallel resistance so high that its P.D. for a useful, current
to one another ; maximum E.M.F. being produced becomes negligible, or alters the chemicals so that the
when they are moving at right angles to one' another. dissimilarity between its poles diminishes, and hence its
See Fig. 7. E.M.F. falls..
Dynamos operate upon this principle. If it is possible to return the chemicals to their original
The Electro-magnetic Source of E.M.F. state by electrolysis, i.e., passing a current through the
Whenever an electro-magnetic wave strikes a conductor cell, in the opposite direction to that which the
in the correct plane an E.M.F. 1
is induced in that con- "" rechargedischarge " current flows, then the cell would
" and thus be a secondary cell.
^ , ductor, due to the electric
and magnetic "fields of the itsAexhausted primary cell can only be recharged fully by renewing
chemicals.
—|-AVWWW\A--i-. wave. We shall deal more theTheLeclanche only primary cell of practical importance to us is
V thoroughly with this in a will deal with cell, while cur study of secondary cells
Lead-Acid and Nickel-Iron or NiFe
future article. accumulators.
E.M.F., IR drop and P.D, Leclanche Cells
E.M.F. refers to the The Leclanche cell (see Figs. 0 a, b and c), is composed
total energy of a supply, of : (1) Positive pole—carbon ; (2) Negative pole—zinc ;
expressed in volts. (3) Electrolyte—ammonium chloride or sal ammoniac f
IR drop refers to the (4) Depolariser—manganese dioxide, fke E.M.F. of a
Lamp voltage produced across a Leclanche cell is approximately 1.5 volts.
Fig. 8.—The effect of the internal resistance through which The chemical action of the cell is as follows :
resistance of a cell. current IS flowing. Zn-\:2.NH±CT~ZnCl'2-\-2NHzJrH2
P.D.. or potential differ- (Zinc) -f (Ammonium Chloride) l= (Zinc Chloride)-f (Am-
ence, refers to the voltage produced by the product of monia) 4-(Hydrogen).
resistance and current, or is another way of speaking of The hydrogen which is set free is the cause of a great
IR drop. deal of trouble, as it is a good insulator and is attracted
to the carbon rod, forming a high resistance film around
* The Internal Resistance 0? a Source of Supply it. Obviously, the internal resistance of the cell
In using any source of supply its internal resistance increases enormously, and the P.D. of the cell for a
must be taken into consideration. useful current falls to a very low value. This effect is
Suppose that in Fig. 8 the cell had an internal re- called polarisation, and any method of overcoming it,
sistance of and that it has an E.M.F. of 2V. and is depolarisation.
supplying 1 ampere to the lamp. Ihe formula for the process of depolarisation, using
Now, 1 ampere through produces an IR drop of manganese dioxide as the depolariser, is :
^ volt, which represents energy wasted as heat in the IT'2. - p 2 M nOi — MrtfyOq -(- H%0
resistance of the cell, therefore, (Hydrogen)4-(Manganese dioxide) = Manganese sesqui-
P.D. = E.M.F.-IR oxide)4-(Water).
From this equation, it is clear that the manganese
thus only i £ volts are available
across the lamp. (a) Wet Lec/anche (t>)Dry_ Lecfenche (c)Inert Lec/anche,
P.D. oj a supply = E.M.F.— IR
E.M.F. „ „ = P:D.-\-IR
IR drop in a -r +
supply =E.M.F.-PD.
The Conditions for Maximum
Power from a Supply
Maximum power is obtained
from a supply when the external
resistance of the circuit is equal
to the internal resistance of the
supply.
Let us investigate the truth of
the statement by means of Fig. 8.
Case i.—Re=Ri, and Rt~ Zinc
Total resistance
Let Ri}~R\—2.P. E.M.F. of Po/c
supply 8 v. *
1 = ViRt =8/4=2 amps.
Power dissipated in Re=I~ Re ~
8 watts. Solution of Sal-Ammomac Paste of SePAmmoniac Crystals of Sal-Ammoniac
Case 2.—Re smaller than Ri t ig.. 9— Sectional diagrams of Leclanche cells.
March, 1943 PRACTICAL WIRELESS 145
dioxide is constantly being converted, and hence the is due to the necessary presence of moisture m tne so-
life of the cell is mainly governed by the amount of called " dry " ceil. Cells and batteries ®f the " dry "
depolariser available. The internal resistance of the cell Leclanche type and of good manufacture are usually
is still high, because of the poor conductivity of the date-stamped.
manganese dioxide *. therefore, powdered carbon is
mixed with it to reduce its resistance. As the depolariser The Inert Leclanche Cell
is only able to get rid of the hydrogen at a definite rate, This cell can withstand long storage or use in hot
the cell is only suitable for small currents and intermittent climates. As the cell's name imp'ies, it is "inert"
operation if polarisation is to be avoided. until " activated " by the addition of water. Fig. 9 (c).
Types of Lsclanohe Cell in General Dse Points to note are ; (1) That crystals'of sal-ammoniac
There are three types: (i) Wet, (2) Dry, and (3) how replace the paste of the dry cell or the solution of
Inert. the wet cell; (2) that two vents fitted with " stoppers "
for the access of water have been fitted. The cell
The Wet Leclaaohe becomes ready for use within a day, after activating.
The Wet Leclanche is generally used in cases where long
life and short periods of operation are required, i.eL Cells in Series and Parallel
door bells, etc. (Fig. ga). In order to obtain higher E.M.F.s than one cell could
The cell will keep running for many months provided give, a number of cells may be connected in series, when
that the electrolyte level is maintained with water to
allow for evaporation. The cell is unfit for many
purposes because of its spillable and cumbersome nature.
Local Action ^ Impurities
In the case ot the wet Leclanche the zinc rod can
become badly pitted due to the presence of impurities
in the zinc. -These impurities ; iron, lead, arsenic, etc.,
together with the zinc and the electrolyte, will act as
miniature cells, and in the running down process of these
cells, the rod becomes badly eaten away. Fig. 10 (a) and
(h). Local action can be prevented by coating the >
rod with mercury, when only pure zinc will be able to
reach the electrolyte, thus the rod wears evenly, except,
perhaps, for a slight taper due to the greater density
of the electrolyte at the bottom of the cell. Fig. 10 (c).
)|
The Dry Lecianche Cell
This provides a compact and portable means of pro-
viding a source of E.M.F. (6) (c)
It is used for H.T. batteries, flash-lamp cells, gas-
lighters, etc. Fig. 9 (b). Fig. 10.—Diagrams showing effects of local action.
Note that the zinc rod has been replaced with a (a) Arrows indicate the local currents due to impuritie-
zinc pot or container and that the cell is sealed with (b) Imparities eaten away causing badly pitted rod.
pitch ; that most of the space in the cell is occupied by (c) Tapered wearing ]of an amalgated rod.
the depolariser sack ; that a cardboard disc is placed
between the bottom of the sack and the zinc pot, and their total E.M.F. is equal to the sum of the individua
finally, but most important, the electrolyte is in paste ■ cell's E.M.F. Fig. 11 (a).
form—sal ammoniac and gelatine, etc. Cells should never be placed in parallel unless their
Local action is of little consequence in this case, E.M.F.s are equal, and they are similar, because, as
because the cell is usually exhausted before the zinc shown in Fig. n (b), wastage continually occurs.'
is seriously affected. When cells of the same E.M.F. are connected in
The advantages of the dry cell are; Portability, parallel, the current which can be taken for a "iven
compactness, and readiness for instant use, but, unfor- time is increased, but the E.M.F. of the combination
tunately, one serious disadvantage exists, namely, the remains the same as that of a single cell.
ceh starts to deteriorate as soon as it is made and thus
has a limited storage or " shelf " life. This deterioration General Examples
+ + - + (1) In Fig. 8. Calculate the internal resistance ot the
fl 1 supply, if one ampere passes when the P.D. of the suppiv
1 1 is 10 volts. Rp = 8.50.
(2) By how much does the power dissipated in Re
fall when the internal resistance of the cell is doubled
as a result of polarisation taking place as the depolariser
(3) becomes exhausted ? Fig. 8. (ifa = rofl, [. = i/5 amnP •
E.M.F. o) cell, 2.2 volts.) '
Answers to general examples (Page 143):
1. Total Resistance, 6.a1!1 ohms.
—-0 Total Current, 8.048 amperes.
+ 2. 11.9072 watts.
3. 7 07 milliamperes (approx'.J.
4. 161.3 watts in series, 726 watts in paralle1
1 „ (To be continued.)
—
L- CT J (b)
+ + EVERYMAN'S WIRELESS BOOK
By F. J. CAMWI
3v -O NEW EDITION.
4v 6/- or 6/4 by post from George Newnes, Ltd.(Book
c- 11,—If the E.M.F.5 of, the cells(t)areCells
tig. in parallel,
unequal, wastage occurs Dept.), Tower House, Southampton Street, Strand
continuously. London, W.C,2.
146 PRACTICAL WIRELESS March, 1943
Potentiometer Problems
Correct Use of Graded Volume-control Potentiometers: Calculating the Values of Resistors
Required for Fixed Potentiometers and Potential Dividers
THE ordinary potentiometer is such a simple com- variable S.G.-voltage potentiometer, it should be
ponent that the constructor is apt to overlook Connected to^ H.T. positiye (either directly or through
some of the points concerning its correct use. a fixed limiting resistor), and in the case of .the L.F.
In the case of variable potentiometers, such as are control, it-should be connected to the "grid" terminal
often used for variable-mu bias control in battery sets, of the L.F. transformer or to the grid condenser, accord-
input volume control to an L.F. amplifier, and sometimes ing to whether transformer or R.C. coupling is employed.
for controlling the screening-grid voltage, there are very It is not always easy to tell which is which of the
few pitfalls ; provided that the correct overall value is two outer terminals, but in the case of a wire-wound
chosen and that the potentiometer is well designed, it component, the fibre strip or similar material on which
is not easy to make a mistake. the wire is wound will be found to taper towards one
Even here, though, it is well to remember that a end. The terminal connected to the narrower end is
'' graded'' type of component is generally to be pre- that which should go to the " maximum-volume " point.
ferred. The chief feature of this kind of potentiometer The reason for control being smoother when the
is that the variation of resistance over any given angle potentiometer is correctly wired is not difficult to
of rotation of the knob is smaller toward one end of the understand. Consider a variable-mu control in con-
resistance element than it is toward the other. This junction with the anode current-grid volts curve of the
feature of design is incorporated so that a smoother controlled valve. The curve is reasonably straight
around the point of zero grid volts, but flattens out
toward the maximum G.B. negative voltage. Thus,
+2001/. there is a marked drop in anode current between, say,
zero and one volt negative, but only a small variation
/?./. between, say, four and five volts negative. Our need is
11,430*1 to reduce the variation at the upper end and increase
120V. it correspondingly at the lower end. This same general
principle will be found to apply to potentiometers
3mA used in other parts of the circuit.
If there is any difficulty in tracing, the connections
I by visual inspection it is an easy matter to find the
correct wiring by trial, reversing the leads to the two
>RV. outer terminals and checking the smoothness of control.
02. T Fixed S.G. Potentiometers
3OP00.O. It is customary in all reasonably modern receivers to
provide a fixed voltage for the screening grid. For
reasons Which need not be discussed here, this avoids
distortion and gives better results than are obtained
when using a variable S.G. voltage. Additionally,
of course, better volume control is obtained by making
Fig. I.—A fixed potentiometer, comprising R.I and R.2, used to use of variable-mu valves. We can readily find the
supply the screening-grid voltage to an H.F. tetrode. most suitable S.G. voltage from the valve-makCrs*
control of volume is permissible. But this improvement instruction sheet, and if the S.G. current at that voltage,
will be obtained only if the potentiometer is correctly and with a given anode voltage, is known, the values
wired ; if the connections to the two outer terminals of resistors required to make up the necessary fixed
Should be reversed, control will, be far more awkward potentiometer At
can be calculated.
this-point it should be mentioned that it is usually
than when using an ungraded component. better to use a potentiometer for S.G. supply than
Volume-control Connections merely to feed the screening grid through a fixed voltage-
It is easy to remember the rule for correct connection. dropping resistor. The reason is that a potentiometer
The terminal connected to the end having the lower maintams a more-nearly constant S.G. potential than
resistance per unit length should go to the '' maximum (Continued on page 149)
volume " point in the circuit. For example, in the case
of the variable-mu control, the terminal in question
should be wired to the earth line, or to G.B.-h ; with a HT*
+2001/..
7mA
:/?./. Fig. 2. — (Left) An equivalent
circuit to that in Fig. 1. It shows
how the current is distributed.
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March, 1943 PRACTICAL WIRELESS 149
(Continued from page 146.) This shows why y mA can pass through R.i when on
can be obtained by other means. We know that if two 4 mA is passing through R.2, which is in series with
resistors are Wired in series the potential between one The difference of 3 mA passes through the valve
end of the pair and the junction is proportional to the between the cathode and the screening grid.
value of the resistors and applied voltage. When using a variable-mu valve of the indirect)
. example, if two 50,000-ohm resistors were wired heated type it is often better to wire the potentiomet
m series across a 100-volt supply, the potential between as shown in Fig. 3. Here it will be seen that the fix<
the negative fermihal of the supply and the centre potentiometer is in series with the V.M. potentiomet
point of the two resistors would be 50. Similarly, if or variable resistor (either will serve).The reason f
the resistors had values of 25,000 ohms and 75,000 connecting the potentiometer in this manner is that tl
ohms, the corresponding voltage would be three-quarters resistance between the screening grid and earth remaii
of the total, or 75. constant. From this it would appear that the S.(
Effect of S.G. Current voltage would also remain constant. In practice it do
_ It is in this connection that a fallacy often creeps in. not of necessity do so, due to the fact that the S.<
The facts just set out assume that no current is being current is reduced to a certain extent as the bias voltaj
drawn from the centre-tapping, and that the voltage is is increased. Nevertheless, this is probably the be
being measured with a meter of infinite resistance. If that can be done without adopting an unnecessarr
current were being drawn—as it is in the case of a complicated arrangement.
screening grid—our calculations would be entirely upset. Artificial Centre-tap
This can be understood by making reference to Fig. 1. Another use for a potentiometer, this time a Variab
Here we have an H.T. supply of 200 volts, and we or pre-set component, is in conjunction with the filamei
supply to a directly-heated output valve in an A.C
operated receiver. s-x vj.txs If
x-.. i. .thevtiJiJU.1115 la VVltlJtJlis withot
L.T. winding
a centre tap, or, if the tapping point is not at tl
electrical centre " of the windincr IVA TIC A o
" artificial" centre tap, as shown in Fig. 4. A 15-ohi
potentiometer is connected in parallel with the filamei
Fig. 4.—A 15-ohm terminals of When the transformer, and the slider is eartl
potentiometer used to, connected. the receiver is being set up initial]
'provide an "arti- longer be heard, or isuntil
this potentiometer adjusted until mains hum can r
it reaches its lowest level. It
ficial" centre tap for
/5-0 a transformer winding. not without interest that the optimum setting is m
<r> The normal centre- always at the precise centre of the resistance, but
tap is shown in broken often offset from it. It is the electrical centre of tl
^3 lines. winding which is required.
The Potential Divider
Fig. 5 shows a, potential divider, which is simply
modified form of potentiometer. A device of this kir
may be used with a mains unit to enhance the volta'
stability of the various tappings. The necessary valui
require a voltage of 120, at 3 mA, for the screening0 of three resistors forming the potential divider can 1
grid. If we overlooked the fact that current was bein " calculated by adopting a procedure similar to th;
drawn we should deduce that since R.i had to drop followed when determining the values for our S.C
volts and .R.2 120 volts, that R.i should have two- potentiometer. First we must know how much standir
thirds tne resistance of R.2. For example, values of current is to be allowed. It is best to allow as much ;
20,000 and 30,000 ohms would give the desired result. possible, and it would normally be the difference betwec
This assumes that vye can afford to have a standing the maximum output from the rectifier and the tot
current of 4 mA passing through the potentiometer. H.T. current required. Very often the potential dividi
, Fhese values are, in fact, entirely incorrect. This is used as a " bleeder ' 'or as a load resistor to prevent tl
is because of the screening grid taking current; this D.C. voltage rising above the rated voltage of the rectifie:
has to be drawn through R.i in addition to the standing I u. ^bii
current, with the result that the voltage dropped across 2 SO I/,
R.i would be m excess of 80. Let us work out suitable +3501/
values for these two resistors. We must start with R.2 33mA R3. *3,OOOSX
basing our calculations on the amount of standing F<S- 5.—A t
current which is to be taken. With a battery set we tential divid
shoukl not normally wish to pass more than about one IOOV. 5mA . made up fr
railliamp but with a mains set we could generally I/.3. ^ ^333X1 three separ*
spare about four milliamps. And within limits the fixed resisfc
higher this standing current, the more accurately is the and used f
S.G. voltage maintained at a constant figure. regulating ,
H.T. supplyfr
Calculating the Values !/./. 60 R „. a rectifier.
Assume, then, that 4 mA is taken as the steady ' 10 m A
current. We can find the value required for R.2 by ^ A
straightforward application of Ohm's Law, knowing
that the voltage to be dropped is 120. The resistance For present purposes we may assume that t
would be E/I multiplied by 1,000, where E is 120 volts rectified
and I is 4 mA; the answer is, therefore, 30,000 ohms whereas voltage is 250 and the output current 50 m
the total consumption by the receiver is on
The screenmg grid takes 3 mA, which means that 40 mA. The
R.i has to pass 7 mA in all. Its value will thus be 80 ihe current load on divider potential must therefore pass 10 m
the various tappings is shown
(volts) divided by 7 (mA) and multiplied by 1,060 Fig-
which is approxmaateiy 11,430 ohms. In practice, we R.i, 5)wealong with the required voltages. Starting wi
see that this must drop 60 volts, and we kne
should choose the nearest standard value available that it has to passriq mA ; its value will thus be bm
probably 12,000 ohms.
It may appear that there is a " catch " in this. If ohms. R.2 has to drop 40 volts (V.2 minus V.i) and
so, look at Fig. 2, which is what is known as an equivalent required to pass 12 mA. Its value will be 3,333 ohr
circuit for that shown in Fig. 1. It will be seen here (3,500 would probably be near enough). R.3 is to dr<
that a Tlli3resistance
13
marked R.V is shown in parallel with 17 mA inand150 volts must pass 10 mA, plus'2 mA, plus 5 mA
all. Its value will therefore be 150/17 tim
the equivalent resistance of the valve. 1,000, or approximately 9,000 ohms.
150 PRACTICAL WIRELESS March, 1943
Transmission Lines
' =0 K? r"*^ . Slanchng Waves, Imput Impedance,' Matching
1 By S. A. KNIGHT
(Continuedjeom page 108, February issue)
sequently there can never be a voltage developed across
it, the termination being, in fact, a voltage node In
ha™ to - suffeT-, "'h 1116 reflected voltage wave will
Tim'^ ic com a rabi i P reversal at the termination
for the openPcircuit
foi . l® case,
with and
the Fig.
case 7ofcan
thebecurrent
used inwave
this
t-Tf2^ instance to indicate the voltage variatfoL fo? the
short-circuited line. Thus volta|e nodclfor tlm oiicn
cucmt coincide with current nodes for the short circuit
anc. voltage antmodes for the open circuit coincide
with current antinodes for the short circuit.
Current Considerations
TorTdrafiLwiU ^
t--T
spends to that of the voltage in the, open cfocuft lfoe
A new diagram is unnecessary, and Ffo 8 can he
Initial travelling wove - "VA—TrfS S
Returning >. , „ Input Impedance of a Length of Line
Resultant standing wave
PiS. S.~ ■Vollase standing waves set ufi by the travelling and circuited Unf RM^ iine and the short-
rejiected components. ■
THIS energy is given to the electric field, and so the ssss^SSSSSIS
voltage at the termination is greater than the
56 d u 0 the
SmTT fl V , wave
oince the reflected ^Aal travelhrig
of current nmstwavT
have the ^
same amplitude as the forward wave, the voltage at the T
~Unu me Clrcl,ited an
termination is doubled. vuma?e at the Voltage of the generator ~<i of^ length A/a 1(Fig-t5* ua)^
Thus no-phase reversal of voltage occurs at an oner. Current of the generator a maximum
, .w t^mniiauuu ana, as Detore, the resultant voltW _Input
t " impedance gjlt zi = V/TV /I ==: oO
SaiLTLv addin^nofrft^4? 2
v 116 0 en circuit
rct^i^ffintLLls.' the f0rWard a d Voltage at generator = amaxinmm A/a (Ffo^ nbl1
ii ? «' and of length
It should be noted that voltage nodes occur "at Current at generator = o
distances ^4, 3a/4} etc., from zi = V/I= max/o= infinity.
M16 termination, and voltage • Vfoit hort circuited
antinodes occur at distances J' Voltage atf generator = of length A/4 (FigS 1 jc)
a maximum ^
*/2, etc., from the termina- 3/ Current
zi
at generator = o
tion. Again, any two points *'• = V/i = max/o=infinity.
on the line are either in
pnase or antiphase. to) t
The above types of waves,
which are due to a conibina-
tion of two or more travelling ^ Current'^ ^
waves, are known as Standing -w- r* t Wms.
^current
Waves. jt „ - ^^^^^yoltage-, :j
R.M.S. Considerations fo generator
Fig- 9 gives the R.M.S. tb)
values for current and voltage Term/pat/on
o t!r instruments
K.M.S. ':;)e obtained
placed at in j 1 Cur re n RMS.
1%
k.ai.s. cPOin 'S 0,1 arethealways
voltages
lina
- V 1i _^ fage 1
positive, so the reversal of
phase of cuitciu or voltage (C)
which occurs at every half 1 A4 Termination
cycle is not indicated. S an
A Line Short-circuited and A Current ^ ^rf 'n ^ ^ (Above).—
I he R.M.S. values of the
m Length open-circuited and short-
Consider first the voltage Vo/tageS circuited lines respectively,
variations. The termination
m this case is a short-circuit ^ effect(Left).—Showing
ana has zero impedance, con- y2 the of line length
on input impedance.
March, 1943 PRACTiCAL WIRELESS 151
Current^ Case 2.—Short-circuited line less than
greater than A/4.
This case is represented as the previous one
vectorally, in Fig. 15, the input impedanc
Voltage) being a pure capacitance.
Case 3.—Open-circuited line less than A/4.
voftage'f It would be possible to construct simila
rt vector diagrams remembering that in this cas
y the current vector has a phase reversal at th
termination instead of the voltage. We shoul
find that the input impedance this time vvoul
Current' be a pure capacitance.
Figs. 12 and 13.— Voltage and Case 4.—Open-circuited, line less than A/
current curves for ot>eh-circuited S) greater than A/4.
and short-circuited lines. The input capacitance would be a put
inductance.
Fig. 14 {Below and Right).-— General Cases
Vector representations of the It can be shown that for the general case of
nature of the input impedance loss-less line of characteristic impedance zl
for a s/c line less than A4. terminated in an impedance zr and of any length ,
m is given by:
• ==: k{zr+jzk. tan 2Tr//A)
h zk+jzr. tan 2nl\X
(D Take as examples: a short-circuited line, z
being zero. Substituting this value for zr in the abov
equation:
(31
Zi^tk^pi±
zk
*=jzk. 2nip.
4—A short circuited and of length A/2 (Fig. nd) Now : an open-circuited line, zr being infinity. Thi
Voltage at generator = 0 time we can re-arrange the equation by dividing num
Current at generator = a maximum erator and denominator by zr.
zi — V/I = o/max .z+j.zk/zr tan znlj*
= o. ^ zk/zr+j. tan znljl
Consider the cases 1 and 4. These" can be compared
with a series-tuned circuit, while cases 2 and 3 can be Now, if zr equals infinity :
compared with a parallel-tuned circuit. zi =zk.i+6lj. tan. anip.
= —j. zk cotan. zjiip
General Case for an Open-circuited Line Fig. 16 shows curves which give variations of zi a
Fig. 12 gives the voltage and current waves for any the length of the line is varied, both open and short
length of line I. The current can be represented by a circuited cases. They are plotted from the formulae ;
cosine expression, / being measured from the termination. (i) zi—j. zk tan 2~lp. for the S.C. case.
If now we look into the line at any distance I from (ii) zi——j zk, cotan. 2nl[X for the O.C. case.
the termination, the input impedance zi will be a ratio These formulas assume loss-less lines and perfec
of a cosine to a sine expression, i.e., a cotangent expres-
open and short circuits. In practice these ideal condi
sion. tions cannot be obtained and the curves fall short of thi
General Case for a Short-circuited Line true representation of zr, for zi will, in general, contait
This time (Fig. 13) the voltage is represented by a resistive components.
sine and the current by a cosine expression. Zi will Take a specific length of line, / being Ip.
therefore be a tangent expression. Thus, in general, Then zi=.zkzr+j- zk tan ^
for a length of line other than multiples (of fA/4, the zk+j. zr tan 2a///.
input impedance can have a magnitude which varies —zk. zr/zk
between zero and infinity. =zr
i.e., zi=zr
Nature of the Input Impedance Thus this length of line can be used as a r : i trans-
Case 1,—Short-circuited line less than A/4. former.
Consider the vector diagrams of Fig. 14 which are Take a specific length of line, / being >.p.
for the initial travelling wave at the termination and Re-writing the equation, by dividing by znlp
the generator respectively.
The first pair represent the wave reaching c ft
the termination- a short time after it has (I)
left the generator. This is represented by P
which has a value between o degrees and go- (3) ffg
degrees for a fine less than A/4. V
S\
The reflected wave is obtained by re-
versing the voltage vector Vr at the termina- X
tion (second pair)., and this wave now reaches
the generator again with a phase lag of p.- (2)
The resultant voltage and current at the fs)
generator by the combination of (2) and (4) 'I.
is shown in the fifth diagram. We see from
this that the resultant voltage leads the
resultant current by 90 degrees ; thus the Fig. 15.— Vectors of the short-
input impedance of a loss-less short-circuited circuited line, the input imps
line less in length than A/4 is a pure dance being a pure capacitance.
inductance.
PRACTICAL WIRELESS March, 1943
trtductive Thus tlie Rk increases very rapidly with d/r up to
d/r approximately equal to 100. For larger values
of d/r, the Rk remains fairly constant (Fig. 17).
,i < The lines are referred to as balanced because at
any point along them the current in the two wires is
in antiphase, this tending to reduce radiation from
S.C o.c. S.C o.c. ! the transmission line.
The effect of a dielectric is thus : the Rk of a
transmission line is given by Rk^x/LJC, but if a
dielectric is introduced, L is unaffected since ^
(permeability) for most substances is very nearly
I unity. If the dielectric has a fi K, the effective
capacitance per unit length is increased K times.
Thus Rk^CLfKC
= 1/ VKXVLI'C
Rk—il VK x Rk for air.
(2) The Coaxial Line.—This has two conductors,
the second forming a tube around the first (Fig.
18). It can be shown that for an air-spaced
cable:
Rk= 138 login. R/r.
Rk is normally of the value of 80 ohms and is
3A not so constant for variations in Rjy as is the balanced
Capscitive ^ line feeder. Also the cable is self shielding, i.e.,
currents flow on the inner surface of the cuter
Fig. 16,—Curves showing variations of zi as length of line is varied, conductor and no external radiation occurs.
for open- and short-circuited cases. (3) Twisted Pair.—This consists, of a two-wire
hue composed of twisted rubber-covered wire. Since djy
{zrltan 2Trlp.)+j.zk can be made quite small the Rk is fairly small,
'{zkltan 271///.J f-j.zr generally from 100 to aoo ohms.
When i = A/4, tan 2rzlj?. is infinity. The application of transmission line theory to aerial
zi=zk.2 j.zk/j. zr. systems must come under a later heading.
zi. zr=zk
zk= Vzi.zr.
Matching PRIZE PROBLEMS-
Consider the case of an aerial whose resistance is
8o ohms fed from a 6oo-ohra transmission line. The Problem No. 441.
required zk lor the /i/4 of the matching device is given by : "DOYCE built a four-valve'superhet using all the correct parts, but
zk =Vzi. zr when first switched on he could obtain no signals. He therefore
borrowed a signal generator and commenced lo line-up the receiver.
He adjusted the second I.F, transformer and (hen connected the generalor
to the grid of the frequency-changing valve but could not obtain a signal
Rk in the output stage. He tested the secondary of the I.F. transformer
Radius and this was in order, and then he found also that the primary was in
order. A D.C. test showed that the frequency-changer was passing anode
9 current correctly, but no adjustment of the trimmers could enable him
to'obtain the note from the generator in the oscillator stage. What
was wrong ?
Three books will be awarded for the first three correct solutions
opened. Entries must be addressed to The Editor, Practical Wireless,
George Newnes, Ltd., Tower House, Southampton Street, Strand,
London, W.C.9. Envelopes must be marked Problem No. 441 in the
top left-hand corner and must be posted to reach this office not later
than the first post on Monday, February 15th, 1943.
Fig. 18.—The
d/ coaxial line,
where Solution to Problem No. 440.
Fig. 17.—Rk. increases very rapidly with d/r Rk~138 login On testing his receiver. Nash found that the oscillator section of the frequency-
up to djr approximately eyual to 100. Rlr. changer did not functioncoil.
on the long-wave band owing to a defect in the gfid
winding of the oscillator
Thus we see that by suitably choosing the value of have Theaccordingly
three following readers
been forwardedsuccessfully
to them. solvedLilian
Problem No.40, 439, andStreet.
books
zk by the 1/4 length of line, we can obtain the required c/o Aluwick, Northumberland ; L/Bdr. S. A, Miss
Longhuret.Knox,
E.A. : L.Howick
F Hallidav'J
matching for the 6oo-ohm line. We have, in effect, an G.P.O. '
impedance transformer, and is in fact called a Quarter
Wave Impedance Transformer.
We have :
zi —zk^lzr MASTERING MORSE
therefore, the impedance is changed from zr to zk2lzr. By the Editor of PRACTICAL WIRELESS
3rd EDITION
Practical Types "of Lines This handbook, written with special regard for service
(1) The Twin Balanced Pair.—Consists essentially of requirements, will enable even the beginner rapidly
a pair of parallel wires. It can be shown that the to become proficient in sending and receiving.
l oks e s or b ost
characteristic impedance (resistive) is given by; 1 //- EEWNES,
9C?r ,ir£9. LTD.
?ll L - (Booky VDept.),
1'2 from GEORGE f /
Rli=276 login 4/r (air-spaced). Bet Southampton Street. London,Tower W.C.2. House Jlnet/"
March, 1943 PRACTICAL WIRELESS 153
fZ
rS -f1' ¥
Yiis Mm n
: v
; :'
By THERMION
1LISTENED-IN the other morning to the 7 o'clock valuable stocks obsolete. I implore the B.B.C. 10
news, and I wish to complain to the B.B.C. that, as suppress this information, and save an industry, and a
the result of a particular news item I thought I was
dreaming, and T therefore missed, my physical jerks. technical press from disaster.
The item to which I refer drew attention to the ex- Slush
periences of some Servicemen who found themselves A '' '11'-f'fGH the B.B.C. has set its face against
wandering through the Bush far from their unit. One debilitated music, otherwise known as cryning or
of them happened to be a radio operator, and the B.B.C., slush, I have not noticed any great diminution in the
in all seriousness, told us that this man had made a surge of this silt from the sewers of music. In fact there
transmitter from some pieces of string, some cocoa tins, seems to be more ot it. The B.B.C. also announces that
and pieces of bamboo ! ! ! ! Now this, I am certain you it opposed the pirating of classical music. I notice
will agree, is careless talk, dt is giving valuable informa- however, that Handel has been jazzed. They are
tion to the enemy. The secret has been so well kept that giving Mozart a rest.
even I had not heard of it, and here is the B.B.C. broad- The British Sound Recording Association
casting this valuable item to all and sundry. The 'X'HE British Sound.Recording Association was formed
Germans now know 'hat we have invented a means of in 1936 by a number of engineers and amateur
making radio transmitters out of cocoa tins, string and
bamboo, and I have no doubt that their Teutonic enthusiasts body
with the primary purpose of uniting in one
all those engaged or interested in the art and science
cunning will enable them too to produce superior trans- of sound
mitters made from these rawest of raw materials. I had until the recording. The membership was steadily rising
outbreak of war, and there were members in
for a long time wondered why the Government had many parts of the world. A quarterly journal and a '
issued an order making it an offence to waste string, but bi-monthly bulletin were issued, but since 1940 the
I can now see that every inch of it was required to build activities have been curtailed because
this new secret weapon. Perhaps this is the reason why members have been scattered by wartheservice. officers and
All
it is almost impossible to purchase a bamboo pole for officers acted in an honorary capacity. For the past two
drawing-room curtains, and why cocoa is becoming years or so it has been decided not to enrol or accept any
scarce. They want the tins for these transmitters.
Why the B.B.C. should give this information away to subscriptions from new members in fairness to them, but
the Germans I do not know, and I can only hope that full they
details are listed, and as soon as conditions permit
will receive application blanks and the latest
the Mystery of Inflammation have severely reprimanded
the B.B.C. news editor who had been so culpably information. Earlier members maintain contact through
negligent. Here have we all these years been building correspondence, and technical questions are still dealt
expensive transmitters, from equally expensive apparatus with.me that
I mention these points because D. W. Alduce tells
a rumour has been going round that the club
when we could have achieved superior results from has suspended activities. Although it may bo in a
materials rescued from the dustbin. For all I know, state
the B.B.C. may be radiating its programmes by means dying.of animation it is still in existence, and is not
of these transmitters. The string may provide the
necessary degree of distortion to convert a normal •'Sound the Loud Pibroch"
singer's voice into that of a cryner. Here I want to [Press item.-~Referring to musical compositions, it is curious that
registeir a protest on behalf of the technical press of this in some of the less civilised parts of Europe even semi-tones were
country. I demand to know why we have not received until recentlySend hardly used.]
roond the Fiery Cross ainee mair,
details of this wonderlul transmitter to pass along to our Tae summon up each clan 'f
various publics. It is true that readers of technical And march wi' kilts and pipers braw.
papers may not be so credulous as numbers of B.B.C. Until they find the man
listeners. I rang the B.B.C. on the matter, and after Wha this fresh insult tae the Scot
being shunted about from department to department I Has jealously devised.
eventually got through to the chief office boy, who Och aye ! And daurs tae tell the wurruld
informed me that the only thing he knew about string Scotland's no ceevilised!
was that it was useful to have people on 1 Whit kens he o' the bagpipe's charrrms,
f also want to enter a vigorous protest on behalf of •Contemptuous o' half-tones;
the publishers of Technical Books whose stocks of books Whit ither eenstrument sae weel
For Scotsmen shrieks and groans,
dealing with transmitters and transmitting will be Expressing thus their attitude
rendered obsolete, I met Mr. F. J, Camm the other Tae ither lesserr races,
day walking along the corridors of Tower House in a Wha should, in common modesty,
thoughtful mood, and when the Editor is in a thoughtful Frae Scotsmen hide their faces ?
mood he is either going to write a book, or trouble is Was Bobby Burrrns nae ceevilised,
brewing. When trouble is brewing I make myself as Wha Shakespeare pits tae shame ?
scarce as during an air raid. Tactful inquiries from fs haggis not a royal dish
his retinue of private secretaries elicited the information Tae silence hunger's pain ?
that the publishers wished to know why his various And whusky—there's a drink for ye
wireless books did not include the string-tin-bamboo Nae savage could invent;
transmitters. The Publishing department had been And wha like Scots so weel inforrrmed
answering urgent telephone calls all day from dis- Hoo bawbees should be spent ?
gruntled purchasers of books who presumed that F. T. C. Forbye, let's waste nae furrtherr time
Aboot this feckless loon.
was holding out on them. The usual excuse that the But leave him tae his blathering
Censor had refused to pass the information would nol Awa in London toon !
wash. He doesna need tae fash himself—
On behalf of the wireless industry who manufacture Oor parritch still is prized ;
transmitting valves and components I protest that the And all the wurruld may see from this
Hoo farr we'rrr ceevilised !
disclosure by the B.BIC. of this new invention is rendering '* Torch."
154 PRACTICAL WIRELESS March, 1943
1 The Talks
1 I
sss- m
-
m
%
wmm
Where the recordings /or talks With
North America are made: Many of
the speakers give their talks during
the night—" live." But recordings
are also made so that the talk?
can be transmitted again.
IN a building that was once a well-known West End each night, hours' non-
store, the North American Service of the British stop service of news, talks, Radio News Reel goes on the air : A
Broadcasting Corporation now functions. The main features, and variety goes day's news. This nightly programme is
hall of the shop is now partitioned off into nests of out to America. feature.
offices like an egg box. The bare walls are roughly
painted, and the marble staircase—which used to lead Underground Studios
to the basement—now looks as ludicrous as if it were - The studios arc underground. On your way to them,
furnishing a hay loft. you are guided through narrow passages lined with
The Nprth American Service is one of the B.B.C.'s compartments like a railway coach. Through half-open
most ambitious programmes. Starting at 11.15 p.m. doors, you occasionally catch a glimpse of a shirt-sleeved
The night's programme begins : Broadcasting a An outdoor broadcast: America n
London letter. Every week* an outdoor tecordim
London streets to colled unreh
ordinary Londoi
A
<et!. mn
■m
March, 1943 PRACTICAL WIRELESS
North America
®: : > •, *i si
... ■1
*
m
WJMSSSSSSSS
The B.B.C.'s other Brains Trust—
Answering You"—on the North
American service. Every week,
experts meet to broadcast answers
to
leading questions, sent in by
U.B. listeners, on Britain's war
effort.
figure behind a battery more girls are in charge of a formidable control board
: A sound picture of the of telephones; a Finally, you re shown into a little cell heavily lined with
le is anmportant overseas tousled-haired body- some sound absorbent material, from where you make
probably belonging to your broadcast. A few minutes before your zero hour
, a producer onwith
early morning programme to see to—resting an
a camp you are joined by an announcer. As the second hand
bod; a trousered secretary dividing her attention between climbs the last quarter-minute before you make your
a typewriter and beef t-ea. It,is the night staff on duty. talk, the announcer says " Quiet, please," in a mechanical
Down below, on the studio floor, you see engineers—• voice. Then he announces : " This is the North American
men and girls—bending over turntables cutting discs. Service of the British Broadcasting Corporation," and
\ou go into a room labelled Red Network, where two you are left with the microphone.
ca meets" John Londoner." •*—
thanoutthe■
eu s
ding van goes out into the I? ll'L^'news
' Room, ten minutes he/ore
nrehearsed interviews with O.e.C. to America is shorter andasnaopier
bullelln noes
nd oners. "."V"'"—^ news on the Home Service programmes-
PRACTICAL WIRELESS March, 1943
156
Practical Hints
Bandspread Slow-motion Dial r bolt is soldered over the middle hole
FACED with the problem of ob- THAT DODGE OF YOURS! f in the strip of metal, the strip being
taining an effective slow-motion ! Every Reader ol "PRACTICAL WIRE- ! then bolted to the earpiece sind
dial for a miniature set (built in an (LESS "which
dodgenot must would
have originatedother somereaders.
little SI locked with nuts. The diaphragm is
Army mess tin) the following gadget = Why pass it on tointerest
us P We pay £1-10-0 ~
was. devised. A bushing taken from " otherfor the best hint submitted, and for every | scraped and sandpapered all round
the edge so that it beds down and
item publishedTurn
an old knob was soldered to a segment | pay half-a-guinea. on that
this idea
page ofwoyours
will | makes a good electrical contact with
of tin (as shown) and into the grub 1 to the account by sending it in toWIRELESS,"
us addressed I= the base. On the other side the paint
screw hole a long screw was fitted, ) toGeorge Editor, " PRACTICAL is scraped away iri the middle and
with an Jin. milled-edged washer s ampton Newnes, Street, Strand, W.C.2. PutSouth-
Ltd., Tower House, your I" then a blob of solder is dropped on to
soldered to the end. This was (name and address on every item. Please
note that every notion sent in must be i reassembled, | make the contact. The whole is then
slipped on to condenser spindle and 2 original. Mark envelopes!" Practical Hints." i one wire of the earphone
then the knob was replaced. A drive | DO NOT enclose Queries with your hints, fl is soldered to the earphone itself,
was devised from a piece of -|-in. the other wire being taken to a
brass tube, a washer A being SPECIAL NOTICE battery. Another wire is connected
soldered to spindle while the other, All hints must be accompanied by the to the' bolt on the top from the bat-
B, was left floating and held against coupon cut from page iii of cover. tery, and the buzzer is then ready
the segment by the spring C. A 6 J for use. Slowly screw the middle bolt
B.A. screw was slipped through the down until the buzzer starts to work,
tube and bolted to the panel. The, method of tuning then gradually tighten the screw for the required pitch.
is to slacken off the screw in bush D and rotate the dial If the buzzer just gives a " click " and nothing more,
until the desired waveband is found. Tighten up screw reverse the connections to the battery. In the original
I fitted silver contacts and a condenser to eliminate
sparking, but these, of course, are optional.—A. B. West
(Winchmore Hill),
Simple Voltmeter
AN easily made voltmeter can be constructed as fol-
lows : Make a wooden box, of a suitable size,, and
cut a pointer A from thin aluminium, and pivot it to the
back of the box. Next make the lever B from thin iron
strip, and solder a piece of thin wire to A and B. Obtain
a solenoid, and screw it to the back of the box in a
suitable position under the lever B. Attach a weak
spring to the pointer A, and fix to the box ; then put a
Pointer A
Peg O
A simple slow-motion dial arrangement.
D, and select stations with the slow-motion drive knob. Weak
Spnng £"
It will be seen that a ratio of something like 12 to 1 can
be obtained without using much panel space. The seg- Wire C
ment can be cut to spread over 10 or 20 degrees according Lever B -
to requirements.—J. A. Robinson (Salford).
An Improvised Buzzer Solenoid
IJERE is a small buzzer I devised from the junk box.
* It is a high-note buzzer with a pleasant musical
tone which I find ideal for morse practice. UO'J
The sketch is self-explanatory, but here are a few
words on construction. An earphone is taken to pieces,
and in the earpiece two small holes are drilled each side
of the centre hole for taking two bolts which are fitted
with lock-nuts, as shown. A fairly thick strip of A useful voltmeter made from odd parts.
metal is then drilled with three holes corresponding small nail or peg on the back of the box, to prevent the
with the holps in the earpiece, and a nut to take a small pointer from being pulled right back. To complete,
Nut soldered to make a small scale and stick behind the pointer. If
Mete! Strip desired it can be calibrated with a standard voltmeter.—
v:^ S W. W. Smith (Plymouth).
Soldered
Contact
Radio Engineer's Vest Pocket Book
3/6 or 3/9 by post, from
& GEORGE NEWNES LTD., Tower House,
Leod soldered here Southampton Street, Strand, London, W.C.2.
A Ugh-note luzzer contrived from an old earphone.
March, 1943 PRACTICAL WIRELESS 159
PITMAN'S
WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. Notes for Students
Compiled by W. E. Crook, A.M.I.E.E., A.F.R.Ae.S. This
book represents the theoretical part of the Wireless Course given
in England's Air Training Centre, and sets forth in simple language,
with no more than the necessary minimum of formulae and
mathematics, all that the candidate need know in order to satisfy
the examiner of the adequacy of his knowledge. Third Edition
73. 6d. net.
VALVEHOLDERS ELEMENTARY HANDBOOK FOR WIRELESS
Manufactured under " Amphenoi " OPERATORS
Licence. By W. E. Crook. Presents a general view of radio communication
Preferred by radio engineers with an introduction to its technique, and enables the recruit
because of their Strength, and the
.he wireless operator to '"see
"see where they are going " and
Efficiency and Uniform to gain a sound, all-round knowledge of the subject, even though
Contact. they might be without previous technical knowledge. Second
Send for list of English and Edition. 4s. net.
American types.
THE SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER
By Alfred T, Witts, A.M.I.E.E'. This is an essential book for
all who are interested in modern radio. It is a practical and handy
guide to superhets and tells you all about their working, con-
struction, and maintenance. An excellent book for Radio
Mechanics serving with the Forces. Fifth Edition. 5s. net.
SHORT WAVE RADIO
By J. H. Reyner. A comprehensive, practical survey of modern
BRITISH
MADE developments in the use of short, ultra-short and micro-waves.
It provides a great deal of valuable data concerning the practical
¥ # ■%; ■ AV' methods of their use in radio and television transmission. I0s.6d. net.
Write for Pitman's Radio List. It contains details of thirty
books dealing with every branch of radio and television. This
CELESTION LTD. and their graded list—Books About Jobs—will be sent post free
on request to Pitman House, Parker St., London, W.C.2
.KlfJCSTON-UPON-THAMES SURREY
KINgston S6S6-7-8.
II O O K S
'//if/
1
# "fe UNIVERSAL TAYLOR.
METER MODEL 90—
38 ranges.
Sensitivity 1,000 ohms per Delay in delivery is un-
volt A.C. and D.C. avoidable, but every effort
Fitted with Taylor 4|-inch is being made to meet
square-type Moving Coil Trade requirements.
Meter. Size Sin; by Sin. by B^-in.
Nett Price : £1111s. Weight 4ilbs.
meters
Write for complete details to :
TAYLOR ELECTRICAL INSTRUWENTS, LTD., MONTROSE AVENUE, SLOUGH, BUCKS.
SLOUGH 21331
Greenwood
160 PRACTICAL WIRELESS March, 1943
* * * ELEOTRADIX ★ * *
Panel
3 amps., Switch Rheostats.
6 volts. Dimmers,''Off"Charger
and 0 Sub-circuit
to 1 ohm, GALPINS
Regulators, Model Speed
and extra bracket for rack. Hollow control, etc., 1 hole flying
knob has base for min. bulb to glow ELECTRICAL STORES
when " on." Makers Aetna Co., 21, WILLIAM STREET,
U.S.A. New for 2/6. Worth 5/-.
40
gridAmp.
type Rheostats.
with heavy 10-stud Large ironclad
switch, SLOUGH, BUCKS.
drops 230 volt mains to 50 volts. 'Phone; SLOUGH 20855.
Size : 33in. x IGin. x 14in., £5 10s. Od.
110 volt ditto, size 16in. x 14in. x 16in., TERMS: Cash with order.
£2 103. Od.
Relays. Telephone No. 6 twin bobbin
polarised S.P. Change-over, 6 volts 25 m/a, 8/6 SHEET EBONITE, size 12in. by llin. by
No. A " on-off" S.P. 2 volts, 5/-. Less contact l/32in., best quality. Price 4/- per doz.,
blades,
10.000 ohms,1,000 ohm coil C.T.,
enclosed, new,2/6.
22/6. Photo Cell Relays, post free.
Haudcorabs. Ex Government. All- ELECTRIC LIGHT CHECK METERS,
metal Field or Pocket
microphone combinations. hand-telephone- OUR well-known makers, first-class condition,
Microphone-Telephones orThese are
Trans- electrically guaranteed, for A.C. mains
ceivers for use with portable or fixed GENERAL STOCK 200/250 volts 50 cy. 1 phase 5 amp. load,
telephones. They are the famous of components, valves, both British and 10/- each ; 10 amp. load, 12/6, carriage 1/-.
No.
Field16Sets.Handcomb
Sturdilyused builtinwith
so many
mike U.S.A., is unsurpassed. Sorry no com- 1 K.W. FIRE ELEMENTS mounted ready
finger switch4-wayandflexible
they cord,are 15/-.
fine. prehensive list available these days, please for use, size 16 x If x lin., 220v., easily
New, with inquire
will for ANYTHING RADIO. WEBB'S
assist. mounted in any cover, as new. Price
Ditto
to refit there are a number able
less cord, 12/6. For those less Slow motion dials, panel escutcheon 8/6 each, post free.
finger switch and cord, for 7/6. complete,
Three gang indicator scalecondensers
.0005 tuning in degrees 3/6 CROMPTON DYNAMO, 50/75v. at 25
Long or short 4-way Cords, 2/6. withBand
trimmers amps., 4 pole, shunt wound, speed 1,750
More Radio Outfit
Ceils, 21-. Sundries. Raycraft
with Relay, 42/-.Selenium
CrystalPhoto
Sets, S.W. Spread Condensers, ceramic' 7/6 r.p.m., condition as.new. Pfice £8 10s.,
15/- and 25/-Steel each.double Headphones for 2/6.
same,Single
12/6. end-plates. 20 or 40 mmfd. both ... 3/6 carriage paid.
Headbands. Browns type, Similar forwire
tuning, 85 mmfd 12yds. for each
4/6 AUTO TRANSFORMER, 1,000 watts,
Receivers, 4/6. Crystal Catswhisker Detectors, 2/6. Push back 1/- tappings 0-110-200-220-240 volts, for
Spare Crystal. 1/-
Carborundum, 7/6.'tin.. Intsrvalve
Perikon permanent,
Transformers, 2/-. Dubilier Imfd. 2,000 v. Wkg. paper step up or down, condition new. Pride
Ericsson type, 5/-. Loud Speaker Units, magnetic condr. 9/- £3 15s., carriage paid.
type, Dubilier
condr. 2 mfd. 1,000 v. Wkg. paper 9/-
Dials,res3/6.
low
Telsen
4/6.switch Telenor Dials,607/6.m/a.,Slow
Instrument
Rheostats,Fuses, 2/6. Panels 4d.
Motion
Panel
cut square Valve screening cans, height 5iin.. 1/6
POWER PACKS for smoothing, etc.,
consisting of two 300 ohm chokes and
and finished, some drillings jin. thick, 6Jin. x 13in. dia. ISin two 2 mE. condensers. Price 7/6 post free.
aluminium, 3/-. Bakclite ditto, 6fin. x 7iin., 2/6. Modulation
6,000 ohms Transformers,
to 6.600 50 watts, 48/-
ohms expanders, LOUD RINGING BELLS, working on
Magnets
steel, various for meters,
sizes, etc.
3/6 andHorseshoe
4/6 each.permanent
Intense R.M.E. DM36X Frequency 110 volts D.C., 8in. dia. gong (bell metal),
Midget convert
10-metreany S.W. receiver for 5with
and
in. dia.,Disc
2/6 orself-jumping
4/6 pair. magnets, 2 ozs., 1 3/l6th
Electric Soldering Irons, operation, complete
self-contained power-pack ... £14 10s,
plated, waterproof, absolutely as new.
Price 30/-, carriage. 2/-.
GO watts, copper and heaters stocked, 12/6. 1 K.W. TRANSFORP/IER, input 100 volts
Plugs and Sockets. Radio 2-pin socket and plug, SPECIAL—
9d.
5 pairpair.socketSockets
strip mounted
panel andononepanel, plug,4/62/-.doz. Model
pairs. U.S.A. type Metal keys, modelled on at 100 cycles, Single phase, output 10,500
5-pin plugs with panel socket and cords, compact famous
L.F. McElroy
chokes, idealkeyfor ...preliminary 4/6 volts, centre tapped to earth. Price
type, 4/6 pair. 14-way plug and socket with cord, smoothing for amplifiers or re- £4 10s., carriage forward.
7/6. 4-way flex cord, 5 ft., 2/3. HEAVY DUTY CABLE, V.I.R., and
Transformers.
C.T. 150 m/a. L.T.220winding, volts 50approx.
cycle to7 volts
4,0004 amps.
volts, ' 45h at 10 m/A D.C.,70h
ceivers. Inductance 28hatatzeroD.C.,
25 m/A braided, in first-class condition, size 37/13,
70/-. d.O 8/6 lengths 30 to 40 yards. Price by the
Condensers. Solo High Grade Variable .0005 mfd. length 6/- per yard, carriage paid, or
in original carbon, logarithmic We carry ST@€KS 7/6 per yard for short lengths, carriage
vanes. Formo
lator and single tuning S.W.,P for oscil- paid.
4/6. Condensers 2 mfd. of specialized radio components 1 K.W. TRANSFORMER, input 200/250
Fixed for supply against volts, output ;62 to 76 volts, tapped at
smoothers
lier and T.C.C. G.P.O.,.25 2/6.
mfd., Dubil-
cased, OFFICIAL NEEDS every two volts, in new condition. Price
2/-. H.T. Mica .25 mfd. for £5, carriage paid.
4,000 volts, 10/-. Large 1 mfd. A few examples only can be given from D.C. MOTORS, HOv. approx. 1/10 h.p.,
metal our wide and varied stock :—
1 mfd.cased, 2,000 volts,
oil filled case, 10/6.
B.I. Microammeters, various ranges.
series wound, iq perfect working order.
Price 13/6 each,' carriage paid.
6,000 volt condensers, 35/-. 2 Milliammeters.
mfd., 4,000 volts, 45/-.
Chargers. We. have som e specially large Westinghouse Instrument
Avo and Taylor Dials0/1multi-range
to O'Indicators.
and l.OOO.
Test Instru-
ROTARY CONVERTER, D.C. to D.C.;
input 220 volts D.C. ; output 12 volts at
230
at 8volt
voltsRectifier Chargers
for priority for 15from
delivery amps,stock.
and 32 amps, ments. 50 amps. D.C., ball bearing, condition as
Dynamo Bargains. We have a large stock of all Polystyrene IJ,od, tube and sheet. new. Price £10, carriage forward, or
sizes. Special Rotax4iin.6 todiameter,
12 volts, weight
8 amps.11D.C., Transmitting Tuning Condensers, various 17/6 passenger train.
3rd brush, Sin. long lbs., capacities, from 500 to 5,000 volt working. EX R.A.F. ROTARY CONVERTER, D.C.
Unused, 17/6. L.T.-H.T. Double-current G.E.C., Crystals and holders,
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17 lbs., 27/6, carriage paid England and Wales. insulation. volts at 30 m/amps., condition as new.
Motor Price 50/-, carriage paid.
in stock.Generators and Rotary Converters for radio, Transmitter
air gap .100 type flxeJ padder condensers.
and .238. HEAVY DUTY knife switches, D.P.,
Tanks, etc. Open water tanks for engines, storage, Modulation transformers, multi-match D.T., quick break, 100 amps., in first-
fire, 14in.forbyany
bottles 5ft.,pressure,
with fittings,pint45/-. Welded
size 8Mn. steel
x 2$in., types. class condition. Price 20/-, carriage paid^
new from 4in.
lin. belt, works, 3/6. 4/6,
outside, Vee Pulleys
Endlessturned
Belts,steel for
rubber- 200 AMP. SWITCH FUSE, 3 way, iron-
ized, 7/6. All EHOYSTONE clad, new, 400 volt, size overall 30 x 12 x
Petrol 12m., £5, carriage paid.
cyl., fanEngines
cooled,for21 h.p.,
Dynamo or Pump-driving,
governor, magneto, oiltwin and components generally available, ALTERNATOR, output 220 volts, 1 ph.,
fuel tanks. Light weight portable, with extension 50 cycles at 180 watts, will give 1 amp.
box—aluminium bed, £15. though OFFICIAL requirements must easily, speed 3,000 r.p.m.; self-exciting,
Pumps.
D.C. towithoutStuart
230 Motor
A.C., Pumps,
voltsmotors, centrifugal
£4£3.4s. Od. 12 volt
R Twin-piston take priority.
pumps Motors on priority condition as new. Price £8, carriage paid.
Eeresford Stork electric pump, 300 galls on 40ft. Additional charge of I/- for postage and I WATT WIRE END Resistances, new
£17 10s. Od. packing on orders below 10/-. and unused, assorted sizes (our assort-
" Nitnday
The Leadix" Mains
Nitndays Chargers.
are theAbest rangeandfor cheapest
all jobs, ment), 6/6 per doz., post free.
trouble-free chargers. Any A.C. mains voltage to WEBB'S RADIO, 14, Soho St., Oxford St.,
2, 4, 6 or 12 volts. Steel chassis. Safe for ever. London, W.l. Telephone : Gerrard 2089 EPOCH SUPER CINEMA Speaker, 20 watt,
15in. cone, 15 ohm speech coil, 6 volt field
Please add postage on all mail orders, and Open 9 a.m. to 4 p.m. Sots., 9 a.m. (NO energising) in first class condition.
send stamped envelope for replies to enquiries. to 12 noon Price £7 10s. 0d., carriage paid.
ELEOTRADIX RADIOS
19, Qroughton SL, Battersea, London,S.W.8 NOTE.—I regret to say no orders can be
fsesaesBTelephone : Macaulsy 2159.3 accepted from Eire or Northern Ireland.
*
March, 1943 PRACTICAL WIRELESS 161
Permanent Magnets
Magnets Play an Important Part in Radio, and this Article by L. SANDERSON Describes Hov(
Various Types are Made
NOTHING is more astonishing in the history of Laboratory, Cambridge, and weighed approximately
metallurgical research and its application to 21 tons complete.
industry than the progress in the design, use and •We shall deal later with the materials now being used
composition of permanent magnets, as well as in the for magnets, but it is important to note that by far the
processes by which they are manufactured. The writer majority of the magnet alloys being used to-day are cast
can remember, some 30 years or so -ago, when the only to form owing to their inability to be forged.
available types of permanent magnets were made from
a steel containing tungsten, and how numerous were the Electric Meter Magnets
complaints of breakage in hardening ! While it is untrue Electric meter magnets constitute a typical example.
to say that tungsten steel magnets cannot be successfully
hardened, it remains a fact that the old types of These are first moulded in an oil-bonded sand, specially
permanent magnet needed great skill in. hardening, and suitable for the casting of small objects. The moulds
are mechanically produced by manually-operated
even so, a percentage of fractures was then regarded as moulding
inevitable. Moreover, the uses of these magnet? were plates. Bymachines in which are incorporated stripper
the adoption of an ingenious system, as many
limited.
To-day, not only are materials being used for permanent as 24 castings can be obtained from a single built-up
mould. A typical meter magnet is shown in Fig. 1.
magnets that were never dreamed of in those days, but The
the properties obtainable from such magnets seem stem,magnets, when cast, are grouped about a central
and are severed from this by means of a series- of
light hammer blows.
The method of building up the mould is interesting.
The first item is the base (Fig. 2), on to which is placed
a series of five intermediate moulds (Fig. 3), the whole
being crowned by a cap or top piece having a funnel-
shaped pouring hole. The base contains four impressions,
and, consequently, produces four magnet castings. The
same is true of the five intermediate moulds, which,
however, have, in addition, a hole cored through the
/4 rr middle to allow the molten metal to flow (Fig. 4).
Sometimes magnets are cast, as more convenient, in
gap sets of eight, employing the base, an upper mould and
a top piece. A mould of this type is capable of being
easily conveyed by means of a roller conveyer. Pairs
of assembled moulds are placed on steel strips spanning
approximately four rollers. The alloy is then poured
Fig. I .—A typical meter magnet. into the moulds, which are allowed to cool. On comple-
tion of cooling they are conveyed by the roller conveyer
through an opening into a knock-out shed. The three
incredible by comparison with what was formerly thought portions
possible. Moreover, the applications of these magnets wooden wedges. of eagh mould are secured by clamps and
have multiplied and spread, until to-day their manu-
facture constitutes one of the most vital and important
new industries of the north and Midlands. Permanent Electric Crucible Furnace
magnets are used to-day in speedometers, magnetic The magnet alloys are usually melted in a high-
compasses, miners' lamps, radio and gramophone sets, frequency electric crucible' furnace, the advantages of
electric measuring apparatus, electric clocks, telephonic which in purity of metal and facility of . operation are
apparatus, and many other fields. well enough known to need no special enumeration here.
A permanent magnet is one that keeps its magnetism Each furnace holds approximately 5 cwts. of metal, tilts
even after the magnetising force has been removed. bodily, and teems the magnet alloy into ladles, which
There appears to be no definite rule governing the are then transported to the mould assemblies on the
length of time a magnet retains its magnetism. Much roller conveyer.
depends, of course, upon the application and the The casting cooled down, the moulds are broken open
treatment given to it. In general, however, it used to and the castings cleaned up ready for machining. There
be considered that an ordinary loudspeaker magnet are five machining stages. In the first the rough casting
would retain sufficient magnetising force to fulfil its is ground on sides and ends. The magnet is then sub-
effective function for a period of nine to ten years, by jected to a necessary heat treatment and 4 later
which time it was assumed that design would
have altered and- improved so radically as
to render the magfiet obsolete, anyhow.
How Permanent Magnets are Made
Before we embark upon the intricate details
of magnet application an^l design, it is advis-
able to indicate as clearly as possible how
permanent magnets are made. It must be
borne in mind that magnets are of numerous
types, weights and dimensions. Magnets may
weigh as much as celbs. or more, and as little
as the fraction of an ounce. Edgar Allen and
Co., Ltd., of Sheffield, manufactured some
time ago the largest permanent magnet in
the world. This was made for the Cavendish Fig. 2.—Mould base. Fig. 3.—Intermediate mould.
162 PRACTICAL WIRELESS March, 1943
secondary treatment, and' ground again, after which it is illustrated in Fig. 5. These are made from strip magnet
drilled, finish-machined after hardening, and the gap cut. steel by means of a punch and die. Where the magnets
The first grinding operation comprises grinding both are of relatively large dimensions, the strip material is
faces on a surface-grinding machine, 36 magnets being heated up to a suitable temperature, and the punching
ground simultaneously by means of a magnetic chuck, carried out hot, but the smaller pieces are punched out
using a rain, diameter segmental wheel running at a cold. Extreme accuracy is essential in the manufacture
spindle speed of 1,450 r.p.m. The wheel segments last of these magnets, and as a rule it is seldom that a greater
on average about eight hours. tolerance than plus or minus o.ooiin, is allowed on the
The sides and ends are next ground on an end-grinding , overall external diameter and the thickness. The
machine, the magnet being positioned by means of a central hole has a diametral allowance of plus or minus
right-angle plate and clamped in position. A three- o.ooisin.
segment wheel is employed for this work, running at Magnetisation and Test
the same speed as the surface-grinder, and measuring A different type of apparatus is, however, required
lain, in diameter. This operation completed, the magnet tor their magifetisation and test. The apparatus includes
is stamped with the manufacturer's name and other a magnetising fixture, a testing fixture, and a fluxmeter,
marks as required. After heat treatment the next stage the latter providing a reading of the magnetic strength
is surface-grinding the work on a single face in a surface- of the magnet in the testing fixture. These particular
grinding machine. The same number of magnets is clock magnets are of what is termed the six-pole variety,
ground simultaneously on a magnetic chuck. Drilling alternate points forked and having opposite polarity.
of the hole is carried out on a Thus, the piece possesses three north poles and three
sensit've drilling machine with south poles, north and south being alternately spaced.
a 5 mm. drill of super high- The magnetising fixture has six electro-magnets whose
speed steel, and specially short cores run radially from the centre where the magnet is
and stubby design. The jig located. By means of a lever, the brass table on which
carries a screw which engages the magnet is laid is elevated to facilitate loading and
one side of the magnet and unloading. When the magnet is correctly located on
presses the other side up the table, the latter is lowered, and the current is
against a stop. The magnet passed through the coils for a brief period, thus strongly
is clamped from the back, the magnetising the magnet. The magnet is then removed
plate pulling it back against to the testing fixture. Here, the magnetic circuit is
a ground plate which positions completed from the magnet poles through a six-poled
the face ground at the earlier jig, the poles of which register with the poles of the
operation. piece under test. The jig poles are coil-wound, the coil
wires being linked up in series with the fluxmeter
Magnets Cooled in Air Blast terminals. By means of a second lever, the table carrying
After being hardened the the magnet is elevated and indexed through 60 deg.,
magnets are cooled in an air then permitted to descend. This breaks down the
blast; magnets, such as those magnetic field, and builds it up again in the contrary
used for electric clocks, are direction. As this field is cut by the coils, a current is
clamped in place on trays of necessarily generated through the wires, and is measured
wire gauze. The method of by the fluxmeter.
cooling is to provide air ducts Before we come to discuss the modem materials used
of cylindrical form in which lor permanent magnets, it will be of value to outline
are perforated an adequate briefly the early history of magnets. Magnetism was
number of holes. The neces- studied in extremely ancient times. The Greeks knew
Fig. 4. Magnets grouped sary air blast is furnished by about magnetic iron oxide, and a certain shepherd
around a central metal core, an electric motor-driven fan, namhd Magnus is said to have discovered by chance the
produced ^ajtngle bmlt-up and the flow ^ regulated by
means of a damper. The action of magnetic iron oxide on his iron-shod boots
when he was tending sheep on the slopes of Mount Ida.
ducts are placed over the cooling trays, and a horseshoe The Romans also knew this same " loving stone," which
magnet is employed as a means of deciding when the was later described by a French troubadour, Guyot de
magnets have cooled sufficiently to be magnetic. Provins, in 1180, as " an ugly and brownish stone to
The next stage is sand-blasting, followed by surface which iron joins itself willingly." It was, however, only
grinding of the bottom face, using a surface grinder and towards the twelfth century that the magnetised needle
segmental wheel. Some accuracy is demanded of this and the compass employing it were known to the
operation, the effective tolerance on, magnet thickness navigators of Europe, at first
being plus or minus o.oocin. The gap in the magnet is in a most rudimentary form.
then cut by means of an abrasive wheel, the gap width In 1675 lightning striking
being 2,5mm., and this again is held to a tolerance of an English ship reversed, it
plus or minus 0.01mm. Accuracy is also essential in is said, the poles of the
regard to the location of the gap, vis-d-vis an end magnetised needle of the
of the magnet, and here the tolerance permissible is compass, and made the ship
plus or minus 0.075mm. involuntarily return towards
The final stages cover magnetisation, testing, gauging, its point of departure. At
demagnetisation, and re-magnetisa' on for dispatch. theft time the phenomena of
The procedure for magnetising is of interest. A number magnetisation and demagnet-
of the magnets are strung over an assembly of three isation were almost unex-
copper rods each insulated from its neighbour and bound plained, and remained so right
together. When placed in the magnetiser, the extremities
of these rods are clamped to insulated copper contacts. Fig. 5.—Extreme accuracy is up to the beginning of the
Tie magnetising current is furnished by an electric necessary in the production of jgtih century, running parallel
generator operating at a low voltage. In effect, the these magnets for electric clocks. with electrical phenomena.
current is virtually short-circuited through the copper By" degrees the work of Oersted, Arago, Ampere,
rods, passing at 4,000 amps. Thus, the three rods produce Faraday and numerous other workers in this field,
in combination an effect of 12,000 ampere turns, fully founded the science of magnetism and electro-magnetism.
adequate to saturate the magnet. The electric telegraph was one of the first applications
Small Magnets for Electric Clocks to derive benefit from this science, the others still
Somewhat different methods have to be used when constituting simple curiosities that employed only the
the magnets are of extremely small dimensions, such as carrying power of the magnets.
those employed for electric clocks and other purposes, (To be contimied)
PRACTICAL WIRELESS 163
A Refresher Course m
Mathematics
By F. J. CAMM
(Continued from page 124, February issue.)
Annulus, Ellipse, Prisms, Pyramids, Cones, Spheres, Etc.
Area o£ Annulus approximately. The formula yielding a fairly close
THE area of an annulus is the difference of the areas result is:
. of the two circles. Thus, in Fig. i, the area of
the outer circle is and the area of the inner Where a is half the major7i(a-\-h)
axis, and h half "the minor axis.
circle is rrr2. Hence : In other words, the length of the circumference of an
Area of annulus =7iR2 —nr2. ellipse is found by multiplying half the sum of the major
As tc is common to both, we may write : and minor axis by
Area of annulus =:7tCR2—r2)
_ i =nlR+r) (R—r). Centre of Gravity
Here it will The centre of gravity of a body is that point through
be seen that the bracketed quantity has been which the resultant of the gravity of its parts passes in
factorised, as explained in the chapters on algebra. It every position
will be seen from this last formula that to find the area every particle of a body can assume. It is well known that
of an annulus we multiply together the sum and the and the weight• of a given body is attracted by the earth,
difference of the two radii which gravity exerts the body represents the total force
and then by on the particles. The forces
acting on the body are directed towards the centre of
Length of Coil of Belting the earth, and their resultant, in other words the weight
The rule, to find the of the body, will act through a definite point, known as
length of a rolled coil of the centre of gravity. It is obvious that With a sym-
belting is L= {D+d) metrical figure the centre of gravity will coincide with
the. geometrical centre. With a circular disc of metal,
where L—length of belt or any other substance, the centre of gravity will be the
in feet, n=$lli7, n = num- centre from which the circle is struck, provided the
ber of turns and fractions disc is of uniform thickness.
of a turn in the coil, With a triangle, the centre of gravity will be in a line
Z) = outside diameter of which joins the vertex to the middle point of the opposite
roll in inches, £f=inside side, as in Fig. 4. The centre of gravity of the triangle
diameter of roll in is the point of. intersection of the two bisecting lines,
Fig. 1.—Annulus. inches. As, however, — Tig-With 4- ,
an irregular figure, suspend it from any two
is constant the formula may be rewritten thus: points, as in Fig. 5 ; the point of intersection of the two
L=.139/1 (jp-M). lines will be the centre of gravity.
Area of an Ellipse
The area of an ellipse is r.ah (Fig. 2), This can be Area of Sector of'Circle
proved in a manner similar to that already given for theA area circle contains 360°. It therefore follows that
of . a sector will bear the same relation to the
proving the area of a circle.
Another practical proof is to draw two ellipses of area of the circle as the included angle A bears to 360°
identical size, and to circumscribe one of them with a is ur-) it is easythis
(Fig. C). From, (remembering that the area of a circle
rectangle. Divide this into four equal rectangles. Now of a circle. The to arrive at the formula for a sector
divide one rectangle into seven equal strips, and cut in degrees of the formula sector):
is (letting A denote the angle,
away the shaded part (Fig. 3). Now cut out the other A
ellipse, and place it in one pan of a pair of scales, and 2
the other in the second pan of the scales. It will be 360
found that the weights of each are equal. As the In circular measure it is more usual to denote the angle
shaded portion has an area equal to s1/? x the area of one by 0. We have seen that 360° = 271: radians, and
rectangle, it is "bvious that -the area of an ellipse is therefore
r.ah.
The circumference of an ellipse can only be calculated
vk\
i h
5 P C
Fig, 16.—Pyramid. Fig, 17.—Calculating slant height of pyramid. Fig, 18,—Pyramid
168 PRACTICAL WIRELESS March, 1943
3
Where s=slant height, vertical height of cone, The volume of a cylinder is 2nr , and dividing this
and r=radius of base. by |r, we obtain which equals ^ds.
As with a frustum of a pyramid, the Curved surface
of a cone may be considered as consisting of a number Circumscribing Circle
of trapeziums, the circular ends forming the parallel
sides, and the slant side being the distance between The radius of a circle which may be inscribed in a
them. Therefore, the curved surface of a frustum of triangle is found from the formula:—
& con© p_ ^
(sum of perimeters of ends X slant side) 4 x area of triangle
= | (23ir+2jrf?) / Where a, b and c are the lengths of the sides of the
=jt (R+r) / triangle.
i? and r represent the radius of the base and of the
small end respectively. Inscribed Circle
Total area (curved surface plus area of ends) is found This is found from the formula:
from the formula :
ji(R+r) l+7t (R2+r2) R- Area of triangle
(s—a)Cs--fc)(s—c)
A B , v C
=(j—a)tan—=(i—fc) tan 2 <s-c) tan -
Where s = sum of lengths of sides.
Escribed Circle
To find the radius of the circle touching side a and
sides b and c produced ;
area of triangle _ /s(.s—b) (s- -c)
s—a 'v (s-a)
A
-—-B Figs. 21 and 22 show two examples of the construction
of triangles. It is very important to remember the
point illustrated in Fig. 21, as it frequently occurs in
P examinations.
Fig. 19.—Solid ring. Area of Irregular Figures
A reliable method of calculating the area of irregular
Solid Ring figures, such as the diagram ABDC (Fig. 23) is given
A solid ring may be considered as a cylinder bent into here.
circular fornu and'it is apparent (Fig. 19) that the height Divide the baseline AB into any convenient number
of such a cylinder will be equal to the mean diameter of equal parts. The greater the number the more
of the ring. The mean diameter may be found by adding accurate the result. At the centre of each part erect
together the inner and outer diameters and dividing ordinates, as shown dotted. Now measure the height of
by two. the ordinates aa, bb, cc, dd, ee, ff, gg, hh, and add them
The surface area is equal to the circumference of a cross together. Divide their sum by the number of ordinates.
section multiplied by the mean length. This will give the mean height H, or mean ordinate AJ.
The mean length is nC.
. A+B
Mean diameter is —
Therefore total atsa^znrXznR, where r=
radius of cross section and R=mean radius.
znr x znR =47i"Rr.
The volume of a solid ring is the area of a cross section
multiplied by the mean length.
Area of cross section
Mean length=2jiR
Volume =3ir22 xznR
=2Ji Rr2
Also, if the solid ring is rectangular the mean diameter
is multiplied by the area of the cross section to obtain
the'volume.
Sphere
A sphere is a semicircle rotated about its axis (the
diameter). Any plane section of a sphere is a circle, and
if the plane passes through the centre of a sphere, the
section will be a great circle. Now, the area of the great
circle is, as we have seen, it/2, and the area of a hemi-
sphere is 2-/2. Therefore, the area of a sphere will be
twice that, namely |aw2, or nd2.
The area of a sphere is the same as the area of a cylinder
which exactly encloses the sphere (Fig. 20).
The volume of a sphere is f the volume of the cylinder Fig. 20.—The surface area of a sphere is equal to the surface area
enclosing it of its circumscribing cylinder.
March, 1943 PRACTICAL WIRELESS 169
\
\
A
\
WISH TONGniSTANCEriSTENERS'fiLUB
fLjo;
Satten for
Sugportmg
Fig. 1.—A shelf enables the halteries and'or mains unit to be
kept out of harm's way. A curtain covers the front to protect
them from dust, etc. Fig. 4.—A steel rule fixed thus
taking tl^e output from the top cap I was taking it from proves most handy. It cannot
the base and using the top cap as auxiliary .grid. As Stee/ Rule. get lost.
my detector valve was getting poor, I decided to use a
screen grid valve instead. This meant slight alteration 23 m. ; Kuibishev, Radio Maroc, Rabat^ Morocco. 2=? m:
of the wiring, taking the reaction coil to the auxiliary Radio Brazzaville, WCDA, OFD, JZJ, WLWO, WRUL,
grid instead of to the plate, I was pleased to lind the Radio Algiers, WGEO, WBOS, Radio Saigon, WNBI,
performance was better in all respects. Radio Congo-Beige, ' The Voice of France,' TAG,
" I often read in club notes members describing sets Ankara. 28 m. : Lahti, Finland, Moscow, Radio
-22"
150 120 90 60 Scnews Molding
Bracket 75 Wall
Fig. 2.—A useful distri- H.T— | 1 LT- LT+
bution board, the terminals j r
of which are connected to E
their appropriate supplies,
etc., thus allowing quick
connections to be made VA / fbTMETER.. VA
without taking up bench Aerial Series Cono'r.
space. Ft
■'SeMKE
Detail Oe
74* Supporting
Bracket
as of the o-v-2 type, etc. I would be very grateful if De-bunk. 31 ra.: Radio Algiers, JZI, 'The Voice of
you could give me some information on this subject." Spain for Europe,' Radio Mozambique, Lahti, Radio
Regarding the meaning of o-v-2, we refer No. 7,227 to Budapest, Moscow, Radio Metropole, TAP, Ankara.
the Query page in the February issue, where the matter 37 m: Radio Maroc. 38 m. : SUX, Cairo. 41 m. :
is dealt with.—Hon. Sec. Moscow. 43 m.; Moscow. 49 m. : Emissora Catholiea
Newcastle de Portugal, OAX4Z, Lima, Peru; Radio Metropole,
G. FERGUS, Moscow, Radio Andorra, HVJ. 59 m. ; Moscow.
No. 7,024, " I would like to draw your attention to WJP, on
gives details of 34 m., as I have not seen it reported before. It is situated
his outfit, and at New York and is owned and operated by Press Wireless,
some of the Inc. It broadcasts the News in English every hour on
stations he lias the hour and would appear to commence operating at
logged, , in his midnight B.S.T."
second report.
'' X am basing
my second re-
port to you on
the subject of
short-wave DX.
My receiver is a
o-v-i, screen
fig. 3.—.4 simgle holder grid detector
for loots in frequent use. tran s f o r m e r -
coupled to a
pentode output. It uses 4-pin coils and operates satis-
factorily with a 60ft. inverted ' L' aerial pointing
east. Tuning condenser is .00015 mfd. with .000015
mf4. bandspread. The bandspread control is operated
with a 12-x sjow-motion dial, which gives very accurate toot
and well-spaced tuning. ;Slow motion is also used in
conjunction with the reaction condenser, which enables
me to get the set working at its most sensitive spot,
172 PRACTICAL WIRELESS March, 1943
en Is cuss ion
The Editor does not necessarily agree with the opinions expressed by his correspondents. _ All letters mast
be accompanied by the name and address of the sender (not necessarily for publication).
The " Harkness " Reflex Circuit will agree that this is brought about by the use ot tuning
condensers, which, although rated at the same capacity,
STR,-—I have been extremely interested in some of the have diffepent minimum values. The layout of the
old circuits yon have revived. Some I* remember receiver itlso has a great effect on the waveband
trying out were " Hop wood," " Chitos," and " Trina- coverage on short waves.
dine." I tried out the suggested Reflex one-valver Power factor of condensers was the other point
described in June, 1941 (page 282), which you had not brought up. This would appear to have most bearing
tried out. I find it exceptionally good both in volume and
on the electrolytic type of condenser, whether wet or dry,
quality and it is not too critical m this position ; moving
and gives an indication of the " goodness " of the conden-
the cats-whisker does not make the set burst into ser, a good condenser having a low power factor. Of
oscillation. I kept the two tuned circuits at each end of
course, discretion must be used in judging , condensers
set and did not gang them. I wonder if any reader has this way, as high capacity condensers such as are used in
tried the " Harkness circuit, shpwii in the accom- bias circuits may have a power factor of 30 or more (as
panying diagram. The grid coil is directly grounded measured on a Hunt's Analyser) and still be quite
and there, is also the addition of a grid bias battery. satisfactory. The power factor, of course, has no
I can get quite comfortable reception on the loudspeaker
direct bearing on the capacity of a condenser.
with a Lissen G.P. valve.—N. A. Webb (York).
There are many obscure factors that affect the power
Yugo-slav Freedom Station factor of condensers, but I believe the most important
is the increase in the series resistance caused by drying
SIR,—T wonder if any Teaders have heard a Freedom up of the electrolyte.—Alex Bartholomew (Chapel by
Station in Yugoslavia broadcasting in English ? Kirkcaldy).
I heard this station at 2.30 p.m. on . -
Saturday, January 9th, giving details of \ /
• the guerilla fighting in Yugoslavia. .The
announcement ended with these words, 1
" You are listening to the' Freedom
Station of Yugolavia, on the 25
metre band."
In conclusion I hope you will keep
up the fine standard maintained in
Practical Wireless. It is a fine paper, D os
and has taught me all I know about
radio.—J. McCloy (Stranraer).
Repli es to Queries
WHAT
BIT TtMPERAHiR*
SHOULD Bt USED
PERTRIX fOR 40/60 ALLOY?
K
—the dependable "T"HIS and numerous
' other queries are
answered in reference
A T T E R 1 E S sheet 2 of "Technical
Notes on Soldering,"
published by the manu-
facturers of Ersin Multi-
FOR core — the A.I.D.
approved solder wire
RADIO, CARS with three cores of
non-corrosive Ersin acti-
MOTOR CYCLES vated flux.
Firms engaged on Gov-
COMMERCIAL ernment contracts are
invited to write for a
VEHICLES copy of this reference
sheet and samples of
ETC. Ersin Multicore solder
wire.
Sales Concessionaires :
-.v#
HOLSUN BATTERIES LIMITED £3
137 Victoria Street, London, S.W.I D.9 The Solder Wire with 3 cores of Non-Corrosive Ersin Flux
MULTICORE SOLDERS LTD.. BUSH HOUSE, LOHPOH ffiC.E T..tl.;-..5S8a
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