Compiled according to syllabus prescribed by,

ht

School of Law, University of Kashmir

tp
s:

B.A. LL.B. 1st Semester

//u

Subject: History-I
m

Paper III
ar
m

(Code-BLB103C)
as

“As a human being errors and omissions are expected

oo

due to imperfection, only Allah (S.W.T) is perfect in all

di

affairs. Kindly note if there is any kind of mistake in

.w

the contents provided and do ask for the same”

or

Regards,
dp

-Fahad Nazir-
r es
s.c
om
/
 Unit-I: Definition and Early Indian History
i. History: An Introduction.
The word ‘history’ comes from the Greek word ‘historia’, meaning ‘inquiry,
knowledge acquired by investigation'. History corresponds to the study of the
past and throws light on various past events of significance which shaped and
evolved human experiences. History is the analysis and interpretation of the
ht

past enabling to study continuity and changes that are taking place over time.
tp

It is the narration and examination of the events that has occurred over
s:

different time periods. History is a means to understand the past and present.
//u

Historians use all forms of evidence to examine, interpret, revisit, and

reinterpret the past. These include not just written documents, but also oral
m

communication and objects such as buildings, artifacts, photographs, and

ar

paintings.
m

Following are some definitions given by different scholars which highlight the
meaning and scope of History:
as

E. H. Carr: “History is a process of interaction between the historian and his

oo

facts, an unending dialogue between the present and the past.”

di

Burckhardt: “History is the record of what one age finds worthy of note in
.w

another.”
or

Henry Johnson: “History, in its broadest sense, is everything that ever

happened.”
dp

Rapson: “History is a connected account of the course of events or progress of

r es

ideas.”
NCERT: “History is the scientific study of past happenings in all their aspects, in
s .c

the life of a social group, in the light of present happenings.”

om

History is divided into pre-history, proto-history, and history.

Pre-history: Events that occurred before the invention of writing are
/

considered the domain of pre-history, which is generally represented by the

three stone ages.
Proto-history: Defining proto-history is rather difficult as it has different
connotations. Generally, it refers to period between pre-history and history,
during which a culture or civilisation had not yet developed writing but were

2
mentioned in the written records of a contemporary literate civilisation. For
example, the script of the Harappan civilisation remains undeciphered;
however, since its existence is noted in Mesopotamian writings, it is
considered a part of proto-history. Similarly, the Vedic civilisation from c. 1500-
600 BCE had an oral literary tradition, though they did not take to literary
writing, they can thus be considered a part of proto-history as well.
Archaeologists consider Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures to be a part of
ht

proto-history.
tp

History: The study of the past after the invention of writing and the study of
s:

literate societies based on the written and archaeological sources constitutes

history.
//u

ii. Sources of Ancient Indian History.

m
ar

Broadly there are three types of sources available for reconstructing Indian
History, namely:
m

a) Literary sources
as

b) Archaeological sources
oo

c) Foreign Accounts
di

The sources can also be divided into primary and secondary. All archaeological
.w

artifacts recovered from the earth or written documents are called the primary
or

sources. These are used by the historians to write articles, books or any form
of written history which are used by the subsequent researchers and are,
dp

hence, called the secondary sources.

r es

Literary sources:
Literary sources are divided into, religious literature and secular literature or
s .c

non-religious literature.
om

Religious literature throws considerable light on social and cultural

conditions of ancient Indian period. They include,
/

i) Vedas: The word Veda is derived from the Sanskrit root ‘vid’ which means ‘to
know’. Veda means knowledge. They are earliest known literature from the
Indian subcontinent and are written in Sanskrit. They are traditionally regarded
as ‘heard’ or revealed texts; hence these are called 'Shrutis'.

3
The Vedic literature consists of three different classes of literary works which
are:
a) Samhitas: These are collections of hymns, mantras, prayers, etc.
Four Samhitas are in existence which differ from each other:
• Rigveda: It is the earliest among four Veda Samhitas. It is
comprised of 10 mandalas and 1028 suktas. These were prayers to the
ht

gods like Indra, Varuna, Agni, Parjanya, Vayu, Marut etc. It gives us
tp

information regarding socio-economic, religious, political condition of

s:

Early Aryans. For example, the 'Purushsukta' of Its 10th mandala depicts
the origin of Varna-system in India.
//u

• Atharvaveda: It comprised assorted subjects like magic, black-

m

magic, superstitions etc. We find origins of medicines, botany, and

surgery in this Veda.
ar

• Samaveda: It comprised the prayers to teach how to recite the

m

prayers while performing sacrifices. Again, it comprised the prayers from

as

Rigveda, and provided methods to recite them. Hence, it is considered as

the origin of Indian classical music.
oo

• Yajurveda: It comprised the prayers to be recited while

di

performing sacrifices. Actually, the major parts of the prayers are

borrowed from the Rigveda, itself. Yajurveda throws ample lights on
.w

various Vedic sacrifices.

or

In order to understand the Vedic texts, it was necessary to study the Vedangas
dp

or the limbs of the Veda. These supplements of the Veda comprised phonetics
(Siksha), grammar (Vyakarana), metrics (Chhanda), ritual (Kalpa), Etymology
r es

(Nirukta) and astronomy (Jyotisha).

b) Brahmanas: The Brahmanas are the prose texts which simplifies the Vedas.
s .c

They contain legends, myths, notes on the performance of rituals, as well as

om

explanation of particular sacred words from the Vedas and some philosophy.
c) Aranyakas (forest texts) and Upanishads (secret doctrines): They contain the
/

incantations of the forest hermits and ascetics on God, the world, mankind and
contains a good deal of oldest Indian philosophy.
ii) Epics: Epics comprised of Mahabharata (by Vyasa) and Ramayana (by
Valmiki). We get information from these epics of vast areas of interests, like,
the movement of Aryans throughout Indian subcontinent, their relations with

4
local or native communities and tribes, their political thoughts, institutions,
society, social customs and traditions, forest tribes, economy etc. It also deals
with long-term processes like Aryanization of India, inception of Urbanization,
conflicts between two modes of economies (Pastoralism and agriculture) etc.
In short, to understand India during 8th to 6th century BC, these epics proved
to be important source.
iii) Upanishads: The word Upanishad means 'to learn, by sitting close to one's
ht

teacher'. These were created to teach the learning of Vedic spiritualism,

tp

comprising the subject of, like, knowledge of one's self, knowledge of God,
s:

relations between self and God, creation of Universe, our place in such a vast
Universe, etc. Traditionally there are 108 Upanishads, however, 13 out of them
//u

are considered as important such as, Ken, Kath, Prashna, Aiterya, Chandogya
m

etc. As these come, chronologically, at the end of Vedas, hence, the

Upanishads are also known as 'Vedanta'. The basic backbone of Indian religions
ar

was based mostly on Upanishads, hence, with the help of them we can
m

understand Indian religions more holistically.

as

iv) Sutras: Sutras were compiled around 6th c. BC. These were comprised of
oo

three sutras, viz. Dharmsutras, Shrautsutras and Grihyasutras; together they

are called as Kalpasutras. They throw ample light on such processes, going
di

through during 6th c. BC.

.w

v) Puranas: To understand India of 3rd to 6th century AD, the Puranas help
or

historians in a large manner. The Puranas are mainly comprised of 18 Puranas.

There is a great deal of information of ancient Indian dynasties in Matasya,
dp

Vayu and Vishnu puranas. Puranas are the only available source of the
r

dynasties which ruled after the battle of Mahabharat. Puranas are also the
es

important element in formation of cultural history of Ancient India.

s

vi) Buddhist religious texts: These texts are commonly known as Tripitakas
.c

(three baskets) which are Suttapitaka, Vinayapitaka, and Abhidhammapitaka.

om

Suttapitaka consists of religious ideology and teachings of Buddha,

Vinayapitaka consists of the laws of Buddhist Sangha and Abhidhammapitaka
/

consists of Buddhist philosophies. These Buddhist texts were written in Pali.

Besides Tripitakas, Jataka kathas were created which are compilation of the
stories regarding previous 550 births of Buddha. Jatakas throw light on India
during 6th c. BC.

5
vii) Jaina’s religious texts: The Jain texts were written in Prakrit and were
eventually compiled in AD sixth century in Gujarat. They, however, contain
many passages that help us to reconstruct the political history of eastern UP
and Bihar in the age of Mahavira. The Jain texts refer repeatedly to trade and
traders.

Secular literature includes,

ht

i) Dharmashastra/Law books: The Smriti texts which are Manu Smriti, Narada
Smriti and Yajnavalkya Smriti are considered as law books. These were
tp

composed between c. 200 BCE and 900 CE. They prescribe duties for different
s:

varnas as well as for kings and their officials. They set out rules for marriage
//u

and property. They also prescribe punishments for persons guilty of theft,
assault, murder, adultery etc.
m

ii) Kautilya’s Arthashastra: It is an important law book. The text is divided into
ar

fifteen books of which Book II and III may be regarded as being of an earlier
m

date and seem to have been the work of different hands. It was put into final
as

form in the beginning of the Common Era. However, the earliest portions
reflect the state and society of the Mauryan period. It provides rich material
oo

for the study of early Indian polity and economy.

di

iii) Ashtadhyayi: It was written by Panini and is the oldest grammar/literature

.w

of India. It gives us information about the political, social and religious

condition of pre-Mauryan period.
or

iv) Kalidasa: Compositions of Kalidasa such as 'Abhijananashakuntalam',

dp

'Ritusamhara and 'Meghadutam' which provide us valuable information about

r

the social and cultural life of the Guptas.

es

v) Rajataranagini: This is perceived as the first-book of history of India, as per

s

modern lines of historiography. It is the history of Kashmir, written by Kalhan

.c

(born in 1100 AD in Kashmir). He completed this book within two years, during
om

the reign of King Jaysimha of Kashmir. It is in Sanskrit, comprising eight

Khandas (chapters/volumes) and 7826 shlokas (verses). It gives history of
/

Kashmir from the period of Mahabharata-war up to 12th century AD.

vi) Charita's or biographies: They are written by court poets in praise of their
patron rulers such as 'Harshacharita', written by Banabhatta in praise of King
Harshavardhana.

6
vii) Sangam literature: The earliest south Indian literature produced by poets
who joined together in assemblies (Sangam), provides valuable insight about
the period from 300 BCE till 300 CE. This Tamil literature contains literary gems
of 'Silpadikaram' and 'Manimekali', both shedding light on south Indian society,
economy and polity of those times.

Archaeological sources:
ht

Archaeology is the study of human history through the excavation of sites and
the analysis of artefacts and other physical remains. Archaeological sources
tp

include:
s:

i) Inscriptions: The study of inscriptions is called Epigraphy. Writings engraved

//u

on hard surface such as stone and metal like copper which usually record some
m

achievements or ideas help us in understanding different religious and

administrative policies of ancient times. For instance, inscriptions detailing
ar

state policy issued by Ashoka and inscriptions recording the land grants by the
m

Satavahans, kings of the Deccan.

as

ii) Coins: The study of coins is called Numismatics. Coins provide useful
oo

information not only on the economic history of different dynasties but also
provide input on different parameters involved such as the script, art and
di

religion of the time, as well as the progress made in terms of metallurgy and
.w

science and technology. For instance, the earliest coins found in India were
punch-marked coins and contained only certain symbols and were made of
or

silver and copper, whereas later on the Indo-Greeks introduced gold coins and
dp

issued the coins which bore the names and images of rulers.
r

iii) Ancient Architecture/Monuments: The study monuments not only help us

es

to interpret about the technical skills, living standard, economic condition of

the time but also help us to know about the architectural style of the time.
s .c

iv) Sculpture: Sculpture is the important element of Ancient Indian History. The
om

statues made of that time provides us information about the religious

conditions of the time.
/

v) Paintings: This art is also an important element of history. Ajanta paintings

are beautiful example of Ancient Indian History. The world-famous paintings of
Ajanta give us information about religious ideology, the spiritual serenity, the
ornaments, the costumes, the foreign visitors etc. And of course, through

7
these paintings, we can understand the artistic merit and great aesthetic sense
of concerned period.

Account of Foreign Travellers:

India was visited by many travellers since times immemorial and among them
the notable ones, i.e., Greek, Roman and Chinese visitors, have left behind a
rich account of our historical past. Some of the notables among them were:
ht

(a) Greek Ambassador Megasthenes wrote 'Indica' and provided valuable

tp

information about the Mauryan society and administration.

s:

(b) Similarly, "The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea' and Ptolemy's 'Geography'
//u

both written in Greek provide valuable data regarding Indian ports and
commodities of trade between India and the Roman Empire.
m

(c) Buddhist traveller Fa-Hien who came to India in the 500 CE have left a vivid
ar

account of the age of Guptas.

m

(d) Another noted Buddhist pilgrim Hsuan Tsang visited India in the 700 CE and
as

gave details of India under the reign of king Harshavardhana and glory of
oo

Nalanda University.

iii. Indus Valley Civilization.

di
.w

The history of India begins with the birth of the Indus Valley Civilization, also
known as Harappan Civilization. It flourished around 2,500 BC, in the western
or

part of South Asia, in contemporary Pakistan and Western India. The Indus
dp

Valley was home to the largest of the four ancient urban civilizations of Egypt,
Mesopotamia, India and China. In 1920s, the Archaeological Department of
r es

India carried out excavations in the Indus valley wherein the ruins of the two
old cities, viz. Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa were unearthed. In 1924, John
s

Marshall, Director-General of the ASI, announced the discovery of a new

.c

civilisation in the Indus valley to the world.

om

The Indus Valley Civilization can be classified in three phases:

/

i) the Early Harappan Phase from 3300 to 2600 BCE,

ii) the Mature Harappan Phase from 2600 to 1900 BCE, and
iii) the Late Harappan Phase from 1900 to 1300 BCE.

8
The Early Harappan Phase is related to the Hakra Phase, identified in the
Ghaggar-Hakra River Valley. The earliest examples of the Indus script date back
to 3000 BC. This phase stands characterized by centralized authority and an
increasingly urban quality of life. Trade networks had been established and
there are also evidences of the cultivation of crops. Peas, sesame seeds, dates,
cotton, etc, were grown during that time. Kot Diji represents the phase leading
up to Mature Harappan Phase. By 2600 BC, the Indus Valley Civilization had
ht

entered into a mature stage. The early Harappan communities were turning
into large urban centres, like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro in Pakistan and
tp

Lothal in India. The signs of a gradual decline of the Indus River Valley
s:

Civilization are believed to have started around 1800 BC and by 1700 BC, most
//u

of the cities were abandoned. However, one can see the various elements of
the Ancient Indus Valley Civilization in later cultures. Archaeological data
m

indicates the persistence of the Late Harappan culture till 1000- 900 BC.
ar

Geographical Factors which helped the growth of Indus Valley

m

Civilization:
as

The geographical conditions in the Indus Valley must have been quite
oo

conducive for human settlement and progress. This region today is very dry
and not too fit for human habitation. The Indus seals are found to have figures
di

of a variety of plants and animals which can exist only in moderately wet,
.w

conditions. Therefore, it is assumed that the climatic conditions were quite

moderate. Added to this, the vast plains along the Indus were very fertile. The
or

floods deposited rich alluvial soil on these plains every year and irrigated the
dp

lands. These geographical factors greatly helped the prosperity of Indus

habitations.
r es

Town Planning:
s .c

One of the most outstanding features of the Indus cities was that they were
well planned. The excavations at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro have shown a lot
om

of evidence of this. The city had two parts, i.e., the citadel and the outer city.
The citadel was built on an elevated area. The outer city was at a lower level.
/

The roads were wide and straight cutting each other at right angles. They also
had a perfect drainage system. Each house had a well-constructed sink from
which water flowed into the underground drains. These drains along the road
were covered by loose bricks. Houses were of different types, small and large.
Burnt bricks were extensively used. Houses were also provided with wells and

9
bathrooms. The other important structures found in the Indus cities include
the Great Bath and pillared hall at Mohenjo-Daro, the dockyard at Lothal and
the granary at Harappa. These structures stand testimony to the architectural
skills of the Indus people.

Social Life:
a) Social Classes: The fact that there were different types of houses indicates
ht

that there were different social classes. Trading being the major activity, the
merchants seem to have formed the upper class. The artisans and farmers
tp

might be the common people.

s:

b) Dress: No definite account is available about the type of dresses used by the
//u

Indus people. The discovery of a number of spindles suggests the use of cotton
m

and woollen fabrics. The bronze statues too give some information about the
dress of the people. The women wore a skirt and an upper garment. Men wore
ar

a band of cloth around their loin and a loose garment over their shoulders.
m

c) Ornaments: A large number of ornaments like necklaces, armlets, finger-

as

rings, bangles, etc., have been found from these sites. These were made of
oo

gold, silver, ivory and precious stones. Some of the ornaments were also made
of shells, bones, copper and bronze. It appears that both men and women
di

wore ornaments. The statues of a dancing girl and a bearded man suggest that
.w

these people used hair pins and knew different hair styles.
or

d) Recreation and amusements: The people of Harappa seem to have had a

great liking for dance and music. They were also familiar with indoor games
dp

like dice. A large number of terracotta toys were found in Mohenjo-Daro.

r es

Economic Conditions:
a) Agriculture: Agriculture was the main occupation of the Indus people. They
s .c

grew wheat, barley, peas and in some places rice. They not only produced
om

enough for themselves but also for trade. They did not irrigate their lands by
canals. The annual flood provided enough moisture to grow crops. Fields were
ploughed using a wooden ploughshare. We are not sure whether animals were
/

used.
b) Domestication of animals: On the basis of the Indus seals, it can be said that
a large number of animals including goats, buffaloes, oxen, elephants, dogs
and camels were domesticated. But the Harappans seem not to have been
familiar with the horse.

10
c) Crafts: The Harappan people were good craftsmen. Bronze work had
reached a degree of perfection. Brick-making and masonry were other
important occupations. Pottery made on potter's wheel was decorated with
different designs and painted red and black. Spinning and weaving too were a
common craft.
D) Trade: The urban culture and highly specialised manufacturing activity
suggest that the Harappan cities had a flourishing trade. There was flourishing
ht

internal trade between the cities. The river Indus served as the high waterway
tp

through which most of this trade was carried out. They also traded with
s:

Mesopotamian cities. Many Harappan seals have been found from

Mesopotamian cities. They exported grain, jewellery and pottery and imported
//u

thin copper and precious stones.

m

Art of Writing:
ar

The Indus seals are a unique source available to us to how about the Harappan
m

culture. They are small rectangular tablets of terracotta on which some figures
as

of plants, animals, etc. are drawn. There is some kind of pictorial writing too on
them. About 1500 such seals have be& found so far. Since this pictorial script
oo

has not been deciphered yet our knowledge about the Harappans is largely
limited to those pictures only.
di
.w

Religious Practices:
or

We do not have any specific information about the religious beliefs of the
Harappan people. However, on the basis of archaeological finds we can come
dp

to certain conclusions. No temples have been found from any of the Harappan
r

sites. Figurines resembling a female deity have been found. They suggest
es

worship of Mother Goddess. A seal with a male figure sitting in a logic posture
s

with a trident-like headgear, surrounded by animals, has been found. The

.c

people of the Indus region also worshipped trees and Animals. The most
om

important of them is the one horned unicorn which may be identified with the
rhinoceros and the next important was the humped bull.
/

Polity:
As in the case of religion, we are equally ignorant of the political life of the
Harappans. One thing we can be sure of is that absence of temples suggests
this. Since trading was the major activity, political authority might have been in
the hands of the urban trading class.

11
Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization:
The Harappan Culture lasted for about a thousand years and collapsed by
about 1800 BC. This coincides with the advent of the Aryans in India. The exact
reason for the decline of this civilization is not known. These cities might have
got destroyed in conflicts with the Aryans. But the generally accepted view
among historians is that a gradual change in climatic conditions rendered the
region inhospitable and caused its decline. Some people also believe that
ht

natural calamities like floods or earthquakes might have caused its destruction.
tp

Why is it called Harappan Culture?

s:
//u

Initially historians called this civilization the Indus Valley Civilization. But of late
historians prefer to call it the Harappan Culture. Most of the sites of this
m

civilization discovered earlier were in the Indus Valley only. The sites included
ar

Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. But in recent years, a large number of sites

belonging to this civilization have been found in areas far away from the Indus
m

Valley. For example, the sites at Kalibangan and Lothal revealed features
as

similar to those of the Indus Valley. Therefore, historians feel that the name
Indus Valley Civilization is not appropriate. Further, most of these sites have
oo

many similarities to the urbanised culture of the people of Harappa, the first
di

site of this culture to be discovered in 1921. Therefore, this civilization is called

the Harappan Culture.
.w

iv. Social, Economic, Political and Religious Life during Rig

or

Vedic and Later Vedic Period.

dp

Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period (c.1500 – c.1000 BCE):

r es

Social life: The Early Vedic Society was a tribal society, in which social relations
s

based on kinship ties were predominant. The society was not divided according
.c

to caste lines, and even the rajas (kings), the purohitas (priests), the artisans
om

etc. were parts of the clan networks. The tribe was referred to as the Jana.
Inter-tribal conflicts were frequent. The warrior category was the "rajanya".
/

Many clans (vis) formed a tribe. The clans settled in villages or grama. The
basic social unit was the Kula, or the family, and the Kulapa i.e., 'one who
protects the family' denoted the eldest male member or the head of the
family. Society was patriarchal. The birth of a son was the common desire of
the people. Even though society was patriarchal, women had also important
position in it. They were educated and they had access to the assemblies.

12
There are also instances of women who composed hymns. They had a right to
choose their partners, and could marry late. However, women were always
thought to be dependent on their fathers, brothers or husbands. Education
was imparted orally, but the tradition of education was not very well
developed in this period. Certain differences did exist during the period. Varna
or colour was the basis of initial differentiation between the Vedic and non-
Vedic people. The Vedic people were fair whereas the non-Vedic indigenous
ht

people were dark in complexion and spoke a different language.

tp

Economy: Since the Early Vedic society was a pastoral, cattle rearing was their
s:

dominant occupational activity. Many linguistic expressions in the Rigveda are

associated with the cow (gau). Cattle was the chief measure of wealth and a
//u

wealthy man who owned many cattle was called 'gomat'. Agricultural activities
m

find very few references. Apart from 'Yava' or barley, no other grains are
mentioned. The term ‘ayas’ in the Rig Veda refers to copper and bronze and
ar

not iron. Thus, not use iron technology, but were familiar with copper. Also,
m

there have been references to metallurgical activities. Gift exchange and

as

redistribution had an important economic role in the society. Tribal conflicts

led to the payment of tributes and prestations, i.e., bali, to the victorious chiefs
oo

by the defeated or the subordinate groups. The rest of the clansmen of the
victorious tribe had a share in the spoils and booty won in the war. The chief
di

also fed and gave gifts to his clansmen during ceremonial occasions. This was
.w

done by him to acquire prestige. Evidence of trade and commerce in Early

or

Vedic society is meagre. There was no concept of private property based on

land-ownership. A lot of other crafts such as cart-making, carpentry, tanning,
dp

sewing and weaving find mention, though the chariot-maker enjoyed a special
r

status in Rig Vedic society. For transport, bullock carts, horses and horse-drawn
es

chariots were used. There are also references to the sea (Samudra) and boats
s

(Nau).
.c

Political life: Rig Vedic society was a tribal society and its people lived a semi-
om

nomadic life. The family constituted the lowest political unit of Vedic Age
people. Several families formed a village or the grama. The head of the Grama
/

was called Gramini. Several Grammas formed a Vis or district. The head of the
Vis was Vispati. Several district or Vis formed Jana or Rastra. The head of the
Rastra was called Rajan or king. Monarchy was the prevailing form of
government. The kingship was generally hereditary though in some cases
people used to elect their kings. The king occupied the position of honour. He
was appointed by the Chief Priests. The king was not an autocrat. He was

13
rather a benevolent despot. He governed according to the laws and customs of
the land and with the help of the advice of seers, sages and elders. The primary
duties of the king were collection of taxes, administration of justice and to
protect his state. The king was called the protector of his tribe. He was
required to protect his land and cattle and to offer prayers to gods on behalf
Jana. The important officers of the state were Senani or the commander of the
army, the Purohit or the royal priest and Gramini or the village headman. The
ht

Purohit occupied an important position and he used to give advice to the king
relating to the affairs of the state. There were even some kinds of popular
tp

tribal assemblies in those days such as the Sabha, Samiti, Vidatha and Gana are
s:

mentioned in Rig Veda. These are popular institutions to transact political

//u

business. Military and religious matters were also discussed here. But the most
important and popular assemblies from the political point of view seem to
m

have been the Sabha and Samiti. Sabha was an assembly of a few selected
ar

elder to help the king and Samiti was an assembly of larger group of people
m

presides over by the king. The king or Rajan ruled the tribe with the help of
Sabha and Samiti. The king used to maintain a powerful army which included
as

infantry and chariots. Bows and arrows, spears, swords and axes were used as
oo

weapons by the soldiers. The regular word for law or custom in the Rigveda is
Dharma. Theft, burglary, robbery and cheatings are among the crimes
di

recorded. Cattle lifting at night were very frequent. Punishment, however, was
.w

very lenient during the Rig Vedic period.

or

Religious life: The Aryans were deeply religious. We have much knowledge of
the religion of the early Vedic age from the 1028 hymns of the Rig Veda. The
dp

early Vedic religion has been designated by the name of polytheism, a belief in
r

multiple Gods, each return standing out as the highest. The Aryans considered
es

the different forces of nature as the manifestation of supreme creator, who

s

created the universe. They therefore, became the worshiper of nature. The
.c

mighty elements of nature were regarded by the Aryans as their gods. The
om

word deva is frequently used for the gods. The Rig Vedic people worshipped
Prithvi (the mother earth), Indra (the God of rain and thunder), Vayu (the god
of wind), Agni (the god of fire), Usha (the goddess of dawn), Surya (the Sun
/

god), Varuna (the god of water) and Marut (the God of Storm). Thus, all the
Gods of the Rig Vedic age represented various forces of nature. Indra, who
personified rain, was the most powerful of Aryan Gods in the Rig Veda. He was
worshipped as a great warrior God, the destroyer of forts or ‘Purandhar’. He
led the Aryan soldiers against asuras or Demons. The Rig Veda contains 250

14
hymns in the honour of Indra. The next important Aryan God was Agni, for
whom the sage offered as many as 200 hymns. Sacrifices occupied a prominent
place in the Vedic ritual. The main purpose was to appease the gods in order to
obtain boons from them for the welfare of family, cattle and for good health.
Recitations of hymns of prayers and offering or sacrifices were common
religious practices. In community worship prayer was offered in group or by
members of a tribal in chorus. The religious ceremonies were simple and free
ht

from complex ritualism. Sacrifices could only be undertaken by kings or chiefs.

tp

Later Vedic Period (c.1000 – c.600 BCE):

s:

Social life: The later Vedic Literature reflects a complete change in the social
//u

life of the people. The joint – Patriarchal family was the norm of the social life
of the Aryans. Family was an important institution during this period. The head
m

of the family is called Kulapati. In the later Vedic period in the family the power
ar

of the father increased. He now possessed the authority to disinherit his son
m

from property rights. Marriages, sacrifices and other important rituals were
performed by the head of the family. In the ruling family, the system of eldest
as

son inheriting throne became an approved and accepted tradition. This is

oo

known as the law of primogeniture. The institution of gotra appeared in later

Vedic times. By this system, people accepted their descent from a common
di

ancestor. People began to practice gotra exogamy. No marriage could take

.w

place between persons belonging to same gotra or having the same ancestor.
The people also started to worship their male ancestors. During the later Vedic
or

Age, the women lost their earlier importance and status. They did not enjoy
dp

position of respect which was accorded to them during the early Vedic period.
They lost their right of Upanayana to perform religious rites and the right to
r es

attend meetings of the tribal assembly (Sabha). Polygamy or marrying of

several wives by a man became a social vice. The higher casts practiced this
s

system because of their wealth and status. The birth of a daughter considered
.c

as a source of misery and suffering. The son alone could be the saviour of the
om

family. The system or child marriage appeared. Dowry system was practiced.
The women could not inherit property. The rules of marriage underwent a
/

change towards greater rigidity. There were instances of Sati. An ideal wife was
one who would remain taciturn and dine after her husband. Of course, women
still received education and could show their talent. The greatest change which
the later Vedic Period saw in the Aryan society was the rise of rigid caste
system. It destroyed the values of human equality of the earlier days and

15
created distinction of their occupation. The later Vedic Society came to be
divided into four Varnas or castes called Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and
Sudras. During the Rig Vedic period there was no caste system and the people
were engaged in different professions. Some performed the different mode of
worship, some fought as soldiers, and some engaged themselves in cultivation
and in trade and commerce. In course of time these professions of people
during the later Vedic Age known as Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and
ht

Sudras. Brahmanas emerged the most important class who conducted rituals
and sacrifices for their clients and for themselves. They occupied the most
tp

important position in the society. Kshatriyas were given the second position.
s:

They were the military and ruling class. The third category was the Vaisya. The
//u

Vaisya remained tagged to trade, agriculture and production of essential

articles. The fourth category called the Sudras who performed all menial jobs
m

and were looked down upon as out caste. In course of time several sub-castes
ar

followed from the caste system. Society became more complex day by day.
m

The Brahmanas and Kshatriyas regarded themselves as higher class and made
monopoly of social privileges. According to Satapatha Brahman, while the
as

Brahmanas and Kshatriyas could marry women from the Vaishyas and the
oo

Sudras, the Vaishyas and Sudras could not marry Brahmana and Kshatriya girls.
It was difficult to change one’s caste.
di

Economy: The later Vedic Aryans lived in the villages like their ancestors in the
.w

Rig Vedic age. With the expansion of Aryan kingdoms new dominions and new
or

people came under the Aryan culture. Agriculture continued to be one of the
principal occupations of the people. Although very few agricultural tools made
dp

of iron have been found, there is no doubt that agriculture was the chief
r

means of livelihood of the later Vedic people. Ploughing was done with the
es

help of oxen and wooden plough share. Therefore, agriculture was primitive,
s

but there is no doubt its wide prevalence. In later times ploughing came to be
.c

prohibited for the members of the upper varnas or castes. The later Vedic
om

people continued to produce varieties of crops like rice, barley, wheat, oil
seeds etc. For the first time the Vedic people came to be acquainted with rice
in doab region and its remains recovered from Hastinapur belong to the eighth
/

century B.C. The use of rice was recommended in the rituals of the priests. The
knowledge of metallurgy developed giving new ideas about tools and metal
equipment. During later Vedic Age the transfer of land was disapproved. There
are references to artificial water ways which make it certain that the system of
irrigation was known to them. Cow, oxen, sheep, goat, dog, horse, donkey

16
were their domesticated animals. Elephant was also tamed during the later
Vedic Age. The later Vedic people were agricultural and led a settled life. But
since they cultivated with the wooden plough share and primitive method, the
peasants could not produce enough for feeding. Hence the peasants could not
contribute much to the rise of towns. The Vedic texts also refer to the seas and
sea voyages. This suggests some kind of trade and commerce which may have
stimulated by the rise of new arts and crafts. On the other hand, the
ht

emergence of large kingdoms led to the construction of roads and bridges. This
promoted trade and commerce. Cart roads, chariot routes and navigation
tp

routes were looked after by the state. Communication facilities provided

s:

favourable atmosphere for economic growth. Maritime trade was utilized for
//u

supporting the urban centres. During the early Vedic Age, barter system was
practiced but during the later Vedic Age the commerce was facilitate by the
m

use of convenient units of value like the atamana, the niskha and the Krishna.
ar

Political life: Jana was used in the sense of people or tribe in the Rigvedic
m

period, but now the concept of janapada emerged. Janapada meant the area
as

where the tribe settled. The word rashtra was also used for the first time in the
Later Vedic texts. However, it was still not used in the sense of a state with
oo

well-defined territories. The Kurus, who were formed from the union between
two major Vedic tribes-the Bharatas and the Purus, are mentioned in texts as
di

occupying the area in the upper portion of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab. Similarly,
.w

the Panchalas are mentioned as people who occupied the middle portion of
or

the Doab, called the Panchala desa. This indicates that tribal identities were
merging with territorial identities. It is also stated that when the Kurus and the
dp

Panchalas came together, their authority over the upper and middle reaches of
r

the Ganga-Yamuna Doab was complete. These changes in the relationship

es

between the Jana and the area over which it wielded control helped towards
s

the formation of the mahajanapadas and janapadas by the 6th century B.C.
.c

When tribal groups came to be associated and identified with particular

om

territories, it also brought about a change in the status and functions of the
tribal chiefs. The Rajan or the chief was no longer involved only in cattle raids
but emerged as the protector of the territory where his tribesmen settled. The
/

rajanya which already was a superior lineage during the Rigvedic period, now
became the 'Kshatriya' i.e., those who held power over dominions, which is the
literal meaning of the word 'Kshatriya'. The Kshatriya class based their power
on their role as the protector of their tribes and the land over which their
tribes settled. The change in the status of the Kshatriya or the warrior class is

17
also reflected in the changing nature of the tribal assemblies. The Sabha
became more important than the Samiti during this period. Reference to rajas
in the assembly or the Sabha suggests that they helped the king in his duties.
The office of the raja or the chief was not based solely on birth but the choice
of rajas was restricted to the Kshatriyas. In the absence of firmly established
principles of heredity and primogeniture, consecratory rituals became very
important for the ruler in order to assert this authority. Hence, ceremonial
ht

sacrifices like rajasuya, asvamedha and vajapeya were performed on lavish

scale. In the Rigvedic period, the asvamedha yajna was a small affair. But in
tp

this period, this was performed to subjugate other areas and legitimize the
s:

ruler's hold over alien lands. The raja was also required to integrate his
//u

territory with resources, economic production and distribution which

enhanced his status considerably from a mere raider, or a leader of battles.
m

However, he was not yet the sovereign. The fact that he was elected and could
ar

be removed put severe constraints on him, since he was answerable to the

m

clan. The nature of the intra-tribal conflicts, and conflicts within tribes also
changed. Fights were no longer mere skirmishes over cattle, now the
as

acquisition of land was an important element in these disputes. The necessity

oo

of increasing territory can be connected with the growth of population within

the tribes. Iron weapons and light wheeled chariots driven by horses raised the
di

efficiency of the fighters.

.w

Religious life: During the later Vedic age the simple religion of the early Vedic
or

Aryans became complicated one. The hold of the priestly class became more
absolute. The priest developed a complicated mode of worship. Sacrifice
dp

became a common feature of religion. Superstitions made its appearance in

r

religious sphere. Brahmins or priestly class established their supremacy in

es

religious and social spheres. The old gods, Varuna, Indra, Agni, Surya etc. of
s

early Vedic age were worshipped with less zeal. These gods lost their
.c

importance. The new gods like Prajapati, Siva, Rudra, and Vishnu became
om

prominent. Prajapati, the creator now occupied the supreme position among
the Vedic gods. Rudra the god of animals and Vishnu, the preserver and
protector of the people enjoyed the next position. Siva and Rudra are
/

synonymous. The Siva later on became regarded as the great god (Mahadev)
and the lord of animal beings (Pasupati). Pushan was associated with the
Sudras as the god of cattle. Gandhavas, Apsaras, Nagas etc were raised to a
semi divine rank. Worship of Gods was mainly for the purpose of attaining
material prosperity. Another change that took place during this period is in the

18
mode of worship. Elaborate and complicated rituals and sanskaras were
introduced during this period which necessitated the existence of priestly class.
Sacrifice became the all-important thing in worship. Animal sacrifice caused
the destruction of cattle wealth. Sacrifices were associated by formulae and
rituals. One who performed sacrifice was called Yamana. Sacrifices assumed
both public and domestic character. Public sacrifices involved the king and the
whole of the community. The private sacrifices were performed by individuals
ht

in their houses due to well-established households. The priest who performed

sacrifices was given dakshina or gifts. It was believed that by right performance
tp

of rituals and correct pronunciation of mantras it was possible not only to

s:

please the gods but also to control them to get desired results. The Brahmanas
//u

invented new ritual practices making worship complicated. The Atharva Veda
contains a number of popular superstitions, beliefs, spells, charms, and witch
m

crafts etc. found favour with the people. The ceremonies became more
ar

elaborate, complicated and expensive. The exploitation by priestly class

m

created social tension. We hear that as many as 240,000 cows were given as
dakshina or gift to the officiating priest in the rajasuya sacrifice. In addition to
as

cows, gold, clothes and horses were also given as gift to the priests. Sometimes
oo

there was demand of land as dakshina or gift by the priests. The Satapatha
Brahmana states that in the Asvamedha Yajna all should be given to the priest.
di

Towards the end of the Vedic period, we notice a strong reaction against
.w

priestly domination, against cults and rituals, especially in Panchal and Videha
region around 600 B.C. During this period Upanishads were complied. These
or

Philosophical texts criticized the rituals and laid stress on the value of right
dp

belief and knowledge. The religious life of the later Vedic Aryans was based on
high sense of morality and duty. They believed that worshipping the Gods,
r es

studying the Vedas, performing the funeral ceremonies etc. indicated high
moral sense and duties. Side by side, the concept of transmigration of soul was
s

also developed. That the soul has to born again and again and reaps the fruits
.c

of the actions of their previous lives. The people also believed in Karma
om

(deeds). The idea of reward and punishment after death in exact

correspondence to the good and bad deeds of a person in his life.
/

19
ht
tp
s:
//u
m
ar
m
as
oo
di
.w
or
dp
r es
s .c

References:
om

i) India’s Ancient Past by R.S. Sharma

/

ii) Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 by Romila Thapar

iii) Ancient and Medieval India by Poonam Dalal Dahiya
iv) Wikipedia

20