DAILY CLASS NOTES

NCERT: Ancient History

Lecture -07
Sources of Ancient History
(Part - III)
 2

Sources of Ancient History (Part - III)

❖ Vedic Literature:
➢ Vedas

➢ Upanishads

➢ Sutras

➢ Epics

➢ Puranas

❖ Non- Vedic Literature:

➢ Buddhist Texts
➢ Jain texts

❖ Secular Literature

❖ Foreign accounts

Vedic Literature:
Vedas:
❖ About Vedas: The Vedas are a large body of
religious texts originating in ancient India.
The Vedas constitute the oldest layer of
Sanskrit literature and the oldest scriptures
of Hinduism.
❖ Classification of Vedas: The Vedas are
classified into four primary types, known as
the Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda. Each Veda is written in Sanskrit
and has its own distinct characteristics. Through these Vedas, we come across the
political, social, and economic conditions of the ancient society.
 3

➢ Rigveda: It is the oldest Vedic text which was composed around 3000 years ago. It
refers to a collection of hymns and prayers.
➢ Yajurveda: It is a collection of mantras or rituals used in the performance of yajnas
(sacrifices). The first mantra is devoted to the Sun god.
➢ Samveda: This consists of melodies to be sung during worship and the performance
of yajna. During the Vedic period, music was the medium for prayer in religious
ceremonies. Samveda provided for a musical orientation. It is considered to be the
origin of Indian music.
➢ Atharvaveda: It contains hymns, mantras, and incantations, largely related to
everyday life. It also gives us information about medicines, astrology, and several
other superstitious information.

❖ The Literary sources that help in the interpretation and understanding of the Vedas
are as follows:
➢ Vedangas: To ease out the issue of not being able to read and interpret what is
written in the Vedas, six Vedanagas have been written which talk about grammar,
and phonetics (the way one pronounces words) used in the Vedas.

➢ Panini’s Ashtadhyayi: It was also written to help in the understanding and

interpretation of the Vedas.
➢ Brahamanas: These explain the Vedic hymns. Brahmins are instructed and given
guidance on how to perform Vedic ceremonies that include recitation of the
pertinent Samhitas.

✓ Samhitas: These are the most ancient parts of the Vedas, which are the most
ancient Hindu and yogic texts. The Samhitas contain mantras, prayers, litanies,
and hymns to God. Hindus believe that the texts were received directly from
God by scholars and that they were then passed on orally for thousands of
years.
➢ Aranyakas: The Aryanaks provide a profound connotation and interpretation of
the philosophy in the Vedas, in contrast to the Brahmans who only provide a logical
explanation of the ceremonies.
 4

Upanishads:

❖ The Upanishads are religious and philosophical treatises.

❖ These are some of the most important Hindu religious texts as they constitute the last
part of the Vedic revelation.
❖ The essential theme of the Upanishads is the nature of the world and God.
❖ The doctrine of true knowledge and salvation are the major subjects of the Upanishadic
philosophy.
❖ These texts also give us moral teachings (respecting and obeying one’s parents and also
gurus).
❖ The Upanishads played an important role in the development of spiritual ideas in
ancient India, marking a transition from Vedic ritualism to new ideas and institutions.
Sutras:
❖ Understanding sutras: A sutra is a brief scripture that contains expressions of belief and
wisdom from religious teachings. Collections of sutras exist in various religious traditions,
including Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.
➢ As a collection of religious and philosophical precepts, the first Hindu sutras had to
be short and easy to memorize. The act of reciting the sutra was originally a
meaningful part of religious practice.
➢ It refers to the formulas and regulations which tell us the way in which a particular
action is to be completed. There are three sutras which are as follows:
✓ Shrauta Sutra: It is composed of a number of Hindu ceremonial texts used by
priests engaged in the performance of the grander Vedic sacrifices. Example:
Royal coronation ceremonies of kings.
✓ Griha Sutra: It talks about domestic rituals connected with birth, naming,
sacred thread investiture, marriage, funerals, etc.
✓ Sulva Sutra: This sutra prescribes various kinds of measurements for the
construction of the sacrifice altars (yajna vedi). It marks the beginning of the
study of geometry.
Epics:
❖ Mahabharata: Many consider Mahabharata to be a historical document as it gives us
the chronological order of various empires and kings of the ancient period. However,
 5

some consider it to be a mythological text because, to date, historians have not been
able to equate it with proper shreds of evidence.
➢ It is also speculated that the famous Battle of Ten Kings as mentioned in the Rigveda
was the story of Mahabharata itself. The entire story which was in the form of
slokas as passed down by Ved Vyasa was finally compiled during the Gupta period.
➢ Through Mahabharata we get to know that the ancient society was highly casteist
(Karna and Parashuram’s incident).
❖ Ramayana: Valmiki’s Ramayana dates back to the period before Mahabharata. Initially,
the story was orally passed on from one generation to another but it was compiled
after the compilation of Mahabharata. The Gupta kings compiled the slokas of
Ramayana.
Puranas:
❖ These texts cover several themes and give us information about the history, culture,
and beliefs of Hinduism, as well as stories and legends about the gods and goddesses of
Hinduism.
❖ These too were compiled during the Gupta period. After Smriti texts, Puranas were
compiled, which were mainly 18 in number. Among these Vayu Purana, Vishnu Purana,
Bhagwat Purana, and Matasya Purana were possibly the oldest ones.
➢ Smriti Texts: Vedic texts that come from remembered teachings are considered
Smriti texts.
Non-Vedic Literature:
❖ Buddhist Texts: The texts on Lord Buddha
were compiled in Sri Lanka. Jatakas too are
Buddhist texts which describe the births of the
Buddha in both human and non-human
forms. These stories talk about the 550
rebirths of Buddha. Buddha propagated his
teachings in Pali.
❖ Jain Texts: The texts on Lord Mahavira were compiled much later in Vallabhi (Gujarat).
Both Buddha and Mahavira were contemporary to each other (5th century BCE). Lord
Mahavira propagated his teaching in Prakrit.
 6

Secular Literature:
❖ Dharmasutras: The Dharmasutras
consist of social rules relating to
marriages, the working of societies, and
establishing social relations.
❖ Smritis: On the basis of Dharmasutras,
smriti texts were written. Manusmriti
(law book) is the oldest Smriti text,
which was written between 200 B.C.
and 200 A.D.
❖ Arthashastra: Arthashastra is an ancient Sanskrit treatise on statecraft, political
science, economic policy, and military strategy. Kautilya, also identified as Vishnugupta
and Chanakya, is traditionally credited as the author of the text. In total, there are
15 chapters and the second and the third chapters are the oldest and the rest of the
chapters were written later on. The text is a political treatise and does not talk about
the Mauryan empire.
❖ Abhigyan Shakuntalam: Abhigyan Shakuntalam is a classical Sanskrit play written by
Kalidasa which narrates the well-known love story of King Dushyant and Shakuntala.
❖ Sangam Literature: The Sangam period began in South India between the 3rd century
BCE and the 3rd century AD during which poets were patronized by chiefs and kings
and Sangam literature was produced. Sangam literally translates to ‘association.’ This
literature also talks about how the Greeks came to the Indian subcontinent for trading
purposes and also mentions Kaveripattinam (port).
Foreign Accounts:
❖ Mention of Chandragupta Maurya: The
Greek writers repeatedly mention
Sandrokottos, later identified as
Chandragupta Maurya, whose date of
accession is fixed at 322 BC.
Chandragupta has been called
Sandrokottos by Strabo, Sandrakottos
by Pliny, and Androkottos by Plutarch.
 7

❖ Indica by Megasthenes: Megasthenes was a Greek historian and diplomat. Only

fragments of ‘Indika’, written by Megasthenes while he was a guest in Chandragupta
Maurya's court, have survived to be quoted by other ancient authors.
➢ The entire presumption of what is written in Indica is completely based on foreign
writers who got the manuscript. Through those, we get valuable information not
only about the system of Mauryan administration but also about social classes and
economic activities in the Maurya period. The Indika also mentions the absence of
slavery in ancient India.
❖ Other Greek and Roman accounts: For the study of ancient geography and trade,
Ptolemy's Geography and ‘The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea’ is of great significance.
➢ Roman trade in the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and Indian Ocean is covered in the
uncredited work of ‘The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea’.
➢ Pliny’s ‘The Naturalis Historia’ tells us about trade between India and Italy.
❖ Accounts of Chinese travelers: Fa-hien and Hieun Tsang also gave us documents that
helped us understand India’s past.

Historical Sense:
❖ Puranas: Whether we had the historical sense or not is understood after the reading of
Puranas as it has given us a proper genealogy of lineages, events, a chronology of
empires, which event occurred where, details on the four yugas (Krita or Satya Yuga,
Treta Yuga, Dvapara Yuga, and Kali Yuga).
❖ Contribution of Inscriptions: The third-century BC Ashokan inscriptions show a great
deal of historical understanding. For thirty-seven years, Ashoka was in power. Events
nine regnal years' onwards are mentioned in the inscriptions that have been found so
far.
➢ Hathigumpha Inscription: In the first century BC Kharavela, the monarch of Kalinga
records a large number of events in his life year by year in the Hathigumpha
Inscription.
❖ Biographical accounts: Harshacharita by Banabhatta written in the 7th century
displays a considerable historical sense among the Indians in biographical writings. It is
a semi-biographical film describing the early career of King Harshavardhana, the court
life under Harsh, and the social and religious life of his age.
 8

➢ Historical works of South India: Mushika Vamsha written by Atula in the 11th
century is an account of the dynasty of the Mushikas which ruled in northern Kerala.
➢ The accomplishments of Vikramaditya VI, the Chalukya king of Kalyan, are
described in Bilhana's Vikramankadevacharita (1076–1127).
➢ Rajatarangini, a collection of biographies of Kashmiri kings published by Kalhana in
the 12th century, might be regarded as the first work to include some of the traits
that define historical writing as we know it today.

Incident between Karna and Parshuram:

❖ Karna, the eldest son of Kunti and Sun God, was keen to acquire the Brahmastra
mantra from Parshuram. However, Karna was a Kshatriya and Parashuram was a
sworn enemy of the Kshatriyas. He only gave lessons to Brahmins.
❖ So Karna disguised as a Brahmin and deceived Parashurama to accept him as his
disciple.
❖ One day when Parashurama was sleeping on Karna’s lap, a Scorpio stung Karna on
the lower portion of his thigh. However, fearing that if he moved his legs, he would
awaken Parashuram, he did not move at all and continued to suffer.
❖ When Parashuram woke up, he saw Karna bleeding. Parashurama immediately
realized that a Brahmin cannot suffer such intense pain. Only a warrior can endure
so much pain.
❖ Upon revelation, Parashuram could not digest the fact that he had taught a warrior
all the knowledge that he possessed as he considered all Kshatriyas as his enemies.
❖ He therefore cursed Karna that as he had learnt through deceit, he would forget the
skills when it is most wanted.
❖ This shows how casteist the society was when Mahabharata was orally passed on.
 9

