Cell Structures and Their Functions

 Organelles
 Functionally and structurally distinct part of cell
 Surrounded by membranes for compartmentalization
 Each organelles have separate and specific functions for the cell

 Ultrastructure of Cells
 Not necessarily surrounded by membranes
 Detailed structures of a cell
 Only can be seen under an electron microscope

 Two types of cells: Prokaryotes vs Eukaryotes on the tree of life

 Prokaryotes
o Bacteria
o Archaea
 Eukaryotes
o Plants
o Fungi
o Animals

 Cell Surface Membrane

 Plasma membrane
 ~ 7nm thick
 Partially permeable
 Seen as 3 layers at x100 000
 Made of phospholipid bilayer

Function:
- Controls movement of substances in and out of the cell.
 Nucleus
 Largest organelle
 Has double membranes

General function:
- Contains genetic information for protein synthesis

Other functions of nucleus:

 Contains genetic information for protein synthesis
 Transcription site of genes and production of mRNA
 DNA is protected from degradation by enzymes

Components of nucleus:
1. Nuclear envelope

 Attached to ER (Endoplasmic Reticulum)

 Have 2 membranes
 Have nuclear pores
 Controls movement of substances between nucleus and cytoplasm
2. Nucleolus
o Densest region of nucleus
o Site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis
o Site of ribosome assembly
3. Chromatin

 DNA and its associated proteins

 Ribosomes
 Smallest organelle
 Not bound by a membrane
 Made of rRNA that is synthesized in nucleolus + some proteins
 Has 2 subunits (70s and 80s ribosomes)
 Site of protein synthesis
 Types of ribosomes:
1. 70s ribosomes (50 + 30)
o 18 nm in length
o Smaller in size
o Found in all Prokaryotes
o Also found in mitochondria and chloroplasts of Eukaryotes
2. 80s ribosomes (60 + 40)
o 25 nm in length
o Larger in size
o Found in cytoplasm and RER (Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum) of all Eukaryotes

 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

 Extensive, connected system of membranes
 Made of cisternae (flattened membrane sacs)
 Continuous with the nuclear envelope
 Running through the cytoplasm
 80s ribosomes are attached

Functions:
 Site of protein synthesis
 Protein modification
o Protein folding
o Glycosylation

 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

 ER without ribosomes

Function:
 Site of lipid and steroid synthesis
 E.g. cholesterol, steroid hormones, etc.
 Golgi Body
 A.K.A. Golgi Apparatus/Complex
 Made of cisternae
 Have layered appearance
 No connection between members
 Not continuous with nuclear envelope

 Swellings at end of sacs for vesicle formation

 Constantly being formed and broken down
- Being formed by transport vesicles from RER on cis face
- Broken down to form secretory vesicles and lysosomes on trans face

Function:
 Modification of proteins and lipids
- E.g. glycosylation and phosphorylation (addition of phosphate group to
cutting/folding proteins)
 Packaging molecules into vesicles for transport

 Production and Secretion of Proteins

 List of the cell structures involved in sequence:
Ribosome => RER => Transport Vesicle => Golgi Body => Secretory Vesicle => Cell
Surface Membrane

Steps:
1. Synthesis of protein at Ribosome/RER
2. Transport Vesicle buds of RER and fuses with Golgi Body
3. Modification of protein at Golgi Body
4. Separation of a Secretory Vesicle from the Golgi Body
5. Fusion of the Vesicle with the Cell Surface Membrane
6. Contents of proteins are released/secreted by exocytosis
  Packaging molecules into vesicles for transport
 Formation of Secretory Vesicles for release of protein out of the cell
 Formation of Lysosomes

Q. When mucus is secreted from a goblet cell in the trachea, these events take place:
 Addition of carbohydrate to protein
 Separation of Vesicle from Golgi Apparatus
 Fusion of the vesicle with the Plasma Membrane
 Secretion of a glycoprotein

 Lysosome
 Very, very small
 Spherical, small sacs

Functions:
Contains hydrolotic enzymes/lysozymes
 Breaks down unwanted structures via hydrolysis in an acidic environment
 In WBC, lysozymes digest bacteria

 Mitochondria
 Relatively large organelle
 Has double membranes
 Cristae = folded inner membrane
 Matrix = interior solution
 Contains 70s ribosomes and small circular DNA
 Divide by binary fission
 Has prokaryotic origin

Functions:
 Site of aerobic respiration
- Synthesizes ATP/produces energy in the form of ATP
- Releases energy
 Glucose + Oxygen  Carbon Dioxide + Water + ATP
C6H12O6 + O2  CO2 + H2O + ATP

 Chloroplasts
 Relatively large organelle
 Oval shaped
 Two membranes
 Contains chlorophyll
 Thylakoid = flattened membrane sacs
 Grana = thylakoid stacks
 Stroma = interior solution
 Contains 70s ribosomes, small circular DNA and starch grains
 Divide by binary fission
 Have prokaryotic origin

Function:
- Gains energy for the cell by absorbing sunlight using the chlorophyll

 Cell Wall
 Thick, rigid layer
 Made of cellulose
 Permeable
 There are spaces/gaps between fibers

Functions:
 Provides structural support
 Prevent bursting
 Limits cell size
 Plasmodesmata
- Strands of cytoplasm passing through channels

Functions:
 Allows substances to pass from cell to cell without passing through cell walls
 E.g. water, sucrose, amino acids, mineral ions, ATP
 Allows more rapid transport of substances

 Vacuole and Tonoplast

 Commonly found in plant cells
 Large, permanent, central
 Surrounded by a partially permeable membrane called Tonoplast

Functions:
 Storing of cell sap (contains water, ions, minerals, salts, pigments, sugars, etc.)
 Stores waste products
 Pushes chloroplast to edge of cell
 Gives turgidity to the cell

 Centrioles and Centrosomes

 Centrioles are cylindrical
 Made of 9 groups of 3 microtubules
 Not found in plant cells

Functions of centrioles:
 Involved in cell division
- Replicates before each cell division and moves to opposite poles
- Centrioles are found in pairs at right angles (90o) from each other
- Forms in centrosomes
  Modified centrioles are also found elsewhere (e.g. in Flagella/Cilia)
- Acts as a Microtubule Organizing Centre (MTOCs)
- Organizes/assembles microtubules

Functions of centrosomes:
 It is a MTOC
 Organizes/assembles microtubules
 For the formation of spindle fibers at opposite poles during cell division (mitosis)
 Aid the contraction of spindle fibers to separate sister chromatids

 Microtubules
 Very small (~25 nm)
 Made from tubulin
 Forms dimers
 Dimers polymerize to form long ‘protofilaments’
 13 protofilaments = 1 microtubule
 Long, rigid, hollow tubes
 Formed and broken down at Microtubule Organizing Centres (MTOCs)
 E.g. centrosomes, centrioles near Flagella/Cilia

Functions:
 Makes up the cytoskeleton (together with actin filaments)
 Provides mechanical support
 Acts as an intracellular transport system for movement of Vesicles or other
components
 Beating of Flagella
 Makes up spindle fibers and centrioles used in cell division

 Cilia
 Only found in Eukaryotes
 Smaller in diameter than Microvilli
 Not to be confused with Flagella (mostly found in Prokaryotes)
  Motile/moves rhythmically
 Complicated structure made of microtubules

Functions:
 For movement/locomotion
 E.g. ciliated epithelial cells in lungs, Paramecium (Eukaryotic microbe)

 Microvilli
 Only found in animal cells
 Found on epithelial cells in the intestines and kidneys
 Finger-like extensions of the cell surface membrane

Functions:
 Increases surface area of cell membrane for:
o Absorption
o Secretion of enzymes
o Digestion at the cell surface
o Excretion of waste substances

Q. what happens if we rupture cells and spin them at high speeds?

- The larger structures will sediment first.

 Prokaryotes
 Pro = before
 Karyon = nucleus
 Includes all bacteria and archaea

 Eukaryotes
 Eu = true
 Karyon = nucleus
 Includes plants, animals, fungi and other microbes
 Prokaryotic Cells: A Typical Bacteria
 Unicellular
 Simpler in structure
 Relatively smaller (1-5 µm)
 Divides by binary fission

What all bacteria do not have:

 No membrane-bound organelles
 No nucleus
 DNA lies free in cytoplasm in the nucleoid region

What all bacteria have:

 Plasma Membrane
 Cytoplasm
 Peptidoglycan Cell Wall
- Made of chains cross-linked by amino acids
 70s ribosomes
 Circular DNA
 DNA is “naked”
- Not associated with proteins

What is only present in some bacteria:

1. Plasmids

 Small, circular DNA

 Codes for non-essential protein
 Several may be present
2. Pili

 Sexual reproduction
 For attachment to other cells/structures
 3. Flagellum

 Locomotion
4. Capsule

 Outer coat, additional protection

 Attach to surfaces
5. Infoldings of Plasma Membrane (Mesosomes)

 For photosynthesis/nitrogen fixation

 Mitochondria and Chloroplast

- Both have:
 Similar size
 Small, cicular DNA
 70s ribosomes
 Division by binary fission

 Viruses
 Non-cellular structures
 ~50 times smaller than bacteria (20-300 nm)
 Much simpler
 No plasma membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes
 Only:
1. Nucleic acid core = DNA or RNA
2. Capsid = Protein coat
o May have one or two coats

3. Some viruses also have an outer envelope made of phospholipids

4. Some protein may be present
o E.g. haemagglutinin, neuraminidase

 All parasitic
 Can only reproduce by infecting living cells
 Uses protein synthesizing machinery of the host cell to replicate
Q. A researcher is examining a crop which may be exposed to a recent bacterial endemic.
The bacteria are thought to invade the epidermis of the leaves within the crop.
a) Describe the method the researcher could use to prepare the epidermis for
inspection under a light microscope.
 Gather a fresh sample of leaves from several of the crops.
 Tear the leaves and then use forceps to peel the epidermis cleanly away.
 Place the epidermis onto a clean slide on a drop of water.
 Place a course slide upon this, using a mounted needle.
 Wipe away excess water and stain if necessary.

b) One disadvantage of light microscope is that their magnification is limited. State and
instrument the researcher could use with a higher magnification.
- Electron microscope

c) In preparing the slide for the light microscope, what 2 actions could the researcher
take to minimize the contamination of the slide? Explain your reasoning for each.
 Wear gloves when handling the epidermis and slide.
o This is to prevent bacteria or other microbes/debris on the hand from
infecting the specimen, which may have shown up under the microscope.
 Use forceps to transfer the epidermis.
o This is not only to prevent germs, but also physical distortion by the poor grip
of the hand.

d) The researcher begins observing the slides with an objective lens, magnification x4.
The overall magnification is x40. What is the magnification of the eyepiece lens?
- x4 * ? = x40
e = 40/4
= x10

e) under x40 magnification, the bacterium found within the epidermis measures 0.5mm
in his plan drawing. What is the actual size of the bacterium in mm?
- M = x40
I = 0.5 mm
A = I/M = 0.5 mm / x40 = 0.0125 mm