Biology: Cell Structures
Biology: Cell Structures
Biology: Cell Structures
Organelles
Functionally and structurally distinct part of cell
Surrounded by membranes for compartmentalization
Each organelles have separate and specific functions for the cell
Ultrastructure of Cells
Not necessarily surrounded by membranes
Detailed structures of a cell
Only can be seen under an electron microscope
Function:
- Controls movement of substances in and out of the cell.
Nucleus
Largest organelle
Has double membranes
General function:
- Contains genetic information for protein synthesis
Components of nucleus:
1. Nuclear envelope
Ribosomes
Smallest organelle
Not bound by a membrane
Made of rRNA that is synthesized in nucleolus + some proteins
Has 2 subunits (70s and 80s ribosomes)
Site of protein synthesis
Types of ribosomes:
1. 70s ribosomes (50 + 30)
o 18 nm in length
o Smaller in size
o Found in all Prokaryotes
o Also found in mitochondria and chloroplasts of Eukaryotes
2. 80s ribosomes (60 + 40)
o 25 nm in length
o Larger in size
o Found in cytoplasm and RER (Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum) of all Eukaryotes
Functions:
Site of protein synthesis
Protein modification
o Protein folding
o Glycosylation
Function:
Site of lipid and steroid synthesis
E.g. cholesterol, steroid hormones, etc.
Golgi Body
A.K.A. Golgi Apparatus/Complex
Made of cisternae
Have layered appearance
No connection between members
Not continuous with nuclear envelope
Function:
Modification of proteins and lipids
- E.g. glycosylation and phosphorylation (addition of phosphate group to
cutting/folding proteins)
Packaging molecules into vesicles for transport
Steps:
1. Synthesis of protein at Ribosome/RER
2. Transport Vesicle buds of RER and fuses with Golgi Body
3. Modification of protein at Golgi Body
4. Separation of a Secretory Vesicle from the Golgi Body
5. Fusion of the Vesicle with the Cell Surface Membrane
6. Contents of proteins are released/secreted by exocytosis
Packaging molecules into vesicles for transport
Formation of Secretory Vesicles for release of protein out of the cell
Formation of Lysosomes
Q. When mucus is secreted from a goblet cell in the trachea, these events take place:
Addition of carbohydrate to protein
Separation of Vesicle from Golgi Apparatus
Fusion of the vesicle with the Plasma Membrane
Secretion of a glycoprotein
Lysosome
Very, very small
Spherical, small sacs
Functions:
Contains hydrolotic enzymes/lysozymes
Breaks down unwanted structures via hydrolysis in an acidic environment
In WBC, lysozymes digest bacteria
Mitochondria
Relatively large organelle
Has double membranes
Cristae = folded inner membrane
Matrix = interior solution
Contains 70s ribosomes and small circular DNA
Divide by binary fission
Has prokaryotic origin
Functions:
Site of aerobic respiration
- Synthesizes ATP/produces energy in the form of ATP
- Releases energy
Glucose + Oxygen Carbon Dioxide + Water + ATP
C6H12O6 + O2 CO2 + H2O + ATP
Chloroplasts
Relatively large organelle
Oval shaped
Two membranes
Contains chlorophyll
Thylakoid = flattened membrane sacs
Grana = thylakoid stacks
Stroma = interior solution
Contains 70s ribosomes, small circular DNA and starch grains
Divide by binary fission
Have prokaryotic origin
Function:
- Gains energy for the cell by absorbing sunlight using the chlorophyll
Cell Wall
Thick, rigid layer
Made of cellulose
Permeable
There are spaces/gaps between fibers
Functions:
Provides structural support
Prevent bursting
Limits cell size
Plasmodesmata
- Strands of cytoplasm passing through channels
Functions:
Allows substances to pass from cell to cell without passing through cell walls
E.g. water, sucrose, amino acids, mineral ions, ATP
Allows more rapid transport of substances
Functions:
Storing of cell sap (contains water, ions, minerals, salts, pigments, sugars, etc.)
Stores waste products
Pushes chloroplast to edge of cell
Gives turgidity to the cell
Functions of centrioles:
Involved in cell division
- Replicates before each cell division and moves to opposite poles
- Centrioles are found in pairs at right angles (90o) from each other
- Forms in centrosomes
Modified centrioles are also found elsewhere (e.g. in Flagella/Cilia)
- Acts as a Microtubule Organizing Centre (MTOCs)
- Organizes/assembles microtubules
Functions of centrosomes:
It is a MTOC
Organizes/assembles microtubules
For the formation of spindle fibers at opposite poles during cell division (mitosis)
Aid the contraction of spindle fibers to separate sister chromatids
Microtubules
Very small (~25 nm)
Made from tubulin
Forms dimers
Dimers polymerize to form long ‘protofilaments’
13 protofilaments = 1 microtubule
Long, rigid, hollow tubes
Formed and broken down at Microtubule Organizing Centres (MTOCs)
E.g. centrosomes, centrioles near Flagella/Cilia
Functions:
Makes up the cytoskeleton (together with actin filaments)
Provides mechanical support
Acts as an intracellular transport system for movement of Vesicles or other
components
Beating of Flagella
Makes up spindle fibers and centrioles used in cell division
Cilia
Only found in Eukaryotes
Smaller in diameter than Microvilli
Not to be confused with Flagella (mostly found in Prokaryotes)
Motile/moves rhythmically
Complicated structure made of microtubules
Functions:
For movement/locomotion
E.g. ciliated epithelial cells in lungs, Paramecium (Eukaryotic microbe)
Microvilli
Only found in animal cells
Found on epithelial cells in the intestines and kidneys
Finger-like extensions of the cell surface membrane
Functions:
Increases surface area of cell membrane for:
o Absorption
o Secretion of enzymes
o Digestion at the cell surface
o Excretion of waste substances
Prokaryotes
Pro = before
Karyon = nucleus
Includes all bacteria and archaea
Eukaryotes
Eu = true
Karyon = nucleus
Includes plants, animals, fungi and other microbes
Prokaryotic Cells: A Typical Bacteria
Unicellular
Simpler in structure
Relatively smaller (1-5 µm)
Divides by binary fission
Sexual reproduction
For attachment to other cells/structures
3. Flagellum
Locomotion
4. Capsule
Viruses
Non-cellular structures
~50 times smaller than bacteria (20-300 nm)
Much simpler
No plasma membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes
Only:
1. Nucleic acid core = DNA or RNA
2. Capsid = Protein coat
o May have one or two coats
All parasitic
Can only reproduce by infecting living cells
Uses protein synthesizing machinery of the host cell to replicate
Q. A researcher is examining a crop which may be exposed to a recent bacterial endemic.
The bacteria are thought to invade the epidermis of the leaves within the crop.
a) Describe the method the researcher could use to prepare the epidermis for
inspection under a light microscope.
Gather a fresh sample of leaves from several of the crops.
Tear the leaves and then use forceps to peel the epidermis cleanly away.
Place the epidermis onto a clean slide on a drop of water.
Place a course slide upon this, using a mounted needle.
Wipe away excess water and stain if necessary.
b) One disadvantage of light microscope is that their magnification is limited. State and
instrument the researcher could use with a higher magnification.
- Electron microscope
c) In preparing the slide for the light microscope, what 2 actions could the researcher
take to minimize the contamination of the slide? Explain your reasoning for each.
Wear gloves when handling the epidermis and slide.
o This is to prevent bacteria or other microbes/debris on the hand from
infecting the specimen, which may have shown up under the microscope.
Use forceps to transfer the epidermis.
o This is not only to prevent germs, but also physical distortion by the poor grip
of the hand.
d) The researcher begins observing the slides with an objective lens, magnification x4.
The overall magnification is x40. What is the magnification of the eyepiece lens?
- x4 * ? = x40
e = 40/4
= x10
e) under x40 magnification, the bacterium found within the epidermis measures 0.5mm
in his plan drawing. What is the actual size of the bacterium in mm?
- M = x40
I = 0.5 mm
A = I/M = 0.5 mm / x40 = 0.0125 mm