ENGLISH FOR YOUNG LEARNERS

Foreign Language Learning at Primary Level and

How Children Learning English

1
Diah Nursabilla, 2Winar Nuralisa Oktasari, 3 Annisa Diah
Pratiwi

Introduction

Teaching English to young learners requires a lot of consideration (Mutiah Syifa Dwi,
Nakhriyah Minkhatun, HR Nida Husna, Hidayat Didin Nuruddin, 2020). Teaching English to
young students needs to consider age, because the age difference they have can affect their
different competencies. We as teachers must be able to consider how children start learning
English based on age. It can be said that age is one of the many things to consider when
organizing an English program. Another feature of young learners is the difficulty in
distinguishing between concrete and abstract things. When the teacher gives English subjects to
young students, it must start with the real things (Mutiah Syifa Dwi, Nakhriyah Minkhatun, HR
Nida Husna, Hidayat Didin Nuruddin, 2020). When teachers explain subjects to young students,
they should avoid using abstract language. Young students still need some time to digest what
the teacher is saying.

Young learners are generally very active and imaginative. Most young learners prefer
learning using participatory activities, such as drawing, telling stories, listening to music. It
means that they like learning games through stories, pictures, songs, so that young learners are
more motivated to learn English, even indirectly learning is a game from everyday children. In
addition, they like subjects that relate to their daily lives and those around them. Young learners
take pride when teachers teach them about their own subject, and their memories last a long time
to remember the subject.

Teaching English to young learners is not an easy job (Abdullaeva, 2021). The teacher
must be able to understand his students, it will not be difficult if the teacher knows how to teach.
If we compare it to adults, young learners are more energetic and enthusiastic, because young
learners prefer new things, want to know many things, and like things that have never been
known.

Teaching English to children is different from teaching English to adults. Teaching young
learners should be given more activities with lots of colorful, bright visualizations, objects such
as toys, dolls, and so on. By using these activities, a language teacher can make teaching fun.
Teaching using visual pictures, maps, calendars, dolls, toys, and other equipment can be done so
that young learners are more motivated in learning. In addition, using gestures and body
language is very effective for young learners to understand language.

(Hashemi & Azizinezhad, 2011) marked in his book “Techniques in Teaching English to
Children” that teaching to children is a delicate and sensitive task for the following reasons:

 Language learning class for them is their first year of schooling;

 They are highly motivated and energetic;
 They are new sponges to absorb;
 They have various language back grounds;
 They are easily frustrated if corrected immediately;
 They are ready to imitate and participate;
 They love group work;
 They love independence;
 They need respect and attention;
 They easily learn from their environments;
 They are great competitors

Knowing the Characteristics of Students and Learning Media

Knowing the characteristics of children is an important requirement for teachers in

creating effective teaching (Musthafa, 2010). Students have various characteristics, each student
has its own characteristics, as a teacher must be able to handle various kinds of student
characteristics. Instruction from an effective teacher can make students gain knowledge.
Instruction must be built around topics and contexts that are relevant to young learners. In
addition to knowing the characteristics of children, the use of appropriate learning media is one
of the keys to creating effective learning.

Harmer (2007) states that there are several types of instructional media that can be used
by teachers:

 The students themselves

Students are the most useful resources in the classroom (Harmer, 2007: 176). With
the presence of students in class, teachers can do many things in class.
 Pictures
Material images or graphics refer to non-photographic materials that are used by
teachers to convey messages to students. This type of media includes pictures, charts,
posters, graphics, cartoons, etc.
Pictures are used for several purposes. (Harmer 2007) states that images can be
used in various ways which consist of: (1) drilling, (2) communication, (3)
understanding, (4) ornamentation, (5) predictions, and (6) discussion.
 Boards
Plank refers to a blackboard. Boards also have a purpose for being used. (Harmer
2007) explains that teachers can use the board as (1) notepad, (2) explanation aid, (3)
photo frame, (4) general workbook, (5) game board, and (6) warning board.
 Flipcharts
Another learning media that can be used by teachers is flipcharts. Flipchar is a
learning media that contains large sheets of paper that are used to write down several
important points in group discussions (Harmer 2007). Some of the benefits of
flipcharts are that they are portable, easy to use, and easy to access.
 Coursebook
Coursebook is a form of print media in the form of a book. Coursebook contains
material or verbal information through print media. The coursebook is used as a basic
instructional guide by teachers.

The use of appropriate learning media is necessary because of several benefits. One of
the benefits is that it can increase student motivation. By using interesting learning media, it can
increase students' curiosity. Another benefit is that it can add to the student's experience, can
reach something in the classroom, can create direct interaction between students and the
environment, and can integrate experiences from the concrete to the real.

References:

Abdullaeva, S. (2021). Increasing Basic Language Skills of Young Learners in English Lessons.
Журнал Иностранных Языков И Лингвистики, 2(3).
https://fll.jspi.uz/index.php/fll/article/view/1292

Harmer, J. (2007). The Practice of English Language Teaching (4th ed.). Cambridge: Pearson
Education.

Hashemi, M., & Azizinezhad, M. (2011). Teaching English to children: A unique, challenging
experience for teachers, effective teaching ideas. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences,
30, 2083–2087. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.10.405

Musthafa, B. (2010). Teaching English to young learners: Through the eyes of EFL teacher
trainers. ELT Research Journal, 2(3), 95–110.

Mutiah Syifa Dwi, Nakhriyah Minkhatun, HR Nida Husna, Hidayat Didin Nuruddin, H. H.
(2020). The Readiness of Teaching English to Young Learners in Indonesia. Jurnal
BASICEDU, 4(4), 1201–1211.

(Winar Nuralisa Oktasari/5201411020)

Is younger better? What is the research evidence?

The belief underlying the introduction of foreign languages in primary schools is that
teaching foreign languages early to young children, when they are most receptive, could close
the gap which currently exists between our young people and their European counterparts in
terms of foreign language capability, making them more competitive on the global market. After
all, we just pick up our mother tongue effortlessly as young children, so the logic is that if we
teach children early enough, the same will happen with foreign languages. Prime Minister Tony
Blair in 1999: ‘Everyone knows that with languages, the earlier you start, the easier they are’.

‘Critical Period Hypothesis’ which claims that children are born with an innate language
faculty which atrophies with age, and that it is therefore important to tap into these innate
mechanisms before the critical age when they disappear. But there is much research evidence
that young children are actually slower than older learners at the beginning of the learning
process. Many studies have shown that adolescents and young adults are faster learners on all
measures of language proficiency. Young children, however, eventually catch up with older
learners and typically become indistinguishable from native speakers, which is usually not the
case for adults. So, in the case of immigrant children, earlier does seem better, but only in the
long run, and only where children are given plenty of time and opportunity to make the most of
the abundant language input they are exposed to.

In the context of foreign language learning in the classroom, are primary school children
also more likely than older students to reach native-like proficiency in the long run? All research
investigating whether earlier is better in instructed contexts points in the same direction:

- Young children are very enthusiastic and love learning foreign languages. They find it
fun and they enjoy discovering new worlds and new ways of saying things.
- Young children are slower at learning languages than adolescent learners, in all aspects of
language. To my knowledge, only one study by Jenifer Larson-Hall found a small
advantage for an early start, but in that study, the children had six to eight hours of
instruction per week for 44 weeks a year over six years, making the context of learning
very different from the one or two weekly hours in other studies.

Challenge in Teaching Foreign Language for Young Learners

The challenge most frequently identified was teaching speaking. Previous research has
identified teachers’ level of English (Ahn, 2011; Ghatage, 2009; Kuchah, 2009). The most
common comments were about getting children to speak; for example, “making them speak and
persuade them that speaking English is something they are able to do.” It could be that many
children are reluctant to speak in front of their classmates, particularly in a foreign language, as it
can be extremely face-threatening.
Discipline attracted the second-largest group of comments. Discipline problems were
linked to the age and sex of the students, differentiation, parental attitudes, inexperience, not
sharing the learners’ first language, and keeping the students motivated.
Both the number and type of comments about motivation tended to contradict many lay
(and indeed informed) ideas that young learners of English are intrinsically motivated and keen
to learn. This comment expressed common concerns: “How to motivate students and make them
love English.” In line with previous research (Ho, 2003; Li, 1998) some teachers believe that
young learners do not understand the purpose of learning English, an attitude which may be
exacerbated by their parents (“Parents’ motivation, respect and importance given to learning
English”). The teachers seem to feel a strong sense of responsibility to motivate students, which
can mean they expend a good deal of energy, both in planning a range of activities and in
classroom teaching. Certainly in the classes we observed teachers worked very hard both before
and during class to ensure the lesson was well-organized, involving, and focused.
Another key issue was teaching grammar. Although many teachers identified
“grammar” as a challenge without further explanation, comments such as the following were not
uncommon: “To explain difficult grammar categories (e.g., the difference between the present
perfect and the past simple)”; “In my personal opinion is grammar aspect because children
become bored when teachers try to teach in this way.” The fact that young learners between 7
and 11 are being taught grammar is of particular interest. Given their age, the amount of English
teaching they are receiving each week (usually less than two hours), and that they are often in
large mixed-level classes, the value of explicit grammar teaching might be questioned; yet as
several comments show, it is clearly an aspect of some teachers’ practice. Of course, there may
be good reasons for focusing on grammar. Cameron (2001) notes that some children benefit from
“skillful grammar teaching”. Similarly, Pinter (2011), reviewing a study by Harley (1998), which
examined focus-on-form in a Grade 2 immersion class of L2 French in Canada, concluded that
“children were able to focus on form and derive benefits from an approach that focuses on
grammar”.
And the last is class size. Class size is clearly more salient in state schools than in private
schools, where numbers are generally lower; and as suggested in this comment, class size might
be indicative of other issues: “Big size class, poor teaching and learning conditions.” As
mentioned above, class size is often linked to behavior problems and also exacerbates issues
arising from heterogeneous levels.

Proposed good classroom practices.

1. English is to be used all the time to ensure that children have relatively much exposure to
English. To familiarize students with the English used, which is an essential requirement
for mastering the English language, English teachers should speak English at all times, or
as much as possible, during classroom instruction session. English teachers model
speaking, reading, and writing by having children speak, read and write on their own
while they try. This functional use of English in class should be performed consistently to
give learners the opportunity to see for themselves how English is used for
communication purposes with the teacher. In this way, children can observe and
participate in the use of English for communicative purposes and master the language as
a prototype for later use in other communicative events.

2. Print-rich environment in English should be created in and around the classroom. Create
learning environments rich in multimodal literacy artifacts. Have lots of functional
English reading and writing materials in the room, such as booklets, leaflets, flyers,
posters with English captions, comics, magazines, dictionaries, encyclopedias, etc.

3. Teachers of English for young learners should use activity-based teaching-learning

techniques such as total physical response (TPR), games, and projects. Use activity-based
activities teaching techniques such as TPR, games, and projects (see, for instance, Katz &
Chard, 1989). Learning how to use English is accomplished when children use the
language to learn about the world; the focus is on the subject matter (e.g., games they like
most; favorite activities during the rainy season, etc.)

4. Teachers of English for young learners should use various techniques for short periods of
time to maintain the interest level of the children in engaging the English lessons. Use
various teaching techniques for short periods of time to avoid boredom on the part of
 learners. At the same time, keep focus on the teaching items from one instructional move
to another so that children’s learning is ensured.

5. Teachers of English for young learners should focus on functional English for vocabulary
development, and for immediate fulfillment of communicative needs of the learners.
Always use functional English during class so that children acquire functional vocabulary
from presentations and their communication needs are met. As you do this, encourage
children to speak their minds by actively seeking responses and anticipating vocabulary
needs so that real communication can occur.
6. Teachers of English for young learners should reiterate often to ensure the acquisition of
English expressions or vocabulary items. Repeat useful vocabulary and phrases as many
times as you like, depending on the context. The more words and expressions you come
across in the context of real communication, the easier they are to learn. Doing this
activity regularly will show how quickly your students can learn the language and use it
in speaking and writing.

References:
Myles, F. (2017). Learning foreign languages in primary schools: is younger better? Languages,
Society & Policy https://doi.org/10.17863/CAM.9806

Copland, F., Garton, S., & Burns, A. (2013). Challenges in Teaching English to Young Learners:
Global Perspectives and Local Realities. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.148

Musthafa, B. (2010). Teaching English to young learners in Indonesia: Essential

requirements. Educationist, 4(2), 120-125.

(Diah Nursabilla/5201411024)
So, is younger really better when learning a foreign language in the classroom?

That depends on what we understand by ‘better’. If ‘better’ means faster linguistic

progress, the research evidence tells us that older children outperform younger children; their
greater cognitive maturity helps them make the best of the limited input and of explicit
instruction. The very small number of studies which have found a small advantage for an early
start were in instructed contexts with many hours of instruction per week. It seems that young
children, learn mainly by doing rather than by conscious learning, that is, they learn more
implicitly than older children. As a result, they need abundant input and rich interaction to allow
their implicit mechanisms to work. After all, it is estimated that children learning their native
language are exposed to 17,000 hours of input by age 4. The one hour per week in the national
curriculum bears no resemblance to this quantity of input, and therefore policy expectations must
be realistic in terms of linguistic development of foreign languages. At the rate of one hour per
week, it would take 425 years for children in a classroom to match the input of children learning
their native language!

Language learning in primary school | Languages, Society and Policy

http://www.meits.org/policy-papers/paper/learning-foreign-languages-in-primary-schools-is-
younger-better

If on the other hand, ‘better’ means developing an enthusiasm for learning languages, as
well as changing cultural perceptions about the centrality of languages to education by
embedding them in the curriculum from the start, then much of the evidence suggests that
younger is better. In our recent study comparing 5, 7 and 11 year olds learning French in England,
96% of the 5 year olds enjoyed learning French, and 88% of the 7 year olds did so too. It seems
that even an hour per week has the potential to awaken a lifelong interest in foreign languages,
which must be welcome in a country where foreign language learning is undervalued and in
crisis.

However, this enthusiasm clearly requires nurturing if it is to persist. In our study, the
youngest children expressed short term and intrinsic reasons for liking French. It is fun; it is
different from their other subjects, and they like learning about different countries. By the time
they reach age 7, however, children have started realising that learning a foreign language is hard
work and that it takes a long time to be able to hold a basic conversation. The common belief that
learning a foreign language early equates with it being easy to learn does not really match their
experience, and the popular belief that the English are not good at learning foreign languages is
reinforced, when in fact the likely cause is the lack of time and effort spent on language learning.
Further challenges arise as children get older. Under present conditions in England, they are
likely to encounter problems and discontinuity in language learning at the point of transition
from primary to secondary school, which may be at least temporarily demotivating. The
curriculum also becomes more focussed on examinations, which are perceived as difficult in
Modern Languages. More broadly, the misconception grows that if you speak English, you do
not need to learn foreign languages as everyone speaks English.

Challenges and implications for policy

In the following section, we discuss the implications of these research findings on the
role of age in instructed contexts, for the policy challenges facing the early introduction of
foreign languages in primary schools.

Challenges
The rationale behind the introduction of languages was firmly that earlier is better terms
of developing proficiency in the target foreign language. These expectations are
problematic for a number of reasons:

• Limited input: Research has shown conclusively that language proficiency

does not develop faster in younger children, and the expectations placed upon
primary school aged children and their teachers concerning the learning that is
possible in one hour a week are somewhat unrealistic. The Languages
Programmes of Study (Department for Education 2013: 1) specify that all pupils
should ‘understand and respond to spoken and written language from a variety of
authentic sources; speak with increasing confidence, fluency and spontaneity,
finding ways of communicating what they want to say, including through
discussion and asking questions, and continually improving the accuracy of their
pronunciation and intonation; can write at varying length, for different purposes
and audiences, using the variety of grammatical structures that they have learnt;
discover and develop an appreciation of a range of writing in the language
studied’. Unless the curriculum incorporates several hours a week of foreign
language teaching these aims are likely to be over- ambitious, as the limited
amount of input will not allow for the implicit learning mechanisms typical of
early childhood, that is, learning by ‘doing’, to engage with the input in a
meaningful way. Older children are able to use their more developed cognitive
capabilities and literacy skills to support their learning; younger children.

 Teaching delivery: Research has shown, unsurprisingly, that specialist

teachers are more successful at teaching foreign languages than teachers who
have a poor command of the language, and/or who have received little or no
training in foreign language pedagogy. There is, however, a huge shortage of
specialist teachers, which is unlikely to be solved in the near future, given the
decrease in Modern Languages graduates being trained in universities.
Consequently, many models of language teaching delivery are currently used
in schools, ranging from the employment of one dedicated language teacher
for the whole school (only viable in larger primary schools), the use of a
peripatetic specialist teacher going from school to school, or, in many schools,
the class teacher teaching the language, and perhaps learning it at the same
time as the children.

• Resources: The introduction of the new policy took place at a time of

declining resources, which greatly limited the support available for schools,
through e.g. the disappearance of regional languages coordinators. The Routes
into Languages project which supports schools in the promotion and delivery
of foreign languages, was only centrally funded until July 2016. Schools have
had to deliver this initiative with no extra resources and inconsistent support.

• Transition from primary to secondary schools: The transition from

primary to secondary school has consistently been flagged up as a major
challenge to progress in foreign language learning, ever since the first pilot
introducing French in primary schools in England in the 1970s, and recent
evidence suggests that the problem endures (Ofsted 2015; Tinsley and Board
2016). There is currently very little joined-up thinking about how the transition
 from primary to secondary schools is managed, with secondary schools
receiving children from primary feeder schools with hugely varying practices,
not to mention languages, and little coordination between the two. Children
are typically taught languages together in year 7, the first
year of secondary school, whether they have already studied the chosen
language in primary school or not. This does not make for an ideal learning
context, and it can be demotivating for learners, as well as for the teacher who
typically has to assume children do not have any language skills.

These issues put together make it very difficult to see how the primary foreign languages
initiative can be successful, IF its primary goal is increased proficiency and if its success is
measured exclusively in terms of proficiency. The expectations are just too high, given the
amount of teaching and the current resources and provision.

Implications for policy

The research evidence we have discussed, and the challenges it raises for the
implementation of the primary language policy, do not mean that this initiative is not important
and that it cannot be a success. However, it would need to be thought about differently with
expectations matched to what research has shown about the way in which young children learn
and what motivates them. What is needed is a clear vision of the purpose of introducing young
children to foreign languages, and of how the teaching of primary foreign languages can be
integrated successfully within the Foreign Language curriculum as a whole, all the way through
to GCSE, paying particular attention to evolving learner motivation and to the transition from
primary to secondary school. Research has shown that what really motivates young children is
the fun of language learning: not only the fun activities typical of the primary language
classroom, but also learning about another culture and its language: learning about children in
other countries, what they do, how like/unlike them they are, how they speak etc. Regular
opportunities for direct contact with foreign language speakers (including of course children) are
highly motivating. Additionally, learning a foreign language helps children with their literacy
skills in English, as well as offering other recognized cognitive benefits. The motivational,
cultural, and cognitive benefits of language learning need to be stated more positively to ensure
adequate recognition of their importance and value in the national curriculum.
 Primary school teachers are usually excellent motivators; they enthuse children about
learning new topics, and all the evidence shows that children learning foreign languages in
primary schools share this enthusiasm. It is only once children realise that proficiency targets
need to be met that their motivation wanes. Focussing less one-sidedly on a goal of linguistic
proficiency would help mitigate some of the problems outlined above. Visits to and from foreign
countries; internet exchanges with foreign schools, projects about some aspect of the foreign
country/people, possibly linked with some other aspect of the curriculum, reflections on positive
reasons for learning languages, and on the strategies which will help learners progress, would
help foster an enduring enthusiasm for language in its cultural and social context, and thus
support gradual linguistic progress. This agenda needs to be much more central and consistent in
our curriculum. The choice of language(s) to be taught in primary schools also merits discussion.
The most commonly taught language is French, in over three quarters of schools, but other
languages may have greater resonance with the experience of school children. Spanish might be
a stronger motivator for children, as many have been to Spain on holiday, and its orthography
and pronunciation are more transparent. And in contexts where there are many children with
English as an additional language, it might be more appropriate to teach one of the languages of
the community. One option could be for all children to start a new language at secondary school
from scratch, avoiding the transition problems we mentioned above and which are so
demotivating for children. A one size fits all model might not be the most appropriate.

To conclude, the introduction of foreign languages in primary has great potential, but its
goals need to be clearly articulated and realistic, taking account of what research has shown
about how young children learn and of the context in which schools and teachers have to operate.
Foreign language teaching needs to be embedded within the children’s overall education from
the early years to the end of schooling, to avoid the highly demotivating transition issues. In their
comprehensive survey of the state of language learning in English schools, survey are very clear
that there are many benefits of teaching languages to pupils at Key Stage 2, especially widening
pupils’ cultural understanding and confidence, improving their literacy and preparing them for a
world of work.’ This needs to become central in the articulation of the primary foreign language
policy.

(Annisa Diah Pratiwi/5201411038)

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