Endocrine System (Finals)
Endocrine System (Finals)
Endocrine System (Finals)
Endocrine System and Nervous System are the two major integration and control systems of the
body.
Endocrine System and Nervous System works in parallel with, but independently from each other.
Some parts of the nervous system such as hypothalamus are also endocrine organs.
Endocrine system is composed of ALL the endocrine cells in the body or those cells that produce
Hormones are secreted into capillaries and carried by blood to target organ/s or tissue/s that
contain/s the cells (target cells) that possess appropriate receptors for them
Endocrine System
1) Embedded singly or in clusters in the various organs such as the juxtaglomerular cells in the kidney,
enteroendocrine cells in the GIT, and interstitial cells of Leydig in the testes
2) As distinct organs called endocrine glands, e.g., pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, and pineal;
and;
3) As component structures of certain organs, e.g., the endocrine areas of the hypothalamus and islets
It is a component of the diencephalon, which together with the telencephalon comprises the
forebrain prosencephalon.
The hypothalamus is located at the base of the brain, behind the optic chiasm, and it forms the
The hypothalamus controls numerous bodily functions including many vegetative ones such as
thirst, hunger and satiety, temperature, sexual behavior, and circadian rhythms.
The posterior pituitary hormones are oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH; vasopressin).
They are synthesized by neurons (magnocellular secretory neurons) that are in the supraoptic and
paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus, but stored in the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland,
The supraoptic nucleus is located above and lateral to the optic chiasm while the paraventricular
Oxytocin is produced by one cell type while ADH is produced by another cell type. But both cell
The main target organs of oxytocin in women are the uterus and breasts (mammary glands).
In the uterus, it stimulates contraction of the smooth muscles in the myometrium, and thus, aids
In the mammary glands, it promotes ejection of milk during lactation by stimulating contraction
Oxytocin's function in non-pregnant women is not fully understood yet, but it may play a role in
various social behaviors and even wound healing. In males, current evidence suggests that
oxytocin facilitates sperm transport within the male reproductive system and stimulates
permeability of the distal and collecting tubules of the kidneys, leading to the formation of more
concentrated urine.
The hypophysiotropic hormones whose names describe their main functions include:
neurons) that are smaller than the neurons that produce the posterior pituitary hormones. The
parvocellular secretory neurons are widely distributed within the hypothalamus but they are
PITUITARY GLAND
The pituitary gland is a small but very important endocrine gland. It is an ovoid body that weighs
the inferior surface of the hypothalamus and is lodged in a concavity (hypophyseal fossa) in the
The pituitary gland consists of two distinct parts, neurohypophysis and adenohypophysis which
The neurohypophysis arises from neural ectoderm. It develops as a downgrowth of the diencephalon. The
adenohypophysis arises from oral ectoderm; it is derived from Rathke's pouch, an upgrowth of the oral
mucosa. During embryonic development, the two ectodermal outgrowths meet and fuse to form the
pituitary gland. The connection of Rathke's pouch to the oral cavity is subsequently severed, but the
connection of the neurohypophysis to the base of the brain, specifically to the hypothalamus, persists.
1) Median eminence;
2) Pituitary stalk (infundibulum; infundibular stem; infundibular stalk; hypophyseal stalk); and
The median eminence is the proximal portion of the neurohypophysis that is attached to the
hypothalamus. The slender downward continuation of the median eminence is the pituitary stalk,
while the expanded inferior continuation of the pituitary stalk is the posterior lobe. Incidentally,
some authors consider the median eminence as the most inferior part of the hypothalamus,
The cell bodies of the secretory neurons in the hypothalamus (e.g., parvocellular secretory
neurons and magnocellular secretory neurons) are located in the nuclei and nuclear areas, but
their unmyelinated axons travel downwards, leave the hypothalamus and terminate in the
neurohypophysis.
The unmyelinated axons of the parvocellular secretory neurons are relatively short.
They terminate in the median eminence. The axonal terminations are where the hypophysiotropic
The axons, together with the numerous capillaries and supporting cells that are associated with
The unmyelinated axons of the magnocellular secretory neurons, on the other hand, are much
longer than those of the parvocellular secretory neurons. They originate from the nuclei (i.e.,
supraoptic and paraventricular) where the cell bodies are located, pass through the pituitary stalk,
In the pituitary stalk, the proximal segments of the axons comprise the hypothalamo-hypophyseal
In the posterior lobe, the distal segments of the axons comprise the bulk of the lobe.
The axons of the magnocellular secretory neurons have dilatations, not just at their ends but along
their entire length. The dilatations are the storage sites for the secretory granules.
They are associated with capillaries into which their secretions are released, as needed. The
posterior lobe is much bigger than the pituitary stalk simply because most of the axonal dilatations
Aggregations of secretory granules in the axonal dilatations are often seen in routine LM
preparations of the posterior lobe and pituitary stalk as deeply-staining, basophilic structures
In the neurohypophysis, the supporting cells are called pituicytes. They surround the axons of the
secretory neurons. Pituicytes are non-secretory cells that are morphologically similar to
astrocytes. They are stellate and their slender cytoplasmic processes are interconnected with
those of other pituicytes by gap junctions. Aside from pituicytes, the only other cellular elements
in the neurohypophysis are the endothelial cells of, and the blood cells in, the sinusoids.
consists of: a) axons of the secretory neurons whose cell bodies are in the hypothalamus,
hormones.
The adenohypophysis is the part of the pituitary gland that produces hormones.
Whereas the neurohypophysis is more fibrous than cellular, the adenohypophysis is more cellular
than fibrous.
The adenohypophysis has three regions: a) anterior lobe (pars distalis); b) pars tuberalis (pars
The pars tuberalis forms a thin and incomplete sleeve around the pituitary stalk of the
The anterior lobe comprises about 70% of the pituitary gland. Nearly all the hormones produced
by the pituitary gland come from this lobe. The hormones produced by the anterior lobe (anterior
pituitary hormones) have wide-ranging effects. They regulate almost all other endocrine glands,
and the ovaries, testes and mammary glands. They are also involved in the metabolism of muscle,
Histologically, the parenchyma of the anterior lobe consists of epithelial cells, most of which are
secretory in nature. The parenchymal cells form irregularly-arranged anastomosing cords and
clusters that are surrounded by fenestrated sinusoids. A minimal amount of reticular tissue exists
between the epithelial cells and the sinusoids. It serves as the supporting structure (stroma) for
In LM sections prepared with the use of acid dyes, the parenchymal cells in the anterior lobe of
the pituitary gland can be classified into two general types-chromophils, whose cytoplasm is
intensely colored and chromophobes, whose cytoplasm is pale staining. The chromophils
comprise about 35% while the chromophobes comprise about 65% of the parenchymal cells.
The chromophils are further classified into 1) acidophils (alpha cells) and 2) basophils (beta cells).
The cytoplasm of acidophils stains red with acid dyes while that of basophils stains blue or purple.
In addition, the nucleus of the basophils is less dense, and is thus, lighter-staining than that of the
acidophils.
nothing to do with true acidophilia or basophilia because all the dyes used are acid dyes.
Furthermore, the dyes are taken up mostly by the secretory granules of the cells and not by the
organelles.
PITUITARY GLAND: Chromophils
Electron microscopy and histologic studies utilizing special techniques have shown that there are
The classification of the chromophils into five types is based on the hormone that the cells secrete
and their appearance in electron micrographs. The cell types, which have been named after the
2) Mammotrophs (lactotrophs),
3) Thyrotrophs,
4) Corticotrophs, and
5) Gonadotrophs.
The somatotrophs and the mammotrophs are the acidophils while the thyrotrophs, corticotrophs, and
Electron microscopy and histologic studies utilizing special techniques have shown that most
chromophobes are actually chromophils (mostly corticotrophs), but they have pale cytoplasm in
routine LM preparations because they are resting, or have just recently released most of their
secretory granules, or are still in the process of producing new ones. In other words, the few
secretory granules they possess are inadequate to impart enough cytoplasmic coloration to
distinguish them as chromophils under the LM with the use of traditional acid dyes.
There are, however, two kinds of chromophobes that are not chromophils. One type, the
folliculostellate cell (FS cell), has long, branching processes. It is non-secretory and performs
some supportive role for the other cells. The second type is an undifferentiated stem cell.
PITUITARY GLAND: Hypothalamic Control over the Anterior Lobe of the Pituitary Gland
The Anterior Lobe of the Pituitary Gland secretes SIX important hormones, namely:
* The secretion of these hormones is mainly regulated by the hypothalamus through the hypophysiotropic
hormones.
PITUITARY GLAND: Pars Tuberalis
The pars tuberalis is separated from the pituitary stalk by connective tissue that is continuous
The pars tuberalis is more vascular than the anterior lobe. This is because the blood vessels that
Its parenchymal cells are mostly gonadotrophs and thyrotrophs that are arranged parallel to the
blood vessels in cords, clusters, and as lining cells of colloid-containing follicles, which are often
The intermediate lobe of the pituitary gland is the thin and poorly developed region of the gland
Its boundary with the anterior lobe is demarcated by a groove to the original lumen of Rathke's
pouch.
The intermediate lobe is better developed in the fetus than in adults, where it is rudimentary. In
routine histologic sections, it is easy to recognize because of the presence of follicles (Rathke's
The parenchymal cells of the intermediate lobe form irregular clusters. They contain some fine
secretory granules. They synthesize melanocyte- stimulating hormone (MSH), whose production
in adults is minimal to nil. MSH probably plays a role in melanin production by melanocytes. An
increase in MSH results in darker skin. MSH increases in humans during pregnancy. This, along
The pineal gland is a small (8 mm long; about 120 mg in weight) conical structure whose base is
attached to the posterior portion of the roof of the third ventricle of the brain by two short stalks.
The pineal gland arises in the embryo as a hollow evagination of the roof of the diencephalon. As
it develops, its cavity gets filled with cells and eventually the gland transforms into a solid organ.
The pineal gland is enveloped by a thin connective tissue capsule that is derived from pia mater.
Connective tissue septa arise from this capsule and incompletely divide the gland into irregular
lobules. The tissue septa also serve as passageways for blood vessels and unmyelinated nerve
fibers.
The parenchymal cells that fill the lobules of the pineal gland are mostly pinealocytes, which are
actually modified neurons. They comprise 95% of the cell population of the gland. In the lobules,
they are arranged in short cords or in clusters that are surrounded by fenestrated capillaries.
In routine histologic preparations, pinealocytes have poorly defined borders and basophilic
cytoplasm.
Dispersed among the pinealocytes are supporting cells called interstitial cells. These cells are
Aside from pinealocytes and interstitial cells, mast cells are also often seen in the pineal gland, a
One striking histologic feature of the pineal gland is the presence of extracellular bodies, called
brain sands (acervuli, psammoma bodies, or corpora arenacea), within the lobules. These are
calcified bodies that have a concentric lamellar structure. This is why the pineal gland is visible
and is sometimes used as a landmark in X-ray studies of the brain. With age, the interstitial cells
The pineal gland produces the hormone melatonin whose secretion is stimulated by darkness and
inhibited by light.
Melatonin is synthesized by the pinealocytes. It is a very important hormone in animals that breed
seasonally because it regulates the animals' sexual development, reproductive cycle (seasonal
In humans, melatonin blood level has a diurnal pattern (i.e., it is higher at night than during the
day); and is much higher in children than in adults. The diurnal fluctuation in blood melatonin
levels probably affects sleep patterns and rhythmic changes in the activity of the hypothalamus,
Melatonin is also associated in the development of seasonal affective disorder, a condition that is
The thyroid gland is the largest of the endocrine glands. It is 25 to 40 g in weight and is slightly
bigger in women than in men. It is an unpaired gland that lies on the anterior aspect of the neck.
Grossly, it consists of two lateral lobes (right and left) and an isthmus.
The lateral lobes are broad, inferiorly, but tapered, superiorly. They adhere to the lateral (one on
each side) aspects of the pharynx, larynx, esophagus, and trachea. Their inferior borders are at
the level of the sixth tracheal cartilage. The lateral lobes are connected to each other by a narrow
horizontal bridge of glandular tissue, the isthmus, which extends across the trachea usually in
front of the second and third tracheal cartilages. In some individuals, the thyroid gland also has a
small pyramidal lobe, which consists of glandular tissue that projects upward from the isthmus.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE THYROID GLAND
The thyroid gland arises during early embryonic life as an epithelial invagination at the base of the
tongue. It migrates downwards and reaches its final position in the lower part of the neck in the
7th week of intrauterine life. It remains connected for a time to the base of the tongue by the
thyroglossal duct, which later disappears. The point of origin of the thyroid gland is indicated by
the foramen cecum, the apex of the sulcus terminalis, the V-shaped furrow that separates the
THYROID GLAND
The thyroid gland is enclosed by two capsules, an outer capsule that is derived from the
pretracheal layer of the deep cervical fascia and a true capsule that closely invests the gland and
sends connective tissue septa into the organ to form poorly-defined lobules.
The connective tissue septa also serve as pathways for blood and lymph vessels and nerves.
The connective tissue within the thyroid gland is infiltrated by lymphocytes and small lymphoid
Each thyroid lobule is filled with irregular spherical, cystic structures, called follicles (thyroid
follicles), that are surrounded by fenestrated capillaries and supported by a thin connective tissue
stroma-consisting primarily of reticular fibers and cells-that is continuous with the septa.
The follicles are 0.02 to 0.9 mm in diameter. Their cavity is occupied by a homogenous, gel-like
material known as colloid (thyroid colloid), while their wall is formed by a simple epithelium.
Two types of cells comprise the simple epithelium that forms the wall of thyroid follicles: follicular
cells (principal cells) and parafollicular cells (mitochondria rich cells; C cells; clear cells).
Follicular cells make up the overwhelming majority of the epithelial cells in the thyroid follicle. In
routine histologic preparations, they are seen as having a round nucleus that contains fine
chromatin material and one or two nucleoli, and a slightly basophilic cytoplasm.
The luminal surface of follicular cells is provided with numerous microvilli, but these are not
discernible under the LM. The shape of the follicular cells and the staining property of the colloid
In inactive follicles, the epithelial cells are squamous or cuboidal and the colloid is acidophilic. In
active follicles, the epithelial cells are tall cuboidal or columnar, and the colloid is basophilic.
Parafollicular cells comprise only 0.1% of the epithelial cell population of the thyroid follicle. They
The parafollicular cells rest on the basal lamina of the epithelium but unlike follicular cells, their
apices do not touch the colloid. In routine histologic preparations, they are easy to identify
because they are much bigger and lighter-staining than follicular cells. Their cytoplasm contains
The hormones produced by the thyroid gland are thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), which
The production and secretion of the thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) are functions of the follicular
cells but the follicular cells do not directly synthesize the hormones. What they synthesize is
thyroglobulin, a large glycoprotein, which they discharge by exocytosis into the colloid. They
likewise collect iodine from the blood in the capillaries that surround the follicles and transport it
In the colloid, some of the tyrosine residues present in the thyroglobulin get iodinated and
condensed to form the two principal thyroid hormones, thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3),
T3 and T4 remain bound to thyroglobulin until they are to be secreted. During which, the follicular
cells ingest colloid by endocytosis, hydrolyze the peptide bonds that bind the thyroid hormones
to the thyroglobulin, and release the thyroid hormones into the capillaries.
The thyroid hormones regulate the metabolism of proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and some
vitamins.
Control of T3 and T4 secretion is the function of thyrotropin (TSH) that comes from the pituitary
gland.
Calcitonin (thyrocalcitonin), on the other hand, is synthesized and secreted by the parafollicular
cells. It lowers blood calcium level by suppressing the bone resorption activity of the osteoclasts.
Incidentally, calcitonin is probably also secreted by other still unidentified cells of the body
because it is present in the blood of people who have had their thyroid gland surgically removed.
The secretory activity of the parafollicular cells is regulated directly by blood calcium level. A high
blood calcium level stimulates while a low blood calcium level suppresses secretion of calcitonin
The parathyroid glands, usually two pairs (superior and inferior), are yellowish-brown, tiny, ovoid
bodies that are attached to the posterior surface of the lateral lobes of the thyroid gland.
Each parathyroid gland is about mm long, 3-4 mm wide & 1-2 mm thick, & about 50 mg in weight.
The inferior parathyroid glands arise in the embryo from the third pharyngeal pouch together
with the thymus. When the thymus descends into the thoracic cavity, it pulls the inferior
parathyroid glands with it, but the latter do not descend all the way to the thorax. They come to
rest on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland. Occasionally though, parathyroid glands are
The superior parathyroid glands, on the other hand, arise from the fourth pharyngeal pouch and
attach themselves to the thyroid glands as the latter migrates downward to the inferior portion
of the neck.
PARATHYROID GLAND
The parathyroid glands lie within the capsule of the thyroid gland, but deep to the thyroid capsule,
each parathyroid gland is enveloped by its own thin connective tissue capsule. From this latter
capsule, connective tissue septa arise and divide the gland into poorly-defined lobules.
The parenchyma of the parathyroid gland consists of epithelial cells that are arranged in cords
Adipose cells are also relatively abundant within the lobules of the parathyroid gland where they
intermix with the parenchymal cells. Adipose cells are hardly present in the parathyroid glands of
newborns. They start to appear during childhood and by the age of 25 years they comprise about
30% of the volume of the gland. The adipose cells further increase in number with age.
Follicles are occasionally present in the parathyroid glands, especially in older individuals. These
PARATHYROID GLAND’s
Parenchymal cells
Two main types of parenchymal cells exist in the parathyroid gland: chief cells (principal cells) and
Chief cells comprise majority of the parenchymal cells. A chief cell is a relatively small (8 to 10
mm, in diameter) polyhedral cell. In routine histologic preparations, its nucleus is prominent,
Oxyphil cells are absent in children. They appear shortly before puberty and increase in number
with age. They occur singly or in clusters in the lobules. An oxyphil cell is bigger than a chief cell
but its nucleus is slightly smaller. Its cytoplasm is intensely eosinophilic because of the presence
of many acidophilic granules. Electron micrographs show that these granules are actually
mitochondria with numerous cristae. Oxyphil cells are generally nonsecretory although some
They are suspected to be chief cells that are in a different physiological state. This assertion is
strengthened by the fact that there are cells in the parathyroid gland (transitional cells) that have
structural characteristics that are in between chief cells and oxyphil cells.
PARATHYROID GLAND
The parathyroid gland secretes only one hormone, the parathyroid hormone, which is
The parathyroid hormone is the most important regulator of blood calcium level and its secretion
When the blood calcium level is low, the chief cells produce and secrete parathyroid hormone,
which stimulates the osteoblasts to secrete hormone-like substances that increase the
proliferation and activity of osteoclasts; inhibits the bone formation activity of osteoblasts;
enhances calcium reabsorption in the renal tubules; increases the conversion of vitamin D to its
active form; increases the excretion of phosphate by the kidneys; and promotes the absorption
High level of blood calcium, on the other hand, suppresses the activity of the chief cells, causing
The paired adrenal glands (left and right) are flat, pyramidal organs that rest on the upper pole
of each kidney
The adrenal gland presents an indentation (hilus) at the middle of its anteromedial aspect. This is
where the adrenal vein leaves the gland. The adrenal arteries enter the gland through its capsule.
The stroma of the adrenal gland consists of a relatively thick connective tissue capsule and
elements from this capsule (mostly reticular fibers and cells) that penetrate the gland. The
parenchyma of the gland, on the other hand, consists of epithelial cells that are mostly secretory
in nature.
An examination of a coronal section of the adrenal gland shows that the gland consists of two
The cortex lies immediately beneath the capsule. It completely surrounds the medulla, which
because the cortex differs from the medulla, embryologically, structurally, and functionally.
The cortex of the adrenal gland is mesodermal in origin while the medulla is ectodermal.
The cortex is derived from mesothelial cells of the peritoneum that are adjacent to the developing
kidneys. These cells differentiate to form the primitive adrenal cortex. Later, another group of
mesothelial cells, which are smaller than those in the primitive adrenal cortex, invades the area
of the developing adrenal gland and surrounds the primitive adrenal cortex.
These cells will comprise the definitive adrenal cortex. During the first postnatal month of life, the
primitive adrenal cortex rapidly regresses and its cells replaced by the cells of the definitive cortex,
but only at puberty is the structure of the adult adrenal cortex achieved.
The medulla, on the other hand, is derived from neural crest cells that form the sympathetic
system. These cells migrate to, and invade the central area of the developing adrenal cortex where
The cortex comprises 80% to 90% of the adrenal gland. It is essential to life.
Steroid hormones are small lipid-soluble molecules hence they diffuse freely from cells through
the plasmalemma. Consequently, the secretory cells of the adrenal cortex do not exhibit
The adrenocortical hormones are categorized into three classes (e.g., mineralocorticoids,
glucocorticoids, and androgens). Many hormones comprise each class, but most are secreted in
hormones are the mineralocorticoid aldosterone; the glucocorticoids cortisol and corticosterone;
and the androgens dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and androstenedione. The adrenal cortex,
when seen under LM, consists of three concentric zones or layers that are distinguishable by the
arrangement and appearance of their parenchymal cells. From the outside going inwards, these
layers are the a) zona glomerulosa; b) zona fasciculata; and, c) zona reticularis.
ADRENAL GLAND: ADRENAL MEDULLA
The medulla comprises 10% to 20% of the adrenal gland. Its central area contains large veins
(medullary veins) that drain the entire gland. Unlike the adrenal cortex, the adrenal medulla is not
essential to life, but its hormones help the individual cope with emergencies.
thick cords that are surrounded by cells) are sinusoids and richly supplied with myelinated nerves-
in fact, all the parenchymal cells are associated with endings of preganglionic sympathetic neuron.
They are polyhedral cells with basophilic cytoplasm that, when compared to the cortical cells in
routine histologic preparations, have a larger and more darkly-staining nucleus. They are called
chromaffin cells because the secretory granules in their basophilic cytoplasm exhibit chromaffin
reaction, i.e., when treated with oxidizing agents like chromate, the catecholamines that they
Scattered among the chromaffin cells are sympathetic neurons (ganglion cells), large cells that are
round or polygonal with prominent nuclei, which are the sources of the myelinated nerves that
They are secreted by the chromaffin cells and include epinephrine (adrenaline), norepinephrine
About 90% of chromaffin cells secrete epinephrine and about 10% secrete norepinephrine while
the cells that secrete dopamine have not been identified yet.
The catecholamines have no specific target organs or cells. Their effects are widespread and
Normally, they are continuously secreted in small quantities. However, during "fight or flight"
situations such as fright, they are released into the bloodstream in large quantities and produce
vasoconstriction, increased blood pressure, changes in heart rate, and elevated blood glucose
levels. These effects facilitate various defensive reactions that are designed to enable the changes
in heart rate, and elevated blood glucose levels. These effects individual to cope with emergency
situations.
nervous system.
The chromaffin cells are thus essentially sympathetic ganglion cells that respond to stimulation
by the preganglionic neurons not by sending nervous impulses but by releasing hormones by
exocytosis and sending these chemical messengers via the bloodstream to effector cells in the
In addition to catecholamines, the chromaffin cells also synthesize a wide variety of bioactive
The term paraganglia refers to small clusters of chromaffin cells that are found outside the adrenal
medulla.
They are associated with autonomic ganglia, nerves of the sympathetic nervous system, and the
aorta.
The exocrine and endocrine portions of the pancreas have the same embryonic origin- the
endoderm that lines the duodenum. In the 3rd month of intrauterine life, the cells destined to
form the islets migrate away from the pancreatic ducts, aggregate around capillaries, and
differentiate into islet cells. During the 5th month of fetal life, the cells start producing hormones.
ISLETS OF LANGERHANS (Pancreatic Islets)
In routine histologic preparations, they are seen as consisting of small aggregations of pale-
staining cells that are scattered among the darker-staining cells that belong to the exocrine
Each islet consists of 2,000 to 3,000 cells that form a compact mass that is crisscrossed by
There are over a million islets of Langerhans in the pancreas, but account for only 2% of the
They are more numerous in the tail than in the body or head of the organ.
The cells of the islets of Langerhans are polygonal and are typically polarized toward the
capillaries into which they discharge their secretions. They consist of four distinct cells types: a, b,
The islets of Langerhans produce four (4) hormones: insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and
pancreatic polypeptide.
metabolic processes. Insulin affects practically all cells of the body and its effects are varied, very
profound, and complex. The most notable function of insulin is to facilitate entry of glucose, the
The secretion of insulin by the B-cells is regulated mainly by the level of glucose in the blood. High
blood glucose level stimulates its secretion and release. When insulin is released, it diffuses into
ISLETS OF LANGERHANS
Secretion and release of insulin by the B-cells end when the blood sugar level returns to normal.
Insulin secretion is also partly regulated by the autonomic nervous system and by some of the
hormones secreted by the digestive tract e.g., enteroglucagon, secretin, cholecystokinin, gastrin,
and gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP). Inability of the islets of Langerhans to produce enough
insulin and/or the inability of the body cells to respond appropriately to insulin results in a
Glucagon, which is also a polypeptide hormone, is elaborated and secreted by the a-cells. Like
insulin, the effects of glucagon are varied and complex but its main action is to increase blood
glucose level by ordering the cells of the liver to produce glucose or release it from the organ's
glycogen store.
Secretion of glucagon by the a-cells is regulated mainly by the glucose level of blood-it is
stimulated and inhibited by low and high blood glucose level, respectively.
Somatostatin is produced and secreted by the d-cells. Its main action is on the secretion of the
other cells of the islets. It inhibits the secretion of glucagon, insulin and pancreatic polypeptide. It
also minimally diminishes the motility of the stomach, small intestine, and gallbladder. Its release
is stimulated by the increase in blood glucose that occurs after a meal. Somatostatin is also
produced by some cells of the digestive tract and the hypothalamus, but the physiologic effect of
Pancreatic polypeptide is produced and secreted by the F-cells. It has been shown to slow down
the absorption of food from the intestines, but its exact physiologic effect is not well-understood
yet. Its secretion is stimulated by low blood level of glucose, a meal containing protein, exercise,
The hormones of the islets of Langerhans affect each other. Somatostatin inhibits the secretion
of the three other hormones produced by the islet; insulin inhibits the secretion of glucagon;