General aspects of build-up and functioning of an organism II

(Histology, Embryology)

Associated Prof: Irina Modebadze

TSU
Secretory cells of endocrine glands
release their products, signaling
molecules called hormones neighboring
vascularized compartment for uptake by
capillaries and distribution throughout
the body.
There is no secretory duct as in
exocrine glands. Endocrine cells are
typically epithelial, at least in origin, and
aggregated as cords or clusters.
Besides the specialized endocrine
glands discussed in this chapter, many
other organs specialized for other
functions, such as the heart, thymus,
gut, kidneys, testis, and ovaries,
contain various endocrine cells.
 Hormones are molecules that function as chemical signals.
 Most hormones act at a distance from the site of their secretion.
 The tissues and organs on which the hormones act are called target
tissues or target organs.
 They react because their cells have receptors that specifically
recognize and respond to the hormones.
 Because of its dual origin, the hypophysis
actually consists of two glands—the
neurohypophysis and the
adenohypophysis—that are united
The hypophysis (Gr. hypo, under,
anatomically but that have different
+ physis, growth), or pituitary
functions.
gland, weighs about 0.5 g, and its
The neurohypophysis, the part of the
normal dimensions in humans are
hypophysis that develops from nerve tissue,
about 10 x 13 x 6 mm. It lies in a
consists of a large portion, the pars nervosa,
cavity of the sphenoid bone—the
and the smaller infundibulum, or neural stalk.
sella turcica—an important
The neural stalk is composed of the stem and
radiological landmark.
median eminence.
The part of the hypophysis that arises from oral ectoderm is known as the
adenohypophys divided into three portions: a large pars distalis, or anterior
lobe; a cranial part, the pars tuberalis which wraps around the infundibulum;
and the pars intermedia, adjacent to the posterior pars nervosa.
 The blood supply of the hypophysis derives from the
internal carotid artery. The superior hypophyseal arteries
supply the median eminence and the neural stalk;
Inferior hypophyseal arteries provide blood mainly for the neurohypophysis,
with a small supply to the stalk.
The superior hypophyseal arteries divide into a plexus of fenestrated capillaries that
irrigates the stalk and median eminence. These capillaries then rejoin to form hypophisial
portal veins that develop into a secondary capillary plexus in the adenohypophysis. This
system is importance because it carries neuropeptides from the median eminence the short
distance to regulate the adenohypophysis.
 In the hypothalamo-hypophyseal system there are three known sites of
production of hormones that liberate three groups of hormones:
 1. The first group consists of peptides produced by aggregates (nuclei) of
secretory neurons in the hypothalamus: the supraoptic and the
paraventricular nuclei.

The hormones are transported

along the axons of these
neurons and accumulate in
the ends of these axons,
which are situated in the
neurohypophysis.
These hormones (vasopressin
and oxytocin) are released by
exocytosis, enter capillaries of
the neurohypophysis, and are
distributed by the blood.
2. Peptide hormones is produced by neurons of the dorsal medial, ventral
medial, and infundibular nuclei of the hypothalamus. They are carried along
axons that end in the median eminence.
After being released these hormones (hypothalamic-releasing hormones -
liberines and statins) enter the blood capillaries of the median eminence and are
transported to the adenohypophysis through the first stretch of the
hypophyseal portal system.
Liberines stimulates secretion of adenohipohisis and statins inhibit hormone
releases.
3. The hormones produced by the hypophysis regulate almost all
other endocrine glands, the secretion of milk, and the metabolism
of muscle, bone, and adipose tissue.
The pars distalis accounts for 75% of the mass of the hypophysis.
The main components of the pars distalis are cords of epithelial cells
interspersed with capillaries. The hormones produced by these cells
are stored as secretory granules. Common stains allow the recognition
of three cell types in the pars distalis:
chromophobes (Gr. chroma, color, + phobos, fear) and two types of
chromophils (Gr. chroma + philein, to love) called basophils and
acidophils according to their affinity for basic and acid dyes,
respectively.
Chromophobes stain weakly, with few or no secretory granules, and
also represent a heterogeneous group, including stem and
undifferentiated progenitor cells as well as any degranulated cells
present.
Cells of Adenohypophysis
Adenocytes

Chromophilic Chromophobic

Basophilic Acidophilic

Corticotropocyte Somatotrophocyte

Thireotrophocyte Laqtotrophocyte

Gonadotrophocyte

folitrophocyte

lutropinocyte

Melanotrophocyte

Lipotrophocyte
 Cells

Chromophyls Chromophobes

Basophyls Acidophils
 Adenocytes

Basophylic

Corticotropocytes Thyreotropocytes

Cells of Cruck
The pars tuberalis is a funnel-shaped region surrounding the infundibulum of
the neurohypophysis. Most of the cells of the pars tuberalis secrete
gonadotropins (follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone) and are
arranged in cords alongside the blood vessels.

The pars intermedia is, in

humans, a rudimentary
region made up of cords
and follicles of weakly
basophilic cells that
contain small secretory
granules. Melanocyte-
stimulating hormone (-
MSH) is produced in the
intermediate zone, and
probably also by
basophils of the pars
distalis.
 Neurohypophysis
The neurohypophysis consists of the pars nervosa and the neural stalk. The pars nervosa,
unlike the adenohypophysis, does not contain secretory cells. It is composed of some
100,000 unmyelinated axons of secretory neurons situated in the supraoptic and
paraventricular nuclei. Although the neurohypophysis consists mainly of axons from
hypothalamic neurons, about 25% of its volume consists of a specific type of highly
branched glial cell called a pituicyte.
The neurosecretions are transported along the
axons and accumulate at their endings in the
pars nervosa. Here they form structures known
as Herring bodies, which are visible in the light
microscope. The granules are released and their
content enters the fenestrated capillaries that
exist in large numbers in the pars nervosa. The
hormons are argininevasopressin—also called
antidiuretic hormone (ADH)—and oxytocin.

Oxytocin stimulates contraction of the

myoepithelial cells that surround the alveoli and
ducts of the mammary glands during nursing.
The main effect of ADH is to increase the
permeability of collecting tubules of the kidney
to water.
Hormones of the pars distalis and their targets
The adrenal glands are paired organs that lie near the superior poles of the
kidneys, embedded in adipose tissue. They are flattened structures with a half-
moon shape; Examination of a fresh section of adrenal gland shows that it is
formed by two concentric layers: a yellow peripheral layer, the adrenal cortex;
and a reddish-brown central layer, the adrenal medulla.

The dense connective tissue capsule that

covers the adrenal gland sends thin septa to the
interior of the gland as trabeculae. The stroma
consists mainly of a rich network of reticular
fibers that supports the secretory cells.

The general histological appearance of

the adrenal gland is typical of an
endocrine gland in which parencimal
cells of both cortex and medulla are
grouped in cords along capillaries.
The cells of the adrenal cortex, which have
the typical structure of steroid-secreting
cells, do not store their secretory products
in granules; rather, they synthesize and
secrete steroid hormones upon demand.
Steroids, being low-molecular-weight lipid-
soluble molecules, diffuse through the
plasma membrane and do not require the
specialized process of exocytosis for their
release.
Adrenal gland cortex is regulated by
Adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) from pituitary
gland.
The adrenal cortex can be subdivided into
three concentric layers whose limits are
usually not sharply defined in humans:
the zona glomerulosa,
the zona fasciculata,
and the zona reticularis.
These layers occupy 15%, 65%, and 7%,
respectively, of the total volume of the
adrenal glands.
In the zona glomerulosa columnar or pyramidal
cells are arranged in closely packed, rounded,
or arched cords surrounded by capillaries.
In the zona fasciculata the arrangement of the
cells in one- or two-cell thick straight cords that
run at right angles to the surface of the organ
and have capillaries between them.
The cells of the zona fasciculata are polyhedral,
with a great number of lipid droplets in their
cytoplasm. As a result of the dissolution of the
lipids during tissue preparation, the fasciculata
cells appear vacuolated in common histological
preparations. Because of their vacuolization,
the cells of the fasciculata are also called
spongyocytes.
The zona reticularis contains cells disposed
in irregular cords that form an anastomosing
network. These cells are smaller than those
of the other two layers. Lipofuscin pigment
granules in the cells are large and quite
numerous. Irregularly shaped cells with
pyknotic nuclei—suggesting cell death—are
often found in this layer.
 The steroids secreted by the
cortex can be divided into
three groups, according to
their main physiological
action:
 mineralocorticoids,
 glucocorticoids, and
 androgens.
 The main product of the zona
glomerulosa is a
mineralocorticoid called
aldosterone;
 the zona fasciculata and
possibly the zona reticularis
secrete glucocorticoids,
especially cortisol;
 the zona reticularis produces
dehydroepiandrosterone, a
weak androgen.
 The cells of the adrenal medulla can
be considered modified
sympathetic postganglionic
neurons that have lost their axons
and dendrites during embryonic
development and have become
secretory cells.
 Medullary cells have abundant
membrane-limited electron-dense
secretory granules. These granules
contain one or the other of the
catecholamines, epinephrine or
norepinephrine.
 The secretory granules also contain
adenosine triphosphate (ATP),
proteins called chromogranins
(which may serve as binding
proteins for catecholamines),
dopamine -hydroxylase (which
converts dopamine to
norepinephrine), and opiatelike
peptides (enkephalins).
The thyroid gland, located in the cervical
region anterior to the larynx, consists of two
lobes united by an isthmus.
Its function is to synthesize the hormones
thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3);
Thyroid hormones affect the metabolism of
proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates.
Parenchyma of Thyroid tissue is composed
of 20–30 million microscopic spheres called
thyroid follicles. The follicles are lined by a
simple epithelium and their central cavity
contains a gelatinous substance called
colloid. Folicular cells are regulated by
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) from
pituitary gland.
 The thyroid is the only endocrine gland
whose secretory product is stored in great
quantity. This accumulation is also unusual
in that it occurs in the extracellular colloid.
In humans, there is sufficient hormone
within the follicles to supply the organism
for up to 3 months. Thyroid colloid is
composed of a glycoprotein of high
colloid molecular mass (660 kDa) called
thyroglobulin.
Another type of cell present in the thyroid,
the parafollicular or C cell, is found as part
of the follicular epithelium or as isolated
clusters between thyroid follicles.
Parafollicular cells are larger than thyroid
follicular cells.
These cells are responsible for the
synthesis and secretion of calcitonin, a
hormone whose main effect is to lower
blood calcium levels by inhibiting bone
resorption.
Secretion of calcitonin is triggered by an
elevation in blood calcium concentration.
 Parathyroid Glands
They are located behind the thyroid
gland, one at each end of the upper
and lower poles, usually in the
capsule that covers the lobes of the
thyroid thyroid. Sometimes they are
embedded in the thyroid gland.
Each parathyroid gland is contained
within a connective tissue capsule.
These capsules send septa into the
Parathyroid
gland, where they merge with the
reticular fibers that support
elongated cordlike clusters of
secretory cells.
The endocrine cells of the
parathyroid are arranged in cords.
There are two types of cells: the
chief, or principal, cells and the
oxyphil cells.
Cells of Parathyroid Glands
The chief cells (CH) are small polygonal
cells with a vesicular nucleus and a pale-
staining, slightly acidophilic cytoplasm.
Electron microscopy shows irregularly
shaped granules (200–400 nm in
diameter) in their cytoplasm.
They are the secretory granules
containing parathyroid hormone (PTH), an
important regulator of blood calcium
levels (stimulates resorption of bone
matrix and In the distal convoluted
tubules of the renal cortex stimulates
Ca2+ reabsorption).

Oxyphil cells (O) constitute a smaller

population. They are larger polygonal
cells, and their cytoplasm contains many
acidophilic mitochondria with abundant
cristae. Some oxyphil cells show low
levels of PTH synthesis, suggesting that
these cells are transitional derivatives of
principal cells.
 The pineal gland is also known as
the epiphysis cerebri, or pineal
body.
The pineal gland is covered by pia
mater. Connective tissue septa
containing blood vessels and
unmyelinated nerve fibers
originate in the pia mater and
penetrate the pineal tissue. Along
with the capillaries, they surround
the cellular cords and follicles,
forming irregular lobules.

The pineal gland is associated with biorhythms, acting as an interface

between the cyclic environment and the rhythmic vertebrate body. This
results from the secretion of melatonin by the pineal gland.
 The pineal gland consists of several
types of cells, principally pinealocytes
and astrocytes. Pinealocytes have a
slightly basophilic cytoplasm. These
cells produce melatonin and some ill-
defined pineal peptides.
The astrocytes of the pineal gland are a
specific type of cell characterized by
elongated nuclei that stain more heavily
than do those of parenchymal cells.
They are observed between the cords
of pinealocytes and in perivascular
areas.
Variously sized concretions of calcium
and magnesium salts called corpora
arenacea, or brain sand, which form as
extracellular protein deposits become
mineralized are present. Such
concretions appear during childhood
and gradually increase in number and
size with age, with no apparent effect on
the gland’s function.