FoN One

Wolkite University
Collage Of Computing
Software Engineering Department
Fundamentals Of Networking
(SEng7022)
Chapter One: Data Communication and Computer

Networking Basics
March 7, 2022
Bekretsyon B. (MSc.)
Outline
Benefits of network
Components of Data Communications
Data Represenation Technique
Transmission Impairments
Modes of Data Transmission
Elements of Data Communication
Network Types
The Ineternet
Transmission Media
Circuit Switching and Packet Switching
Network Protocol Standards
Network (Reference) Models
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Data Communication Basics Introduction
Introduction
Benefits of Networking in Business:

Share resources (E.g. Printer, data) Communication (E.g. e-mail, internal
networks)
Share Internet access
Integrate business (including sales activity, stock holding, quotations,
ordering raw materials, control the production process, process invoices,
process all the accounts, analyze business performance, quality control,
etc).
Benefits of Networking in Scientific Applications:
Share data
Use remote powerful computers to carry complex computations
3 / 65
Components of Data Communications

Data communication - transfer of data or information between a source
and a receiver
Data communications is concerned with:
Transfer of data
Method of transfer
Preservation of data
Effectiveness of Data Communication System depends on:
Delivery
Accuracy
Timeliness
Functionally, it consists of:(Components of data communication)
Message
Sender
Receiver
Medium
Protocol
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Five Components of Data Communication
5 / 65
Five Components of Data Communication
1 Message: is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms

of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2 Sender: is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3 Receiver: is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
4 Transmission medium: is the physical path by which a message travels
from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include
twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiberoptic cable, and radio waves.
5 Protocol: is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents
an agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol,
two devices may be connected but not communicating, just as a person
speaking French cannot be understood by a person who speaks only
Japanese.
6 / 65
Definations
Definations
The word data refers to information presented in whatever form is
agreed upon by the parties creating and using the data.
Signal: the electrical wave that is used to represent the data.

It Can be analog or digital signal
Data communications (Transmission) are the exchange of data

between two devices via some form of transmission medium such as a
wire cable or wireless media using appropriate signal.
Network is a system in which a number of independent computers are

linked together to share data and peripherals, such as hard disks and
printers
7 / 65
Data Communication Basics Data Representation Techniques
Data Representation Techniques
The type of data to be transmitted can be in the form of text, audio, and
video in the form of electrical signal, radio, laser, or other radiated
energy source.
Data can be analog or digital
The term analog data refers to information that is continuous;
Digital data refers to information that has discrete states.
Example: analog clock (with second, minute and hour hands) and digital
clock
8 / 65
Analog and Digital Signals

Analog signal – varies continuously over continuous time
Has infinitely many levels of intensity over a period of time.
As the wave moves from value A to value B, it passes through and
includes an infinite number of values along its path.
Digital signal – varies in steps over discrete intervals of time

Can have only a limited number of defined values.
Although each value can be any number, it is often as simple as 1 and 0.
Digital signals are less affected by noise
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Analog and Digital Data Transmission
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Analog and Digital Data Transmission
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Data Communication Basics Transmission Impairments
Transmission impairments: attenuation, delay distortion, and noise
Attenuation - reduction of the amplitude of an electrical signal -

logarithmic in nature
Three considerations with attenuation:

Received signal must have sufficient strength
Signal must maintain sufficiently higher level than noise
It is an increasing function of frequency distortion
12 / 65
Delay distortion means that the signal changes its form or shape.
Distortion can occur in a composite signal made of different frequencies.
Each signal component has its own propagation speed through a medium
and, therefore, its own delay in arriving at the final destination.
Differences in delay may create a difference in phase if the delay is not

exactly the same as the period duration. In other words, signal
components at the receiver have phases different from what they had at
the sender.
The shape of the composite signal is therefore not the same.
13 / 65
Noise - undesired signals that are inserted during transmission
Thermal noise (white noise) - due to thermal agitation of electrons;

covers wide frequency
Inter-modulation noise - sum or difference or multiple of original

frequencies of signals at different frequencies that share the same
transmission medium
Crosstalk - due to electric coupling between nearby twisted pairs
Impulse noise - irregular pulses or noise spikes of short duration and

high amplitudes. (May be caused by lightning or flaws in
communications system. )
14 / 65
Data Communication Basics Modes of Data transmission
Types of Data Flow and Transmission
There are 3 different transmission modes characterized according to

direction of exchanges (Data Flow)
1 Simplex – Unidirectional (transmit or receive)
This type of connection is useful if the data do not need to flow

in both directions (for example, from your computer to the
printer or from the mouse to your computer...).
2 Half-duplex – Transmit and receive, but not at the same time
Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both
half-duplex systems.
3 Full-duplex – Transmit and receive at the same time

Telephone network. When two people are communicating by a
telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time.
The full-duplex mode is used when communication in both
directions is required all the time.
15 / 65
16 / 65

Two options for transmission
In serial communications
A single bit will be transferred at a time using the communication
channel
Bits will be reassembled at the destination
Mostly used by computer peripherals like printers,
In parallel communications
Multiple bits (eg. Eight bits) will be transferred at a time
Needs multiple (parallel) communication channels
17 / 65

Transmission speed expressed in number of bits transferred in one
second. Units include:
bits per second (bps)
kilobits per second (kbps) = 1000bps
megabits per second (Mbps) = 1000 kbps
gigabits per second (Gbps) = 1000 Mbps
Two different methods of serial transmission:

Asynchronous transmission - source and destination clocks are free
running and not locked to each other.
Short characters of 7 to 8 bit data are sent one at a time framed by a start bit
and 1 or 2 stop bits. It is used for low data transfer rates, usually 128 kbps or
less and short bursts of data.
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Synchronous Transmission – sends packets of characters at a time.

Start and end frames, with special bit patterns, indicate start and end of
packets of characters, respectively.
Synchronous transmission is more efficient as only 4 bytes (3 Start

Framing bytes and 1 Stop Framing byte) are required to transmit up to 64
kbits (8 kB). But, it is more difficult and expensive to implement.
19 / 65
Compare an 8K Byte data transmission using Asynchronous

transmission and Synchronous Transmission.
Asynchronous: Add 3 bits (1 Start and 2 Stop bits) for every byte
transmitted.
64 kbits + 24 kbits = total of 88 kbits transmitted
Efficiency = 64/88*100% = 73%
Synchronous: Add 4 bytes (32 bits) for the complete 8K byte data
packet.
64 kbits + 32 bits = total of 64.032 kbits transmitted
Efficiency = 64/64.032*100% = 99.9%
20 / 65
Data Communication Basics Signal Encoding
Encoding – a process whereby data are converted into electrical signals

to be transmitted over communication system
Purpose: to optimize use of the transmission medium
The most familiar use of this transformation is for transmitting digital

data through the public telephone network.
The telephone network was designed to receive, switch, and transmit

analog signals in the voice- voice frequency range of about 300 to 3400
Hz.
digital devices are attached to the network via a modem

(modulator-demodulator), which converts digital data to analog
signals, and vice versa.
21 / 65
Data Communication Basics Elements of Data Communication
Network And Its Characteristic
Network – set of devices (nodes) connected by communication links.
A network must meet a certain number of criteria:

Performance, measured by throughput and delay
Reliability, measured by:

Frequency of failure,
Time for a link to recover from a failure, and
Network’s robustness in a catastrophe
Security, which includes:
Protecting data from unauthorized access
Protecting data from damage, and
Implementing policies and procedures for recovery
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Data Communication Basics Network Types
Network Type Based on Connection
There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint

Point-to-Point
Connection provides a dedicated link between two devices;
The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between

those two devices.
When you change television channels by infrared remote control,

you are establishing a point-to-point connection between the remote
control and the television’s control system.
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Network Type Based on Connection

Multiaccess (or Multipoint)
Connection is one in which more than two specific devices share a
single link.
In a multiaccess environment, the capacity of the channel is shared.
In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared,
either spatially or temporally.
If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially
shared connection.
Users must take turns, it is a timeshared connection
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Network Topology
Physical Topology refers to the shape of a network, or the network’s
layout
There are four basic topologies: Bus, Star, Ring and Mesh.
In Bus Topology:
All devices are connected to a central cable, called the bus or backbone
The bus is terminated at its ends
Advantages:
Ease of installation.
Less cabling than mesh or star topologies
Disadvantages:
Difficult to isolate network faults.
Difficult to add new devices.
Signal reflection at the taps.
Inefficient with heavy traffic
25 / 65
Network Topology
In Star Topology:
Central device, called hub or concentrator
The hub:
manages and controls all functions of the network.
acts as a repeater for the data flow.
RJ-45 Connectors.
Advantages:
Less expensive than a mesh topology.
Easy to install and reconfigure additions, moves, and deletions involve only
one connection.
It is robust.
Disadvantages:
A single point of failure, the hub.
More cabling than in bus.
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Network Topology
In Ring Topology:
All devices are connected to one another in the shape of a closed loop
Actually connected to a central device called MSAU (multistation access
unit), forming a star-wired ring topology.
Advantages:
Relatively easy to install and reconfigure.
Performance is even despite many users
Disadvantages:
Limitations on media length and traffic (number of devices).
A break in the ring can disable the entire network. Solution: a dual ring or a
switch capable of closing off the break
27 / 65
Network Topology
In Mesh Topology:
Redundant interconnection.
Full mesh: every node to every other node
Noofcables = 12 ∗ n(n − 1), where n = number of nodes
Advantages:
Dedicated link security and privacy
Robust: Failure of link does not affect network
Easy fault identification and isolation
Disadvantages:
Difficult installation and reconnection
Requires large wiring space
Expensive: I/O ports and cables
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Network Topology
There are basically three categories of networks based on its size and
geographical coverage
LAN (Local Area Network).
Small area, private media, high speed
Equipments: hubs, switches, routers
E.g. Ethernet, Token Ring, FFDI
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

Larger area than LAN, E.g. City
May interconnect several LANs
Main Equipment: Router
E.g. Switched Multimegabit Data Service (SMDS)
WAN (Wide Area Network)

Covers large area, E.g. different cities
Mostly media owned by third party, low speed
E.g. .25, frame relay, ATM, MPLS
29 / 65
Network Topology
Based on Security: Peer-to-peer and Client/Server

Peer-to-peer
Security is decentralized
Each user responsible for local backup
No specialized OS
Suitable for small-scale network
Client/Server
Security is centralized
Backup is centralized (backup operator)
Specialized OS, E.g. Windows Server, Solaris, Linux server
Scalable: may be used with large-scale networks
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Network Topology
Client/Server vs. Peer-to-Peer: Advantages and Disadvantages
Client/Server: Advantages
Very secure OS, Better performance.
Centralized servers, easy to manage.
Centralized backups, High reliability
Client/Server: Disadvantages
Expensive administration.
More hardware intensive.
Peer-to-peer: Advantages
Uses less expensive networks.
Easy to administer.
Contain both network operating system and application software.
Ideal for small business and home users (up to 10 computers).
Peer-to-peer: Disadvantages
Individual user performance easily affected, Not very secure, and Hard to
back up. 31 / 65
Data Communication Basics The Internet
The Internet
Internet – two or more networks connected
Internet – global interconnection of computers and networks
1957 - The US DoD formed an agency called ARPA (Advanced

Research Projects Agency)
1969 - The US DoD commissioned the fledgling ARPAnet for network

research
1990 - ARPAnet ceased to exist and the Internet effectively took its role
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Data Communication Basics The Internet
The Internet
The Internet has no owner, but it follows accepted standards and
protocols.
Manufacturers of hardware and software concentrate on product
improvements, knowing that the new products can integrate with
and enhance the existing infrastructure.
Internet is organized into hierarchical structure of ISPs

Tier 1 – provide national international connections. E.g. AT&T,
NTT
Tier 2 – often provide regional service
Tier 3 – locally provide services to users
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Data Communication Basics Transmission Media
Transmission Media
Physical paths for the communication signal
Two categories: Guided and Unguided
Guided media or bounded media use cables (copper or optical fiber) to

guide the signals.
Unguided media transmit the signal through space. E.g. infra-red, radio
wave, microwave
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Transmission Media
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Transmission Media
Guide media and Unguided Media

Guided media or bounded media use cables (copper or optical fiber) to
guide the signals.
Unguided media transmit the signal through space. E.g. infra-red, radio
wave, microwave
36 / 65
Data Communication Basics Circuit switching and Packet switching
Switching: Circuit switching and Packet switching
An internet is a switched network in which a switch connects at least

two links together.
A switch needs to forward data from a network to another network when
required.
The two most common types of switched networks are
Circuit-switched and
Packet-switched networks.
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Circuit switching and Packet switching

Circuit switching
A physical path established between end systems.
E.g. Telephone system
Three phases:
Setup Phase
Data Transfer Phase
Teardown Phase
Advantages
Fixed data rate and hence fixed delays
Guaranteed continuous delivery
Disadvantages:
Inefficient for bursty data
Difficult to support variable data rates
Inefficient for short messages (call setup)
38 / 65

Message Switching
Is a network switching technique in which data is routed in its entirety
from the source node to the destination node, one hope at a time.
No physical path is established in advance
Store and forward, in its entirety
Packet Switching
Messages are broken into discrete units called packets
Each packet contains data and headers
Store and forward, on a packet basis
Two approaches:
Datagram– mainly used in the Network Layer
Virtual Circuit– a Data Link Layer technology
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Packet Switching: Datagram packet switching

Connectionless no connection established before transmission of packet
Each packet may be individually routed
May take different routes and arrive out of order
Reassembled at the destination
Advantages:
Efficient for bursty data
Easy to provide bandwidth on demand with variable rates
Disadvantages::
Variable delays
Difficult to provide QoS assurances (Best-effort service)
Packets can arrive out-of-order
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Packet Switching: Virtual Circuit packet switching

It is connection-oriented
Merges datagram packet switching and circuit switching to extract
advantages of both
Packets flow on logical circuits; no physical resources are allocated
Each packet carries a circuit identifier which is local to a link and
updated by each switch on the path of the packet from its source to its
destination
A virtual circuit: sequence of mappings (established during connection
setup) between a link taken by packets and the circuit identifier packets
carry on this link.
41 / 65

Packet Switching: Virtual Circuit packet switching
Advantages of VC Packet Switching:
In order delivery of packets
Smaller overhead in each packet
More reliable connection
Billing is easier (billing per call and not per packet)
Disadvantages of VC Packet Switching:
The switching equipment needs to be more powerful, since each
switch needs to store details of all the calls that are passing through
it and to allocate capacity for any traffic that each call could
generate;
Resilience to the loss of a trunk is more difficult, since if there is a
failure all the calls must be dynamically reestablished over a
different route.
42 / 65
Packet Switching Vs Circuit Switching

Packet-switching is not suitable for real-time services
However, Packet switching
Offers better sharing of bandwidth, and
Is simpler, more efficient, and less costly to implement than circuit
switching
Is great for bursty data.
43 / 65
Data Communication Basics Network Protocols and Standards
Network Protocols and Standards

A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communications
A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and
when it is communicated
For instance, for one computer to send a message to another computer,
the first computer must perform the following general steps
Break the data into small sections called packets
Add addressing information to the packets identifying the source
and destination computers
Deliver the data to the network interface card for transmission over
the network
The receiving computer must perform the same steps, but in reverse
order
Accept the data from the NIC
Remove transmitting information that was added by the transmitting
computer
Reassemble the packets of data in to the original message
44 / 65

The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and timing
Syntax: refers to the structure or format of the data
Semantics: refers to the meaning of each section of bits
Timing: refers to when data should be sent and how fast they can be
sent
Functions of protocols
Each device must perform the same steps the same way so that the
data will arrive and reassemble properly; if one device uses a
protocol with different steps, the two devices will not be able to
communicate with each other
The following are categories of functions that form the basis of protocols
Encapsulation
Segmentation and reassembly
Connection control
Addressing
Multiplexing
Transmission services 45 / 65
Encapsulation
The inclusion of control information to data is called encapsulation.
Each frame contains not only data but also control information
Such control information falls into three categories: address
(sender/receiver), error-detecting code and protocol control
(information about protocol functions)
46 / 65

Segmentation
By the sender also called fragmentation and reassembly (by the receiver)
A Block of data for transmission is of some bounded size
At the application level, we refer to a logical unit of data transfer as a
message
Lower level protocols may need to break the data up into blocks of some
bounded size
This process is called segmentation
Reasons for segmentation:
The communication network may only accept blocks of data up to a
certain size
Error control may be more efficient with a smaller frame size; fewer bits
need to be retransmitted when a frame gets corrupted
Facilitates more equitable access to shared transmission facilities (for
example, without maximum block size, one station could monopolize a
multipoint medium) 47 / 65
Segmentation
Disadvantages of Segmentation
Since a frame contains certain amount of control information, the
smaller the block size, the greater the percentage overhead
Frame arrivals may generate an interrupt that must be serviced;
hence smaller blocks result in more interrupts
More time is spent processing smaller, more numerous frames
The counterpart of segmentation is reassembly
On receipt, the receiving device must reassemble the segmented data into
a message appropriate to the application
48 / 65
Connection Control
Two types of protocols (services)
Connectionless service
The packets are sent from one party to another with no need
for connection establishment or connection release
The packets are not numbered, they may be delayed, lost, or
arrive out of sequence; there is no acknowledgement either
UDP (User Datagram Protocol), one of the transport layer
protocols, is connectionless
49 / 65

Connection Control
Connection-oriented Service
In connection-oriented data transfer, a logical association or
connection is established between the communicating computers
(devices)
long sustained session
orderly and timely delivery of packets, e.g., FTP
TCP (Transport Control Protocol) is connection-oriented
Three phases are involved
Connection establishment (agreement to exchange data)
Data transfer (data and control information exchanged)
Connection termination (termination request) - by any of the
two parties
The key characteristics of connection-oriented data transfer is that
sequencing is used
Each side sequentially numbers the frames that it sends to the other
side 50 / 65

Addressing
A unique address is associated with each end-system in a configuration
(e.g. workstation, server) and each intermediate system (e.g. router)
An example is an IP address in TCP/IP connection, but addressing spans
more layers: data link, network, transport
Multiplexing
Occurs when multiple connections share a single connection (multiple
access)
Transmission services
A variety of additional services can be provided
Priority: messages such as control messages may need to get through to
the destination station with minimum delay
Security: security mechanisms, restricting access, may be invoked
51 / 65
Data Communication Basics Network (Reference) Models
Consider an example of sending a letter
52 / 65
Hierarchy
There are three different activities at the sender side and another three at
the receiver’s side
The tasks must be done in the order given in the hierarchy
Layers and Services

Within a single machine, each layer uses the services immediately below
it and provides services for the layer immediately above it
Between machines, layer x on one machine communicates with layer x
on another machine
53 / 65
Why layering?
Reduces complexity (one big problem to smaller ones)
Standardizes interfaces (between layers) facilitates modular engineering
(different teams work on different modules)
Assures interoperable technology
Two important network models or architectures

The ISO OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model
The TCP/IP Reference Model
54 / 65
Network models: The OSI Reference Model

Consists of 7 layers
Was never fully implemented as a protocol stack, but a good theoretical
model
Open – to connect open systems or systems that are open for
communication with other systems
55 / 65

Network models: The TCP/IP Reference Model
TCP/IP - Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
Used by ARPANET and its successor the Internet
Design goals
The ability to connect multiple networks (internetworking) in a
seamless way
The network should be able to survive loss of subnet hardware, i.e.,
the connection must remain intact as long as the source and
destination machines are properly functioning
Flexible architecture to accommodate requirements of different
applications - ranging from transferring files to real-time speech
transmission
These requirements led to the choice of a packet-switching network
based on a connectionless internetwork layer
Has 4 (or 5 ) layers: Application, Transport, Internet (Internetwork),
Host-to-network (some split it into Physical and Data Link) 56 / 65
OSI and TCP/IP Layers Correspondence
57 / 65
Physical Layer
Responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next
Design issues:
Mechanical: the size and shape of the network connector, how many pins
does the network connector has and what each pin is used for
Electrical: how many volts represent a 1 and how many a 0
Timing: how many nanoseconds a bit lasts whether communication is one
way or in both directions simultaneously
58 / 65
Data Link Layer

Makes the line appear free of undetected transmission errors to the
network layer (flow and error control)
This layer was not required if the underlying transmission media were
error free
How?
The sender breaks the input data into data frames and transmit them
sequentially (numbering them) by adding error detecting codes
The receiver confirms correct receipt by sending back an
acknowledgement frame
Note: the Host-to-network layer in the TCP/IP model is not defined; it
simply points out that the host has to connect to the network using some
protocol so that it can send IP packets to it
59 / 65

Network Layer (or Internet Layer)
Permits hosts to inject packets into any network and have them travel
independently to their destination - possibly on a different network
Allows heterogeneous networks to communicate - addressing, packet
size, protocol differences
Arrival order of packets may not be respected - let higher layers do the
rearrangement if need be
Similar to the snail mail [1] system - an international mail from country
A to country B traveling through one or more international mail
gateways transparent to the user and other hidden rules such as stamps,
preferred envelope size, delivery rules, . . .
Decides how packets are routed from source to destination
Controls congestion
TCP/IP defines an official packet format and protocol called IP for
delivering IP packets and routing not essential for LANs 60 / 65
Transport Layer
Accepts data from above, splits it up into smaller units if need be, passes
them to the network layer, and ensures that the pieces all arrive correctly
at the other end
Allows peer entities on the source and destination machines to hold
conversations
In the case of the OSI model, determines types of services to provide to
the session layer
Deliver messages in the order they were sent or without guarantee
of the order of delivery
Broadcasting messages to multiple destinations
61 / 65

Transport Layer
In the TCP/IP model, two end-to-end transport protocols have been
defined
TCP - Transmission Control Protocol
A reliable connection-oriented protocol that allows a byte
stream to be delivered without error
Handles flow control to make sure that a fast sender does not
swamp a slow receiver
UDP - User Datagram Protocol
An unreliable, connectionless protocol
For applications
That do not want TCP’s sequencing or flow control and wish to
provide their own
Where prompt delivery is more important than accurate
delivery, e.g., audio and video
62 / 65
Session Layer (OSI model)

Allows users to establish sessions between them
Services include
Dialog control - keeping track of whose turn it is to transmit
Token management - preventing two parties from attempting the
same critical operation at the same time
Synchronization - checkpointing long transmissions to allow them
to continue from where they were after a crash
Provides access rights, billing functions, etc.
63 / 65

Presentation Layer (OSI model)
Concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information transmitted
Different data structures can be defined in an abstract way so that it is
possible for computers with different data representations to
communicate
Provides character code conversion, data encryption, data compression
Application Layer
contains all the higher level protocols that are commonly needed by
users; examples are
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) - for fetching pages on the WWW
TELNET - virtual terminal, to log on to a remote machine
FTP - file transfer
SMTP - e-mail
DNS - for mapping host names onto their network addresses
64 / 65
Protocols and Networks in the TCP/IP model initially
65 / 65

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Wolkite University

Chapter One: Data Communication and Computer

Benefits of Networking in Business:

Components of Data Communications

Five Components of Data Communication

Five Components of Data Communication

1 Message: is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms

Signal: the electrical wave that is used to represent the data.

Data communications (Transmission) are the exchange of data

Network is a system in which a number of independent computers are

Data Representation Techniques

Data can be analog or digital

The term analog data refers to information that is continuous;

Digital data refers to information that has discrete states.

Analog and Digital Signals

Digital signal – varies in steps over discrete intervals of time

Analog and Digital Data Transmission

Analog and Digital Data Transmission

Transmission impairments: attenuation, delay distortion, and noise

Attenuation - reduction of the amplitude of an electrical signal -

Three considerations with attenuation:

Signal must maintain sufficiently higher level than noise

It is an increasing function of frequency distortion

Distortion can occur in a composite signal made of different frequencies.

Differences in delay may create a difference in phase if the delay is not

The shape of the composite signal is therefore not the same.

Noise - undesired signals that are inserted during transmission

Thermal noise (white noise) - due to thermal agitation of electrons;

Inter-modulation noise - sum or difference or multiple of original

Crosstalk - due to electric coupling between nearby twisted pairs

Impulse noise - irregular pulses or noise spikes of short duration and

Types of Data Flow and Transmission

There are 3 different transmission modes characterized according to

This type of connection is useful if the data do not need to flow

3 Full-duplex – Transmit and receive at the same time

Types of Data Flow and Transmission

Types of Data Flow and Transmission

Types of Data Flow and Transmission

Two different methods of serial transmission:

Types of Data Flow and Transmission

Synchronous Transmission – sends packets of characters at a time.

Synchronous transmission is more efficient as only 4 bytes (3 Start

Types of Data Flow and Transmission

Compare an 8K Byte data transmission using Asynchronous

Types of Data Flow and Transmission

Encoding – a process whereby data are converted into electrical signals

The most familiar use of this transformation is for transmitting digital

The telephone network was designed to receive, switch, and transmit

digital devices are attached to the network via a modem

Network And Its Characteristic

Network – set of devices (nodes) connected by communication links.

A network must meet a certain number of criteria:

Reliability, measured by:

Network Type Based on Connection

There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint

The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between

When you change television channels by infrared remote control,

Network Type Based on Connection