1.

What are Energy bands

In solids, the molecules are so tightly packed or arranged that the electrons tend to move

towards the orbitals of the neighbouring atoms. Consequently, the electron orbitals overlap

as and when the atoms come together. Because of the intermixing of atoms in the substances
of the solid-state, there will be a collection of energy levels that are closely packed, instead of
the single energy levels. The set of energy levels, which are closely or tightly packed, are what

we call the Energy Bands.

2. What is valence band

In solids, the set of energy levels of valence electrons is called valence band
3. What is conduction band

In solids, the set of energy levels of conduction electrons (Free electrons) is referred as

conduction band.
4. What is forbidden gap?

The forbidden gap is the gap between the conduction band an

is forbidden one without energy. Therefore, there is no el

of electrons from the valence to conduction will pass throog ~his gap.
5. What are conductors:

A conductor is a type of material that all~s til el:ectric current to flow through it i.e. it
possessesleast resistance in the path of tfet~elettrons. In case of conductor, the valance and
conduction bands overlap. Due to this overlapping, a small potential difference across a
conductor causes the free electrons t constitute electric current. All the metals are
on uctors increases with the increase in the temperature.
emperature co-efficient of resistance. The conductors are
wires and cables for carrying electric current.

No

~------------~-/
Conduction Band

Valance Band
Forbidden Gap

Conductors

6. What are Insulators:

An insulator is type of material that does not allow the electric current to passthrough it,
due to its high electrical resistance. In the insulators, the energy gap between valance and
conduction bands is very large (more than 5eV). Therefore, a very high electric field is
required to push the valance electrons to the conduction band. Due to this, there are no free
electrons in the conduction band. Forthis reason, the electrical conductivity of insulators is
very low and may considered nil under ordinary conditions. At room temperature, the
valance electrons of the insulator do not have enough energy to cross over to the forbidden
 energy gap. But, if the temperature is raised, some of the electrons may acquire enough
energy to cross over to the forbidden energy gap. Hence, the resistance of the insulator
decreases with the rise in temperature. Therefore, the insulators have negative temperature
co-efficient of resistance. Due to high electrical resistance,the insulators are used for
protection against electric shocks.

Conduction Band
J

~l
E'
Q)
c
w
t
15 eV
~
t
Forbidden Energy
Gap
+
Valance Band
I
Insulators

7. What are Semiconductors: eI&

The semiconductors are the materials having conductiVi~ -be ween conductors and
insulators. In a semiconductor, the forbidden energy gal1.between valance and conduction
bands is very small (about 1 eV) as compared to ins~~herefore, a smaller electric field
(smaller than insulators but greater than c~uc~fs'reqUired to push the free electrons
from valance band to the conduction ba~. t lo~mperature, the valance band of
semiconductor is completely full and the con ction band is completely empty. Thus, a
semiconductor behaves as an insulato t low temperature. However, at room temperature,
some electrons can crossthe fo bidde e ergy gap, imparting a little conductivity to the
semiconductor. As ternperatuf is~c ased, more valance electrons cross over to the energy
gap to reach to the condU£tio b '~aand the conductivity increases.This shows that
electrical conductivity of semiconauctor increaseswith the rise in temperature. Hence,a
semiconductor has neg fiVe; emperature coefficient of resistance. The conductivity of
semiconductor can a ~e increased by adding some impurity in the pure semiconductor
material, called oping. The semiconductors are commonly used in manufacturing of solid-
state electronic devices.

~1
E'
CD
c
w
1'ev
~
Conduction Band

Forbt~en Gap
•
I
Valance Band
I
Semiconductors
8. The graph shown in the figure represents a plot of current versus voltage for a given semi-
conductor. Identify the region, if any, over which the semi-conductor has a negative
resistance.
B

Voltage (V)

In region Be since the region showing negative slope

9. Why silicon is preferred over Germanium as a semiconductor although forbidden gap of
silicon is higher than germanium?
Although Germanium has higher conductivity than silicon but Silicon atoms are more stable
than Germanium atoms at high temperatures due to which SilicLo,n.~:tal do not get
destroyed at high temperatures and hence can be used easily a~emperatures
Also, silicon is abundant in nature, they are less expensive than er anium.
10. What is Doping?
Doping is the process of adding impurities to intrinsic (p.~Wemiconductors to alter their
properties. Trivalent and Pentavalent elements are se o-aope silicon and germanium.
When an intrinsic semiconductor is doped with trivale impurity it becomes a p-type
semiconductor. When we dope intrinsic eria :(j,th pentavalent impurities we get n-type
semiconductor.
11. Draw the energy band diagrams of n- e and p-type semiconductor with clearly showing
donor and acceptor energy levels t e perature, T > OK
In the casen-type semiconduc or; th~onor energy level is slightly below the bottom of the
conduction band wherea~ e -~pe semiconductor, the acceptor energy level is slightly
above the top of the val c· 13no.

••••• • C.B.

Acceptor
energy level
Donor
energy level

p-type semiconductor n-type semiconductor

12. What is Fermi energy level?
At 0 K, the topmost energy level up to which electrons are filled in valence band of a lattice is
called fermi energy level.
Note: At absolute zero temperature, this level corresponds to the highest filled electronic
state, while at higher temperatures it may shift as electrons are excited to higher energy
states so at higher temperatures fermi level might be present in conduction band also.
13. What is PNjunction diode?
 A PN junction diode is a semiconductor device that allows the flow of electric current in one
direction and blocks the flow in the opposite direction. It is created by joining two types of
semiconductors - P-type and N-type - together. The interface between the P-type and N-
type regions is known as the PN junction.

p-type n-type
silicon silicon
Anode Cathode

Anode Cathode

PNjunction diode is formed either from Ge or Si crystal. When a p-type material is intimately
joined to an n-type a PNjunction is formed. Actually, PNjunction isJfabricated by special
techniques like growing, alloying, and diffusion methods.
14. Why can't we physically join two P type and N type semico
junction diode
It is because, by doing so there remains a discontinuity or a mall microscopic gap near the
junction hence a PNjunction is fabricated by specia mques like growing, alloying, and
diffusion methods.
15. What is depletion zone/depletion layer/,peJ!leti :;region. and how is it formed?
In a PNjunction diode, a depletion zone is a spacefree from mobile charge carriers.
It is formed when electrons from N ty e ~grates to P type and holes from Ptype migrates to
N type due to concentration gradient ( n's process is called diffusion) Due to this process N
type develops a positive charg,e+.w'Ie P type develops a negative charge near the junction.
Due to this charge segreg~d, an electric field (or a potential difference) generates from N to
P type. The electric field s-ne e oped causesto move some free electrons (Minority
carriers) from Ptype~ type and holes (Minority carriers) from N type to Ptype. This
process is calle:mtft ~uilibrium the two process Diffusion and Drift cancels each other
and a potential 15 ri r is formed near the junction. Dueto this potential barrier no mobile
carrier (either electrons or holes) staysnear the junction and hence a depletion zone is
formed.
VB
- +
;------i ~------
•

p ---+
..:
. Depletion .: 4~-- n
layer
16. Why does Depletion zone shrink in forward biasing?
In a PN junction diode there is a built-in electric field from N to P type. During forward
biasing P region is maintained at high potential while N region is maintained at low potential
hence an external electric field develops from P to N type. Since external and built in electric
field are in opposite direction so net electric field near the junction becomes smaller than
built in electric field and hence Depletion zone shrinks.

External electric field

Electric field of depletion region
p n

Vo 10

'--------+-ill t-I ----------'

Forward biased p-n junctlon

17. Why does the width of Depletion zone increase in reverse ,.

In a PNjunction diode there is a built-in electric field from to Ptvpe. During Reverse
biasing P region is maintained at low potential while N liegion IS maintained at high potential
hence an external electric field develops from N to e
e. Sinceexternal and built in electric
field are in same direction so net electric fi~ n~e junction becomes larger than built in
electric field and hence width of DepletiQ1l"Zne Increases.

~ E
E·

-- .-• -- •.-..
z

R -•- n

+ K
(c) Reverse current

18. Draw the forward and Reversebiasing Characteristics of PNJunction diode?

I" (",A)
"1'
200'"1 R

ISO BARRIER
100-1VOLTAGE

rs 10
VA' (VOLTS) .---

100-1

200...

300

19. In which Direction the diffusion and drift current flows?

 Diffusion current flows from N to P type while drift current flows from Pta N type across the
junction.
20. What is voltage barrier in 51and Ge Junction Diode.
Silicon: 0.7 V
Germanium: 0.3V
21. In the given figure, which of the diodes are forward biased?

+10V
1. ____-4~----~()R~5
lO ....1 2.
~
. 9
':

3.~
0---10IIII
....----,
-IOV--- ~. .L 4. -12V riR

10IIII
':
-svI
5.
1
'=

2 and 4
22. For the circuit shown here, find the current flowing through tile - m resistor. Assume
that the two diodes 01 and 02 are ideal diodes
D1 20

D:z 20

- Usirig Olu:n.' s Ia."",

6
I = (2 ....1) A = 2 A
23. In Fig.shown 01 and 02 are ideal diodes. A battery of 4V is connected between points X
and Y.Current drawn from battery is hand h when point Xis connected to positive and
negative terminal of battery; respectively. Find the value of 11
12
0, R,-sn

x y
 When X is connected to positive terminal of battery; diode Dl is forward biased and D2 is
reverse biased. There is no current in R2 and D2. The current drawn; It, from battery flows
via diode Dl and Rl. Sincediode is ideal its forward biased resistance is zero. Therefore 11 =
4/5 = 0.8 A When X is connected to negative terminal of battery; diode Dl is reversed biased
and D2 is forward biased. Now current drawn from battery, b flows via diode D2 and
resistance R2. b =4/10=0.4 A. Therefore ~ = ~::= 2
24. In Fig. shown D1 is germanium and 02 is a silicon diode. Knee voltage of 01 and 02 is 0.3 V
and 0.7 V respectively. Rl = 5 K O. A current flow in circuit. The potential of point P is
0,
p

Diode D1 and D2 are connected in parallel hence p.d acrossthe two is same. The knee
voltage of Dl is 0.3V. Dl starts conducting when p.d acrossit is O.-a under this condition
diode D2 does not conduct. Due to conduction of Dl there is a c rr nt in circuit. The p.d

25. The current I in the network is G

across load Rl = 6-0.3 = 5.7 V. This end of Rl is connected ~~t P,hence p.d at P = 5.7 V.

r-----<D5Q IOQ ~ eflj

i

30V lOW-

B
Answer: 10V
27. In the given figure, each diode has a forward bias resistance of 250 and infinite resistance
in reverse bias The current It will be:
1",
A B
13
C 0

12 12S.o
E F
I, 2S.o
G H
SV
 Answer: O.OSA
28. What is a Rectifier.
A rectifier is an electronic device that converts an alternating current into a direct current by
using one or more P-Njunction diodes. A diode behaves as a one-way valve that allows
current to flow in a single direction. This processis known as rectification. There are two
types of rectifiers in our syllabus, Half wave rectifier and full wave rectifier.
29. Explain the working of half wave rectifier?

(Pulsating)
AC DC Output
/+\/+\ {+\/+\
V,
There are three main components in a half wave rectifier. A transformer, diode and a
resistive load.
When a positive half cycle begins at the primary coil of the step-do~ transformer then
Point A becomes at higher potential with respect to point B and D·od~becomes forward
biased and current flows through the load resistance from (Jt D
When a Negative half cycle begins at the primary coil 0ftt1'fe~p-down transformer then
Point A becomes at lower potential with respect to ~~~nd Diode becomes reverse
biased and no current flows through the load resista~~
Hence Diode conducts current from Point G 0 Ii) for very positive half cycle at the primary
and does not conduct for negative half de t the primary coil. $0,we get a half wave
rectified DCoutput acrossthe load. This DCoutput is not uniform in magnitude however its
polarity does not change with time. "ij1emagnitude of output voltage can be made uniform
by using capacitor filters.

1 = 1 + 12
1

r--~ :::'--+---r~ +
Rl

Input voltage Output voltage

waveform waveform
There are three main components of a full wave rectifier. The step-down transformer, two
Diodes which are centre tapped and a resistive load acrosswhich output is measured.
When a positive half cycle begins at the primary coil of the step-down transformer then
Point A gets positive potential and point B gets negative potential due to mutual induction
between the two coils. This makes diode D1forward biased and diode D2reverse biased and
hence a current flow through the load resistance from Cto D.
When a Negative half cycle begins at the primary coil of the step-down transformer then
Point A gets negative potential and point B gets positive potential due to mutual induction
between the two coils. This makes diode D1 Reversebiased and diode D2 forward biased and
hence again a current flow through the load resistancefrom C to D.
It should be noted that during each cycle (Positive or negative) one diode is in forward biased
mode while other is in reverse biased mode. Hence during each cycle current flows in the
circuit through the forward biased diode. the direction of current in the load resistance is
always from C to D. the output so obtained is a full wave rectified output.
Note:
The input and output frequency of Half wave rectifier is same while in caseof full wave
rectifier output frequency is double to that of input frequency.