RADAR

Radar: Introduction and Basics

• RADAR is an electromagnetic based detection system that works by
radiating electromagnetic waves and then studying the echo or the reflected
back waves.
• RADAR - RAdio Detection And Ranging.
• Detection- Whether the target is present or not. The target can be stationary
or movable, i.e., non-stationary.
• The nature of echo signal provides information about the target
✓ Range/ Distance – Time taken by the radiated energy to travel to
the target and returns back.
✓ Location - Directive antenna to sense the angle of arrival of the
echo signal.
✓ Moving Target - Shift in frequency (doppler effect).
Basic Principle of Radar
• Radar is used for detecting the objects and finding their location. We can
understand the basic principle of Radar from the following figure.

• Radar mainly consists of a transmitter and a receiver.

• It uses the same Antenna for both transmitting and receiving the signals.
• The function of the transmitter is to transmit the Radar signal in the
direction of the target present.
• Target reflects this received signal in various directions.
• The signal, which is reflected back towards the Antenna gets received by
the receiver.
Terminology of Radar Systems
✓ Range
✓ Pulse Repetition Frequency
✓ Maximum Unambiguous Range
✓ Minimum Range
1. Range
• The distance between Radar and target is called Range of the target or
simply range, R.
• Radar transmits a signal to the target and accordingly the target sends
an echo signal to the Radar with the speed of light, C.
• Let the time taken for the signal to travel from Radar to target and back
to Radar be ‘T’. The two way distance between the Radar and target
will be 2R.where R is the distance between the Radar and the target.
𝐶𝑇
• Now, ⇒ 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 × 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 ⇒ 2R=C×T ⇒ 𝑅 = (1)
2

2. Pulse Repetition Frequency

• Radar signals should be transmitted at every clock pulse.
• The duration between the two clock pulses should be properly chosen
in such a way that the echo signal corresponding to present clock pulse
should be received before the next clock pulse.
• As shown in the figure, Radar transmits a periodic signal. It is having
a series of narrow rectangular shaped pulses.
• The time interval between the successive clock pulses is called pulse
repetition time, TP.
• The reciprocal of pulse repetition time is called pulse repetition
frequency, fP. Mathematically, it can be represented as

𝟏
𝒇𝒑 =
𝑻𝒑

• Therefore, pulse repetition frequency is nothing but the frequency at

which Radar transmits the signal.
3. Maximum Unambiguous Range
 • Radar signals should be transmitted at every clock pulse.
• If we select a shorter duration between the two clock pulses, then the
echo signal corresponding to present clock pulse will be received after
the next clock pulse.
• Due to this, the range of the target seems to be smaller than the actual
range.
• Thus, we have to select the duration between the two clock pulses in
such a way that the echo signal corresponding to present clock pulse
will be received before the next clock pulse starts.
• Then, we will get the true range of the target and it is also called
maximum unambiguous range of the target or simply, maximum
unambiguous range.
• Substitute, 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑢𝑛 and T= 𝑇𝑃 in (1).
𝑪 𝑻𝑷
𝑹𝒖𝒏 =
𝟐

4. Minimum Range
• Minimum range of the target, is the time required for the echo signal
to receive at Radar after the signal being transmitted from the Radar
as pulse width.
• It is also called the shortest range of the target.
• Substitute, R=Rmin and T= τ in 1.
𝑪𝝉
𝑹𝒎𝒊𝒏 = (4)
𝟐

Radar Equation
• Radar range equation is useful to know the range of the
target theoretically.
• Radar equation relates the range of a radar to the characteristics of the
transmitter, receiver, antenna, target and environment.
• Serve as tool for radar design and understanding radar operation.
• We know that power density is nothing but the ratio of power and area.
So, the power density, Pdi at a distance, R from the Radar can be
mathematically represented as −
 𝑷𝒕
𝑷𝒅𝒊 = (1)
𝟒𝝅𝑹𝟐

Where, Pt is the amount of power transmitted by the Radar transmitter

• The above power density is valid for an isotropic Antenna. In general,
Radars use directional Antennas. Therefore, the power density, Pdd due
to directional Antenna will be
𝑷𝒕 𝑮
𝑷𝒅𝒅 = (2)
𝟒𝝅𝑹𝟐

• Target radiates the power in different directions from the received input
power.
• The amount of power, which is reflected back towards the Radar depends
on its cross section.
• So, the power density Pde of echo signal at Radar can be represented as
𝑷𝒕𝑮 𝝈
𝑷𝒅𝒆 =( )( ) (4)
𝟒𝝅𝑹𝟐 𝟒𝝅𝑹𝟐

• The amount of power, Pr received by the Radar depends on the effective

aperture, Ae of the receiving Antenna.
𝑃𝑟 = 𝑃𝑑𝑒 𝐴𝑒 (5)
Substitute, (4) in (5)
𝑃𝑡𝐺 𝜎
𝑃𝑟 = ( )( ) 𝐴𝑒
4𝜋𝑅 2 4𝜋𝑅 2
𝑷𝒕 𝑮𝝈𝑨𝒆
𝑷𝒓 =
(𝟒𝝅)𝟐 𝑹𝟒
1⁄
4 𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝜎𝐴𝑒 𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝜎𝐴𝑒 4
⇒𝑅 = ⇒R= [ ]
(4𝜋)2 𝑃𝑟 (4𝜋)2 𝑃𝑟

• If the echo signal is having the power less than the power of the minimum
detectable signal, then Radar cannot detect the target since it is beyond
the maximum limit of the Radar's range.
• Therefore, we can say that the range of the target is said to be maximum
range when the received echo signal is having the power equal to that of
minimum detectable signal.
• We will get the following equation, by substituting R = 𝑅𝑀𝑎𝑥 and 𝑃𝑟 =
𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛 in (6)
 𝟏⁄
𝑷𝒕 𝑮𝝈𝑨𝒆 𝟒
𝑹𝑴𝒂𝒙 = [ ] (7)
(𝟒𝝅)𝟐 𝑺𝒎𝒊𝒏

• The (7) represents standard form of Radar range equation.

• By using the above equation, we can find the maximum range of the target.

• Modified Forms of Radar Range Equation

𝟒𝝅Ae
𝑮= (8)
𝝀𝟐

Substitute, (8) in (7)

1⁄
𝑃𝑡 𝜎𝐴𝑒 4𝜋Ae 4
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 =[ ( )]
(4𝜋)2 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝜆2
𝟏⁄
𝑷𝒕 𝝈𝑨𝒆 𝟐 𝟒
⇒ 𝑹𝒎𝒂𝒙 = [(𝟒𝝅)𝝀𝟐 ] (9)
𝑺𝒎𝒊𝒏

Equation 9 represents the modified form of Radar range equation.

• From (8) We will get the following relation between effective

aperture, Ae and the Gain of directional Antenna, G from Equation 8.
𝑮𝝀𝟐
𝑨𝒆 = (10)
𝟒𝝅

Substitute, (10) in (7)

𝟏⁄
𝑷𝒕 𝑮𝟐 𝝀𝟐 𝝈 𝟒
𝑹𝒎𝒂𝒙 = [(𝟒𝝅)𝟐 ] (11)
𝑺𝒎𝒊𝒏

Equation 11 represents another modified form of Radar range equation. By

using the above equation, we can find the maximum range of the target.
Radar Systems – Performance Factors
• The factors, which affect the performance of Radar are known as Radar
performance factors.
• We know that the following standard form of Radar range equation,
𝟏⁄
𝑷𝒕 𝑮𝝈𝑨𝒆 𝟐 𝟒
𝑹𝒎𝒂𝒙 = [(𝟒𝝅)𝝀𝟐 ]
𝑺𝒎𝒊𝒏

• From the above equation, we can conclude that the following conditions
should be considered in order to get the range of the Radar as maximum.
✓ Peak power transmitted by the Radar Pt should be high.
✓ Gain of the transmitting Antenna G should be high.
✓ Radar cross section of the target σ should be high.
✓ Effective aperture of the receiving Antenna Ae should be high.
✓ Power of minimum detectable signal Smin should be low.
Minimum Detectable Signal
• If the echo signal has minimum power, detecting that signal by the Radar
is known as minimum detectable signal. This means, Radar cannot detect
the echo signal if that signal is having less power than that of minimum
power.
• In general, Radar receives the echo signal in addition with noise. If the
threshold value is used for detecting the presence of the target from the
received signal, then that detection is called threshold detection.
• We have to select proper threshold value based on the strength of the signal
to be detected.
The following figure illustrates this concept −

• A typical waveform of the Radar receiver is shown in the above figure.

• The x-axis and y-axis represent time and voltage respectively.
• The rms value of noise and threshold value are indicated with dotted lines
in the above figure.
• We have considered three points, A, B & C in above figure for identifying
the valid detections and missing detections.
✓ The value of the signal at point A, B are valid detection.
✓ Even though the value of the signal at point C is closer to threshold
value, it is a missing detection.
Receiver Noise
• Noise component generated by the receiver is called as receiver noise
• One such receiver noise in thermal noise which occurs due to thermal
motion of conduction electrons
• Mathematically, we can write thermal noise power, Ni produced at receiver
as −
𝑵𝒊 =k 𝑻𝟎 𝑩𝒏
Where,
k = 1.38×10−23J/deg (Boltzmann's constant)
To is the absolute temperature and it is equal to 290𝑜 K
Bn is the receiver band width
Figure of Merit
The Figure of Merit, F is nothing but the ratio of input SNR, (SNR)i and output
SNR, (SNR)o.

Substitute, Ni=KToBn in above equation.

𝑆
⇒ 𝑆𝑖 = FKToBn ( 𝑜 )
𝑁 𝑜

Input signal power will be having minimum value, when output SNR is having
minimum value.
𝑆
⇒ 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛 = FKToBn( 𝑜 )
𝑁 𝑜 𝑚𝑖𝑛

Substitute, the above Smin in the following standard form of Radar range
equation.
1⁄
𝑃𝑡 𝐺σ Ae 4
⇒ 𝑅𝑀𝑎𝑥 =[ ]
(4𝜋)2 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛
 1⁄
4
𝑃𝑡 𝐺σ Ae
⇒ 𝑅𝑀𝑎𝑥 = [ ]
2 𝑆𝑜
(4𝜋) 𝐹𝐾ToBn ( )
𝑁𝑜 𝑚𝑖𝑛
From the above equation, we can conclude that the following conditions should
be considered in order to get the range of the Radar as maximum.
• Peak power transmitted by the Radar, Pt should be high.
• Gain of the transmitting Antenna G should be high.
• Radar cross section of the target σ should be high.
• Effective aperture of the receiving Antenna Ae should be high.
• Figure of Merit F should be low.
• Receiver bandwidth Bn should be low.
Unit of Range
• Unit of Range in Kilometre or nautical mile
• Measurement used in air, marine, and space navigation.
• Nautical Mile : a unit used in measuring distances at sea, equal to 1,852
metres (approximately 2,025 yards).
• The nautical mile is one minute of latitude.
• Knowing your latitude you also know the factor to determine what one
minute of longitude is. Therefore, its used when navigating and traveling
long distances.

Block Diagram of RADAR

 • Power Amplifier- E.g. Klystron, Travelling Wave Tube or transistor
amplifier, Magnetron Oscillator.
• Waveform Generator- Generates low power radar signal/ EM signal.
• Pulse Modulator- Turns the transmitter on and off in synchronous with
the input pulse to generate pulse waveform.
The output of the transmitter is delivered to the antenna by a waveguide or other
form of transmission lines, where it is radiated in to space.

• Duplexer allows a single antenna to be used on a time shared basis for both
Tx/Rx
• It consist of gas discharge device known as TR (Tx-Rx) and other
ATR(anti- transmit-receive).
• TR protects the receiver during transmission and ATR directs the echo
signal to the receiver during reception.
• During Tx, the receive part is cut, so that high power flows to the antenna
and not to the receiver
• On reception, the duplexer directs the echo signal to the receiver and not
to the transmitter.
• Circulators, solid state diodes etc can be used as a part of the duplexer.
Next is the receiver, part which make use of Super-heterodyne Receiver

• The first stage might be a low-noise RF amplifier, A parametric amplifier

or a low-noise transistor.
• The receiver input can simply be the mixer stage, especially in military
radars that must operate in a noisy environment.
• Although a receiver with a low-noise front-end will be more sensitive, the
mixer input can have
➢ greater dynamic range,
➢ less susceptibility to overload,
➢ less vulnerability to electronic interference
• Mixer Converts the RF signal to an intermediate frequency where it is
amplified by IF amplifier
• The signal BW of Super-heterodyne Receiver is determined by BW of it
IF stage, which Amplifies the intermediate frequency generated by the
mixer.
• Signal bandwidth of SH RX is determined by the frequency of IF stage.
• The IF amplifier should be designed as a matched filter; i.e., its frequency-
response function H ( f ) should maximize the SNR at the output.
• Filter bandpass characteristic approximates a matched filter when the
product of the IF bandwidth B and the pulse width  is of the order of
unity, is, B = 1.
Detector / Demodulator
• Crystal diode is used as a detector which helps in extracting the original
signal from carrier.
• The combination of IF Amplifier , Detector and Video amplifier act as an
envelop .
• Detector passes the envelop and rejects carrier frequency.
• In Radar that detects the doppler shift of the echo signal, the envelop
detector is replace by phase detector.
Threshold detection:
• Decision is made based on the magnitude of receiver output and based on
the threshold level.
• If output signal is above threshold the target is found to be present. On the
other hand, if it is below the target only noise is present.
• The threshold is set such that the false alarm rate of receiver should be
limited.
Integrator -
• Adds echo pulses together to increase the SNR before detection.
• Integrator is often found in video portion of the receiver.

Signal Processor
 • Signal Processor is found before the detection decision is made.
• Pass the desired echo signal and rejects unwanted signal, noise clutter
• Matched filter is an example for signal processor.
• Doppler filter separates the desired moving targets from undesired
stationary clutter echoes.
Data processor
eg: automatic tracker- location of the target measured over time is used
to establish the track or path of the target.
PPI- Plan Position Indicator
• Plan Position Indicator (PPI)- Presentation that maps in polar coordinates
the location of the target in azimuth and range.
• A plan position indicator (PPI) is a type of radar display.
• Represents the radar antenna in the centre of the display, with the
distance from it and height above ground drawn as concentric circles.
• As the radar antenna rotates, a radial trace on the PPI sweeps in unison
with it about the centre point.

Radar Frequencies:
• Operational Radar – Frequency ranging from 100MHz to 36 GHz.
• HF Over the Horizon radars (OHR)- operates at frequencies as low as
few MHz
• Experimental millimeter wave radars- Operates at frequencies higher
than 240 GHz.
• Earlier, letter codes such as S,X,L was used to designate the distinct
frequency band.
 • These letter bands were later approved by IEEE standard
• Specific frequency allocation assigned by ITU for radiolocation and radar.

Applications of Radar
1) Military
• air defence system , Offensive missile, weapon control radars
• Surveillance system includes target detection, target recognition, target
tracking
• Missile System- Use radar for guidance and fusing of the weapons
• Tracks target
• Direct weapon to an intercept
• Battle damage assessment
• High-resolution imaging radar - detecting fixed and moving target on the
battle field
2) Remote Sensing
• Whether Observation- TV weather reporting , input for national weather
prediction
• Planetary observation
• Mapping of sea ice to route shipping in an efficient manner
3) Air Traffic Control (ATC)
• Air surveillance Radar
- To safely control air traffic in the vicinity of airports
- Maps region of rain so that aircraft can be directed around them
• Air Route Surveillance Radar - Enroute from one airport to another
• Air surface Detection Equipment-Ground vehicular traffic and taxing
aircraft on the ground
• Terminal Doppler Weather Radar (TDWR)- to observe weather in the
vicinity of airports.
4) Law enforcement and highway safety
• Radar Speed Meter – Used by police for enforcing speed limits.
• speed of a pitched baseball

5) Aircraft Safety and Navigation

 • Airborne weather avoidance radar – predicts dangerous wind shear to
avoid hazardous condition.
• Terrain avoidance and terrain following radars- Low flying military
aircraft- to avoid colliding with obstructions or high terrain.
• Ground mapping Radar- used by military to image a scene.
• Radar altimeter- Used to indicate the height of an aircraft above the
terrain
6) Ship Safety
• Used in Ships and boats for collision avoidance when the visibility is poor
• Shore based radars are used for surveillance of harbours and river traffic.
7) Space
• Space vehicles use radar for Docking, landing on the moon
• Ground based radar used for detection and tracking of satellite and other
space objects.
• In Radio Astronomy- used for understanding the nature of meteors,
observing the moon and nearby planets.
8) Others
• study the movement of insects which cannot be easily achieved by other
means
• Radar ornithology is the use of radar technology in studies of bird
migration and in approaches to prevent bird strikes particularly to aircraft.
Doppler effect in Radar System
Change in frequency of EM signal that propagates from radar to the moving target
and back to the radar is the Doppler Frequency Shift.
According to the Doppler effect, we will get the following two possible cases
• The frequency of the received signal will increase, when the target moves
towards the direction of the Radar.
• The frequency of the received signal will decrease, when the target moves
away from the Radar.

Derivation of Doppler Frequency

• The distance between Radar and target is nothing but the Range of the
target or simply range, R.
 • Therefore, the total distance between the Radar and target in a two-way
communication path will be 2R, since Radar transmits a signal to the target
and accordingly the target sends an echo signal to the Radar.
• Total Phase change in two way propagation path is given by
2𝑅
𝜙 = 2𝜋 (1)
𝜆
𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Path difference= X Phase difference
2𝜋

• We know that one wave length λ corresponds to an angular excursion

of 2π radians. So, the total angle of excursion made by the EM wave during
the two-way communication path between the Radar and target will be
equal to 4πR/λ radians.
• Since Target is in motion relative to radar, R changes and so will the phase
• Differentiating (1) w.r.t. time gives the rate of change of phase which is
angular frequency
𝒅𝝓 4𝜋 𝑑𝑅 𝟒𝝅
𝝎𝒅 = = = 𝒗𝒓
𝒅𝒕 𝜆 𝑑𝑡 𝝀

2 𝑐
𝜔𝑑 =2 𝜋𝑓𝑑 ; 𝑓𝑑 = 𝑣𝑟 ; w.k.t. 𝜆=
𝜆 𝑓𝑡

𝟐𝒇𝒕
=> 𝒇𝒅 = 𝒗𝒓
𝒄
𝟏.𝟎𝟑𝑽𝒓(𝒌𝒕) 𝑽𝒓(𝒌𝒕)
i.e. 𝒇𝒅 = ≈
𝝀(𝒎) 𝝀(𝒎)
Simple CW(Continuous Wave) Radar

• CW radar utilizes doppler frequency shift.

• Tx. Generates continuous sinusoidal oscillations of frequency ft. It is
radiated by the antenna.
• CW radar receives the echo signal while it transmits.
• If the target is in motion the received echo signal will be shifted in
frequency by an amount ± fd
• The Tx leakage signal act as a reference signal to determine the change in
frequency.
 • The detector/mixer- mix or heterodyne the echo signal at a frequency ft
± fd with the transmitter leakage signal ft.
• The doppler filter allows the difference frequency from the detector to pass
and rejects the higher frequencies.

Simple Pulse Doppler Radar

• The output of stable CW oscillator is amplified by a high-power amplifier.
• The amplifier is turned on and off (modulated) by high power pulse from
a pulse modulator.
• Echo signal is mixed with reference signal ( coherent reference) to
recognize any change in received echo signal frequency.
• Coherent Reference Signal- Phase of the transmitted signal is preserved in
the reference signal.
• Change in frequency is detected by the doppler filter.

Doppler Frequency Shift in Pulse Doppler Radar

 • Transmitted signal = 𝐴𝑡 sin (2𝜋𝑓𝑡 t)
• Received signal = 𝐴𝑟 sin [2𝜋𝑓𝑡 (t−𝑇𝑅 )]
𝐴𝑡 - Amplitude of transmitted signal
𝐴𝑟 -Amplitude of received signal
2𝑅
𝑇𝑅 - Round trip time =
𝑐

R=𝑅0 -𝑣𝑟 t
• Now the received signal is
2𝑅
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑐 = 𝐴𝑟 sin [2𝜋𝑓𝑡 (t−𝑇𝑅 )] = 𝐴𝑟 sin [2𝜋𝑓𝑡 (t− )]
𝑐
2(𝑅0 −𝑣𝑟 t ) 2𝑅0 2𝑣𝑟 t
= 𝐴𝑟 sin [2𝜋𝑓𝑡 (t− )] = 𝐴𝑟 sin[2𝜋𝑓𝑡 (t− + )]
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
2𝑣𝑟 4𝜋𝑓𝑡 𝑅0
= 𝐴𝑟 sin[2𝜋𝑓𝑡 (1 + )t− )]
𝑐 𝑐
4𝜋𝑓𝑡 𝑅0
= 𝐴𝑟 sin[2𝜋(𝑓𝑡 ± 𝑓𝑑 )t− )]
𝑐

Thus the received signal changes by a factor of,

2𝑓𝑡 𝑣𝑟
, which is the doppler shift 𝑓𝑑
𝑐
If the target is moving away from the radar, the sign of the doppler frequency
would be minus
=> received frequency would be less than that of transmitted .
The received signal is heterodyne with the reference signal, 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒇 sin (2𝝅𝒇𝒕 t)
 𝟒𝝅𝑹𝟎
𝑽𝒅 =𝑨𝒅 Sin(2 𝝅𝒇𝒅 t- )


𝐴𝑑 - Amplitude of difference signal

𝟐𝒇𝒕 𝒗𝒓 𝒄
𝒇𝒅 = is the doppler frequency, where 𝒇𝒕 =
𝒄 

MTI radar (with power –oscillator Tx)

• It differs in the way in which the reference signal is generated.

• The coherent reference is supplied by an oscillator called the coho, which
stands of coherent oscillator.
• The coho is a stable oscillator whose frequency is the same as the
intermediate frequency used in the receiver.
• The output of the coho fc is also mixed with the local –oscillator
frequency and is called stalo, for stable local oscillator.
• The RF received signal is heterodyned with the stalo signal to produce
the IF signal just as in the conventional super-hetrodyned receiver.
• The characteristic feature of coherent MTI radar is that the transmitted
signal must be coherent ( in phase) with the reference signal in the receiver.
This is accomplished by the coho signal.
• The function of the stalo is to provide the necessary frequency
translation from the IF to the transmitted (RF) frequency. Any stalo phase
shift is cancelled on the reception.
• The reference signal from the coho and IF echo signal are both fed in to
the mixer called the phase detector. Its output is proportional to the phase
difference between the two input signals.

• In an oscillator, the phase of the RF bears no relationship from pulse to

pulse.
• Thus the reference signal cannot be generated by a continuously running
oscillator.
 • However, a coherent reference signal may be readily obtained with the
power oscillator by readjusting the phase of the coho at the beginning of
each sweep according to the phase of the transmitted pulse.
• The phase of the coho is locked to the phase of the transmitted pulse
each time a pulse is generated.
• A portion of the transmitted signal is mixed with the stalo output to produce
an IF beat signal whose phase is directly related to the phase of the
transmitted.
• IF pulse is applied to the coho and causes the phase of the coho CW
oscillation to “lock” in step with the phase of the IF reference pulse.
• The phase of the coho is then related to the phase of the transmitted pulse
and may be used as the reference signal for the echoes received from that
particular pulse.
• Upon the next transmission another IF locking pulse is generated to relock
the phase of the CW coho until the next locking pulse comes along.
Delay Line Canceler
• Cancel echo clutter from stationary targets
Need for a delay line Canceler
• To detect the doppler frequency shift on the basis of the frequency
change within a single pulse
- the radar pulse width should be long enough
- the doppler frequency should be large enough
• This condition is not usually met when detecting an aircraft because
doppler frequency fd will be such smaller than 1/𝜏 (i.e fd < 1/𝜏)
• Thus the doppler effect cannot be utilized with a single short pulse in this
case.
• The fixed clutter echoes remain the same from sweep to sweep.
• Sweep-: Time between two transmitted pulse or pulse repetition interval.
• Although the butterfly effect is suitable for recognizing moving targets on
an A-scope, it is not appropriate for display on the PPI.
• One method commonly employed to extract doppler information in a
form suitable for display on the PPI scope is with a delay-line canceler
• If one sweep is subtracted from previous sweep, the fixed clutter echoes
will cancel and will not be detected or displayed.
• On the other hand moving target changes in amplitude from sweep to
sweep because there is a doppler frequency shift.
• If one sweep is subtracted from the other, the result will be uncancelled
residue as shown in figure
Delay line Cancellers
• Delay line canceller is a filter, which eliminates the DC components of
echo signals received from stationary targets.
• The filter also rejects energy in the vicinity of the pulse repetition
frequency and its harmonics.
• One of the advantages of a time-domain delay-line canceler as compared
to the more conventional frequency-domain filter is that a single network
operates at all ranges and does not require a separate filter for each range
resolution cell.
• Frequency-domain doppler filter banks are of interest in some forms of
MTI and pulse-doppler radar.
Delay line cancellers can be classified into the following two types based on the
number of delay lines that are present in it.
❖ Single Delay Line Canceller
❖ Double Delay Line Canceller
Single Delay Line Canceller
• The combination of a delay line and a subtractor is known as Delay
line canceller. It is also called single Delay line canceller.

• We can write the mathematical equation of the received echo signal after
the Doppler effect as −
𝑉1 =Asin[2π𝑓𝑑 t− 𝜙0 ] (1)
Where, A is the amplitude of video signal
𝑓𝑑 is the Doppler frequency
𝜙0 is the phase shift and it is equal to 4π𝑓𝑡 Ro/C
We will get the output of Delay line canceller, by replacing t by t− 𝑇𝑃 in (1).
V2=Asin[2π 𝑓𝑑 (t-𝑇𝑃 )− 𝜙0 ] (2)
 Where, 𝑇𝑃 is the pulse repetition time
We will get the subtractor output by subtracting (2) from (1)
𝑉1 - 𝑉2 =A sin[2𝜋𝑓𝑑 𝑡 − 𝜙0 ]- A sin[2𝜋𝑓𝑑 (𝑡 − 𝑇𝑃 ) − 𝜙0 ]
2𝜋𝑓𝑑 𝑡−𝜙0 −[2𝜋𝑓𝑑 (𝑡−𝑇𝑃 )−𝜙0 ] 2𝜋𝑓𝑑 𝑡−𝜙0 +2𝜋𝑓𝑑 (𝑡−𝑇𝑃 )−𝜙0
𝑉1 - 𝑉2 =2Asin[ ] cos[ ]
2 2
2𝜋𝑓𝑑 𝑇𝑃 2𝜋𝑓𝑑 (2𝑡−𝑇𝑃 )−2𝜙0
𝑉1 - 𝑉2 =2Asin[ ] cos[ ]
2 2
𝑇
 𝑉1 - 𝑉2 =2Asin[𝜋𝑓𝑑 𝑇𝑃 ] cos[2𝜋𝑓𝑑 (𝑡 − 𝑃 ) − 𝜙0 ] (3)
2

• The frequency response function of the single delay-line canceler (output

amplitude divided by the input amplitude )
𝐻(𝑓) = 2 sin(𝜋𝑓𝑑 𝑇𝑝 )

• From Equation 3, we can observe that the frequency response of the single
delay line canceller becomes zero, when π𝒇𝒅 𝑻𝑷 is equal to integer
multiples of π .This means,
i.e. π 𝑓𝑑 𝑇𝑃 is equal to nπ. Mathematically, it can be written as

From (4), we can conclude that the frequency response of the single delay line
canceller becomes zero, when Doppler frequency 𝑓𝑑 is equal to integer multiples
of reciprocal of pulse repetition time 𝑇𝑃 .
We know the following relation between the pulse repetition time and pulse
repetition frequency.
On substituting (5) in (4).
⇒ 𝒇𝒅 =n 𝒇𝑷 (6)
From (6), we can conclude that the frequency response of the single delay line
canceller becomes zero, when Doppler frequency, 𝑓𝑑 is equal to integer
multiples of pulse repetition frequency 𝑓𝑃 .

Advantages:
• It eliminates fixed clutter which has zero doppler frequency.
Drawback:
• The frequency response function also has zero response when moving
targets have doppler frequencies at the prf and its harmonics
• The clutter spectrum at zero frequency is a delta function with finite width,
so that clutter will appear in the pass band of the delay line canceller. i.e.
finite width of the clutter spectrum.

The result is, there will be target speeds, called blind speed,
- where the target will not be detected
- There will be uncancelled clutter residue that can interfere with the detection
of moving target
Blind Speeds
• Thus a single Delay line canceller eliminates the DC components of echo
signals received from stationary targets, when n is equal to zero.
• In addition to that, it also eliminates the AC components of echo signals
received from non-stationary targets, when the Doppler frequency 𝑓𝑑 is
equal to integer (other than zero) multiples of pulse repetition
frequency 𝑓𝑃 .
• So, the relative velocities for which the frequency response of the single
delay line canceller becomes zero are called blind speeds.
• The response of the delay line canceller will be zero when the doppler
frequency 𝑓𝑑 is a multiple of pulse repetition frequency 𝑓𝑝
Mathematically, we can write the expression for blind speed 𝑣𝑛 as −

Where, n is an integer and it is equal to 1, 2, 3 and so on λ is the operating

wavelength
• Blind speed can be serious limitation in MTI radar since they cause
some desired moving target to be cancelled along with the undesired clutter
at zero frequency.
• The ways in which the effect of blind speed can be reduced :
1. Operate the radar at long wavelength
2. Operate at high pulse repetition frequency
3. Operate with more than one pulse repletion frequency
4. Operate with more than on RF frequency
We will get the values of second & third blind speeds as 50m/sec and
75m/sec respectively by substituting the value of 𝑣1 in the equations of second
& third blind speeds.
Double Delay Line Canceller
• We know that a single delay line canceller consists of a delay line and a
subtractor. If two such delay line cancellers are cascaded together, then
that combination is called Double delay line canceller.

• The output from the double delay line canceler is given by,
𝐬(𝐭) − 𝐬(𝐭 + 𝐓𝐩 ) − [𝐬(𝐭 + 𝐓𝐩 )−𝐬(𝐭 + 𝟐𝐓𝐩 )]
• The output from the three-pulse canceler is given by,
𝐬(𝐭) − 𝟐𝐬(𝐭 + 𝐓𝐩 ) + 𝐬(𝐭 + 𝟐𝐓𝐩 )
• Thus the double delay line canceler and the three –pulse canceler have the
same frequency response function.
• The advantage of double delay line canceller is that it rejects the clutter
broadly.
• The output of two delay line cancellers, which are cascaded, will be equal
to the square of the output of single delay line canceller.
• So, the magnitude of output of double delay line canceller, which is present
𝟐
at MTI Radar receiver will be equal to 𝟒𝐀𝟐 (sin[𝛑𝐟𝐝 𝐓𝐩 ])
Moving Target Detector

• The moving target detector (MTD) is an example of MTI processing

system to produce improved detection of moving targets in clutter.
• Uses digital technique.
 • It was originally developed by the MIT Lincoln laboratory for airport –
surveillance radar (ASR) for control of local air traffic in the presence of
clutter.
• Original MTD: The characterises of original MTD: similar to ASR -8 radar
• Operating band S-band(2.7 to 2.9GHz)
• Pulse width 0.6 sec
• Azimuth beam width-1.35 degree
• Antenna rotation rate-12.8rpm
• Average PRF-1040 Hz
• Average Power-875 watts
• Range coverage- 60 nmi
Coherent Processing Interval
• Ten Pulse were transmitted at a constant PRF.
• On the receive, these 10 pulse were called CPI
• Next, PRF is changed to avoid Blind Speed and to unmask moving targets
from moving whether clutter
• Also to eliminated second time around clutter echo’s
Block Diagram of Moving Target Detector (MTD)

1. 3 –pulse Canceller
• The filter bank was implemented by a FFT.
• There were 10 pulses in the CPI, but only eight doppler filters since
the three pulse canceller requires all three pulses before it can cancel
clutter.
• The first two output pulses were discarded.
• The first two pulses are called filled pulses since they are needed to
‘fill’ the canceler before cancellation of the clutter can begin.
• The 3-pulse canceller reduces the dynamic range of the signals which
the doppler filter bank has to handle.
• It compensates for the lack of adequate cancellation of stationary
clutter in the Doppler filters.
• It acts like a double delay canceller.
2. 8-pulse Doppler Filter Bank
• The doppler filter bank separates moving targets from moving weather
clutter.
• When the moving clutter(such as rain, storm, birds with a nonzero
doppler shift etc.) and target echo signal power appears in different
doppler filters, the clutter echo will not interfere with the detection of
the desired moving target. The moving clutter echo can be easily
eliminated.
• Doppler Filter Bank (linear scale) 8 Filter- DFT- 13 dB side lobes, 13
dB side lobes will give poor suppression of rain clutter
3. Frequency-domain Weighting
• After the filter bank the Doppler filter outputs are weighted to reduce the
effects of the side lobes in the filter
• The output of the filter are modified by subtracting 25% of the outputs
of the filters on either side
• If A,B,C represents the unweighted outputs of three continuous filters,
then the weighted output applied to filter B is B-(A/4 +C/4).
• This is used to reduce the Doppler –filter side lobes for the better clutter
attenuation
𝟐
• The magnitude is the operation (𝑰𝟐 + 𝑸𝟐 )
4. Zero Velocity Filter
• The 3-pulse canceller removes all echoes with zero velocity, the zero
velocity filter had to be re-stabilised in order to produce the clutter map
5. Clutter Map
• A conventional MTI processor eliminates stationary clutter, but it also
eliminates aircraft moving on a crossing trajectory which causes the
aircraft’s radial velocity to be zero.
• MTD makes use of large cross section of the target to detect it.
• It uses clutter map that stores the magnitude of clutter echoes in a digital
memory.
 • The clutter map establishes the thresholds used for detecting those targets
which produces zero velocity.
• About 10 to 20 scans were required to establish steady state values
6. Adaptive Thresholding
• Adaptive thresholding is used to allow detection of moving targets in
stationary and moving clutters.
• The thresholding is continuously adapted to the local environment.
Performance Metric of MTI filter
• Clutter Attenuation (CA)
• MTI Improvement factor (I)
• Sub Clutter Visibility (SCV)
1. Clutter Attenuation:
➢ Delay Line Canceller: To cancel stationary clutter with zero doppler shift.
➢ Drawback of delay line canceller: insufficient attenuation of clutter that
results from finite width of clutter spectrum.
➢ Finite width of clutter spectrum is due to
1. Internal motion of clutter
2. Instabilities of stalo and coho oscillators
3. Other imperfection of the radar and its signal processors
4. Finite signal duration
➢ Consider MTI filter

𝐌𝐓𝐈 𝐟𝐢𝐥𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐢𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐜𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐂𝐢

CA= =
𝐌𝐓𝐈 𝐟𝐢𝐥𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐜𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐂𝟎

To model the clutter power, clutter power spectral density is represented

by a gaussian function given by
𝑃𝑐𝑓2 −
𝑆(𝑓) = 𝑒 2
√2𝜋𝜎𝑓 2𝜎𝑓
 Where, 𝑷𝒄 is a constant clutter mean power
Thus,
∞
Input power 𝑪𝒊=∫−∞ 𝑺(𝒇)𝒅𝒇 = 𝑷𝒄
∞
Output power 𝑪𝒐 = ∫−∞|𝑯(𝒇)|𝟐 𝑺(𝒇)𝒅𝒇

• Frequency response of single delay line canceler is given by

𝒇
H(f)= 2 sin (𝝅𝒇𝑻𝒓 )= 2 sin (𝝅 )
𝒇𝒓

∞ 𝟒𝑷𝒄 𝝅𝟐 𝝈𝒇 𝟐
Output power, 𝑪𝒐 = ∫−∞|𝑯(𝒇)|𝟐 𝑺(𝒇)𝒅𝒇 =
𝒇𝒓

• Thus,
𝐶𝑖 𝑃𝑐 𝑓𝑟 2 𝑓𝑟
CA = = =( )2
𝐶0 4𝑃𝑐 𝜋2 𝜎𝑓 2 2𝜋𝜎𝑓

𝟐
𝒇𝒓
CA= ( )
𝟐𝝅𝝈𝒇

2. MTI Improvement Factor

• MTI improvement factor includes the signal gain as well as the clutter
attenuation.
• Defined as ‘The signal –to-clutter ratio at the output of the clutter filter
divided by the signal-to-clutter ratio at the input of the filter, averaged over
all target radial velocities of interest’ . It is expressed as
𝑺𝑪𝑹 𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
Improvement factor (I) =
𝑺𝑪𝑹 𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕

𝑆0 /𝐶0 𝑆
= = ( 0 ) X CA
𝑆𝑖 /𝐶𝑖 𝑆 𝑖

= Average power gain of MTI filter X CA

• We know the transfer function of MTI filter is H(f) , then
𝑺𝟎 /𝑪𝟎
= |H(f)|𝟐𝒂𝒗 X CA
𝑺𝒊 /𝑪𝒊

• Since for all frequency it will not be the same so we have to take the
average, Also w.k.t pulsed MTI radar is periodic with period 𝑓𝑟 , then
𝑓𝑟⁄
1 𝜋𝑓
|H(f)|2𝑎𝑣 =
𝑓
∫ 𝑓𝑟⁄2 4 sin( 𝑓 ) 𝑑𝑓 =2
𝑟 − 2 𝑟
 MTI Improvement Factor I = 2.CA
2
𝑓𝑟
I= 2( ) for single DLC
2𝜋𝜎𝑓

3. Sub Clutter Visibility (SCV)

• It describes the Radar stability to detect non-stationary targets embedded
in a strong clutter background for a given probability of detection and false
alarm.
𝑰
SCV =
(𝑺𝑪𝑹)𝒐 /𝑷𝒅

𝑴𝑻𝑰 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓

=
𝑴𝒊𝒏 𝑴𝑻𝑰 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑺𝑪𝑹 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝑷𝒅