Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 000, 1–15 (2013) Printed 27 September 2018 (MN LATEX style file v2.

2)

Galaxy Mass Models: MOND versus Dark Matter Halos

Toky Randriamampandry1⋆ and Claude Carignan1†

arXiv:1401.5619v1 [astro-ph.GA] 22 Jan 2014

1 Department of Astronomy, University of Cape Town, Private Bag X3, Rondebosch 7701, South Africa

ABSTRACT

Mass models of 15 nearby dwarf and spiral galaxies are presented. The galaxies are
selected to be homogeneous in terms of the method used to determine their distances, the
sampling of their rotation curves (RCs) and the mass–to–light ratio (M/L) of their stellar con-
tributions, which will minimize the uncertainties on the mass model results. Those RCs are
modeled using the MOdified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND) prescription and the observa-
tionally motivated pseudo-isothermal (ISO) dark matter (DM) halo density distribution. For
the MOND models with fixed (M/L), better fits are obtained when the constant a0 is allowed
to vary, giving a mean value of (1.13 ± 0.50) × 10−8 cm s−2 , compared to the standard value
of 1.21 × 10−8 cm s−2 . Even with a0 as a free parameter, MOND provides acceptable fits
(reduced χ2r < 2) for only 60 % (9/15) of the sample. The data suggest that galaxies with
higher central surface brightnesses tend to favor higher values of the constant a0 . This poses
a serious challenge to MOND since a0 should be a universal constant. For the DM models,
our results confirm that the DM halo surface density of ISO models is nearly constant at
ρ0 RC ∼ 120 M⊙ pc−2 . This means that if the (M/L) is determined by stellar population
models, ISO DM models are left with only one free parameter, the DM halo central surface
density.
Key words: Cosmology: dark matter; galaxies: kinematics and dynamics

1 INTRODUCTION (2008) found that most of the galaxies in their sample preferred the
observationally motivated core-dominated ISO halo over the cuspy
Since the 1970’s, it is well known that there is a discrepancy be-
NFW halo. This is known as the core-cusp controversy (see de Blok
tween the visible mass and the dynamical mass of galaxies (e.g.
2010 for a review). This is why the ISO models will be used in this
Freeman 1970; Shostak 1973; Roberts & Whitehurst 1975; Bosma
paper for the DM models.
1978). The commonly accepted explanation of the galaxy mass dis-
crepancy is to assume a more or less spherical halo of unseen dark An alternative to the missing mass problem is the MOdified
matter in addition to the visible baryonic mass in the form of stars Newtonian Dynamics (MOND) (Milgrom 1983b). Milgrom pos-
and gas (see e.g: Carignan & Freeman 1985). The distribution of tulates that at small accelerations the usual Newtonian dynam-
dark matter in galaxies can be defined by a theoretical or an empir- ics break down and that the law of gravity needs to be modified.
ical density distribution profile. Several density profile models for MOND claims to be able to explain the mass discrepancies in
the distribution of dark matter (DM) are presented in the literature. galaxies without the need for dark matter but with the introduction
The two most commonly used models are (see also e. g: Einasto of a universal constant a0 , which has the dimension of an accelera-
1969; Burkert 1995; Kravtsov et al. 1998): tion.
The phenomenological success of MOND to reproduce the
• the pseudo-isothermal (ISO) dark matter halo model (obser-
observed RCs of galaxies has attracted a huge interest in the astron-
vationally motivated model)
omy community for the last three decades. One of the first studies
• the Navarro-Frenk-White (NFW) dark matter halo model
was made by Kent (1987) using HI RCs of spiral galaxies and his
(Navarro et al. 1997) (derived from ΛCDM N-body simulations)
conclusions were not favorable to MOND. Kent’s work was crit-
The highest quality HI RC s (RCs) available to date are those for the icized by Milgrom (1988) who pointed out possible errors in the
THINGS (The HI Nearby Galaxies Survey) sample (Walter et al. distances and inclinations used and the possibility that not all the
2008). For that sample, the RCs of 19 galaxies were derived by HI gas had been detected.
de Blok et al. (2008) and their mass distributions were modeled Dwarf galaxies are critical to test a theory such as MOND
using the ISO and the NFW halo density profiles. de Blok et al. because these objects present the largest discrepancies between the
visible mass and the dynamic mass and their small accelerations
⋆ [email protected] put them mostly into the MOND regime. Lake (1989) concluded
† [email protected] that MOND could not reproduce the observed RCs of a sample of
2 T. Randriamampandry & C. Carignan
dwarf galaxies where the luminous mass was dominated by the gas Slowly rotating gas rich galaxies are good candidates to test
and not the stars. However, Milgrom (1991) disapproved Lake’s MOND because their accelerations are below a0 and the bary-
conclusions arguing again that there could be large errors in the onic mass is dominated by gas and not stars. Sánchez-Salcedo et al.
distances and inclinations. (2013) studied a sample of five such galaxies and found significant
Begeman et al. (1991) were the first to estimate the value of departures between the observed RCs and the ones predicted by
a0 by fitting the RCs of bright spiral galaxies. The MOND param- MOND (see also Frusciante et al. 2012). Recently, Carignan et al.
eter a0 was taken as a free parameter during their fitting proce- (2013) presented a detailed study of the magellanic–type spiral
dure. They found an average value of a0 = 1.21 x 10−8 cm s−2 . galaxy NGC 3109 using VLA HI data from Jobin & Carignan
However, the distances used were quite uncertain since Hubble’s (1990) and new data from the SKA pathfinder KAT-7 telescope in
Law was adopted as the distance indicator for most of the galaxies the Karoo desert in South Africa. With both data sets, they found
in their sample. The Begeman et al. (1991) results were confirmed that MOND cannot fit the observed RC of NGC 3109, while their
by Sanders (1996) and Sanders & Verheijen (1998) using the same distance and inclination are well determined. On the other hand, the
method. Sanders (1996) used a larger sample of 22 galaxies se- ISO dark matter halo model gives a very good fit to both data sets.
lected from the literature but only M33 and NGC 300 had Cepheid A sample of fifteen galaxies, mostly with Cepheid-based dis-
distances. Since then, the value found by Begeman et al. (1991) is tances, will be used for the present study with the aim to minimize
considered as the standard value for a0 . Bottema et al. (2002) were the errors coming from the adopted distance. Some RCs have been
the first to use a sample with Cepheid-based distances only and resampled to have a homogeneous sample of RCs with independent
found that a lower value for a0 (0.9 x 10−8 cm s−2 ) yields bet- velocity points in order to give significance to the goodness of the
ter fits to the RCs. A complete review about the previous tests of fits of the mass models. The (M/L)s used have also been determined
MOND is presented in Sanders & McGaugh (2002). In that review in a homogeneous way using stellar population models predictions,
the basic framework of MOND is explained. RCs fits using MOND instead of leaving them as free parameters.
prior to 2002 are presented and the different capabilities of MOND This paper is organized as follows: the sample selection is pre-
are listed. The most recent review on MOND and its implications sented in section 2, the methods used for the mass models are ex-
for cosmology can be found in Famaey & McGaugh (2012). plained in section 3, results are shown in section 4, followed by the
discussion in section 5 and the conclusions in section 6.
The analysis by de Blok & McGaugh (1998) was the first to
used LSB galaxies in the context of MOND. Those systems are
good candidates to test MOND because their accelerations fall be-
low the MOND acceleration limit a0 . de Blok & McGaugh (1998) 2 SAMPLE
used a sample of 15 LSB galaxies. They found that MOND is The two main selection criteria for the final sample of 15 dwarf and
successful to reproduce the shape of the observed RCs for three spiral galaxies are the method used to determine their distance and
quarters of the galaxies in the sample. The most recent study of the availability of high quality HI RCs in terms of spatial resolu-
LSB galaxies in the context of MOND was done by Swaters et al. tion and sensitivity. Cepheid based distances, using their period–
(2010). MOND produced acceptable fits for also three quarters of luminosity relation, are commonly considered as the most accurate
the galaxies in their sample. The correlation between a0 and the for nearby galaxies. We were able to use this method for all but
extrapolated central surface brightness of the stellar disk was also two of the galaxies in the sample. The method used to measure the
investigated. Swaters et al. (2010) found that there might be a weak distance and references are given in column 5 of table 1.
correlation between a0 and the R-band central surface brightness Another criteria is to have a sample of galaxies spanning a
of the disk. This is shown in their Figure 7. Their interpretation wide range of luminosities and morphological types from dwarf ir-
was that galaxies with lower central surface brightness had lower regular to bright spiral galaxies. Therefore DDO 154 and IC 2574
values for a0 . Such a correlation would be in contradiction with are included even if Cepheid distances are not available. Further-
MOND since a0 should be an universal constant. The reliability of more, these two galaxies are gas dominated galaxies and exhibit
the MOND mass models depends strongly on the sensitivity and large discrepancies between their visible mass and their dynamical
spatial resolution of the observed RCs. More extended RCs are mass which makes them ideal objects to test MOND and DM halo
needed to trace the matter up to the edge of the galaxies but higher models.
resolution is required in the inner parts. Eleven galaxies of the final sample are part of THINGS, their
RCs derived from the THINGS sample satisfy these criteria. RCs being derived by de Blok et al. (2008). For the others, the RCs
THINGS consists of 34 dwarfs and spiral galaxies observed in and gas distributions are taken from Carignan et al. (2013) for NGC
HI with the Very Large Array in the B, C and D configurations 3109, from Westmeier et al. (2011) for NGC 300, from Puche et al.
(Walter et al. 2008). Gentile et al. (2011) used a subsample of 12 (1991) for NGC 55 and from Carignan & Puche (1990) for NGC
galaxies from de Blok et al. (2008) and modeled their mass distri- 247. There is considerable overlap between the sample used in this
butions using the MOND formalism. They performed one and two work and Gentile et al. (2011), 7 out of 15 galaxies are common
parameter MOND fits and recalculated the value of a0 which turned to both studies. However, IC 2574, NGC 925 and NGC 2366 are
out to be similar to the standard value estimated in Begeman et al. included in this study, which were omitted by Gentile et al. (2011)
(1991). Their average value for a0 is 1.22 x 10−8 cm s−2 using the because of the presence of holes and shells and non-circular mo-
simple µ-function (Zhao & Famaey 2006) for the interpolation be- tions. The RCs of these galaxies were derived using the bulk ve-
tween the Newtonian and the MONDian regimes. They also looked locity fields only (Oh et al. 2008) which remove the effect of holes
at the correlation between a0 and central surface brightness in the and shells. The presence of small bar could also introduce mild
3.6 micron band and found that there was no correlation. However distortion, but that is beyond the scope of this study and will be
their points have a large scatter and they used the bulge central investigated in an upcoming paper which will investigate the non-
surface brightness instead of the extrapolated disk central surface circular motions induced by the bar as a function of the size and
brightness. orientation of the bar using numerical simulation.
 Galaxy Mass Models: MOND vs Dark Matter halos 3

Table 1. Properties of the galaxies in the sample

Name P. A. Incl. Distance Method[Ref] mB MB Type

◦ ◦ Mpc mag mag
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

DDO 154 230 66 4.30 ± 0.54 bs[K04] 13.94 -14.23 IB(s)m

IC 2574 53.4 55.7 4.02 ± 0.41 rgb[K04] 10.80 -17.21 SAB(s)m

NGC 0055 109.7 76.9 1.94 ± 0.03 cep[G08] 9.60 -16.79 SB(s)m

NGC 0247 170.0 74.0 3.41 ± 0.17 cep[G09] 9.70 -17.95 SB(s)cd

NGC 0300 310.5 42.3 1.99 ± 0.04 cep[G05] 8.72 -17.67 SA(s)d

NGC 0925 286.6 66.0 9.16 ± 0.63 cep[F01] 10.69 -19.13 SAB(s)d

NGC 2366 39.8 63.8 3.44 ± 0.31 cep[T95] 11.53 -16.13 IB(s)m

NGC 2403 123.7 62.9 3.22 ± 0.14 cep[F01] 8.93 -18.60 SAB(s)cd

NGC 2841 152.6 73.7 14.10 ± 1.50 cep[F01] 10.09 -20.66 SA(r)b

NGC 3031 330.2 59.0 3.63 ± 0.25 cep[F01] 7.89 -19.89 SA(s)ab

NGC 3109 93.0 75.0 1.30 ± 0.02 cep[S06] 10.39 -15.18 SB(s)m

NGC 3198 215.0 71.5 13.80 ± 0.95 cep[F01] 10.87 -19.83 SB(rs)d

NGC 3621 345.4 64.7 6.64 ± 0.46 cep[F01] 10.28 -18.82 SA(s)d

NGC 7331 167.7 75.8 14.72 ± 1.02 cep[F01] 10.35 -20.49 SA(s)b

NGC 7793 290 50 3.43 ± 0.10 cep[P10] 9.17 -18.79 SA(s)d

bs: brightest stars, rgb: red giant branch, cep: cepheid variables; F01: Freedman et al. (2001); S06: Soszyński et al. (2006);
K04: Karachentsev et al. (2004); T95: Tolstoy et al. (1995); P10: Pietrzyński et al. (2010); G05: Gieren et al. (2005); G08:
Gieren et al. (2008); G09: Gieren et al. (2009)
col. 1: Galaxy name; col. 2: Position Angle; col. 3: Inclination; col. 4: Distance with the uncertainty; col. 5: Method used to
measure the distance & reference; col. 6: Apparent magnitude taken from the RC3 catalog; col. 7: Absolute magnitude; col
8: Morphology type.

3 MASS MODELS converted into mass using the mass-to-light ratio (M/L) in that par-
ticular band. This M/L is assumed to be constant with radius (cf.
3.1 Mass Models with a Dark Matter Halo section 3.3.2). Most of the gas content of the galaxy is in the form
As mentioned in the introduction, most of the mass in the galax- of neutral hydrogen, thus the gas contribution is derived from the
ies appears to be in the form of unseen matter called Dark Matter HI maps corrected for the primordial helium contribution. The dark
(DM), whose existence is inferred through its gravitational effect matter halo component is derived from the pseudo-isothermal den-
on luminous matter such as the flatness of RCs or the gravitational sity distribution.
lensing effect. The common scenario is that galaxies are embedded The RC is thus given by the quadratic sum of the contribution
in dark matter halos which follow some density distribution profile. from each component:
In this paper, the observationally motivated pseudo-isothermal dark 2
Vrot 2
= Vgas + V∗2 + Vhalo
2
(1)
matter halo profile (ISO), characterized by a constant central den-
sity core, will be used. A mass model compares the observed RC to where Vgas is the gas contribution, V∗ the stars contribution and
the sum of the contributions of the three mass components, namely Vhalo the contribution of the dark matter component.
the gas disk, the stellar disk (and bulge, if present) and the dark
halo. It is well known that neutral hydrogen usually has a larger ra-
dial extent compared to the luminous part of the galaxy, especially The pseudo-Isothermal (ISO) Dark Matter (DM) Halo Model
for late–type spirals and dwarf irregular galaxies (at least in the
For the pseudo-isothermal dark matter halo, the density distribution
field). Therefore the RC derived using the HI gas traces the mass of
is given by:
the galaxy to larger radii. The contributions of all the components
are required for the mass model. The stellar components used in ρ0
ρISO (R) = (2)
this study are derived from 3.6 micron surface brightness profiles, 1 + ( RRc )2
4 T. Randriamampandry & C. Carignan
while the corresponding RC is given by: 3.3 Luminous Component Contribution
r
2 R R 3.3.1 Gas Contribution
VISO (R) = 4πGρ0 RC [1 − atan( )] (3)
RC RC
VLA observations using combined B, C and D array configurations
where ρ0 and Rc are the central density and the core radius of the data (Walter et al. 2008) are used to compute the mass density pro-
halo, respectively. We can describe the steepness of the inner slope file of the HI gas for the THINGS galaxies. It is computed using the
of the mass density profile with a power law ρ ∼ r α . In the case of GIPSY task ELLINT and the tilted ring kinematical parameters from
the ISO halo, where the inner density is an almost constant density de Blok et al. (2008). The HI profile is corrected by a factor of 1.4
core, α = 0. to take into account the Helium and other metals. The output from
ELLINT is then used in ROTMOD to calculate the gas contribution
in the mass model, assuming an infinitely thin disk. The gas den-
3.2 Mass Models using the MOND formalism
sity profiles are taken from Westmeier et al. (2011) for NGC 300
MOND was proposed by Milgrom as an alternative to dark mat- using ATCA data and from Carignan et al. (2013) for NGC 3109
ter. Therefore, in the MOND formalism only the contributions of using KAT7 data, from Puche et al. (1991) for NGC 55 and from
the gas and of the stellar component are required to explain the Carignan & Puche (1990) for NGC 247, using VLA data.
observed RCs.
In the MOND framework, the gravitational acceleration of a
test particle is given by : 3.3.2 Stellar Contribution

µ(x = g/a0 )g = gN (4) For the mass models, the 3.6 micron surface brightness profiles
are used for the stellar contribution. 3.6 micron probes most of the
where g is the gravitational acceleration, µ(x) is the MOND inter- emission from the old stellar disk population (Verheijen 1997). It
polating function and gN the Newtonian acceleration. is also less affected by dust and therefore represents the bulk of
the stellar mass. The profiles from de Blok et al. (2008) are used
for the galaxies from the THINGS sample. The profiles were de-
3.2.1 MOND Acceleration Constant a0
composed into two components for the galaxies with a prominent
As an universal constant, a0 should be the same for all astrophysi- central bulge (see de Blok et al. 2008 for more details). The 3.6
cal objects. However, observational uncertainties could introduce a micron surface brightness profiles of NGC 55 and NGC 247 are
large scatter in a0 and have to be taken into account. Significant de- derived in this work. The images were retrieved from the Spitzer
partures of a0 from the standard value could be interpreted as being Heritage Archive using a 0.6 arcsec/pixel scale. After removing the
problematic for MOND. Milgrom estimated a0 using Freeman’s foreground stars, the images were fitted with concentric ellipses us-
law, which stipulates that disk galaxies have typical extrapolated ing the ELLIPSE task in IRAF. These profiles are corrected for incli-
central surface brightness in the B band (Freeman 1970) of 21.65 nation before being converted into mass density. The method from
mag arcsec−2 . He estimated a0 to be ∼ (0.7 − 3) × 10−8 (M/L)∗ Oh et al. (2008) is adopted to convert the luminosity profiles into
cm s−2 . There are other methods which could be used to find a0 , mass density profiles for all the galaxies in the sample except for
such as the Tully-Fisher relation. However, the preferred method, NGC 300 and NGC 3109. Oh et al. (2008) first convert the surface
used in many studies, is to estimate a0 by comparing the computed brightness profiles in mag/arcsec2 into luminosity density profiles
RCs from mass models to the observed RCs, leaving a0 as a free in units of L⊙ /pc2 and then convert to mass density using the fol-
parameter. The implications of a0 in cosmology are explained in lowing expression:
Famaey & McGaugh (2012).
3.6 )
Σ[M⊙ pc−2 ] = (M/L)3.6
∗ × 10
−0.4×(µ3.6 −C
(7)
3.2.2 MOND Interpolating Functions
where (M/L)3.6
∗ is the stellar mass-to-light ratio in the 3.6 micron
The shape of the predicted MOND RCs depends on the interpolat- band, µ3.6 the surface brightness profile and C3.6 is a constant used
ing function. The standard and simple interpolating functions are for the conversion from mag/arcsec2 to L⊙ /pc2 . The details to find
mostly used in the literature. The standard µ-function is the original C3.6 are presented in Oh et al. (2008) :
form of the interpolating function proposed by Milgrom (1983b)
but Zhao & Famaey (2006) found that a simplified form of the in-
C 3.6 = M⊙
3.6
+ 21.56 (8)
terpolating function not only provides good fits to the observed RCs
but also the derived mass-to-light ratios are more compatible with where M3.6
⊙ is the absolute magnitude of the Sun in the 3.6 micron
those obtained from stellar populations synthesis models. band. Using the distance modulus formula and the distance to the
The simple µ-function is given as: Sun, Oh et al. (2008) found:
3.6
x M⊙ = m3.6
⊙ + 31.57 = 3.24 (9)
µ(x) = (5)
1+x The mass density profile of NGC 300 is taken from Westmeier et al.
The MOND RC using the simple interpolating function is (2011). For NGC 3109, the I-band profile is used instead of the 3.6
given by microns because it has a larger radial extent.

q q
2 2 2 2 2
Vrot = V∗,b + V∗,d + Vg2 ∗ a0 ∗ r + V∗,b + V∗,d + Vg2 (6) 3.3.3 Mass to light ratio (M/L)
where V∗,d , V∗,b , Vg are the contributions from the stellar disk, the The conversion of light into mass through the mass-to-light ratio
bulge and the gas to the RC. (M/L) is the principal source of uncertainty in the mass model.
 Galaxy Mass Models: MOND vs Dark Matter halos 5
Therefore, the determination of this parameter should not be taken 4.2.2 MOND fits with distance let free to vary within the
lightly or left as a free parameter. In this work, the stellar synthe- uncertainties.
sis models of Bell & de Jong (2001) are used. As mentioned by
The distance was allowed to vary within the uncertainties in the
de Blok et al. (2008), the uncertainties on (M/L) decrease in the in-
case of galaxies in which MOND produces poor fits to their RCs.
frared band. Therefore, the (M/L) derived in the infrared band will
The results are shown in Table 3.
be used when available.
The method of Oh et al. (2008) is followed. The (M/L) at 3.6
micron is given by:
5 DISCUSSION
log(M/Lk ) = 1.46(J − K) − 1.38 (10)
The average reduced chi-square for the ISO halo ( <χ2r >= 1.18 ) is
and
lower than that obtained from MOND with fixed a0 (<χ2r >= 9.20)
(M/L)3.6 = 0.92(M/L)k − 0.05 (11) using the distance listed in Table 1 and even when a0 is allowed
to vary (<χ2r >= 2.37). Discrepancies between the RCs predicted
The J-K colors are those from the 2MASS Large Galaxy Atlas by MOND and the observed RCs are seen for most of the galax-
(Jarrett et al. 2003). An I-band M/L of 0.7 predicted by the stellar ies in the sample and particularly for DDO 154, IC 2574, NGC
population synthesis models is adopted for NGC 3109. 925, NGC 2841, NGC 3109, NGC 3198 and NGC 7793, in which
MOND overestimates or underestimates the rotation velocities. The
difference between the MOND fits and the observed RCs is smaller
for the following galaxies: NGC 0055, NGC 2366, NGC 3621 and
4 RESULTS
NGC 7331 when a0 is fixed to its canonic value. Notes on the in-
The HI RCs of the THINGS sample are oversampled with two data dividual galaxies are given in the appendix, where the results from
points per resolution element. If we want the reduced χ2 values to this study are compared to those in the literature.
be meaningful, the RCs have to be resampled with only one point
per beam, so that every point is independent. Therefore, resampled
versions of the THINGS HI RCs and of four other RCs from the lit- 5.1 Effect of varying the adopted distances within the
erature will be used to construct the mass models of the galaxies in uncertainties
our sample. The gas and stellar contributions to the RCs are com-
The results are summarized in table 3. The adopted distances are
puted with the GIPSY task ROTMOD. The outputs from ROTMOD
different with Gentile et al. (2011) for the following galaxies: DDO
are used in ROTMAS, which is the main task for the mass mod-
154 (the error-bars are not the same), NGC 2403, NGC 3198 (the
els. ROTMAS uses a non-linear least square method and compares
error-bars are not the same) and NGC 7793. MOND prefers lower
the observed RCs to the calculated RCs derived from the observed
distances for most of the galaxies except for NGC 247, NGC 2403,
mass distribution of the gas and stars (van der Hulst et al. 1992).
NGC 2841 and NGC 7793. It is worth noticing that a much lower
Inverse squared weighting of the RCs’ data points with their uncer-
distance is needed for some galaxy such as NGC 3198 if the M/L
tainties are used during the fitting procedure.
is fixed. The quality of the fits improves when the MOND acceler-
ation constant a0 is taken as a free parameter for all the galaxies.
4.1 ISO Dark Matter Halos Fit Results
Dark matter mass models are shown in the left panels of Figs. 1. 5.2 Comparison with previous work
The dark matter halo components are shown as dashed magenta
There are a wealth of studies on MOND in the literature, but this
lines, the contribution from the stellar disk components as dot-
section will focus on a comparison between this work and that of
dashed black lines, the stellar bulge components as long-dashed
Gentile et al. (2011) because, not only Gentile et al. (2011) is the
green lines and that from the gas components as dashed red lines.
most recent study, but both samples have a large overlap. The main
The results are summarized in Table 2.
difference between this work and Gentile et al. (2011) is that in this
work, MOND produces acceptable fits for ∼60% of the galaxies in
the sample, while Gentile et al. (2011) found that MOND produces
4.2 MOND Results
excellent fits for all the galaxies except for three (DDO 154, NGC
4.2.1 MOND fits with distance fixed 2841 and NGC 3198), meaning for ∼75% of their sample. The
similarity between this paper and Gentile et al. (2011) is that seven
The MOND models were performed with the same (M/L)s as the
galaxies are common in both studies. For those seven galaxies, five
ones used for the DM models. MOND fits are shown in the middle
galaxies produce acceptable MOND fits when a0 was left free to
panels of Figs. 1 for a0 fixed at its standard value and in the right
vary. The differences stem from two main reasons:
panels for a0 free. The observed RCs are shown as black points
with error-bars and the MOND RCs calculated from the observed • First, Gentile et al. (2011) allowed the mass-to-light ratio to
mass density distribution of the stars and gas in continuous blue vary and the distances were constrained within the errors, which
lines. The stellar disk and bulge contributions are shown as black gave smaller chi-squared values. In this work, the mass-to-light ra-
dot-dashed and long-dashed lines respectively and the gas contri- tios are fixed using those found using population synthesis models.
butions as red dashed lines. Results for the a0 fixed and a0 free • Secondly, the distance used in this work and Gentile et al.
fits are also shown in Table 2. An average value for a0 of (1.13 ± (2011) are not the same, for example the distance adopted in this
0.50)×10−8 cm s−2 is found using the simple interpolating func- work for NGC 2403 is (3.22 ± 0.14) Mpc, as listed in Table 1
tion. As for Bottema et al. (2002), this is smaller than the standard while their distance is (3.47 ± 0.29) Mpc. Our distances are mainly
value of Begeman et al. (1991). cepheid-based.
6 T. Randriamampandry & C. Carignan

DDO 154
60 ISO MOND a0 fixed
, MOND a0 free,
VROT (km s−1 )

40

20

00 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
RADIUS (kpc) RADIUS (kpc) RADIUS (kpc)
100 IC 2574
ISO MOND a0 fixed
, MOND a0 free
,

80
VROT (km s−1 )

60

40

20

00 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
RADIUS (kpc) RADIUS (kpc) RADIUS (kpc)
100 NGC 55
ISO MOND a0 fixed
,
MOND a0 free
,

80
VROT (km s−1 )

60

40

20

00 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
RADIUS (kpc) RADIUS (kpc) RADIUS (kpc)
NGC 247
120
ISO MOND a0 fixed , MOND a0 free ,

100
VROT (km s−1 )

80

60

40

20

00 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 14
RADIUS (kpc) RADIUS (kpc) RADIUS (kpc) 10 12

Figure 1. Mass model fit results, left panel: ISO RCs fits (the parameter results are in Table 2), middle panel: MOND RCs
fits with a0 fixed and right panel: MOND RCs fits with a0 free (the MOND parameter results are in Table 3). The red dashed
curve is for the H I disk, the dash-dotted black curve is for the stellar disk, dashed green curves for the stellar bulge and the
dashed magenta curves for the dark matter component. The bold blues lines are the best–fit models and the black points the
observed rotational velocities.
 Galaxy Mass Models: MOND vs Dark Matter halos 7

NGC 300
120
ISO MOND a0 fixed
, MOND a0 free
,

100
VROT (km s−1 )

80

60

40

20

00 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
RADIUS (kpc) RADIUS (kpc) RADIUS (kpc)
NGC 925
140

120 ISO MOND a0 fixed

, MOND a0 free
,

100
VROT (km s−1 )

80

60

40

20

00 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
RADIUS (kpc) RADIUS (kpc) RADIUS (kpc)
NGC 2366
100
ISO MOND a0 fixed, MOND a0 free ,

80
VROT (km s−1 )

60

40

20

00 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
RADIUS (kpc) RADIUS (kpc) RADIUS (kpc)
NGC 2403
ISO MOND a0 fixed
, MOND a0 free
,

150
VROT (km s−1 )

100

50

00 5 15 5 15 5 15
RADIUS10(kpc) 0
RADIUS10(kpc) 0
RADIUS10(kpc)

Figure 1. Continued.
8 T. Randriamampandry & C. Carignan

400
NGC 2841
ISO MOND a0 fixed
, MOND a0 free
,

300
VROT (km s−1 )

200

100

00 10 20
RADIUS30(kpc) 40 50 0 10 20
RADIUS30(kpc) 40 50 0 10 20
RADIUS30(kpc) 40 50

NGC 3031
300 ISO MOND a0 fixed
, MOND a0 free
,
VROT (km s−1 )

200

100

00 5 15 5 15 5 15
RADIUS 10
(kpc) 0
RADIUS 10
(kpc) 0
RADIUS 10
(kpc)
NGC 3109
100
ISO MOND a0 fixed, MOND a0 free ,

80
VROT (km s−1 )

60

40

20

00 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
RADIUS (kpc) RADIUS (kpc) RADIUS (kpc)
NGC 3198
200
ISO MOND a0 fixed
, MOND a0 free
,

150
VROT (km s−1 )

100

50

00 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
RADIUS (kpc) RADIUS (kpc) RADIUS (kpc)

Figure 1. Continued.
 Galaxy Mass Models: MOND vs Dark Matter halos 9

200 NGC 3621

ISO MOND a0 fixed
, MOND a0 free
,

150
VROT (km s−1 )

100

50

00 5 10 15 5 15 5 15
RADIUS (kpc) 20 25 0 10
RADIUS (kpc) 20 25 0 10
RADIUS (kpc) 20 25

350
NGC 7331
300
ISO MOND a0 fixed
, MOND a0 free
,

250
VROT (km s−1 )

200

150

100

50

00 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
RADIUS (kpc) RADIUS (kpc) RADIUS (kpc)
NGC 7793
150
ISO MOND a0 fixed
, MOND a0 free
,
VROT (km s−1 )

100

50

00 5 0 5 0 5
RADIUS (kpc) RADIUS (kpc) RADIUS (kpc)
Figure 1. Continued.

However, this work would reach the same conclusions as surface brightness of the stellar disk with the MOND parameter a0 .
Gentile et al. (2011) if the mass-to-light ratio was also a free pa- As shown in Fig. 2, galaxies with higher central surface brightness
rameter and the distances only constrained. It is well known that require higher values of a0 and galaxies with lower central surface
the more you have free parameters, the easier it is to get good fits. brightness lower a0 values. This has also been seen in the R-band
This is why Gentile et al. (2011) get 75 % (9/12) good fits with their for LSB galaxies by Swaters et al. (2010). Gentile et al. (2011) did
distance constrained option and free mass-to-light ratios, while this the same analysis using the 3.6 micron band for twelve (12) galax-
falls to 60 % (9/15) when the distance and mass-to-light ratio are ies from the THINGS sample and did not find any correlation.
fixed. The difference between the two studies is probably not sig- However, the bulge central surface brightnesses were used for their
nificant given the small sample sizes in both studies. study instead of the disk values. Five galaxies in their sample (see
their figure 2) have central surface brightnesses brighter than 13
mag/arcsec2 which are probably due to the small but bright cen-
5.3 Correlation Between the MOND Acceleration Constant tral bulges. The surface brightness profile increases sharply within
a0 and other Galaxy Parameters a small radius and lead to a very high estimated central surface
brightness, which is the reason why the extrapolated disk central
Any systematic trend of a0 with some galaxy parameter could be
surface brightness have to be used. The following relation is found
a problem for MOND since it is supposed to be a universal con-
stant. Here, we look for a correlation between the corrected central
10 T. Randriamampandry & C. Carignan

Table 2. Results for the ISO dark matter halo models with fixed M/L (Diet-Salpeter IMF) and for the MOND models using a0 = 1.21x10−8 cm s−2 and a0 as a
free parameter (simple interpolating function).

ISO MOND
Name (M/L)3.6,disk (M/L)3.6,bulge RC ρ0 χ2
r χ2
r (a0 fixed) a0 χ2
r (a0 free)

kpc 10−3 M⊙ pc−3 10−8 cm s−2

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

DD0 154 0.32[dB08] 1.34±0.07 27.38±2.33 0.42 6.32 0.68 ±0.02 0.56

IC 2574 0.44[dB08] 7.36±0.21 4.02±0.22 0.22 19.28 0.36 ± 0.02 1.87

NGC 0055 0.44[Tw] 3.17±0.12 19.19±0.88 0.36 1.15 ± 0.05 1.78

NGC 0247 0.36[Tw] 1.63 ±0.08 55.45 ±3.88 1.59 6.06 1.43 ± 0.05 3.31

NGC 0300 0.27[W11] 1.08±0.15 117.93 ± 29.63 1.78 5.43 1.18 ± 0.08 4.55

NGC 0925 0.65[dB08] 16.63±10.16 3.40 ± 0.74 2.09 22.09 0.34 ± 0.04 4.59

NGC 2366 0.33[dB08] 1.28±0.11 37.47 ± 4.25 0.20 2.11 0.71 ± 0.04 0.39

NGC 2403 0.74[dB08] 4.53±0.15 20.97 ± 1.02 0.63 4.74 1.51± 0.03 2.72

NGC 2841 0.74[dB08] 0.84 5.08±0.23 49.06±3.61 0.82 4.69 1.72 ± 0.03 0.96

NGC 3031 0.80[dB08] 1.00 5.34±1.97 14.55±5.87 3.97 4.77 1.24± 0.09 4.52

a
NGC 3109 0.70 [Tw] 2.22±0.20 25.71±3.21 0.25 21.24 1.91 ±0.14 1.94

NGC 3198 0.80[dB08] 4.85±0.42 15.01 ± 2.15 1.17 24.26 0.67 ± 0.02 1.84

NGC 3621 0.59[dB08] 5.56±0.23 14.31±0.16 0.70 1.56 0.98 ± 0.02 1.52

NGC 7331 0.83[dB08] 1.00 17.38±2.75 4.75±0.60 0.45 0.68 1.08 ± 0.03 0.42

NGC 7793 0.31[dB08] 1.90±0.20 77.95±11.13 3.06 12.58 2.01 ± 0.13 4.63

<1.18> <9.20 > <1.13 ± 0.50 > <2.37 >

a
the I-band surface brightness profile was adopted for NGC 3109 because it has larger radial extent than the 3.6 microns surface brightness profile.
col. 1: Galaxy name; col. 2 & 3: mass-to-light ratio [reference: dB08: de Blok et al. (2008) ; Tw: this work; W11: Westmeier et al. (2011)] ; col. 4: ISO halo
core radius; col. 5: ISO halo central density; col. 6: ISO reduced chi-squared. col. 7 & 9: reduced chi-squared for a0 fixed and free ; col. 8: MOND
acceleration parameter

in this work which is shown in Fig. 2 as a dashed line.

log(a0 ) = (−0.055 ± 0.037) × µ3.6 + (4.520 ± 0.687) (12) 4.2

This surely challenges the universality of MOND, since a0 4.0

should be the same for every galaxy.

3.8
log10(a0 km2 s−2 kpc−1 )

3.6

5.4 Dark Matter Halo Scaling Laws

3.4
The most common hypothesis to explain the flatness of galaxies’
RCs is to postulate the existence of a dark matter halo. The halo 3.2
is characterized by a theoretical density profile. It has been known
that the observational motivated ISO halo provides a better descrip- 3.0
tion of the observed RCs as compared to the cosmological moti-
vated NFW halo (see e.g. de Blok et al. 2001). The success of the 2.8

ISO halo for fitting galaxy RCs has been said to be due to the num-
16.0 17.0 18.0 19.0 20.0 21.0 22.0
ber of parameters involved in the fitting procedure. These param- µ3.6 (mag arcsec−2 )
eters are the halo core radius RC and the halo central density ρ0 .
A correlation between these two parameters have been investigated Figure 2. MOND parameter as a function of the corrected central surface
in the literature (Kormendy & Freeman 2004; Barnes et al. 2004; brightness of the stellar disk in the 3.6 micron band.
Spano et al. 2008). Kormendy & Freeman (2004) found the follow-
ing relation:
 Galaxy Mass Models: MOND vs Dark Matter halos 11

Table 3. Effect of varying the adopted distance within the uncertainties (M/L fixed (Diet-Salpeter IMF, a0 = 1.21x10−8 cm
s−2 and using the simple interpolating function).

Name (M/L)3.6,disk (M/L)3.6,bulge Distance χ2r

Mpc
1 2 3 4 5

DD0 154 0.32 4.30 6.32

3.76 3.21

3.23 1.21

IC 2574 0.44 4.02 19.28

3.61 14.84

NGC 0247 0.36 3.41 6.06

3.58 4.96

NGC 0300 0.27 1.99 5.43

1.96 4.55

NGC 0925 0.65 9.16 22.09

8.53 18.48

NGC 2403 0.74 3.22 4.74

3.36 4.06

3.47 [G11] 3.60

3.76 2.88

NGC 2841 0.74 0.84 14.10 4.69

15.60 2.13

NGC 3198 0.80 13.80 24.26

12.95 17.43

12.30 14.36

NGC 7793 0.31 3.43 12.58

3.53 10.88

3.91[G11] 8.55

4.30 6.89

col. 1: Galaxy name; col. 2 & 3: mass-to-light ratio; col. 4: adopted distances, G11: distance used by Gentile et al. (2011)
(see text for more explanation); col. 5 : reduced chi-squared ;

log ρ0 = −0.93 × log RC − 0.74 (14)

log ρ0 = −1.04 × log RC − 1.02 (13)
A similar analysis is undertaken for our sample. A plot of the
core radius as a function of the central densities is shown on the top
while Spano et al. (2008) found: panel of Fig. 3. We found that our result is consistent with those
 12 T. Randriamampandry & C. Carignan
presented in the literature. This confirms the existence of a scaling
relation for the central core of the dark matter halos. The following
0.0
Spano et al. (2008) relationship was found using a simple least square method:
Kormendy and Freeman (2004)
Best fit
This work
log(ρ0 (M ⊙ pc−3 ))

-1.0

log ρ0 = (−1.10 ± 0.13) × log RC − (1.05 ± 0.25) (15)

-2.0 The core radius is plotted as a function of absolute magnitude in

Figure 4. A clear correlation is seen between these two parameters:
low-luminosity galaxies correspond to a small core radius.
-3.0
As shown in figure 4 our least square fit results are :
log(RC (kpc))
-0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

4.0

log ρ0 = (0.121 ± 0.021) × MB + (1.531 ± 0.120) (16)

log(ρ0 × RC (M ⊙ pc−2 ))

3.0

log rc = (−0.133 ± 0.044) × MB − (1.76 ± 0.797) (17)

2.0

The least square result found by Spano et al. (2008) were:

1.0

0.0
log ρ0 = 0.142 × MB + 1.29 (18)
MB (mag)
-14.0 -16.0 -18.0 -20.0 -22.0

log rc = −0.167 × MB − 2.47 (19)

Figure 3. Top panel: Core radius as a function of central density for the
ISO halo. The bold red lines show the best fit result found in this study, and the results by Kormendy & Freeman (2004) were:
the dashed green lines are the correlation found by Spano et al. (2008), the
dot-dashed blue lines are the correlation found by Kormendy & Freeman
(2004) and the filled black circle are the results from this work . Bottom log ρ0 = 0.113 × MB + 0.12 (20)
panel: halo surface density as a function of B-band absolute magnitude.

log rc = −0.127 × MB − 1.42 (21)

The correlation between the central density and the absolute

4.0
Spano et al. 2008 magnitude was also investigated which is shown in bottom panel
Kormendy and Freeman (2004) of Fig. 3, this is in good agreement with Kormendy & Freeman
Best fit (2004).
This work
log(RC (kpc))

2.0

The halo surface density is given by the product of the core

radius and the central density of the halo. Kormendy & Freeman
0.0
(2004) found that the surface density of the halo is nearly constant
as a function of absolute magnitude. This result was confirmed by
-2.0 Spano et al. (2008) which is shown as a green dashed line in figure
MB (mag)
-14.0 -16.0 -18.0 -20.0 -22.0
3. We found a correlation which is in good agreement with those
2.0 found in the literature.
Kormendy & Freeman (2004):
log(ρ0 (M ⊙ pc−3 ))

0.0
ρ0 RC ∼ 100 M⊙ pc−2 (22)
-2.0
Spano et al. (2008):

-4.0 ρ0 RC ∼ 150 M⊙ pc−2 (23)

MB (mag)
-14.0 -16.0 -18.0 -20.0 -22.0
This work:

ρ0 RC ∼ 120 M⊙ pc−2 (24)

Figure 4. Top panel: Core radius of the ISO halo as a function of absolute
magnitude. Bottom panel: central density as a function of absolute magni- These results confirm the scaling laws for dark matter halos,
tude. The bold red lines show the correlation found in this study, the long- which is important for our understanding of the relation between
dashed green lines are the correlation found by Spano et al. (2008), the dot- the dark and luminous matter and the characteristics of the dark
dashed blue lines are the correlation found by Kormendy & Freeman (2004) matter itself. It clearly confirms that low luminosity galaxies have
and the filled black circle are the parameter results from this work . smaller core radii and higher central densities. Most importantly,
it mainly implies that dark matter ISO halo could be characterized
by only one parameter since the core radius and the central density
of the halo are correlated. With the (M/L) of the disk now fixed
by population synthesis models, DM models are thus left with only
one free parameter the DM surface density.
 Galaxy Mass Models: MOND vs Dark Matter halos 13
6 CONCLUSIONS Barnes D. G., de Blok W. J. G., 2001, AJ, 122, 825
Barnes E. I., Sellwood J. A., Kosowsky A., 2004, AJ, 128, 2724
We have presented mass models of fifteen (15) dwarf and spiral
Begeman K. G., 1989, A&A, 223, 47
galaxies selected from the literature. Their observed RCs were con-
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matter halo model. The galaxies in the sample were selected to be
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Bosma A., 1978, PhD Thesis, Groningen Univ., (1978)
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Bottema R., Pestaña J. L. G., Rothberg B., Sanders R. H., 2002,
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ties and morphological types than previous studies.
Burkert, A. 1995, ApJL, 447, L25
The models were carried out using the GIPSY software tasks
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de Blok W. J. G., 2010, Advances in Astronomy, 2010
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morphological types. Famaey B., Binney J., 2005, MNRAS, 363, 603
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with the observed RCs of bright spirals. 15, 10
• The difference between the RCs predicted by MOND and the Freedman W. L., Madore B. F., Gibson B. K. et al., 2001, ApJ,
observed RCs is the largest for the following galaxies: DDO 154, 553, 47
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1141
Finally, for the mass models with dark matter halos, the ISO halo
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Kent S. M., 1987, AJ, 93, 816
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NOTES ON INDIVIDUAL GALAXIES 1991). The HI RC in Westmeier et al. (2011) derived from HI ob-
servations using the Australian Compact Array telescope is chosen
DDO 154 for this analysis because of its is large radial extend compared to
DDO 154 is a gas dominated nearby dwarf galaxy, classified as the one done by Puche & Carignan (1991) derived from VLA data.
an Irregular Barred galaxy or IB(s). A distance of 4.3 Mpc de- This is one of the galaxies that MOND could not produce accept-
rived from the brightest blue stars by Karachentsev et al. (2004) able fit to the observed RCs with a reduced chi-squared of 5.43.
is adopted for this study. This is consistent with the previ-
ous results adopted in the literature (Carignan & Beaulieu 1989;
Carignan & Freeman 1988). The first HI observation of this galaxy IC 2574 and NGC 925
was done in November 1985 (Carignan & Freeman 1988). DDO Gentile et al. (2011) mentioned the presence of holes and shells in
154 is part of the THINGS sample which consists of 34 dwarf and the HI gas distribution of these two galaxies. The existence of large
spiral galaxies. The kinematics and RCs of 19 galaxies from the non-circular motions have also been noticed by Oh et al. (2008).
THINGS were derived by de Blok et al. (2008) and these are the Therefore, the poor quality MOND fits for these two galaxies
highest quality RCs available to date. The inclination and position could not be interpreted as a failure for MOND. However, the RCs
angle are shown in table 1. This galaxy has been studied extensively we used were derived using the bulk velocity field only Oh et al.
in the context of MOND. The mass model results are shown in the (2008), which takes out most of the effects of local non-circular
first row of Fig. 1, the left panel is the model with a DM halo, the motions. This is well explained in de Blok et al. (2008). However,
middle panel is the MOND model with a0 fixed and the right panel the presence of a small bar could also introduce large scale distor-
for a0 free. Milgrom & Braun (1988) consider DDO 154 as ”an tion in the inner parts, but this is beyond the scope of this work and
acute test for MOND” because its internal acceleration is deeply in will therefore be investigated in an upcoming paper using numeri-
the MOND regime. The poor MOND fit for DDO 154 has been in- cal simulation.
terpreted as being due to the uncertainties on the measured distance
since no measured Cepheid based distance is available. The uncer-
tainties on the inclination is also known to be one of the source
NGC 2366
of the poor quality MOND fit for DDO 154 due to the unknown
thickness of the HI disk. Recently, Angus et al. (2012) used a new NGC 2366 is a dwarf galaxy member of the M81 group. The RCs
N-body code which solves the modified Poisson’s equation and fits derived by Oh et al. (2008) using the bulk velocity field is adopted
galaxy RCs. They performed four parameters (M/L, stellar & gas for this study. MOND produces an acceptable fit to the observed
disk scale heights and distance) MOND fits for five galaxies from RC of this galaxy.
 Galaxy Mass Models: MOND vs Dark Matter halos 15
NGC 2403 (2013) is used in this study. NGC 3109 still exhibits a large discrep-
ancy between the RC predicted by MOND and the observed RC.
This galaxy belongs also to the M81 group of galaxies. It is classi-
This disagreement between the MOND RC and the observed RC
fied as a barred spiral galaxy SAB(s)cd. NGC 2403 is a well known
remained even when a0 is taken as a free parameter.
bright spiral galaxy. It has been extensively used to test MOND.
For example NGC 2403 was part of the sample of Begeman et al.
(1991) to estimate the value of the MOND acceleration parameter.
The most recent RC of NGC 2403 was derived by de Blok et al. NGC 3198
(2008). NGC 2403 is also part of the sample of Gentile et al.
(2011) in the context of MOND. A cepheid distance of 3.22 Mpc This is a grand design spiral galaxy in the constellation of Ursa Ma-
is adopted for this work (Freedman et al. 2001). A better fit is ob- jor. The cepheid distance of 13.80 Mpc of Freedman et al. (2001)
tained with a distance of 3.76 Mpc (see Table 3). is used in this work . NGC 3198 is a well studied galaxy in the
context of MOND. Many authors have shown that MOND cannot
predict the RC of this galaxy with the standard value of a0 , unless
NGC 2841 adjustment is made on the adopted distance. A much lower distance
of 8.6 Mpc is needed to reconcile MOND with the observed RC of
NGC 2841 is a bright spiral galaxy in the constellation of Ursa NGC 3198 (see: Bottema et al. 2002, Gentile et al. 2011). This is
Major. Many authors have noticed that MOND cannot reproduce much smaller than the Cepheid distance of 13.8 Mpc, adopted for
the observed RC of NGC 2841 (eg. Begeman et al. 1991). Sanders our study and therefore very unlikely. Despite the non-circular mo-
(1996) even considered NGC 2841 as a possible case to falsify tion induced by the presence of a bar, we can get reasonable DM fits
MOND saying that a good MOND fit was only possible with very but the discrepancy between the observed RC and the MOND fit is
large distance and an unrealistic disk (M/L). In this work, the dis- large with a χ2r = 24.26. MOND overestimates the rotational veloc-
crepancy has largely decreased (χ2r = 0.896) using the Cepheid dis- ity in the outer parts, which implies more mass. A good MOND fit
tance of 14.1 ±1.5 Mpc (Freedman et al. 2001), and a higher value is only obtained by letting a0 free to vary (see also: Gentile et al.
for a0 (cf Table 2) which is consistent with Gentile et al. (2011) 2011).
(see their result with distance constrained). Recently, Gentile et al. (2013) derived a new RC for NGC
3198 as part of the HALOGAS (Westerbork Hydrogen Accretion
in LOcal GAaxieS) survey (Heald et al. 2011), which aims to study
NGC 3031 extra-planar gas in the local universe. Their new RC has a larger
NGC 3031 or M81 is a bright spiral galaxy in the constellation extent compared to the THINGS RC but with fewer data points in
of Ursa Major. NGC 3031 is located at a distance of 3.63 Mpc the inner parts. They performed MOND fits by letting the distance
Freedman et al. (2001). The existence of non-circular motions is free to vary within the uncertainties. They found that MOND can
reported by de Blok et al. (2008) . For this reason it is excluded produce a better fit in the outer parts with the new RC but the qual-
from the Gentile et al. (2011) sample and the observed RC has not ity of the fit is much worse compared with those in the literature
yet been confronted with the MOND formalism. Trachternach et al. in the inner parts ( e. g: Gentile et al. 2011, Bottema et al. 2002,
(2008) quantified the non-circular motions for this galaxy and Begeman et al. 1991). The inner parts of the galaxy contain most
found that they lie between 3 and 15 km s−1 for an average of 9 of the mass and plays an important role in the mass model. How-
km/s. They also noticed that the outer disk is warped and that there ever, it is not well constrained with the new RC because of the lack
is some disturbance in the velocity field. Allowing a0 to vary did of spatial resolution. Using our adopted distance, our results sug-
not improve the quality of the MOND fit. gest that an acceptable MOND fits is only possible if the MOND
acceleration constant a0 is of about 0.67 x 10−8 cm s−2 , which is
about half the standard value.
NGC 3109
NGC 3109 is a nearby SB(s)m dwarf galaxy located at a dis-
tance of about 1.30 Mpc from us. The first cepheid distance of NGC 3621
NGC 3109 was measured by Gieren et al. (2005) from a total of
19 cepheid variables. The first HI RC for this galaxy was derived NGC 3621 is classified as SA(s)d galaxy. It is located at a distance
by Jobin & Carignan (1990) from a VLA observation using C and of 6.64 Mpc in the constellation of Hydra (Freedman et al. 2001). It
D configurations. Another HI observation were done using the 64 is a well behaved galaxy with a flat RC up to very large radii. Both
m Parkes telescope in Australia (Barnes & de Blok 2001), but they MOND and dark matter models produce good fits to the observed
could not derive the RC because of the lack of spatial resolution. RC.
Begeman et al. (1991) noticed that the gas component need to be
increased by a factor of 1.67 after a comparison with single dish
observations in the 21 cm wavelength to be in accord with MOND.
NGC 7331
Recently, Carignan et al. (2013) obtained new HI observations with
the Karoo Array Telescope (KAT 7) ( SKA and MeerKAT precur- NGC 7331 is a spiral galaxy in the constellation of Pegasus classi-
sor) in the Karoo desert in South Africa. Since the short baselines fied as SA(s)b. A cepheid distance of 14.72 Mpc (Freedman et al.
and the low system temperature make the telescope very sensitive 2001) is adopted in this study. The HI RC of NGC 7331 have been
to large scale low surface brightness emission, all the HI gas is de- confronted to MOND by Begeman et al. (1991) using VLA obser-
tected by KAT-7. Despite having now the proper gas profile, they vations and Gentile et al. (2011) using data from the THINGS sur-
conclude that NGC 3109 continues to be problematic for MOND. vey Walter et al. (2008). Their conclusions that MOND is able to
Since it has the proper gas profile, the RC derived by Carignan et al. fit the observed RC is confirmed in this work.
16 T. Randriamampandry & C. Carignan
NGC 7793
NGC 7793 is a member of the Sculptor Group classified as S(s)d.
The most recent cepheid distance for NGC 7793 is 3.43 Mpc. This
was measured as part of the Araucaria Project Gieren et al. (2005).
The RC derived from the THINGS data is used in this study. The
quality of the MOND and dark matter fits are similar for this galaxy
(see Gentile et al. (2011) for the MOND and de Blok et al. (2008)
for the dark matter fits). This is confirmed by the chi-square values
listed in Table 2 for the MOND and ISO models.

This paper has been typeset from a TEX/ LATEX file prepared by the
author.