TRAINING HANDBOOK

METEOROLOGY
Module 1 in the SAA Flight Dispatcher
Recurrent Training Program Series

Author: Kent Huber & Capt. Venkatesan Ramamoorty

Authority: Kent Huber – CTKI; SAA
Skyplan Aviation Academy
Training Handbook - Meteorology
Copyright © 2022

All rights reserved. No portion of this handbook may be reproduced or used in any
manner, in whole or in part, without the written prior permission of the authors and the
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for any real time aeronautical navigation purposes. Pictures and figures in this
handbook and related PowerPoint presentations are for demonstration and training
purposes only and may not reflect exact scenarios.

The “SAA logo”, “Skyplan Aviation Academy” and “Embrace the Knowledge of Aviation”
are all proprietary of Skyplan Services.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Multiple sources were used as reference in the production of this handbook and the
accompanying PowerPoint presentation. Various internet websites and pictures were
sourced to build training material. ICAO Annex 3 and textbooks such as “Aviation &
Meteorology: Weather Fundamentals”, “Pilot Weather: From Solo to the Airlines”, CAE
Oxford Aviation Academy “Meteorology: ATPL Ground Training Series" and Jeppesen’s
“Aviation Weather” were also used. If further clarification is needed to reinforce the
learning aspect a reference to A&MWF (“Aviation & Meteorology: Weather
Fundamentals”) is provided along with a page number.

At no time was copywrite infringement intended by the authors or the authority of this
handbook and if found in violation of any copywrite infringement, was not intentional.

While every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of this content, errors or
omissions may have occurred. Please notify authority Kent Huber – CTKI
([email protected]) with your findings.
TIME MAIN UNITS/STEPS /AIDS LEVEL CONTENTS,
(MINUTES) SUMMARY OF
ACTIVITES, POINTS
TO BE
EMPHASIZED
MODULE – RECURRENT TRAINING -DISPATCHERS
OBJECTIVES : At the end of this module the trainees should be able to:-

1. Provide appropriate weather information

2. Decode the METAR, TAF AND SIGMET
3. Incorporate weather information in flight planning and flight briefing
4. Incorporate navigation techniques on aeronautical charts with application of
navigation aids and associated procedures in the modern environment(RNP,RVSM,PBN,
ETOPS/EDTO, NAT TRACKS)
5. Enumerate systems knowledge and the aircraft performance requirements for
dispatching a flight with malfunction and notam effect (MEL,CDL,NOTAM)
6. Calculate the maximum take off weight , landing weight and zero fuel weight with
optimum altitude and wind altitude trade
7. Calculate the mass and balance as applicable to the flight while dispatching
8. Application of ICAO and UAE air law as appropriate

COURSE MANAGEMENT
COURSE INTRODUCTION : Explain the course aim as a revision on meteorology,
navigation, system knowledge . performance and weight and balance, practical application
of dispatching a flight with MEL/CDL,NOTAM , synaptic meteorology, modern navigation
environment (RNP, RVSM, PBN,ETOPS/EDTO, NATTRACKS), appropriate air law of
UAE/ICAO.
COURSE ADMINISTRATION : explain the attendance code of conduct, conduct of class
room procedures as applicable

INTRODUCTION TO COURSE CONTENT AND ORGANISATION (DAY-1)

01:30 METEROLOGY 4 Emphasis on structure

(atmosphere, pressure, temperature, of atmosphere, ISA
density,stability, frontal weather Conditions, calculation
climatology, METAR, TAF SIGMENT, of density altitude,
progonostic charts wx interpretations} decoding of METAR
AND TAF, use of
prognostic chart and
brief on global
climatology
01:30 NAVIGATION 3 Extraction of Datas
(Form of earth, Aeronautical charts, from the
MSA, Aerodrome Operating Minima, ENROUTE/TERMINAL
 Area navigation CHARTS,
(RNAV,RNP,RVSM,PBN) Radio Aids (JEPPESEN),
to Navigation, ILS,EDTO/ETOPS, APPLICATION OF
NAT TRACKS, FANS, CPDLC, ) EDTO/ETOPS
CRITICAL FUEL
secanrio,
Contingencey
procedure for NAT
TRACK , PBN
applications
01:30
AERODYNAMICS AND SYSTEM 3 Application of
(Theory of flight, Flight Controls, Aerodynamics with
Aircondition,pressurization,pneumatic, system effects
fulel,hydraulics,APU, Ice protection, MEL/CDL /NOTAM
Emergency procdure) and their application
on performance
aspect of dispatch
01:30 AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE 3 Application of
(TAKE OF PERFORMANCE,CLIMB Aerodynamics with
PERFORMANCE ENROUTE system effects
PERFORMANCE, LANDING MEL/CDL /NOTAM
PERFORMANCE ) and their application
on performance
aspect of dispatch

INTRODUCTION TO COURSE CONTENT AND ORGANISATION (DAY-2)

02:00 MASS AND BALANCE AND 4. Effect of CG on take
PAYLOAD CALCULATIONS off performance,
(Importance of weight and balance computerised load
definitions, CG effects, load sheet, LMC
calculations, sample load sheet corrections , manual
load sheet and pay
load calculations
01:00 UAE/ICAO LAW 3. Introduction of
(ICAO RULES, UAE AIR LAW) annexures, ICAO
DOCs, CAR series,
AIP and other related
documents with
AIREC CYLES.
01:00 AIR ROUTES AND AIRPORTS 4. Preferential routes,
(AIP, JEPPESEN MAUAL, ROUTE AIP reference, choice
GUIDE ,OM-C) of aerodrome,
 alternates, etops
alternates isolated
airport, concept of
relcearence and re
dispatch CP and PNR
calculations.
01:00 EMERGENCY PROCEDURES 4. (OM-A , hijack, bomb
threat, engine failure
decompression
procedures, escape
routes
01:00. DISPATCH AND OPERATION 4. VISIT TO REAL TIME
CONTROL DISPATCH
INTRODUCTION TO COURSE CONTENT AND ORGANISATION (DAY-3)- ASSESSMENT
02:00. PRACTICAL TEST: (Preparation and execution of an operational flight plan
with MEL/NOTAM applications and the practical use of common equipment,
documentation, tools, ICAO FLIGHT PLAN
01:00 ORAL TEST: ( CONSOLIDATION ON METEROLOGY, NAVIGATION,
PERFORMANCE SYSTEMS CHOICE OF ROUTES AIRPORTS, MEL/CDL
ETOPS/EDTO, ICAO FLIGHT PLAN, AIRLAW (ICAO/UAE}
TOTAL
DURATION :
15:00
NOTE:
1. THE QUESTIONS SHALL BE MULTI-CHOICE
2. THE PASSING MARK OF ORAL/PARCTICAL TEST IS 75%
Module 1. : METEROLOGY

Module outlines. Time : 1:30

NOTES

(atmosphere, pressure, temperature, density, stability, frontal weather climatology, METAR,

TAF SIGMENT, prognostic charts wx interpretations}

INTRODUCTION
Meteorology is the scientific study of the atmosphere. Meteorological phenomena are
observable weather events which illuminate and are explained by the science of meteorology.
Those events are bound by the variables that exist in Earth's atmosphere; temperature, air
pressure, water vapour, and the gradients and interactions of each variable, and how they
change in time.

Atmosphere

We all know that earth is a unique planet due to the presence of life. The air is one among the
necessary conditions for the existence of life on this planet. The air is a mixture of several gases,
and it encompasses the earth from all sides. The air surrounding the earth is called the
atmosphere.

The atmosphere is a thin layer of a mixture of various gases, called air, water vapour, dirt and
dust, and pollutant particles. It envelops the earth all round and is held in place by the gravity of
the earth. It also blocks harmful ultraviolet rays and maintains a suitable temperature necessary
for life.

It is difficult to determine the extent of the atmosphere, but most will concur it could be anywhere
up to about 1,600km from the earth’s surface. The exosphere itself could be from 500-1000 km
up to 10,000km. However, 99 % of the total mass of the atmosphere is confined to the height
below 100km from the earth’s surface.
Composition of Atmosphere:
The atmosphere in the dry state is a mixture of many gases of which Nitrogen and Oxygen
accounting for about 99%.

The percentage composition of dry air (By volume)is as follows:

Nitrogen. 78%, oxygen 21%, Argon 0.93%, carbon 0.03%.
The percentage composition by weight is Nitrogen : Oxygen = 3:1

• Nitrogen and oxygen are the two main

gases in the atmosphere and 99 percentage of
the atmosphere is made up of these two
gases.
• Other gases like argon, carbon dioxide,
neon, helium, hydrogen, etc. form the
remaining part of the atmosphere. These are
called trace gasses.

PROPERTIES OF THE EARTH’S

ATMOSPHERE
The earth’s atmosphere varies vertically and
horizontally in:
• Pressure
• Temperature
• Density Humidity

The earth’s atmosphere is a poor conductor. (Poor conductor of what? Please elaborate) The
earth’s atmosphere is fluid (Please elaborate). Various states of atmosphere is shown in the
following picture.
STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE:

The Structure of Atmosphere is as follows:

Mesosphere – 50 to 85Km.

Thermosphere from 85Km

upwards

Stratosphere Up to 50Km
from earth above
Troposphere

Troposphere – Up to 8Km at
poles and 16Km at equator
Troposphere :
 It is the most important layer of the atmosphere and nearest
to the earth. Oxygen that we breath exists in this layer of the
Earth.
All weather phenomena like rainfall, hail and fog occur in this
layer as clouds are formed in this layer. The temperature
decreases in this layer with the increase in height. This is
called lapse rate. In this layer, the Lapse rate is 6.5C/km or
2C/1000ft or 3.5F/1000ft.

Since temperature decreases with height it goes to follow that the temperature at the
tropopause is controlled by its height.
The higher it is, the colder the temperature at the tropopause. The lower it is, the warmer the
temperature at the tropopause.
The temperature at the tropopause can be as high as -40°C over the poles and as low as -
80C over the equator. However, on average the tropopause is at about 11 km where its
temperature is -56.5°C.
The significance of the tropopause height is that it usually marks; - the maximum height of the
cloud, the presence of Jetstream the presence of Clear Air Turbulence (CAT) the maximum
wind speed.

Stratosphere
The stratosphere extends from Tropopause at 36,000ft – 56,000ft up to 50km. The temperature
remains steady up to 20km and thereafter begins to increase with height, (where the
temperature is zero at 50 km. This is due to the absorption of the sun’s ultraviolet radiation by
the concentration of ozone at higher levels).

Vertical air movement makes way for horizontal air movement. The stratosphere is a stable
region with very low humidity and or water vapour.

Virtually no weather occurs in this layer. However, very rarely, a type of cloud called “nacreous”
or “mother of pearl” occurs between 20 to 30 km in winter.
The tops of Cumulonimbus clouds can also punch into this layer if there is sufficient updraft
convection.

Most jet aircraft will fly either in the upper portion of the troposphere or the lower portion of the
stratosphere. The thickness of these layers varies depending if you are at the poles or the
equator.

In the upper boundary of the stratosphere (stratopause) there is concentration of ozone in a thin
layer where ultraviolet absorption increases the temperature to approximately 0°C.

Mesosphere
It is the third layer of the atmosphere spreading over the stratosphere. This layer of the
atmosphere is found above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere.It extends up to
height of 80km.. It is characterised by a decrease in temperature with height. In fact, the
Mesosphere is the coldest layer in the atmosphere with temperatures in the upper mesosphere
as low as 200K or -73°C. The mesosphere is located from approximately 50 to 80/85 km above
Earth’s surface. Noctilucent clouds are located in the mesosphere. meteors or falling stars
occur in this layer. The upper limit of the mesosphere is known as Mesopause.

.
Thermosphere
This layer is located between 80and 400km above the mesopause. It contains electrically
charged particles known as ions, and hence, it is known as the ionosphere.

Radio waves transmitted from the earth are reflected back to the earth by this layer and due to
this, radio broadcasting has become possible. The temperature here starts increasing with
heights due to absorption of highly energetic solar radiation. Northern Lights occur in this layer
(aurora Borealis).

Exosphere
The exosphere is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere.
Gases are very sparse in this sphere due to the lack of gravitational force. Therefore, the
density of air is very less here.
ATMOSPHERIC HAZARDS
As aircraft operating altitudes increase, so concentrations of OZONE and COSMIC RADIATION
become of greater importance to the aviator. Above 50,000ft, normal concentrations of ozone
exceed tolerable limits and air needs to be filtered before entering the cabin. The heat of the
compressor system will assist in the breaking down of the ozone to an acceptable level. Cosmic
radiation is not normally hazardous, but at times of solar flare activity a lower flight level may be
necessary. Advances in meteorological forecasting and communications should result in pilots
receiving prompt and accurate information regarding high altitude hazards, but it is important
that they should be aware of these hazards and prepared to take the necessary re-planning
action.

LAYERS OF ATMOSPHERE: the envelope of gases surrounding the EARTH changes from the
ground
up.

Four distinct layers or spheres of the atmosphere have been identified using the thermal
characteristics (temperature changes), chemical compositions, movement and density.
Temperature Profile of the Atmosphere The atmosphere may be divided into four distinct
temperature layers:
 • Troposphere: contains most of the atmosphere even though it is very shallow. Gravity
causes the air to be concentrated in this layer. The normal environmental lapse rate
(ELR) is negative (cooling with increasing height) because the ground is the heat source,
but a temperature inversion may exist which results in a positive ELR (warming with
height).
• Stratosphere: above the Tropopause, a layer of air that has a positive ELR due to
absorption of UV rays from the sun by the ozone.
• Mesosphere: above the Stratopause, a layer of air that has a negative ELR since there
is no ozone present and this layer is at an extremely high altitude.
• Thermosphere: above the Mesopause, this layer of air has so few air molecules that the
KE is extremely high due to the very high velocities of these few air molecules. By
definition that implies a very high temperature so the ELR is positive. In reality, the air is
not "hot to the touch" since there is so little air present one would not feel anything.

To sum up, temperature can be defined as amount of hotness or coldness of body.

Air temperature is a measure of the motion of the molecules in the air. The greater the
molecular speed, the greater the temperature. Temperature scale used in aviation are Celsius
(C) and Fahrenheit (F) Common temperature used in Aviation weather reports are :
Surface Air Temperature, the air temperature as measured 5 feet (1.5 meters) above the
ground.
Upper Air Temperature, the temperature at various altitudes, usually measured using a
Sounding balloon, Satellite or directly by aircraft observation.
OAT: Outside Air Temperature.
SAT: Static Air Temperature. The temperature of undisturbed air. In other words, it’s the
temperature of the air around the aircraft, unaffected by the movement of the aircraft through the
air. Think of it as pretty much the same thing as OAT
RAT: Ram Air Temperature. Interchangeable with TAT (see below)
TAT: Total Air Temperature. This is the SAT plus the temperature rise associated with high-
speed flight. Why do we need to know what it is?
The TAT rise is the result of heating due to air friction and compression. Think of it as the
temperature that the aircraft’s skin feels. TAT rise only becomes a factor at speeds above
approximately 200 kts and is proportional to the aircraft speed, so the faster you’re flying, the
higher the ram rise.
Used in icing conditions to determine if airframe icing will occur
We notice that due to atmosphere getting heated up through Earth’s Radiation and as altitude
increases the temperature decreases(lapse rate), and also it decreases at the rate of 2deg per
1000ft approximately.
It is worth noting, that an increase in temperature with increase in height is called INVERSION.
If the temperature remains constant with increase in altitude it is called ISOTHERMAL.
Outside Air Temperature, the indicated temperature in flight as measured by a temperature.
Temperature scale conversion:-
To convert C to F : (C x 1.8) + 32 = F
To convert F to C : (F -32) / 18 = C

But there are other heating factors:

Latent Heat: Water vapour in the air will release heat as it rises and condenses into clouds
and maybe precipitation.
Advective Warming: Horizontal movement of air from warm to cold (or cold to warm
(Advective cooling)).
Turbulent mixing: Wind will mix the air causing the heated air at lower levels to mix with cooler
upper air.
Conduction: The transfer of heat from within a body. Think a pot on a stove top transferring
heat though an uninsulated handle or metal utensil.
Convection: Surface air is heated, becomes buoyant and rises carrying the heat upward
INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE (ISA):

ICAO has International Council of Air Navigation (ICAN) which stipulates International Standard
Atmosphere (ISA).This ISA Standards used mainly for calibrations of pressure instruments and
performance calculations.

Under ISA Temperature assumed as 15° at sea level. Lapse rate of 1.98°/1000ft
(approximately 2°/1000ft)
To maximum of - 56.5° . at 36,000ft and thereafter temperature remains constant.

ISA CONDITION TABLE: (Reference Doc 7488)

Since the real atmosphere never remains constant at any particular time or place, a hypothetical
model must be employed as and approximation to what may be expected, this model is known
as the standard atmosphere and used more as reference.
HOW TO DERTERMINE ISA TEMPERATURE

The standard temperature at specific altitude can be calculated using formulae

Determine the ISA temperature at 20,000ft

A way of expressing how different the current conditions are n relation to ISA interms of
temperature

Suppose a person measures temperature at sea level. Theoretically according to ISA model, it
should be 15°C. However, in real condition the person measures the temperature as 25°C. If we
compare the actual condition with standard model, we can see there is a deviation of 10°C.
Therefore, we will then say it is ISA +10, because the actual air temperature is 10°C warmer
than the ISA temperature at that altitude or height.

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE:
Pressure is the force exerted by the moving molecules of a gas on a given area. Variations in
pressure between one location and another cause air to move both horizontally and
vertically Atmospheric pressure is the force per unit area exerted by the weight of the
atmosphere. The instrument used for measuring pressure is called Barometer. Two commonly
used pressure units are inches of mercury (in.Hg) or
Hectopascal(hpa) Sea level pressure in standard atmospheric conditions is 14.7 PSI (1.0
33 kg/cm2)
In order to measure pressure, the reference pressure is needed and this is called datum
pressure. From a know pressure we can measure the pressure.
Example: how doctors measures blood pressure.
The aircraft pressure altimeter works on this principle and it is like a barometer in order to
measure pressure, since we require datum pressure that’s why altimeter requires setting.

Pressure Differentials: The sun is the driving force for all weather on earth, unequal heating of
the earth causes uneven heating of the atmosphere above it, which in turn causes changes in
the atmospheric pressure.

Important Pressure Terms:

Isobars are lines of constant pressure.

Pressure Gradient is a change of pressure over a horizontal distance.
High is an area of high pressure surrounded on all sides by lower pressure also called anti-
cyclone.
Low is an area surrounded on all sides by higher pressure also called cyclone.
Ridge is an elongated region of relatively high pressure. Trough is an elongated region of
relatively low pressure.
The various setting like QNH, QFE, QNE are all based on what datum pressure we set in
subscale.

QNH: Sea Level Pressure

QFE: Aerodrome Level Pressure

QNE: Standard Setting (1013.2hPa)

The purpose of setting QNH for take-off and landing is for obstacle clearence. QNE is for traffic
separation for ATC.

TRANSISTION ALTITUDE
We need to change and altitude, take off and descend and approach for landing.
While climbing we refer this as Transition Altitude. in most ICAO member state uses the TA,
meaning once you vacate the Platform altitude, i.e, Transition Altitude change over to QNE.
Transition Altitude is calculated as highest obstacle within 25nm radius from the
ARP(Aerodrome Reference Point) add 1000ft. and roundoff to higher thousand feet.
For e.g. if the highest obstacle within the vicinity is 3567ft add 1000ft it becomes 4567ft and
roundoff higher 1000ft that’s is 5000ft.
Note: we also set area QNH instead of airfield QNH.

TRANSISTION LEVEL
While descending we call the platform level as Transition level . when we change from standard
setting QNE to QNH.
i.e. Transition level = Transition Altitude + 1500
(when QNH < 1013.2hPa)
Or
+1000 QNH > 1013.2hPa)
Note: The reason when you set lower QNH the clearance from the obstacle reduces, so we add
1500ft for more clearance and we set higher QNH the clearance from the obstacle increases, so
we add 1000ft. Also, when we set the datum pressure as QNH the indicated reading in
altimeter we call as ELEVATION. When we set datum as QFE we call as HEIGHT. When we
set datum as QNE we call as PRESSURE ALTITUDE. ( Multiples of 100 we call as FLIGHT
LEVEL).

DENSITY :

AIR DENSITY : Density defined as the number of dry air molecules. The aircraft performance
mostly depends on air density. When the dry air molecules are more, the density is more and
the performance will improve and vice versa when the dry air molecules are less.

RELATIONSHIP WITH PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE AND DENSITY;

In the atmosphere there is a fixed relationship between temperature, pressure and

volume. The general gas law is:

Pressure x Volume= Rx Temperature

Where R is a gas constant, for the gas or mix of gases we are dealing with. In meteorology, we
are most concerned with the density of the atmosphere, so we need to do some shuffling of the
equation. Density is defined as the mass of a unit volume of a gas so, for a fixed mass of
air, density is inversely Proportional to volume meaning the volume goes up the density goes
down . We can rewrite the equation

1/ VOLUME = PRESSURE / R X TEMPERATURE

Substituting DENSITY for 1/VOLUME ,
WE GET
DENSITY = PRESSURE / TEMPERATURE
Which says DENSITY is directly proportional to PRESSURE and inversely proportional to
TEMPERATURE
EFFECT OF ALTITUDE ON TEMPERATURE, PRESSURE AND DENSITY

ISA CONDITIONS:

• Mean Sea Level Temperature is +15 deg C.

• The fall of temp 1.98 deg/1000 ft (2deg/1000- the lapse rate) to maximum of -56.5deg up
36090ft thereafter temperature remains constant.
• Mean Sea Level pressure 1013.3 hPa or 29.92 inHg.
• Surface Density 1225gm/cubic meter.
• Atmosphere is said to be dry.
DENSITY ALTITUDE

Density Altitude is the pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard temperature. It means
that at ISA conditions the pressure altitude is equal to density altitude. So the importance of
ISA CONDITIONS is for converting pressure altitude to density altitude.
WINDS

The horizontal motion of air is called wind. Generally air moves from high pressure area to
low pressure area.

WINDSHEAR:

A sudden change of wind speed or wind direction within a short distance may produce
turbulence called wind shear. Wind shear can occur at any level in the atmosphere but is most
hazardous at low levels and is particularly hazardous during take-off or approach and
landing. Wind shear conditions are normally associated with the following phenomena:
thunderstorms, microburst, tornado, and gusts, frontal surfaces, mountain waves, strong wind
coupled with local topography,

see breeze fronts, low- level temperature inversions.

Example of WINDSHEAR:
OMAE SIGMET 2 VALID101200/101600
OMAE FIR OBS TS FCST S OF N54 TOP FL390 MOV E WKN

HAZARDOUS OF WIND SHEAR

First, Wind shear from headwind to a calm or a tailwind component, it could result in:
• An initial decrease in indicated airspeed
• A pitch down of the aircraft nose
• A decrease in altitude.

Second, as wind shears from a tailwind to a calm or a headwind component, it could result in
• An initial increase in indicated airspeed
• A pitch up of the aircraft nose
• An increase in altitude.

JET STREAM:

The jet stream is a narrow belt of very strong winds 60 knots or more. There is strong wind shear
both horizontally as well as vertically and a strong temperature gradient present in the vicinity of
the jet stream.
The position/axis of a jet stream is shown as a heavy solid line with wind speed marks and change
bars. The jet stream axis begins/ends at the point where a wind speed of80KT is forecast. The
change bar denotes a change of speed of 20KT.

GUST AND SQUALL:

When someone is referring to a gust, they are referring to a short-lived phenomenon of air
movement. Gusts are when the wind speed increases suddenly and comes back to its original
speed almost immediately. The duration is very short.

Example:
KBP SA 211630z 31007G13MPS 9999 -SHRA SCT032CB 09/03 Q1020 88CLRD95 NOSIG=

A SQUALL Is also sudden increases in wind speed but lasts for longer durations of more than
one minute.

LAND BREEZE AND SEA BREEZE:

LAND BREEZE:
At night the process is reversed. The land gets cooled more quickly than sea area which
is still warmer. From the warm sea the air rises giving way to land breeze which will take
its place

SEA BREEZE:

SEA BREEZE
During daytime, land gets heated more rapidly than surrounding water. Being heated,
the air on the land rises giving way for the air from sea to rush in. This is called Sea
breeze which occurs during day
 ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY:

There are three stability states that atmospheric system can assume:-
1. Stable Atmosphere: When a parcel of air is pushed up, it sinks back to the original
position.
2. Unstable Atmosphere: On initial force that results in movement ,generally upward, is
undamped and the air parcel continues to move away from its original position.
3. Neutral Atmosphere: A neutral system is one that remains in its displaced location
with no tendency to move in any direction.

IMPORTANT TERMS:

Lapse Rate: The rate at which temperature decreases with height is called lapse rate.
• Adiabatic Lapse Rate: A change in temperature with altitude due to adiabatic
process is called Adiabatic lapse rate. Two types of Adiabatic lapse rate dry is a
constant lapse rate of 3 degrees C per 1000 feet. The moist varies and is less than
dry typically about 1.5 degrees C per 1000 feet
• Inversion: An increase in temperature with altitude is called temperature
inversion. Inversion can be found or may occurs at any altitude if conditions are
favourable.
• Humidity refers to the amount of moisture present in the air. Water molecules
also exert some of the pressure in total atmospheric pressure.
• Relative Humidity is a measure of the ratio of the actual vapor pressure to the
saturation
vapor pressure. RH is expressed in percentage.
 • Dew Point the temperature at which the a parcel of air can hold no more water
vapor. When dew point is reached air contains 100% of the moisture it can hold at
that temperature. If the air is cooled to dew point the relative humidity is 100 %.

CLOUDS AND CLOUD TYPES:

• 4 Core Types
Cumulus
detached clouds, they look like white fluffy cotton balls. They show
vertical motion or thermal uplift of air taking place in the atmosphere.
They are usually dense in appearance with sharp outlines.
Cirrus
The Latin word ‘cirro’ means curl of hair. Composed of ice crystals, cirro-
form clouds are whitish and hair-like. They are often the first clouds to
appear in advance of a low-pressure area such as a mid-latitude storm
system or a tropical depression such as a hurricane / typhoon / cyclone.
Stratus
From the Latin word for ‘layer’ these clouds are usually broad and fairly
wide spread appearing like a blanket. They result from non-convective
rising air. They tend to occur along and to the north of warm fronts.
Nimbus
Nearly uniform and often grey in colour, brings precipitation over a wide
area
3 Categories
Cirrus
High level clouds and typically thin and white in appearance but can
appear in a magnificent array of colors when the sun is low on the
horizon.
Alto
Mid level clouds composed primarily of water droplets but can also be
composed of ice crystals when temperatures are low enough.
Cumulus
Low clouds composed of water droplets.

HIGH CLOUDS(16,500FT- 45,000FT)

CIRRUS:
Cirrus clouds are wispy, feathery, delicate looking clouds comprised mostly of ice crystals
that are spread by air currents into strands
Weather prediction: A change is on the way.

CIRROSTRATUS:

Cirrostratus clouds are thin, white clouds that cover the whole sky.
Weather prediction: Rain or snow within 24hrs
CIRROCUMULUS

Cirrocumulus clouds are also thin but patchy and sheet like. They sometimes look like
ripples
Weather prediction: fair, but cold. If in a tropical region this could be a sign of an
approaching hurricane / cyclone

MIDDLE LEVL CLOUDS: (6,500FT-23,000FT)

ALTOCUMULUS
Altocumulus clouds have several patchy white and grey layers and appear to be made up of
several rows of fluffy ripples. Made up of liquid water but do not produce rain
Weather prediction: Fair

ALTOSTRATUS:
Altostratus clouds are greyish comprised of ice crystals and water droplets and usually cover
the entire sky
Weather prediction: continuous rain or snow

NIMBOSTRATUS:
Nimbostratus clouds are dark grey and thick, often blocking sunlight
Weather prediction: continuous rain and snow giving a gloomy affect.

LOW CLOUDS ( BELOW 6,500FT)

CUMULUS:
Cumulus clouds are fluffy white cotton balls.
Weather prediction: Fair

STRATUS:
Status clouds often look like thin white sheets that cover the entire sky. Seldom produces
precipitation.
Weather prediction: gloomy but fair

CUMULONIMBUS:
Cumulonimbus clouds develop on hot days when moist air rises. They develop in the lower
altitudes but can rise into the flight levels.
Weather prediction: Heavy rain, hail, tornadoes

STRATOCUMULUS:
Stratocumulus clouds are patchy grey or white.
Weather prediction: fair but a storm may be coming

CLOUD TYPE AND ABBREVATIONS:

THUNDERSTROM DEVELOPMENT
During cumulus stage, strong updrafts (convective) provide moisture that condenses and
builds the cloud.

Updrafts and downdrafts co-exist and continue to enlarge the cloud. Heavy precipitation
marks the mature stage. An anvil shaped cloud will be formed by this point
When the updrafts disappear, the precipitation becomes lighter and then stops,
dissipating the cloud.
Hail will occur when updrafts are very strong, continuously moving water particles into
freezing levels multiple times until the mass is too heavy to sustain.
Tornados can also form from these clouds.

AIR MASS:

Air masses are distinct from cloud forms. Hence, they are studied separately in
meteorology. These masses cover thousands of miles horizontally across the Earth’s
surface, and have typically the same temperature and moisture levels.

DEFINITION

Air mass can be defined as a large air volume with uniform temperature and moisture.
These masses can stretch thousands of miles horizontally over the Earth’s surface, and
vertically from ground level to the stratosphere (10 miles) into the atmosphere.
CATEGORISATION OF AIR MASSES:

Meteorologists classify air masses based on where they are formed. Here is the
classification.
Typically, there are 4 types of air masses:
Arctic: These air masses form in the Arctic region and are very cold.
Tropical: These air masses form in low lying latitudes and are warm up to a moderate
level.
Polar: These air masses form in the high-latitude region and are cold.
Equatorial: They start forming over the Equator and are warm.

Meteorologists classify them based on whether they form over water or land. These
distinctions are:
Maritime: Maritime one's form over the water bodies and are filled with moisture.
Continental: Whereas, the Continental one's form over the land and are arid.

CLASSIFICATION OF AIRMASSES:
HOW TO READ THE AIRMASSES ON WEATHER MAPS:

• The notation that is used to classify an air mass consists of a lowercase letter
followed by a capital letter, followed by another lowercase letter.
• The first lowercase letter describes whether the air mass is dry or humid,
continental or maritime.
• Maritime or moist - m, continental or dry - c

WARM AIR MOVING OVER COLD AIR:

COLD AIR UNDER CUTTING WARM AIR:
FRONTS:

Front is an inclined zone along which two opposing air masses having contrasting
characteristics in terms of air temperature humidity density pressure converged
together.
An extensive transitional zone between two converging air masses is called a frontal
zone. The frontal zone is inclined at a low angle to the Earth’s surface.
They are characterized through common characteristics such as large differences in air
temperature across the convergence zone and bending isobars

TYPES OF FRONTS:
Based on the nature of convergence, relative acceleration of air masses, and stages of
front formation, four types are identified-
Stationary
Warm
Cold
Occluded
COLD FRONT

Usually preceded by convective precipitation (i.e. thunderstorms)

Pressure falls before a cold front, with lowest pressure at the front
After a cold front temperature drops sharply, dew point drops sharply, winds usually shift
to a W/NW/N direction, pressure begins to rise, and visibility improves (clearing)
WARM FRONT:

Usually preceded by light precipitation

After a warm front temperature increase, dew point (humidity) increases, wind usually
shifts to a southerly direction, visibility decreases (lower clouds), and pressure falls then
is steady after the front pass.
Visibility reduces as you get closer to the front. Depending on moisture content of the air,
fog may also occur.
OCCLUDED FRONT:
 A cold air mass is overtaking a warm front, pushing the warm air up.
Eventually forms a Trowal as the warm air ascends
Will pinch away from a cold and warm front as it weakens.
Pressure will drop
Cold Front Occlusion is Cold air advancing on warm and cool air
Warm Front Occlusion is cool air advancing on warm air and cold air

STATIONARY OR QUASI-STATIONARY FRONT:

A cold air mass and a warm air mass are either moving parallel to each other or hardly
moving toward each other
Brings heavy rain, or prolonged freezing precipitation, sometimes for days, depending on
the season.

TIPS FOR WEATHER FRONT:

VISIBILITY AND RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE:

Visibility is a measure of degree of transparency of atmosphere in all directions and the

lowest has been considered. It is expressed in terms of meters and KM.

Runway visual range:

An RVR group has the prefix R followed by the runway designator, then an oblique
stroke followed by the touchdown zone RVR in metres. If the RVR is assessed
simultaneously on two or more runways, the RVR group will be repeated; parallel
runways will be distinguished by the addition of L, C or R after the runway designator
to indicate the left, central or right parallel runway respectively, e.g. ‘R24L/1100
R24R/1150’. When the RVR is greater than the maximum value which can be assessed,
or more than 1500 metres, the group will be preceded by the letter P, followed by the
lesser of these two values, e.g. ‘R24/P1500’. When the RVR is less than the
minimum value which can be assessed, the RVR will be reported as ‘M’ followed by the
minimum value that can be assessed, e.g. ‘R24/M0050’.
TRANSMISSO METERS OR SKOPO GRAPH used for measuring the RVR,
FOG:
Fog may be present when a small temperature/dew-point spread exists (usually within 5
degrees Celsius). It's most common in areas with abundant moisture, and it generally forms
when...
 • Air is cooled to the dew-point (temperature decreases).
• Moisture is added to the air (dew-point increases).

TYPES OF FOG;
1) Radiation Fog
Common both at night and dawn, radiation fog forms when the ground cools, subsequently
cooling surrounding air to its dew-point. This fog tends to "burn-off" in the morning as the sun re-
heats the ground and air. The best conditions for the formation of radiation fog are clear skies,
little to no wind, and high relative humidity.

2) Advection Fog
When moist air moves over cooler ground or water, advection fog forms. It's most common
along the coast, as sea breeze blows moist air over land. This type of fog is very common in the
Pacific Northwest, and is usually much more persistent than radiation fog.

3) Steam Fog
Common during cold weather months over bodies of water, steam fog forms when cold and dry
air moves over warm water.
This type of fog tends to be very low-level, affecting seaplane pilots and pilots flying on runways
next to the water.

4) Upslope Fog
As moist, stable air moves up along terrain, it cools. This causes upslope fog, which can
extended hundreds of feet above surrounding terrain. It's one common reason that an AIRMET
Sierra may be issued.
5) Precipitation Fog
As warm rain falls through cool air, the precipitation saturates the cool air. This fog is dense and
long-lasting. Mixed in with rain, it can be tough to determine exactly where precipitation fog
is...and isn't.

6) Freezing Fog
Freezing fog occurs when tiny droplets of water are supercooled in the air. Once they contact a
surface (or condensation nuclei) the droplets freeze on contact. It typically needs to be very cold
for freezing fog to form, roughly 15 degrees Fahrenheit or colder.

AERODROME WARNINGS:
Aerodrome Warnings are issued and sent to the local ATC and Airline Operators and other
users of the aerodrome in case of occurrence or expected occurrence of: TC (expected WSPD
>34KT), TS, GR, SN, SA/DU, VA, TSUNAMI

Example:
OMDB AD WRNG 1 VALID 292300/300300Z
AERODROME WARNING NUMBER 1 FOR OMDB VALID 300900/301300 ISSUED
292205Z NORTHERLY WIND GUSTS TO AROUND 43 KNOTS ARE POSSIBLE

Wind Shear Warnings - WS WRNG

Are issued and sent to the local ATC and Airline Operators and other users of the aerodrome
and as Supplemental Information to METAR/SPECI.

AIRMET:
Information for SFC WSPD, SFC VIS, TS, BKN CLD, (CB, TCU) MOD ICE/TURB for FLTs
below FL100 or FL150 (or higher) in mountainous areas.

AIRMET information shall be issued by a meteorological watch office in accordance with

regional air navigation agreement, taking into account the density of air traffic operating below
flight level 100.

AIRMET information shall give a concise description in abbreviated plain language concerning
the occurrence and/or expected occurrence of specified en-route weather phenomena

The period of validity of an AIRMET message shall be not more than 4 hours.
Example of WA:
OMAE AIRMET 1 VALID 151520/151800
OMAE FIR ISOL TS OBS N OF S50 TOP ABV FL100 STNR WKN

WEATHER OBSERVATIONS:

METAR: Is the current weather report issuing every half an hour. It is the actual weather report.

SPECI: It is a special report issued instead of Metar when the wind, visibility, weather or clouds
undergo a drastic change. A speci will be issued both for deterioration and improvement.
TAF: Terminal aerodrome forecast are valid for a period of 30 hours and are issued four
times day at 0000, 0600, 1200 and 1800 Zulu.

BECMG: Indicates an expected permanent change in the met conditions occurring at regular
and irregular interval.

TEMPO: Indicates temporary fluctuation in the met conditions lasting for a period of less than 01
hour and are expected to occur during less than half the time period.

UAE CLIMATOLOGY:
The Middle East consists largely of desert areas which experiences very little, if any rainfall.
Coastal temperature is a little lower than inland, but the heat is rendered even more
uncomfortable by the high humidity in the summer months. In the gulf region, the
Annual rainfall is often less than 125 mm, most rain falls between Nov and March.

Summer: Is arid and very hot with temperature reaching close to 50-degree celcius. A strong
north westerly wind (Shamal) occasionally occurs over Iraq and the Gulf from June to Oct
causing Dust storm in which visibility may fall severely. September is far from being the most
humid month but it has the highest humidity of the hot summer months. For
this reason, September is extremely humid and is one of the months with a high occurrence
of fog. Night time temperatures begin to drop into the upper 20’s °C and fog will often form in the
early morning hours.

Winter : Winter temperature are mild and occasionally depressions from the Mediterranean
bring some rain. There is possibility of severe thunderstorm and heavy hail. There may be
persistent fog or low stratus around dawn in Gulf area which often affects several aerodromes at
the same time. In December the humidity is frequently high in the early morning hours with fog
still causing a problem
CLIMATOLOGY GLOBAL :

DECODING OF METAR/ TAFOR:

METARs are aviation routine weather reports. They are compiled hourly or half-hourly at fixed
times, often at H+20 and H+50, while the met station is open, to be available on the hour and
half-hour. The time of the observation is given in the report. The actual information may be
supplemented by a Trend, which is a short-term (2hr) forecast of significant changes expected.
SPECIs are raised to report certain cortical weather conditions.
An example is given below:

Full decodes are published in the national AIP in the GEN section. The example above breaks
down as:
Aerodrome forecasts are called TAFs. They describe the forecast weather for aerodrome, and
usually cover a period between 9 to 24 hours. The 24hr TAFs often arrive late, so check their
period of validity. Nine-hour TAFs are up-dated and re-issued every 3 hours, and 12 and 24
hour TAFs every 6 hours and they are amended as necessary if the forecast changes rapidly.
TAFs are separate from METARs and SPECIs, but a lot of the decodes are the same. Specific
differences are covered in this section. An example of a TAF is given below
WEATHER CHARTS:
SIG Wx Prognosis
Types :Low Level (surface to 24,000’)
Mid-Level (10,000’ – 45,000’)
High Level (25,000’ – 63,000’)

Upper Wind Charts

Speed and direction
Altitude based on ‘mb’

Surface Analysis
Weather Depiction with predicted cloud coverage

Satellite Imagery
Depiction of past cloud cover
SIG Wx Prognosis
UPPER WIND CHART;
 Think of each barb as an arrow “flying through the air”. This indicates the direction the
wind is blowing
Each short fletch is 5 kts
Each long fletch is 10kts
Each triangle fletch is 50kts
The number at the head of the arrow is the OAT in minus (51 = -51°c)
Valid from 1200z onward for 6hr
ASHTAM:

Provides information on the status/changes of activity of a volcano using a level of alert. The
maximum validity is 24 hours. For decoding on an ASHTAM refer to:
⇒ Jepp Meteorology General Information 8.4 ASHTAM Decoding

Volcanic Ash SIGMET - VA

Warning of eruption, extend of ash clouds.

Example of WV:
SIGMET BIRD SIGMET 03 VALID 120935/121500 BIRK-EXERCISE VOLCEUR08 BIRD
REYKJAVIK CTA VA MT KATLA LOC N6338 W01903 VA CLD OBS AT 0900Z
SFC/FL550 N6338 W01903 -N6400 W01700 -N6330 W01700
WEATHER THAT NEEDS TO HAVE CAUTION EXERCISED:
 Thunderstorms (Towering Cumulus - TC):
3 Stages – Development / Mature / Dissipate
Can reach altitudes of over 50,000’
Lasts on average 15-30 minutes but can be up to 1 hour
Updrafts up to 6,000’ / min
Downdrafts up to 2,500’ / min
Heavy, large water drops
Hazards to aircraft are
severe turbulent air currents
hail
Lightening
Anvil tops associated with Tropopause
Hurricanes / Cyclones / Typhoons:
Can last for days at a time
Extremely large areas of low pressure (counter-clockwise) air
Very high winds with turbulence
Heavy rain associated with hail and lightning

Aircraft icing:

The very nature of flight in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) means operating in
visible moisture such as clouds. At the right temperatures, this moisture can freeze on the
aircraft, causing increased weight, degraded performance, and unpredictable aerodynamic
characteristics. Understanding avoidance and early recognition followed by prompt action are
the keys to avoiding this potentially hazardous situation.
Structural icing refers to the accumulation of ice on the exterior of the aircraft and is broken
down into three classifications: rime ice, clear ice, and mixed ice. For ice to form, there must be
moisture present in the air, and the air must be cooled to a temperature of 0 °C (32 °F) or less.
Aerodynamic cooling can lower the surface temperature of an airfoil and cause ice to form on
the airframe even though the ambient temperature is slightly above freezing.

Rime ice forms if the droplets are small and freeze immediately when contacting the aircraft
surface. This type of ice usually forms on areas such as the leading edges of wings or struts. It
has a somewhat rough-looking appearance and a milky-white color.

Clear ice is usually formed from larger water droplets or freezing rain that can spread over a
surface. This is the most dangerous type of ice since it is clear, hard to see, and can change the
shape of the airfoil.

Mixed ice is a mixture of clear ice and rime ice. It has the bad characteristics of both types and
can form rapidly. Ice particles become embedded in clear ice, building a very rough
accumulation. The table in Figure lists the temperatures at which the various types of ice form.
To sum up:

Rime:
Small supercooled water droplets.
Accumulates along the leading edges
Freezes relatively quickly
Looks greyish or milky white and is brittle and granular
Clear:
Large supercooled water droplets
Freeze further back from the leading edge and both on top and underside
of airfoil, away from deice equipment
Freezes slower than rime
Smooth, clear and hard (Smooth Criminal, can be more dangerous than
other two types of ice
Mixed:
More common in freezing drizzle
Difficult to classify compared to other 2 type