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ASSESSMENT OF BOTTLED WATER QUALITY USING PHYSICO-CHEMICAL

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 APPLIED SCIENCE RESEARCH JOURNAL 2015 Vol 3(1):1-12
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H
OL
ARLY J O App.Sci.Res. J Original Research Paper

U
2015 Vol 3 (1)
PO N SC

RN
A LS
ISSN: 2354-256X

ASSESSMENT OF BOTTLED WATER QUALITY USING PHYSICO-CHEMICAL

INDICATORS.

*Anyanwu, E. D. and Nwigwe, N. C.

Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Michael Okpara University of

Agriculture, Umudike, Nigeria.

*Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected]

Abstract
Background and Aim: Water in packaged forms was introduced into the Nigerian market as
readily available and less expensive means of accessing drinking water. Analysis of these bottled
waters is therefore pertinent for qualitative examinations since water from various sources
(groundwater, spring, distilled and tap) is bottled, packaged and sold to the public. This study is
aimed at evaluating some physiochemical parameters of some bottled water sold in Umuahia to
ascertain its portability.
Method: Bottled water from different manufacturers in Umuahia, Abia State, Nigeria was
studied between January and March 2015 using standard methods. The parameters analysed
were pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids (TDS), total suspended solids (TSS),
nitrate, sulphate, hardness and chloride. Water Quality Index (WQI) was used to confirm the
portability of these bottled water samples.
Results: Four parameters (pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids and chloride) were
significantly different among the samples. The values of the parameters recorded ranged as
follows: pH (4.2 – 6.9), electrical conductivity (57.0 – 222.0 µS/cm), total dissolved solids (28.0
– 111.0 mg/l), total suspended solids (0.001 – 2.0mg/l), nitrate (6.8 – 51.6mg/l), sulphate (6.9 –
12.1mg/l), hardness (70.0 – 120.0mg/l) and chloride (5.5 – 38.2mg/l). The WQI values ranged
from 42.6 to 122.4.
Conclusion: Some of the values recorded for the parameters in this study were close to the
values recorded in borehole water samples from the area, indicating that some of the bottled
water producers do not treat the raw water in any way. This study also showed that some
parameters like pH and nitrate in some of the bottled water samples are not within acceptable
limits. High acidity and nitrate levels rendered the water quality of some of the bottled water
samples unfit for drinking; this was confirmed by the high WQI values recorded in this study
especially for samples 2 and 3.

Key words: bottled water, physico-chemical parameters, water quality, portability.

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1.0 INTRODUCTION excessively high price compared to tap

Water of good drinking quality is of water and although industrialised countries
basic importance to human physiology and consumers have, in principle, access to
man’s continued existence depends very cheap good quality tap water (Ferrier, 2001).
much on its availability (Onweluzo and
Akuagbazie, 2010). Accessibility and Water in packaged forms was
availability of fresh clean water is a key to introduced into the Nigerian market as
sustainable development and an essential readily available and less expensive means
element in health, food production and of accessing drinking water (Ogundipe,
poverty reduction (Adekunle et al., 2004). 2008). Today, the easy accessibility to
This fact apparently accounts for why water drinking water in packaged forms has
is regarded as one of the most indispensable resulted in a big and thriving water industry
substances in life and like air it is most with several hundreds of million litres of
abundant (Adebisi, 1981). However, despite water products consumed every year by
its abundance, good quality drinking water Nigerians (Ogundipe, 2008). These
is not readily available to man. industries are freely run by local and
Unavailability of good quality drinking multinational companies as if it has no
water is widespread and this has serious negative effect on human health and the
health implications. In developing nations of environment at large (Mead et al., 1999).
the world, 80% of all diseases and over 30% Analysis of these bottled waters is therefore
of deaths are related to drinking water (Dada pertinent for qualitative examinations since
and Ntukekpo, 1997). The implication water from various sources (groundwater,
therefore, is that any drinking water sold to spring, distilled and tap) is bottled, packaged
the public must be made wholesome and and sold to the vulnerable masses (Taiwo et
must meet WHO standards (Oyeku et al., al., 2010).
2001).
Unfortunately, the quality of water In Umuahia there is an astronomical
sold to the public in many places in Nigeria increase in the consumption of packaged
may not be said to be wholesome (Mendie, water especially sachet and bottled water.
2004). Bottled or packaged water is any The increase in demand for these water
portable water that is manufactured, products is largely attributed to factor like
distributed or offered for sale which is inadequate or non availability of reliable,
sealed in food grade, bottle or other safe municipal water in most urban areas
container and is intended for human (Warburton and Austin, 1997). Most
consumption (Warburton and Austin, 1997). manufacturers of bottled water in Umuahia
It is widely accepted as potable and thereby obtain their raw water mostly from
free from physical, chemical and boreholes, adherence to production and
microbiological contaminants that could analytical standards are doubtful as most of
initiate adverse health effects in humans the factories are observed to lack the
when consumed (Taiwo et al., 2010). appropriate technology for achieving these.
Bottled water consumption has been steadily The implication is that there is no guarantee
growing in the world for the past 30 years. It that this product will meet the set standard
is the most dynamic sector of all the food for drinking water quality. It is against this
and beverage industry: bottled water background that this paper intends to
consumption in the world increases by an determine the physiochemical parameters of
average 7% each year, in spite of its some packaged water sold in Umuahia,
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comparing them with the Nigerian Drinking al., 2013) was used for the calculation of
Water Quality Standard (SON, 2007) to WQI in this study.
ascertain its portability.
In the study, for the calculation of water
2.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS quality index, eight (8) parameters were used.
2.1 Study Area and Sample Products The WQI was calculated using the Nigerian
This study was carried out in Drinking Water Quality Standard (SON,
Umuahia, the Abia State capital. It is 2007).Weighted arithmetic water quality
comprised of Umuahia North and South index method classified the water quality
Local Government Areas, fall within according to the degree of purity by using
Latitude 5o 26’ – 5o 27’ N and Longitude 7o the most commonly measured water quality
34’ – 7o 35’ E (Fig. 1). variables. The method has been widely used
and the calculation of WQI was made by
2.2 Sample Collection and Analysis Brown et al (1972) using the following
equation:
The bottled water brands used in this
study are tagged Sample 1, Sample 2 and WQI = ΣQiWi/ΣWi
Sample 3. Sample 1 is NAFDAC certified
and has been in the market since in 2004; The quality rating scale (Qi) for each
the factory is located in Umueze near parameter is calculated by using this
Umuahia. Sample 2 is also NAFDAC expression:
certified and has been in the market since
2007; the factory is located along Olokoro Qi = 100[(Vi – Vo/Si – Vo)]
Road in Umuahia and Sample 3, also
NAFDAC certified, has been in the market Where,
since 2008; the factory is located in Amafor Vi is estimated concentration of ith
near Umuahia. The bottled water bought parameter in the analysed water
from the manufacturers in different parts of Vo is the ideal value of this parameter in
Umuahia on monthly basis between January pure water. Vo = 0 (except pH =7.0 and DO
and March 2015. The samples were taken to = 14.6 mg/l)
the laboratory for analysis. Si is recommended standard value of ith
The physicochemical parameters parameter
were analyzed using standards methods
described by APHA (1998). The parameters The unit weight (Wi) for each water quality
analysed were pH with ISE Hanna pH meter, parameter is calculated by using the
electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids following formula:
(TDS) and hardness with Hanna Wi = K/Si
Multiparameter while total suspended solids Where,
(TSS), nitrate, sulphate, and chloride were K = proportionality constant.
determined with Hach DR 1900 UV Spec. All
the results obtained were statistically
analysed using ANOVA to ascertain if there
are significant differences among the
samples and Tukey pairwise Test to locate
the source of the significant difference. The
weighted Arithmetic index method (Tyagi et
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Fig. 1: Map of Abia State, Nigeria showing the location of Umuahia.

3.0 RESULTS The pH values revealed that the water was

acidic with a range of 4.2 to 6.9. The lowest
The results of the physico
physico-chemical pH value (4.2)) was recorded in sample 3
parameters analysed in the bottled water throughout the study while the highest pH
samples are summarised and presented in value was recorded in sample 1 in January
Table 1 while the calculated water quality 2015. Sample 3 was significantly different
index (WQI) are presented in Tables 2 – 4. (F=11.76, p<0.05) among the samples.
samples

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Table 1: Summary of physico-chemical parameters measured in bottled waters sold in

Umuahia ((with range in parenthesis).
Parameter Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 p-Value SON WHO
X± . X± . X± . 2006
pH 6.23±0.48b 5.1±0.18b 4.2±0a P < 0.05 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5
(5.3 – 6.9) (4.7 – 5.3) (4.2)
Conductivity 174.6±24.8b 61.0±2.64a 151.3±2.40b P < 0.05 1000 100
(uS/cm) (138.0 – 222.0) (57.0 – 66.0) (148.0 – 156.0)
TDS (mg/l) 87.3±12.4b 30.3±1.45a 75.6±1.20b P < 0.05 500 NS
(68.0 – 111.0) (28.0 – 33.0) (74.0 – 78.0)
TSS (Mg/l) 0.33±0.33 0.001±0 0.67±0.67 P > 0.05 500 500
(0.001 – 1.0) (0.001) (0.001 – 2.0)
Nitrate (mg/l) 36.0±5.89 17.6±5.78 36.4±14.4 P > 0.05 50 50
(26.2 – 46.6) (6.8 – 26.6) (47.7 – 51.6)
Sulphate (mg/l) 7.46±0.26 8.5±1.35 9.2±1.43 P > 0.05 150 250
(7.0 – 7.9) (6.9 – 11.2) (7.7 – 12.1)
Hardness (mg/l) 81.7±9.3 90.0±4.6 105.0±7.6 P> 0.05 150 200
(70.0 – 100.0) (83.0 – 98.0) (95.0 – 120.0)
Chloride (mg/l) 26.4±2.63b 9.6±2.03a 29.3±6.91b P < 0.05 250 250
(21.3 - 30.0) (5.5 – 11.2) (15.7 – 38.2)
a, b = Means with different superscripts across the rows are significantly different at p<0.05; SE= Standard Error.

Table 2: Water Quality Index Calculation for Sample 1.

Parameter Vi Si Qi Wi QiWi
pH 6.23 8.5 51.33 0.118 6.06
Conductivity (uS/cm) 174.6 1000 17.46 0.001 0.018
TDS (mg/l) 87.3 500 17.46 0.002 0.035
TSS (Mg/l) 0.33 500 0.066 0.002 0.00013
Nitrate (mg/l) 36.0 50 72 0.02 1.44
Sulphate (mg/l) 7.46 150 4.97 0.007 0.035
Hardness (mg/l) 81.7 150 54.47 0.007 0.38
Chloride (mg/l) 26.4 250 10.56 0.04 0.42
ΣWi = 0.197 ΣQiWi = 8.39
WQI = 42.6

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Table 3: Water Quality Index Calculation for Sample 2.

Parameter Vi Si Qi Wi QiWi
pH 5.1 8.5 126.7 0.118 14.95
Conductivity (uS/cm) 61.0 1000 6.1 0.001 0.0061
TDS (mg/l) 30.3 500 6.1 0.002 0.0122
TSS (Mg/l) 0.001 500 0.0002 0.002 0.0000004
Nitrate (mg/l) 17.6 50 35.2 0.02 0.704
Sulphate (mg/l) 8.5 150 5.67 0.007 0.04
Hardness (mg/l) 90.0 150 60 0.007 0.42
Chloride (mg/l) 9.6 250 3.84 0.04 0.00154
ΣWi = 0.197 ΣQiWi = 16.13
WQI = 81.9

Table 4: Water Quality Index Calculation for Sample 3.

Parameter Vi Si Qi Wi QiWi
pH 4.2 8.5 186.7 0.118 22.03
Conductivity (uS/cm) 151.3 1000 15.13 0.001 0.015
TDS (mg/l) 75.6 500 15.12 0.002 0.03
TSS (Mg/l) 0.67 500 0.134 0.002 0.00027
Nitrate (mg/l) 36.4 50 72.8 0.02 1.46
Sulphate (mg/l) 9.2 150 6.1 0.007 0.043
Hardness (mg/l) 105.0 150 70 0.007 0.49
Chloride (mg/l) 29.3 250 11.72 0.04 0.047
ΣWi = 0.197 ΣQiWi = 24.12
WQI = 122.4

The electrical conductivity values recorded in sample 1 in January 2015.

ranged between 57.0 and 222.0 µS/cm. The Sample 2 was also significantly different (F
lowest conductivity was recorded in sample = 17.18, p < 0.05) among the samples.
2 in March 2015 and the highest was
The total dissolved solid values ranged Total suspended solid (TSS), on the
between 28.0 and 111.0 mg/l. The lowest other hand, ranged between 0.001 and 2.0
value of the total dissolved solids was mg/l. The lowest values were recorded in
recorded in sample 2 in March 2015 while February and March 2015 in samples 1 and
the highest value of total dissolved solids 3 as well as throughout the sampling period
was recorded in sample 1 in January 2015. in sample 2. The highest value was recorded
Sample 2 was also significantly different (F in the sample 3 in January 2015. There was
= 17.25, p < 0.05) among the samples. no significant difference in TSS (F = 0.60, p
> 0.05) among the samples.

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The nitrate values ranged between The chloride values recorded during
6.8 and 51.6mg/l. The lowest nitrate value the study period ranged between 5.5 and
was recorded in sample 2 in March 2015 38.2 mg/l. The lowest chloride values were
while the highest nitrate value was recorded recorded in sample 2 in January 2015 while
in sample 3 in January 2015. There was no the highest was recorded in sample 3 in
significant difference in nitrate (F = 1.27, p January 2015. Sample 2 was significantly
> 0.05) among the samples. different (F = 5.80, p < 0.05) among the
The sulphate values ranged between samples.
6.9 and 12.1mg/l. The lowest sulphate value The results obtained for the WQI
was recorded in sample 1 in February 2015 from the different bottled water samples
while the highest sulphate value was were found to be varied from 42.6 to 122.4
recorded in sample 3 in March 2015. There (Tables 2 – 4). The results indicated that
was no significant difference in sulphate (F only sample 1 with WQI of 42.6 was of
= 0.59, p > 0.05) among the samples. good water quality and safe for human
consumption while samples 2 and 3 with
The hardness values ranged from WQI of 81.9 and 122.4 respectively were
70.0 to 120mg/l. The lowest hardness value considered very poor water quality and
was recorded in sample 1 in January 2015 unsuitable for drinking purpose respectively
while the highest hardness value was based on the WQI standards for the
recorded in sample 3 in February 2015. weighted arithmetic index method by Tyagi et
There was no significant difference in al (2013) see Table 5.
hardness (F = 2.53, p > 0.05) among the
samples.

Table 5: Water Quality Rating as per Weight Arithmetic Water Quality Index Method

WQI Value Rating of Water Quality Grading

0 – 25 Excellent Water Quality A
26 – 50 Good Water Quality B
51 – 75 Poor Water Quality C
76 – 100 Very Poor Water Quality D
> 100 Unsuitable For Drinking Purpose E

4.0 DISCUSSION lower than the acceptable limit. The acidity

of the samples was responsible for the high
Most of the parameters (electrical WQI values recorded in this study especially
conductivity, total dissolved solids, total Samples 2 and 3 where the product (QiWi)
suspended solids, nitrate, hardness and of their quality rating scale and unit weight
chloride) evaluated were generally lower in contributed as high as 14.95 and 22.03
sample 2. The more serious problem respectively to the WQI. In Ushurhe et al
observed of this study was the acidic nature (2014), the product ranged between 2.63 and
of the bottled water samples. Except for 6.9 4.17 resulting in lower WQI values. Acidity
and 6.5 recorded in sample 1 in January and of the samples could be attributed to
February 2015 respectively, others were geology of the area (Nwankwo and

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Igboekwe, 2011). Previous studies have WHO (2006). TDS showed the same trend
shown that the groundwater in the area is as electrical conductivity. Ndinwa et al
acidic (Igbokwe et al., 2011; Amos – (2012) recorded values of between 2.47 and
Uhegbu et al., 2013; Chukwu and 62.3mg/l in bottled water samples in Delta
Nwachukwu, 2013; Igbokwe et al., 2013). State, Nigeria while Ajayi et al (2008)
This is undesirable for water meant for recorded high values, ranging from 78.0 to
drinking according to the WHO (2006) and 180mg/l in Ibadan, Nigeria. The total
NDWQS (SON, 2007), which recommended dissolved solids content of drinking water
pH of 6.5 - 8.5. At low pH, dissolution / varies between 20 mg/l and 1000 mg/l, and
absorption of toxic substances increase consists mainly of inorganic salts, some
(Afiukwa and Eboatu, 2013). Prolonged organic substances and dissolved gases
intake of this water may predispose one to (Radojevic and Bashkin, 1999). The
the dangers of acidosis, which according to palatability of water with a TDS level of less
Health Experts may lead to cancer or than 600 mg/litre is generally considered to
cardiovascular damage including the be good; drinking-water becomes
constriction of blood vessels and reduction significantly and increasingly unpalatable at
in oxygen supply even at mild levels TDS levels greater than about 1000 mg/litre
(Ogundipe and Obinna, 2008). (WHO, 2006).

Electrical conductivity (57.0 – Total Suspended Solids (TSS) had

222.0µS/cm) was found to be within the very low values of 0.001 to 2 mg/l. TSS
acceptable limit for portable water. The showed no trend but the highest value of 2
values of electrical conductivity in sample 2 mg/l was recorded in sample 3. Taiwo et al
were lower compared to the other two (2010) recorded mean value of between
samples. Pure water is not a good conductor 0.00±0.00 and 7.0±4.0 in selected brands of
of electric current rather a good insulator bottled water in Abeokuta, Nigeria while
and increase in ions concentration enhances Onwughara et al (2013) recorded values
the electrical conductivity of water ranging from 31.3 to 55.0mg/l in borehole
(Muhammad et al., 2013), however, high water samples in Umuahia. Most people
concentration of electrical conductivity has consider water with a TSS concentration less
no medical implications (SON, 2007). than 20 mg/l to be clear. Water with TSS
Ndinwa et al (2012) recorded electrical levels between 40 and 80 mg/l tends to
conductivity value of 124.4µS/cm in bottled appear cloudy, while water with
water samples in Delta State, Nigeria while concentrations over 150 mg/l usually
Obi and Okocha (2007) and Onwughara et al appears dirty (Department of Environmental
(2013) recorded values of 370 and Quality, 1994).
124µS/cm respectively from some borehole
water samples in Umuahia. Typical values Nitrate concentrations ranged from
of conductivity for drinking water are from 6.8 to 51.6 mg/l. The highest concentration
50 µS/cm to 1500 µS/cm (Radojevic and of 51.6 mg/l recorded in sample 3 was
Bashkin, 1999). slightly above acceptable limits. The WQI
results also showed that nitrate contributed
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) ranged more than 1 to QiWi especially in samples 1
between 28.0 mg/l to 111.0 mg/l; these and 3 while Ushurhe et al (2014), recorded
values are within acceptable limits of 500 values of QiWi lower than 1. Other studies
mg/l set by NDWQS (SON, 2007) and on packaged water (sachet and bottled)
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recorded very low nitrate levels (Ajayi et al., ions has been linked with decreased
2008, Taiwo et al., 2010, Ndinwa et al., incidence of cardiovascular disease and
2012, Isikwue and Chikezie, 2014) but Obi ailments (Suavant and Pepin, 2002).
and Okocha (2007) and Onwughara et al Chloride values ranged between 5.5 and
(2013) recorded values of 77.0 and 35.5mg/l 38.2 mg/l, which are within acceptable
respectively from some borehole water limits. Ajayi et al (2008) recorded values
samples in Umuahia.. Nitrate is a naturally ranging from 13.0 to 22.0mg/l in packaged
occurring ion that is part of the nitrogen water sample in Ibadan, Nigeria while Amos
cycle. The nitrate concentration in - Uhegbe et al (2013) recorded lower values,
groundwater and surface water is normally ranging from 0.01 to 6.0mg/l in groundwater
low but can reach high levels as a result of samples from Umuahia. Chloride is not
leaching or runoff from agricultural land or considered as being harmful to human
contamination from human or animal wastes health. Levels of chloride in water supplies
as a consequence of the oxidation of are limited to 250mg/l as at higher
ammonia and similar sources (WHO, 2006). concentrations chloride imparts a salty taste
The presence of nitrate in water has been which makes the water unpalatable, and the
associated with methaemoglobinaemia (blue WHO guideline for drinking water is set at
baby syndrome), especially in bottle-fed this value (Radojevic and Bashkin, 1999).
infants. Guideline value of 50 mg/litre is to
protect against methaemoglobinaemia in Conclusion
bottle-fed infants for short-term exposure Some of the values recorded for the
(WHO, 2006). parameters in this study are close to the
values recorded in borehole water samples
Sulphate concentrations are low from the area, indicating that some of the
ranging from 6.9 to 12.1 mg/l, which are bottled water producers do not treat the raw
within acceptable limits. Taiwo et al (2010) water in any way. This study has also
recorded a higher value of 14.56mg/l while shown that some parameters like pH and
Ndinwa et al (2012) recorded very low nitrate in some of the bottled water samples
values (0.00 – 1.11mg/) in bottled water are not within acceptable limits. High
samples. The presence of sulphate in acidity and nitrate levels have rendered the
drinking-water can cause noticeable taste, water quality of some of the bottled water
and very high levels might cause a laxative samples unfit for drinking.
effect in unaccustomed consumers. Taste
impairment varies with the nature of the Author’s Contributions
associated cation; taste thresholds have been AED: Study design, statistical analysis,
found to range from 250mg/litre for sodium proofread and financed the research
sulphate to 1000 mg/l for calcium sulphate. publication.
It is generally considered that taste NNC: Sample collection, analysis and write-
impairment is minimal at levels below 250 up of this work.
mg/litre (Radojevic and Bashkin, 1999,
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