BECE305L

MODULE 4 -MICROWAVE
SEMICONDUCTOR AND SOURCES

Dr. USHA KIRAN K.

Asst. Professor, SENSE
VIT University-Chennai Campus

“Do not forsake wisdom, and she will protect you; love her, and she
will watch over you. Wisdom is supreme” Provbs 3:1
Microwave semiconductor devices and
sources
 Semiconductor diodes and sources
 Gunn diode
 IMPACT –TRAPATT and BARITT diodes

 PIN Diode

 Tubes sources
 Klystron

 Magnetron
Semiconductor diodes and sources
• Gunn diode
• IMPACT –TRAPATT and BARITT
diodes
• PIN Diode
 PIN Diode
PIN diode Structure:
PIN diode:
 The structure of PIN diode consists of heavily doped P-
reign and heavily doped n-region separated by a
layer of highly resistive material that is nearly intrinsic.
 The current in the i-layer depends on its length ‘W’, and
the injected electron concentration which in turn
depends on the forward bias. The effect of controlling
the current density on forward bias is known as
conductivity modulation. Electronically controlled PIN
diodes and their use amplitude modulation depends on
the phenomena of conductivity modulation.
 The PIN diodes are also as microwave switches. The
performance of a switch depends on two
parameters, the insertion loss and isolation. Insertion
loss is the ratio (dB) of the power incident to the
power transmitted by the switch, when in ON
conduction. Isolation is measure of power
transmitted when the switch is in the OFF condition.
Pin diodes and control circuits
 Pin diode V-I characters has a good RF switching element.
 When reverse biased, a small series junction capacitance leads to
relatively high diode impedance.
 In forward bias current removes the junction capacitance and leaves the
diode impedance, while a forward bias current removes the junction
capacitance and leaves the diode in low impedance state.

Impedance of the diode:

Reversed biased forward biased

Pin diode switch configurations:

Series

Parallel
IL=1+[Zin-Z0/Zin+Zo]
 Example:

Solution:
 SPDT (single pole and double
through)
SPDT - Series switch

SPDT - Shunt switch

Pin diode base phase shifter:
Applications of phase shifters
Applications
3. Gunn diode

Overview of The Gunn Diode

 Gunn Effect

 Two-Valley Model Theory

 Gunn-Oscillation

 Gunn Oscillation Modes

Overview of The Gunn Diode
 Gunn diode
– The Gunn diode is used as local oscillator covering the microwave
frequency range of 1 to 100GHz
 Working principle
– By means of the transferred electron mechanism, it has the
negative resistance characteristic
 Applications
– Local Oscillator and Avoid Collision Radar instead of Klystron etc..
 Advantages
– Low noise, High frequency operation and Medium RF Power
 Overview of The Gunn Diode
Before Gunn diode:
The klystron (microwave generation):
 Gunn Effect
Gunn diode was discovered by J. B. GUNN in IBM: 1963

Above some critical voltage, corresponding to an electrical field of 2000-4000 V/cm,

The current in the spectrum (GaAs) became a fluctuating function of time.
Condt……

The current waveform was produced by applying a voltage pulse of 59V and 10ns
Duration

Oscillation frequency was 4.5 GHz

The period of oscillation is equal to the transit time of electrons through the device.
Gunn effect negative differential resistance:

• Drift velocity of electrons decrease when electric field excess certain value
• Threshold electric field about 3000V/cm for n-type GaAs.
 The are two valley in the conduction band of Gunn diode:

The lower valley

(low electrons density and high mobility)

•The upper valley

(high electron density and low mobility)

J = e(µlnl+µunu)E (µu>µl)
σ = e(µlnl+µunu)
Gunn Oscillator:
Modes of Operation
Modes of operation

Modes of Operation of Gunn Diode

The operation of a Gunn diode can be done in four
modes which include the following.
•Gunn Oscillation Mode
•Stable Amplification Mode
•LSA Oscillation Mode
•Bias Circuit Oscillation Mode
Limited-Space-Charge Accumulation (LSA) Mode (fL > 2 x 107
cm/s)

 LSA oscillation mode: This mode is defined in the

region where the product of frequency times length
is above 107 cm/s and the quotient of doping
divided by frequency is between 2 x 104 and
2 x 105 •
 When the frequency is very high, the domains do not have sufficient time to
form while the field is above threshold. As a result, most of the domains are
maintained in the negative conductance state during a large fraction of the
voltage cycle. Any accumulation of electrons near the cathode has time to
collapse while the signal is below threshold. Thus the LSA mode is the
simplest mode of operation, and it consists of a uniformly doped
semiconductor without any internal space charges. In this instance, the
internal electric field would be uniform and proportional to the applied
voltage.
The current in the device is then proportional to the drift velocity at this field level.
The efficiency of the LSA mode can reach 20%. The oscillation period To should be
no more than several times larger than the magnitude of the dielectric relaxation
time in the negative conductance region Td. The oscillation indicated in Fig. 7-3-
4(d) is To = 3Td. It is appropriate here to define the LSA boundaries. As described
earlier, the sustaining drift velocity is 107 cm/s as shown in Eq. (7-3-5) and Fig. 7-3-
3. For then-type GaAs, the product of doping and length (nol) is about l012fcm2 . At
the low-frequency limit, the drift velocity is taken to be
LSA Diode
Gunn diode in the waveguide
cavity as oscilator

Gunn in the waveguide cavity

Gunn diode oscillator. The diode is mounted inside the cavity (metal box),
which functions as a resonator to determine the frequency. The negative
resistance of the diode excites microwave oscillations in the cavity which
radiate out the rectangular hole into a waveguide. The frequency can be
adjusted by changing the size of the cavity using the slot head screw.
Avalanche transit-time diode
oscillators
 Avalanche transit-time diode oscillators rely on the effect of voltage
breakdown across a reverse-biased p-n junction to produce a supply of
holes and electrons. Ever since the development of modern semiconductor
device theory scientists have speculated on whether it is possible to make a
two-terminal negative-resistance device. The tunnel diode was the first
such device to be realized in practice. Its operation depends on the
properties of a forward-biased p-n junction in which both the p and n
regions are heavily doped. The other two devices are the transferred
electron devices and the avalanche transit-time devices. In this chapter the
latter type is discussed. The transferred electron devices or the Gunn
oscillators operate simply by the application of a de voltage to a bulk
semiconductor. There are no p-n junctions in this device. Its frequency is a
function of the load and of the natural frequency of the circuit
. The avalanche diode oscillator uses carrier impact ionization and drift in the high-field
region of a semiconductor junction to produce a negative resistance at microwave
frequencies. The device was originally proposed in a theoretical paper by Read [1] in which
he analyzed the negative-resistance properties of an idealized n+ - p-i-p+ diode. Two
distinct modes of avalanche oscillator have been observed. One is the IMPATT mode,
which stands for impact ionization avalanche transit-time operation. In this mode the
typical de-to-RF conversion efficiency is 5 to 10%, and frequencies are as high as 100 GHz
with silicon diodes. The other mode is the TRAPATT mode, which represents trapped
plasma avalanche triggered transit operation. Its typical conversion efficiency is from 20 to
60%. Another type of active microwave device is the BARITT (barrier injected transit-
time) diode [2]. It has long drift regions similar to those of IMPATT diodes. The carriers
traversing the drift regions of BARITT diodes, however, are generated 303 304 Avalanche
Transit-Time Devices Chap. 8 by minority carrier injection from forward-biased junctions
rather than being extracted from the plasma of an avalanche region. Several different
structures have been operated as BARITT diodes, such as p-n-p, p-n-v-p, p-n-metal, and
metal-nmetal. BARITT diodes have low noise figures of 15 dB, but their bandwidth is
relatively narrow with low output power
Read diode
 The Read diode is an n+ -p-i-p+ structure, where the superscript plus sign denotes very high
doping and the i or v refers to intrinsic material. The device consists essentially of two regions.
One is the thin p region at which avalanche multiplication occurs. This region is also called the
high-field region or the avalanche region.
 The other is the i or v region through which the generated holes must drift in moving to the p+
contact. This region is also called the intrinsic region or the drift region. The p region is very
thin. The space between the n+ -p junction and the i-p+ junction is called the space-charge
region. Similar devices can be built in the p+ -n-i-n+ structure, in which electrons generated
from avalanche multiplication drift through the i region. The Read diode oscillator consists of
an n+ -p-i-p+ diode biased in reverse and mounted in a microwave cavity.
 The impedance of the cavity is mainly inductive and is matched to the mainly capacitive
impedance of the diode to form a resonant circuit. The device can produce a negative ac
resistance that, in turn, delivers power from the de bias to the oscillation
Avalanche Multiplication
 When the reverse-biased voltage is well above the punchthrough or breakdown
voltage, the space-charge region always extends from the n+ -p junction through
the p and i regions to the i-p+ junction. The fixed charges in the various regions are
shown in Fig. 8-1-l(b). A positive charge gives a rising field in moving from left to
right. The maximum field, which occurs at the n+ -p junction, is about several
hundred kilovolts per centimeter. Carriers (holes) moving in the high field near
then+ -p junction acquire energy to knock valence electrons into the conduction
band, thus producing hole-electron pairs. The rate of pair production, or avalanche
multiplication, is a sensitive nonlinear function of the field. By proper doping, the
field can be given a relatively sharp peak so that avalanche multiplication is
confined to a very narrow region at the n+ -p junction. The electrons move into the
n+ region and the holes drift through the space-charge region to the p+ region with
a constant velocity VJ of about 107 emfs for silicon. The field throughout the
space-charge region is above about 5 kV/cm. The transit time of a hole across the
drift i-region L is given by
Read as ocillator
IMPATT DIODES
TRAPATT DIODES
 The abbreviation TRAPATT stands for trapped plasma avalanche triggered
transit mode, a mode first reported by Prager et al. [7]. It is a high-
efficiency microwave generator capable of operating from several hundred
megahertz to several gigahertz. The basic operation of the oscillator is a
semiconductor p-n junction diode reversebiased to current densities well in
excess of those encountered in normal avalanche operation. High-peak-
power diodes are typically silicon n+ -p-p+ (or p+ -n-n+) structures with
then-type depletion region width varying from 2.5 to 12.5 µ,m. The doping
of the depletion region is generally such that the diodes are well "punched
through" at breakdown; that is, the de electric field in the depletion region
just prior to breakdown is well above the saturated drift-velocity level. The
device's p+ region is kept as thin as possible at 2.5 to 7.5 µ,m. The
TRAPATT diode's diameter ranges from as small as 50 µ,m for CW
operation to 750 µ,mat lower frequency for highpeak-power devices.
Principles of Operation

 Approximate analytic solutions for the TRAPATT mode in p+ -n-n+ diodes have been
developed by Clorfeine et al. [8] and DeLoach [9] among others. These analyses have shown
that a high-field avalanche zone propagates through the diode and fills the depletion layer
with a dense plasma of electrons and holes that become trapped in the low-field region
behind the zone. A typical voltage waveform for the TRAPATT mode of an avalanche p+ -n-
n+ diode operating with an assumed squarewave current drive is shown in Fig. 8-3-1. At
point A the electric field is uniform throughout the sample and its magnitude is large but less
than the value required for avalanche breakdown.


where Es is the semiconductor dielectric permittivity of the diode. (8-3- l) At the instant of time at point A, the
diode current is turned on. Since the only charge carriers present are those caused by the thermal generation, the
diode initially charges up like a linear capacitor, driving the magnitude of the electric field above the breakdown
voltage. When a sufficient number of carriers is generated, the particle current exceeds the external current and
the electric field is depressed throughout the depletion region, causing the voltage to decrease. This portion of the
cycle is shown by the curve from point B to point C. During this time interval the electric field is sufficiently
large for the avalanche to continue, and a dense plasma of electrons and holes is created. As some of the electrons
and holes drift out of the ends of the depletion layer, the field is further depressed and "traps" the remaining
plasma. The voltage decreases to point D. A long time is required to remove the plasma because the total plasma
charge is large compared to the charge per unit time
BARITT DIODES
 BARITT diodes, meaning barrier injected transit-time diodes, are the latest
addition to the family of active microwave diodes. They have long drift
regions similar to those of IMPATT diodes. The carriers traversing the drift
regions of BARITT diodes, however, are generated by minority carrier
injection from forward-biased junctions instead of being extracted from the
plasma of an avalanche region. Several different structures have been
operated as BARITT diodes, including p-n-p, p-n-v-p, p-n-metal, and
metal-n-metal. For a p-n-v-p BARITT diode, the forward-biased p-n
junction emits holes into the v region. These holes drift with saturation
velocity through the v region and are collected at the p contact. The diode
exhibits a negative resistance for transit angles between 1T and 27T. The
optimum transit angle is approximately 1.67r. Such diodes are much less
noisy than IMPATT diodes. Noise figures are as low as 15 dB at C-band
frequencies with silicon BARITT amplifiers. The major disadvantages of
BARITT diodes are relatively narrow bandwidth and power outputs
limited to a few milliwatts.
Principles of Operation
A crystal n-type silicon wafer with 11 H-cm resistivity and 4 x 1014 per cubic
centimeter doping is made of a 10-µm thin slice. Then then-type silicon wafer is
sandwiched between two PtSi Schottky barrier contacts of about 0.1 µm thickness.
A schematic diagram of a metal-n-metal structure is shown in Fig. 8-4-l(a). The
energy-band diagram at thermal equilibrium is shown in Fig. 8-4-l(b), where n1 and
n2 are the barrier heights for the metal-semiconductor contacts, re-
Part-II

• Microwave Tubes sources

• Klystron
• Magnetron
 KLYSTRON

 There are two basic configurations of klystron tubes

 1. Reflex Klystron used as a low-power Microwave
oscillator
 2. Multi cavity klystron used as low-power microwave
amplifier
REFLEX KLYSTRON
REFLEX KLYSTRON
 REFLEX KLYSTRON

 Single Re-entrant cavity as a resonator.

 The electron beam emitted from the cathode is
accelerated by the grid and passes through the cavity
anode to the repeller space between the cavity anode
and the repeller electrode .

 The feedback required to maintain the oscillations within

the cavity is obtained by reversing electron beam
emitted from the cathode towards repeller electrode and
sending it back through the cavity.
 The electrons in the beam are velocity modulated
before the beam passes through the cavity the second
time and give up the energy to the cavity to maintain
oscillations.

 This type of a Klystron is called a Reflex Klystron

because of the reflex action of the electron beam.
Two Cavity Klystron Amplifier
Principle

 Velocity modulated tube

 High velocity electron beam is generated by an
electron gun and sent down along a gas tube
through an input cavity (BUNCHER), drift space
(FIELD FREE) and an output cavity (CATCHER) to a
collector electrode anode.
 The anode is kept positive to receive the electrons,
while the output is taken from the tube via resonant
cavities with the aid of coupling loops
 Two grids of the buncher cavity are separated by a
small gap A while the two grids of the catcher cavity
are separated by a small gap B.
OPERATION

 The input buncher cavity is exited by the RF signal, (the

signal to be amplified) which will produce an
alternating voltage of signal frequency across the gap
A.
 This voltage generated at the gap A is responsible to
produce bunching of electrons or velocity modulation
of the electron beam.
Applegate Diagram
HISTORY

 The brothers Russell and Sigurd Varian of Stanford

University are the inventors of the klystron. Their
prototype was completed in August 1937.
Magnetron
Invention of Magnetron
 Limitations of Ordinary Gridded Tubes
-Skin Effect
-Transit Angle Effect
 Need of High-power microwaves
Brief History of magnetron
 1920s:American Engineer Albert W. Hull invented the
first magnetron while working for General Electric.
 1940s:Two physicists, John Randall and Harry Boot,
working at the University of Birmingham, England
developed a much more powerful magnetron that is
compact enough to fit into ships, planes and
submarines.
Cavity Magnetron
PHYSICAL STRUCTURE-

Anode-made of copper plates

Cathode-made of high emission material
Magnets
Cavities
Filament Leads
Output antenna(waveguide)
Cooling fins
DC voltage source
Working of Cavity Magnetron
1.Production and Acceleration of an electron beam in a dc
field
2.Velocity-modulation of the electron beam
3.Formation of electron bunches by velocity modulation
(Space-charge wheel)
4. Dispense energy to the ac field. Using antenna probe
Equations of electron motion

 Hull cut-off voltage equation

V0c=B02b2(1-(a/b)2)2e/8m

 Hull cutoff magnetic equation

B0c=(8V0m/e)1/2/ b(1-(a/b)2)
Exercise 1
Strapping & Modes of Oscillations
Applications
 Radar
Applications
 Microwave oven-
Everytime you warm
Something in
microwave oven,
you use a device
that helped to
Change the course
Of history of WW2