Airport Design

Author(s): P. W. LE BLOND
Source: Built Environment (1978-) , 1984, Vol. 10, No. 3, Airport Planning and Design
(1984), pp. 196-210
Published by: Alexandrine Press

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 Airport Design
P. W. LE BLOND

What are the principal elements of

airport design, and what design options
are available, given the constraints
of land use, cost and safety?

Introduction As an example of airport design, I have

referred mainly to the proposed Stansted
Airports are large. International airportsdevelopment. At the time of writing, a
with one, two or more runways each 3 kmgovernment decision to go ahead with this
in length, may occupy several thousandproject has not been received, but the
hectares. Ideally, they should be locatedairport design principles were discussed
close to the urban area they serve, where extensively at the public inquiry into the
such large areas of land are scarce. The project.
pressure is therefore often on airport plan The largest aircraft (Boeing 747) on the
ners to use airport land as fully as possible.longest route (for example, London-Los
But aviation is a rapidly changing business,Angeles) need runways of 3000 metres or
and airports which cannot adapt to thosemore. Smaller aircraft can operate on
changes will soon get into difficulties. The shorter lengths and indeed STOL aircraft
changes usually mean more space is (Short Take Off and Landing) can operate
needed, so ideally an airport planner shouldfrom runways of 750 metres. Actual runway
ensure there is enough space for expansion widths may be 45 or 60 metres but no
and change. So straightaway there is a obstructions are allowed within 150 metres
of the runway centreline and so the land
conflict which has to be resolved. Similar
sterilized by a runway is considerable. Even
conflicts exist in other aspects of airport
beyond
layout and in this article, I set out some of the 150 metre line and for some
these and give examples of how they distance
have from the ends of the runway, there
been approached in various situations. are restrictions on the height and type of
development.
The largest and most difficult facility to For example, there should be
no obstacles
locate is the runway, and this is discussed in higher than 45 metres within
a radius of 4000 metres of the runway. A
the next section. Following that, I discuss
the passenger terminal which is usuallygeneral
the indication of such restrictions
applied
most expensive facility to build, although it in the United Kingdom is shown in
does not usually take up the most space.
figure 1.
Taxiways
Then I discuss ancillary facilities and land are used as the routes for aircraft
to and from the runways and the restric
scape design, an increasingly important
tions
aspect of airport planning, and finally mentioned above determine their loca
I go
tion. Clearly a taxiway cannot be within 150
outside the airport boundary and discuss
surface access planning, rememberingmetres
that of a runway, or else aircraft on it
would be obstructions. Current U.K. and
most passengers get to or from the airport
this way. international standards require 184 metres

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 AIRPORT DESIGN

To assist clarification the vertical LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH

scale on this chart is 20 times that AND TAKE-OFF FUNNELS
of the horizontal scale.

Figure 1. Obstacle limitation surfaces for an instrument runway. (From CAP 168, The Lic
Aerodromes, published by the Civil Aviation Authority)

modification by having sufficient clearance

between a runway and a taxiway centreline
at a major airport. The distance between
for aircraft with a wingspan 25 per cent
greater than the Boeing 747, although this
two parallel taxiways is related to the clear
ance between the wingtips of two aircraftobviously
on adds to the land take.
the taxiways, as shown in figure 2, andThe greatest utilization can be obtained
there are similar standards for the distance from a runway if it is used solely for take-off
between taxiways and fixed obstructions. and landing and not for taxiing to or from
Given these clearances, if you decide you
that activity. A twin parallel taxiway system
need a 3000 metre runway with a twinwith a large number of turn-offs, some of
parallel taxiway system, you will needwhich at are angled to allow high-speed turn
least 150 hectares of cleared land. offs, with holding areas at the ends will
Whilst the current standards are based on permit up to about 40 aircraft movements
the largest existing aircraft, many older per hour on that runway in instrument
airports were based on smaller aircraft andlanding conditions. A runway with only a
required extensive and expensive modifica partial taxiway system may only accom
tions to accommodate current aircraft. For modate 25 movements per hour. Figure 3
Stansted, the BAA is planning to avoid latershows some examples.
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 AIRPORT PLANNING AND DESIGN

I'////////////
< * \

Min.
. > f

a
49 5 m

~Uj5m 85m

Figure 2. Taxiway clear

ances.

, Runway

////// )( ^ r—Tsrnt—'W
(\ )( )(, / M ( ) ( )( )
Holding area [ / Twin parallel taxiways
Fast turn offs

Capacity - 40 movements per hour

✓Runway

TV

Turning area
'Single parallel taxiway

Capacity - 25 movements per hour

Figure 3. Runway and taxiway layouts.

One of the most important greater aspects of

importance is the noise effect which
runway layout is orientation, extends although beyond inthe ends of runways. On
the United Kingdom this has not come
take-off, up may turn off the straight
aircraft
for some time as no completely flightnew run
path fairly quickly but on landing they
ways have been built for some years. tend to establish themselves on the
Basically, a runway should be aligned with extended centreline several miles from the
the predominant wind direction but of far airport. The alignment is therefore critical in

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 AIRPORT DESIGN

determining which areas are overflown

regularly and this can be shown by plotting
contours of the index of aircraft noise
annoyance which is most frequently used in
the United Kingdom, the Noise and Number
Index (NNI).
One of the most obvious features about
airports is their flatness and indeed there
are standards laid down as to maximum
gradients. Around some cities there are not
many locations where there is sufficient flat
land that is not surrounded by hills that
infringe the surfaces shown in figure 1.

Passenger Terminals
The passenger terminal complex is made up
of three elements. The airside apron,
consisting of aircraft stands, taxiways and
the pier or satellite system, occupies
typically some 50 per cent of the terminal
complex area. The landside access zone,
comprising mainly the forecourts, access
roads and car parks, may occupy 40 per cent
and the terminal building itself may be only
10 per cent of area of the terminal complex.
The most efficient use of apron concrete is
obtained when aircraft are parked in two
lines either side of a single central taxiway
such as is shown in figure 4a. However, if
the taxiway is a cul-de-sac and is very long,
aircraft at the end may get trapped whilst
waiting for an aircraft at the other end to
manoeuvre in and out. Also the walking
distances along the piers can become very
long. Figure 4b shows the same number of
stands provided in three culs-de-sac, which
reduces the problem of blockages and exces
sive walking distances but requires more Figure 4. Apron layouts.
concrete. Figure 4c shows a single short pier
arrangement with short culs-de-sac which passenger conveyors ease this distance but
uses the same amount of concrete as figure their relatively low speed means that these
4a, but in this case the outer stands are not are not always the answer. Tracked transit
pier served and would have to be served by systems, such as at Gatwick, provide faster
buses or mobile lounges. movement but can only be used with a
When aprons become very large it is limited number of stops and ideally, with
inevitable that a pier system will result in only one stop at either end. Tracked transits
long walking distances. In many airports are therefore usually used in conjunction
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 AIRPORT PLANNING AND DESIGN

a Piers

T1 Ji
ft
Conveyo s

wc

Terminal building
1

lA-rH"
wc 1-

4 14
CD o ? rooms 1

l1^ 11+
b Satellites

Transit track

'Terminal building
•Transit station

Figure 5. Piers and satel

lites.

with satellites where the walking distance At other airports, planners have
from the transit station is short. Figure 5 attempted to do away with long walking
shows how piers and satellites compare. distances altogether by designing 'drive to
Satellites allow the provision of centralized the gate' terminals. Examples of this are
facilities (for example, lavatories, shops,shown in figure 6. Such terminals can work
catering) which would be less easy to site inwell at small airports or airports that handle
a pier. However, there is a considerable mainly domestic traffic. However, they can
waste of space at the outer edge of the have high operating costs because activities
wedge-shaped aircraft stands when com such as check-in, immigration, security and
pared with rectangular stands. shops cannot be centralized.
Clearly different solutions are chosen Finally, with regard to pier and apron
according to how the particular airport seeslayouts, the role of the piers as an accoustic
its problem. At Gatwick, a pier and satellitebarrier should not be discounted. At Heath
exist side by side attached to the samerow's new Terminal 4, nearby housing will
terminal. At some airports (for example, be shielded from some of the activities on
Washington Dulles, Montreal Mirabel) thethe main aircraft apron by the airside con
planners have attempted to avoid the discourse area which extends along the front of
advantages of piers and satellites by having the building and in line either side of it.
an open apron where all aircraft are served The landside access zone is usually the
by mobile lounges. A mobile lounge is a bus next largest user of space in the passenger
whose body raises and lowers so that it can terminal complex, and in some respects is
mate directly with the aircraft. However,the most difficult area to plan. Passengers
whilst the mobile lounge concept allows who arrive by road want to be dropped or to
aprons layouts to be changed easily, it haspark their cars as near as possible to the
a number of drawbacks, including high terminal; likewise passengers arriving by
operating costs and the fact that it does not rail want a short walking distance. Remem
allow last-minute boarding. ber that at this stage passengers are still
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 AIRPORT DESIGN

Figure
Figure 6. Drive
6. Drive to the to the
gate termi
gate termi
nals.

carrying their luggage and so short walking proposed new terminal at Stansted, wher
distances are probably more important than space is less of a premium than at Heath
on airside where they are usually only row, an ideal solution is being considered
carrying hand luggage. If the forecourt, where rail and bus passengers will acces
railway station, bus station and car park are the terminal via a subway at station con
all to be close to the terminal and road course level, cars will be able to pick up an
crossings are to be avoided, then a set
multi
down on a forecourt immediately ou
level solution is needed. But this can be side the terminal, and cars will be parked in
expensive, and will result in passengers car parks at sides of the terminal (see figur
having to change level. Using stairs, lifts7).orThis solution is economic and provide
escalators may be less easy than walking good a access for all passengers.
little extra distance on the flat. For the The landside access zone may also con
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 AIRPORT PLANNING AND DESIGN

Terminal Forecourt Bus Rail

building Stn. Stu

Figure 7. Proposed landside access arrangements f

tain other facilities such as departing

between an hotel, car
and arriving hire
passengers.
Whilst very frequently
facilities and some ancillary facilities used for smaller
which
need to be close to the terminal
airports, building.
there are often conflicts between
Although the terminal building
passenger occupies
and baggage flows. It also means
that
only a small percentage ofpassengers have to change total
the airport's level
upwards to board
area, it is often the single most the aircraft. These con
expensive
element of an airport flicts can be avoided by constructing
development. There a
basement for terminal
are virtually no two airport baggage handling,build
as in the
ings in the world the one and a half
same, level building there
although shown in
are a number of typesfigure quite8b. A two
commonly
level terminal, as shown
seen.in
The simplest, and usually cheapest, figure 8c, uses less land but is usually more
building is single level (see figure 8). In this expensive to construct. Aircraft boarding
building there is horizontal segregation can be achieved on the level or possibly
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 AIRPORT DESIGN

a Single level

Apron

Deps

a a

Forecourt

b One and a half level

Apron

Deps Baggage
below

r Arrs
m m

Forecourt

c Two level

Apron

Deps above
U < w
Arrs. below
> ffl

Forecourt

d Two and a half level

Apron

tDeps
above
< w
Mezz for baggage
Arrs. I
below V >
w

Forecourt Figure 8. Passenger terminal buildings.

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 AIRPORT PLANNING AND DESIGN

with a small level change. Figure aircraft

8d shows catering depots, offices, general
an adaption of the two level building in aviation facilities, hotels, fuel farms and
which a mezzanine level is introduced to engineering services.
handle the baggage flows. Aircraft maintenance facilities are usually
Although the plan shape of terminal constructed by airlines based at the airport
buildings is very variable, and other facili and the amount of land used for this pur
ties such as shops, restaurants and offices pose therefore depends on the size of the
may be provided on additional levels, the airline which uses the airport as its base and
main passenger processing activities usually is not necessarily in direct relation to the
conform to one of the four types shown in airports throughput. Aircraft hangars may
figure 8. The plans for Stansted are for a one be the largest buildings on an airport, with
and a half level building. Natural ground Boeing 747 hangars up to 35 metres high
levels in the Stansted terminal complex requiring an area of up to 10,000 square
zone fall from landside to airside so it will be metres for each aircraft. Hangars need to
possible to construct the basement as an have large roof spans to cover aircraft and
undercroft without too much excavation. may give opportunities for grand designs.
Passengers will be able to transfer from However, the airline will undoubtedly want
forecourt to aircraft without changing level. a cheap and adaptable building and this
The result will be an economic building often turns out to be the simple large
offering good levels of passenger service. rectangular box. The tallest part of an air
The terminal building is the architectural craft is its tail and one way of using hangars
focus of an airport and in some cases, the for aircraft larger than was originally
prestige of having an attractive building intended is by adding a tail dock which
form may be allowed to overrule the need slides together to enclose the tail (see figure
for a functional building. The most econ 9). Stepped roof designs may also be built
from the outset to reduce the enclosed area
omic type of building to construct, maintain
and adapt consists of four walls, a roof, and
andthus the cost of heating the interior.
as few internal columns as possible and The
is layout of the hangars and other
usually seen being used for warehouses.
buildings in a maintenance area is primarily
But such an environment is not 'user related to the requirement to maneouvre
aircraft in and out of the hangars. However,
friendly' and may not promote the required
engine testing in maintenance areas is a
image. Airport terminal building architects
should, however, remember that their considerable source of noise and the careful
buildings are constantly being changed positioning
- of buildings can provide some
attenuation for the airports neighbours.
internally, partitions are relocated, new faci
lities are added and externally extensions The cargo terminal at an airport must be
quickly and easily accessible to the passen
are built. Unless the building is capable of
accepting these changes, it will soon lose terminal apron because the majority of
ger
any attractiveness it may have originally air cargo now travels in the belly-holds of
had. passenger aircraft. The air cargo industry
has undergone considerable change in the
last few years and the facilities required are
Ancillary Facilities
changing. Ten years ago, all-cargo aircraft
For this article I have grouped together carried most of the business and airlines
everything that is not in the runway and operated a schedule of all-cargo services.
taxiway and passenger terminal zones as The need was then for an independent
ancillary. Thus it includes aircraft mainten cargo terminal somewhat similar to a
ance, cargo, car parks, motor transport and passenger terminal which facilitated the
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 AIRPORT DESIGN

Plan Elevation

Conventional

Tail Dock

Stepped Roof

Figure 9. Aircraft hanger

shapes.

transfer of the cargo from aircraft to ground passenger terminal apron and will probably
transportation. Now the general all-cargo be something like the layout shown in
scheduled service has declined with most
figure 10, but the important point is to leave
general cargo being consigned to the large
scope for expansion. However, in order not
capacity holds of wide-bodied aircraft. to waste space by having it waiting empty
Specialist operators deal with outsize loads,for some future unknown need, space can
fresh produce, parcels, livestock, etc.be Thereserved for the expansion of a number
role of cargo agents in consolidating loads of activities on the basis that, in the end, not
and obtaining Customs clearance has all of them will require full expansion.
extended and the need to integrate air cargo The design and layout of car parks may
with other types of freight operation has not seem terrifically exciting, but their size
become increasingly important. at airports presents particular problems.
So what will the future cargo terminal Short-term car parks are usually provided
look like? Every airport will probably be close to the terminal building, and have
different, depending on the types of oper been dealt with already. Long-term car
ations there, but will probably consist of a parks are usually remote from the terminal
mixture of aircraft stands, transit sheds, for a number of reasons. To make it worth
agents' buildings, vehicle unloading and while to use them, charges have to be lower
manoeuvring areas and ancillary facilities. than the short term car parks, and this
Stansted's cargo area will be next to the means they are usually only ground level.
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 AIRPORT PLANNING AND DESIGN

Aircraft stands

Equipment/load
consolidation area
Airline
Transit shed Agents
building

Car/ Lorry park

Customs/ Admin
Figure 10. Layout of cargo area.

Large areas are rarely available close to the An airport is like a town requiring a com
terminal and, even if they were, passengersplete range of services - electricity, gas,
would have to walk long distances acrosssewage and drainage. Drainage is a special
the car park. A means of transporting par problem because airports are often in flat
kers is therefore provided (usually a shuttleareas where the natural drainage is into
bus, but possibly an automatic transit in theslow moving streams. Heavy rainfall on to
future) and once the parkers are on the large impermeable areas of concrete results
transport system, it makes little difference in high rates of run-off and to prevent
to the journey time if the car park is flooding drainage is channelled into balanc
remotely located. Long-term car parks can ing ponds which store the water and then
be very large (it is proposed to provide at let it into the streams at a controlled rate.
least 15,000 spaces at Stansted) and can be Balancing ponds also incorporate pollution
made more attractive by careful landscape control devices, such as aeration (which
design. It needs to be careful because some reduces de-icing chemicals) and oil traps.
trees drop substances on to cars which can
be difficult to remove. As well as access
Landscape Design
aisles, long-term car parks have to have a
road network for the shuttle buses to collect I have already mentioned that long-term car
and distribute parkers as near as possible to parks should be designed from the start to
their cars. incorporate planting as a visual screen. The
There are a large number of other ancil consideration of landscape design from the
lary facilities provided at an airport includ early stages is one of the most important
ing hotels, car rental depots, flight catering principles in ensuring that the landscape
kitchens, fire stations, fuel depots, all of design is successful. Naturally, successful
which have specific requirements for loca landscape design requires large areas of
tion relative to other activities as well as land to be allocated and at Stansted this has
more general accommodation such as to be achieved by defining a functional
offices and workshop-type accommodation. boundary and then using land up to the
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 AIRPORT DESIGN

Figure 11. Long-term car parks on sloping sites: landscaping design.

next existing field boundary or stream

village,
foran earthmound is to be constructed.
planting or mounding. This also meansBut,that
unlike the rather geometrically shaped
existing hedgerows can form the basismoundsof that have been built elsewhere, this
any new planting. one is to have gently sloping sides (either 1
Perhaps the second most important in 6prin
or 1 in 10), a tapering profile and shape
which
ciple in landscape design follows from thisfollows
- the existing boundary and
that is use what you already have extensive
as it is planting around the base to
much more likely to survive thanreduce newly the apparent mass of the mound (see
planted areas. At Stansted there are a figure 12).
number of woods and it is proposed to
retain 75 per cent of these in the developed Surface Access
airport, together with a number of hedge
rows and ponds. New planting must, of Lastly, a few words about an aspect of
course, be consistent with the indigenous airport design that relates to facilities which
species. are mainly outside the airport boundary.
The proposed landscape design for Stan Both road and rail links are very important
sted includes a number of interesting to the success of an airport, and any discus
features. The long-term car park is on a sion of airport design would be incomplete
gently sloping site and it is proposed to lay without mention to them.
out the rows of spaces along the contours so Although one usually thinks of links to
that planting between the rows will provide the city centre as being the most important,
a stepped screen (see figure 11). At the they are only part of the system and can be
north-east end of the site, to provide a over-emphasized to the detriment of links
visual (and, to an extent, acoustic) screen to other areas. Even at airports where the
between the passenger terminal and a small potential traffic is large enough to justify a
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 AIRPORT PLANNING AND DESIGN

Figure 12. Stansted: proposed earthmound.

rail link, it is usually a minority of passen

don airports it is apparent that the split
between public and private transport
gers who arrive by this mode. Private cars
usually carry the largest percentage ofremains
air roughly similar, although the split
passengers, but taxis, buses and coaches between different types of public transport
can also be significant modes. At the does
Lon vary considerably. Thus, when the
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 AIRPORT DESIGN

Underground link was introduced as buses

intoor coaches, then such a link would
Heathrow, most of the users had previously
be appropriate. But most rail links that are
travelled to the airport by coach. provided are part of the local metro or even
The reason for this seems to be that the national rail networks which are usually
modal split is less dependent on the quality very expensive.
of the alternative modes than on the jourBut if a rail link can be justified, then of
ney purpose and particularly the nationality what type? A non-stop frequent and fast
of the passenger. A U.K. national travelling link exclusive to air passengers would seem
best, but if the airport is close to the city
to or from a U.K. airport is far more likely to
use his own car, or get a relative or friendthen
to a fast link may only save a few minutes
drive him to the airport, because such a car compared with a link that stops at more
is available and he is likely to be starting stations
or and thus allows interchange with
finishing his journey from home, away from other lines. At Stansted which is over
the city centre. A non-U.K. national is less 30 miles (48 km) from the centre of Lon
likely to have a car available and more likelya non-stop high speed link is planned
to be travelling to the city centre. although initially it is likely that the services
Passenger access is, of course, most will not be exclusive to air passengers.
important but in the peak hours on the An airport may also be a convenient
roads leading to airports, a far larger pro location for a comprehensive transportation
portion of vehicles will be occupied by interchange. In the past, planners have
employees. Employees' origins will be very thought of airports only as origins and
different from air passengers, being more destinations for air passengers undertaking
widespread and less concentrated on the surface journeys, even though an airport as
city centre. an air transfer hub is an old-established
So, with this background, what sort of principle. But in the future we may see
surface access system is most appropriate more of airports with out-of-town locations
for a particular airport. Clearly, there must and good connections to the strategic road
be a good road link to the city centre to be network becoming interchange points fo
used by private cars, public buses and taxis. long-distance rail, coach and bus travel. I
But the road must also be well connected to this is to be the case, then the interchange
the national road system. Only with thefacilities must clearly be designed to cop
with this type of traffic as well as the air
completion of the M25 will all of London's
airports be so connected and it is no coincipassenger.
dence that Stansted's traffic has picked up
only after the M25 around the north and Conclusion
east of London was completed.
As well as connections to the strategicThis paper has worked through the main
road networks, there must also be goodpoints of airport design but each of thes
connections to the local road network, areas could have been the subject of a paper
particularly to the urban areas where
by itself. Airport planners throughout the
employees live. world have tried all sorts of different solu

The question which mainly occupies tions appropriate to their own locality, and
no one can say which is right and which is
planners is whether or not a rail link should
be provided. This question probably occu wrong. Airports planned and built in more
pies too much time, as only for the largest recent years tend to have at least learned the
lesson of providing sufficient space for
airports can a rail link be justified. If there
was any way of providing a fast, high expansion, but the price has been high both
capacity link for anywhere near as cheaply in terms of land used and construction

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 AIRPORT PLANNING AND DESIGN

costs. Airports are a focus of attention

because of their scale and the fact that they
are places designed for use by the travelling
public, and so travellers who have experi
enced them can have an immediate per
sonal impession. However, even if you
manage the perfect airport design (if there
were such a thing), it is doubtful that
someone whose flight has been delayed
6 hours or who has waited an hour for his
baggage will have many complimentary
words about that design.

NOTE

The views expressed in this article are those of

the author, and do not necessarily reflect those of
the BAA.

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