CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT) is one of the latest technologies in automotive

industries. Many researchers apply CVT in their system especially in speed control but not
much was reported in position control. This project develops a control system design using
the concept of CVT by replacing the fixed gearing system in conventional position control
system into variable gear ratio. The variable gearing gearbox can be modeled by two
continuously separated cones with different ratio banded by a belt that transfers the power
from motor to the load. Simulation study in closed loop system is done to find how speed
ratios can control position of the output load as the ratio change from under-drive to over-
drive stage. Designed CVT system is analyzed based on settling-time, rise-time, peak-time,
and overshoot compared to the conventional fixed gearing system. The output position of
designed system can be controlled by only varying speed ratio, thus making system’s
performance easily tuned from under-drive to over-drive stage. From the analysis, designed
CVT model shows better in overshoot compared to the fixed gearing system. As a result, a
system with CVT have advantage over fixed gear and add up a new degree of freedom in
control system design, which position can be control by only varying the speed ratio instead
of applied forward and feed gain.
Conventional automatic transmissions use a set of gears that provides a given number of
ratios (or speeds). The transmission shifts gears to provide the most appropriate ratio for a
given situation: Lowest gears for starting out, middle gears for acceleration and passing, and
higher gears for fuel-efficient cruising.

Leonardo DaVinci sketched the first CVT in 1490. Dutch automaker DAF first started using
CVTs in their cars in the late 1950s, but technology limitations made CVTs unsuitable for
engines with more than around 100 horsepower. In the late 80s and early 90s, Subaru offered
a CVT in their Just mini-car, while Honda used one in the high-mileage Honda Civic HX of
the late 90s. Improved CVTs capable of handling more powerful engines were developed in
the late 90s and early 2000s, and CVTs can now be found in cars from
Nissan, Audi, Honda, Mitsubishi, and other automakers. [3]

1
The CVT replaces the gears with two variable-diameter pulleys, each shaped like a pair of
opposing cones, with a metal belt or chain running between them. One pulley is connected to
the engine (input shaft), the other to the drive wheels (output shaft). The halves of each pulley
are moveable; as the pulley halves come closer together the belt is forced to ride higher on
the pulley, effectively making the pulley's diameter larger.

Changing the diameter of the pulleys varies the transmission's ratio (the number of times the
output shaft spins for each revolution of the engine), in the same way that a 10-speed bike
routes the chain over larger or smaller gears to change the ratio. Making the input pulley
smaller and the output pulley larger gives a low ratio (a large number of engine revolutions
producing a small number of output revolutions) for better low-speed acceleration. As the car
accelerates, the pulleys vary their diameter to lower the engine speed as car speed rises. This
is the same thing a conventional transmission does, but instead of changing the ratio in stages
by shifting gears, the CVT continuously varies the ratio, hence its name.

1.1 Driving a car with a CVT:

The controls for a CVT are the same as an automatic: Two pedals (gas and brake) and a P-R-
N-D-L-style shift pattern. When driving a car with a CVT, you won't hear or feel the
transmission shift. it simply raises and lowers the engine speed as needed, calling up higher
engine speeds (or RPMs) for better acceleration and lower RPMs for better fuel economy
while cruising.
Many people find the CVT disconcerting at first because of the way cars with CVTs sound.
When you step hard on the accelerator, the engine races as it would with a slipping clutch or
a failing automatic transmission. This is normal that the CVT is adjusting the engine speed to
provide optimal power for acceleration. Some CVTs are programmed to change ratios in
steps, so that they feel more like a conventional automatic transmission.
1.2 Transmission Mechanics:
A machine consists of a power source and a power transmission system, which provides
controlled application of the power. Merriam-Webster defines transmission as: an assembly
of parts including the speed-changing gears and the propeller shaft by which the power is
transmitted from an engine to a live axle. Often transmission refers simply to the gearbox that
uses gears and gear trains to provide speed and torque conversions from a rotating power
source to another device.

2
In British English the term transmission refers to the whole drive train, including gearbox,
clutch, prop shaft (for rear-wheel drive), differential and final drive shafts. In American
English, however, the distinction is made that a gearbox is any device which converts speed
and torque, whereas a transmission is a type of gearbox that can be "shifted" to dynamically
change the speed: torque ratio, such as in a vehicle.[8]
The most common use is in motor vehicles, where the transmission adapts the output of the
internal combustion engine to the drive wheels. Such engines need to operate at a relatively
high rotational speed, which is inappropriate for starting, stopping, and slower travel. The
transmission reduces the higher engine speed to the slower wheel speed, increasing torque in
the process. Transmissions are also used on pedal bicycles, fixed machines, and anywhere
else rotational speed and torque needs to be adapted.
Often, a transmission will have multiple gear ratios (or simply "gears"), with the ability to
switch between them as speed varies. This switching may be done manually (by the
operator), or automatically. Directional (forward and reverse) control may also be provided.
Single-radio transmissions also exist, which simply change the speed and torque (and
sometimes direction) of motor output. In motor vehicle applications, the transmission will
generally be connected to the crankshaft of the engine. The output of the transmission is
transmitted via driveshaft to one or more differentials, which in turn drive the wheels. While
a differential may also provide gear reduction, its primary purpose is to permit the wheels at
either end of an axle to rotate at different speeds (essential to avoid wheel slippage on turns)
as it changes the direction of rotation.
Conventional gear/belt transmissions are not the only mechanism for speed/torque adaptation.
Alternative mechanisms include torque converters and power transformation (e.g., diesel-
electric transmission, hydraulic drive system, etc.). Hybrid configurations also exist.[15]

1.3 Automotive Basics:

The need for a transmission in an automobile is a consequence of the characteristics of the
internal combustion engine. Engines typically operate over a range of 600 to about 7000
revolutions per minute (though this varies, and is typically less for diesel engines), while the
car's wheels rotate between 0 rpm and around 1800 rpm.
Furthermore, the engine provides its highest torque and power outputs unevenly across the
rev range resulting in a torque band and a power band. Often the greatest torque is required
when the vehicle is moving from rest or traveling slowly, while maximum power is needed at
high speed. Therefore, a system that transforms the engine's output so that it can supply high
3
torque at low speeds, but also operate at highway speeds with the motor still operating within
its limits, is required. Transmissions perform this transformation. [ 1 ]

Figure 1.1 Curve between Power and Torque

The dynamics of a car vary with speed: at low speeds, acceleration is limited by the inertia of
vehicular gross mass; while at cruising or maximum speeds wind resistance is the dominant
barrier. In the former torque is required to overcome inertia, in the latter power is needed to
keep the car from being slowed down by wind resistance.
Many transmissions and gears used in automotive and truck applications are contained in a
cast iron case, though more frequently aluminum is used for lower weight especially in cars.
There are usually three shafts: a main shaft, a countershaft, and an idler shaft.
The mainshaft extends outside the case in both directions: the input shaft towards the engine,
and the output shaft towards the rear axle (on rear wheel drive cars- front wheel drives
generally have the engine and transmission mounted transversely, the differential being part
of the transmission assembly.) The shaft is suspended by the main bearings, and is split
towards the input end. At the point of the split, a pilot bearing holds the shafts together. The
gears and clutches ride on the main shaft, the gears being free to turn relative to the main
shaft except when engaged by the clutches.Types of automobile transmissions include
manual, automatic or semi-automatic transmission.

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1.4 Manual Transmission:
Manual transmission comes in two basic types:
A simple but rugged sliding-mesh or unsynchronized / non-synchronous system, where
straight-cut spur gear sets are spinning freely, and must be synchronized by the operator
matching engine revs to road speed, to avoid noisy and damaging "gear clash", and the now
common constant-mesh gearboxes which can include non-synchronized, or synchronized /
synchromesh systems, where diagonal cut helical (and sometimes double-helical) gear sets
are constantly "meshed" together, and a dog clutch is used for changing gears. On
synchromesh boxes, friction cones or "synchro-rings" are used in addition to the dog clutch.
The former type is commonly found in many forms of racing cars, older heavy-duty trucks,
and some agricultural equipment. Manual transmissions are the most common type outside
North America and Australia. They are cheaper, lighter, and usually give better performance
and fuel efficiency (although automatic transmissions with torque converter lockup and
advanced electronic controls can provide similar results). It is customary for new drivers to
learn, and be tested, on a car with a manual gear change. In Malaysia and Denmark all cars
used for testing (and because of that, virtually all those used for instruction as well) have a
manual transmission. In Japan, the Philippines, Germany, Poland, Italy, Israel, the
Netherlands, Belgium, New Zealand, Austria, Bulgaria, the UK, Ireland, Sweden, Estonia,
France, Spain, Switzerland, the Australian states of Victoria, Western Australia and
Queensland, Finland and Lithuania, a test pass using an automatic car does not entitle the
driver to use a manual car on the public road; a test with a manual car is required. Manual
transmissions are much more common than automatic transmissions in Asia, Africa, South
America and Europe.[20]
Many manual transmissions include both synchronized and unsynchronized gearing; it is not
uncommon for the first/reverse gear to lack synchronization. Those gears are meant to be
shifted into only when the vehicle is stopped. Some manual transmissions have an extremely
low ratio for first gear, which is referred to as a "creeper gear" or "granny gear". Such gears
are usually not synchronized. This feature is common on pickup trucks tailored to trailer-
towing, farming, or construction-site work. During normal on-road use, the truck is usually
driven without using the creeper gear at all, and second gear is used from a standing start.

1.5 Non-synchronous:
There are commercial applications engineered with designs taking into account that the gear
shifting will be done by an experienced operator. They are a manual transmission, but are
5
known as non-synchronized transmissions. Dependent on country of operation, many local,
regional, and national laws govern the operation of these types of vehicles (see Commercial
Driver's License). This class may include commercial, military, agricultural, or engineering
vehicles. Some of these may use combinations of types for multi-purpose functions. An
example would be a power take-off (PTO) gear. The non-synchronous transmission type
requires an understanding of gear range, torque, engine power, and multi-functional clutch
and shifter functions. Also see Double-clutching, and Clutch-brake sections of the main
article.

1.6 Automatic Transmission:

Figure 1.2 Epicyclic Gear

Most modern North American and Australian and many larger, high specification European
and Japanese cars have an automatic transmission that will select an appropriate gear ratio
without any operator intervention. They primarily use hydraulics to select gears, depending
on pressure exerted by fluid within the transmission assembly. Rather than using a clutch to
engage the transmission, a fluid flywheel, or torque converter is placed in between the engine
and transmission. It is possible for the driver to control the number of gears in use or select
reverse, though precise control of which gear is in use may or may not be possible.
Automatic transmissions are easy to use. However, in the past, automatic transmissions of
this type have had a number of problems; they were complex and expensive, sometimes had
reliability problems (which sometimes caused more expenses in repair), have often been less
fuel-efficient than their manual counterparts (due to "slippage" in the torque converter), and
their shift time was slower than a manual making them uncompetitive for racing. With the
advancement of modern automatic transmissions this has changed.[24]

6
Attempts to improve the fuel efficiency of automatic transmissions include the use of torque
converters which lock up beyond a certain speed, or in the higher gear ratios, eliminating
power loss, and overdrive gears which automatically actuate above certain speeds; in older
transmissions both technologies could sometimes become intrusive, when conditions are such
that they repeatedly cut in and out as speed and such load factors as grade or wind vary
slightly. Current computerized transmissions possess very complex programming to both
maximize fuel efficiency and eliminate any intrusiveness, and we are at a point in
technological advancement where automatics are beginning to outperform manuals in both
performance and efficiency. For certain applications, the slippage inherent in automatic
transmissions can be advantageous; for instance, in drag racing, the automatic transmission
allows the car to be stopped with the engine at a high rpm (the "stall speed") to allow for a
very quick launch when the brakes are released; in fact, a common modification is to increase
the stall speed of the transmission. This is even more advantageous for turbocharged engines,
where the turbocharger needs to be kept spinning at high rpm by a large flow of exhaust in
order to keep the boost pressure up and eliminate the turbo lag that occurs when the engine is
idling and the throttle is suddenly opened.

Project prototype:

Figure1.3 Top view of project prototype

7
Figure-1.4: Side view of project prototype

8
 CHAPTER 2

PROJECT BACKGROUNDS

Transmission development can be as simple as manual gear boxes but there always demand
on more comfortable driving experience. Even the transmission technologies getting advance
nowadays, they still have jerking while changing gear ratio causes uncomfortable drive. CVT
is a type of automatic transmission that provides more usable power better fuel economy and
better driving experience than the traditional automatic. The main concept of CVT is by
constantly relate between the engine speeds to the car speed, by which allowed it operated
independently and therefore the engine can operated at its most fuel operating point. Torotrak
Development Ltd.(2006) claimed that 20% less fuel consumption in CVT compared with
conventional automatic transmission by then reduces the harmful emission.[ ]The
furthermore, while driving a car with CVT system, the passenger never feel or hear the
transmission shift which is it simply raises or lowers the engine speed as needed, and calling
higher up for better acceleration while calling down for fuel efficiency, by which is drop 4%
in urban driving environment while drop 10% on highways. This provides CVT a quicker
acceleration compare with the conventional automatic or manual transmission.This type of
engine function based on the belt-pulleys system. William Harris in web of How Stuff Works
(2006) explained that as the radius of one pulley decrease, another radius increase in order to
maintain the belt tight. When the pulleys change radii relative to another, they provide an
infinite gearing number gearing ratio.[27]

Figure 2.1 Lower Gear.

9
Figure 2.2, Low Gear Ratio.

A new belt was developed by Van Doorne known as Metal Pushing V-Belt (MPVB) replaced
the earlier rubber belt develop by DAF in 1958. This kind of belt consist of a large number of
thin flat segments, which held together by two packs of steel band, each pack containing
eight to ten bands for flexibility.

Van Doorne formed a consortium with Fiat and Borg-Warner in mid’70s to develop a CVT
based on the belt was design by him [30]. The belt system can be described as a mechanism
to adjust the drive and driven sheaves. Both side attached to a spring loaded and torque
sensitive mechanism. The driver sheaves would typically connect to a centrifugally actuated
control. At idle speed, the drive sheaves halves are separated and no power is transmitted.
When the engine speed increases, the sheaves are bought together, which set the belt at
minimum sheaves radius, provide maximum speed reduction and maximum torque.

As the engine power increase further, the centrifugal actuated continues to move the sheaves
halves closer, while the driven sheaves move further apart as response to the increasing of
belt tension. In this project, a mathematical modelling of a position control system based on
CVT and applied to arm robot as the load was introduced. The control algorithm will replace
the conventional position control strategy using fixed ratio into variable gears train. Based on
develop model, the stability and performance analysis will be conducted. By studying and
modelling the CVT concept, arm robot can be controlled with an alternative system by just
need little understanding about the belt-pulley system.

10
 CHAPTER 3

PROBLEM STATEMENTS

In the last few decades, development regarding to the position control have caught lot of
researcher interest into this problem. They usually design on how to improve the
conventional positioning control using fixed gearbox system, by using several type of
controller such as Proportional Integrator Differentiation (PID), Fuzzy Logic, Neural
Network, and many more, without taken into account about the possibility of using variable
gearing ratio in their system.
In the conventional positioning control, a fixed gear train has been use that is in the ratio of
spur and pinion. This gear train functions to transfer the power from the motor to the load.
This cause from the error between the output position and the reference input, then this error
will be amplified and make the motor to move according the error and finally adjust the
position. The issue here is, instead we are using fixed gear and other controller, is that an
alternative way by varied the ration of the gears train to control position of a load.
This similar concept is applied to a car engine that used CVT compared with a conventional
automated transmission car. A passenger in a car with conventional automated transmission
will fell the shifting gear when the car accelerate, and that situation still will happened if a car
with CVT is used. So, we applied the same concept use in car manufacturer to the
conventional position control system. Therefore in this project, we are develop a
mathematical modelling of a position control by using variable gearing ratio has been use in
CVT. We also interested to know either there have any point of improvement when people
design a position control algorithm using variable ratio system compared to fixed ratio in
their system.

11
 CHAPTER 4
COMPONENT OF CVT SYSTEM

4.1 Dc Geared Motor:

Geared DC motors can be defined as an extension of DC motor which already had its Insight
details demystified here. A geared DC Motor has a gear assembly attached to the motor. The
speed of motor is counted in terms of rotations of the shaft per minute and is termed as
RPM .The gear assembly helps in increasing the torque and reducing the speed. Using the
correct combination of gears in a gear motor, its speed can be reduced to any desirable figure.
This concept where gears reduce the speed of the vehicle but increase its torque is known as
gear reduction. This Insight will explore all the minor and major details that make the gear
head and hence the working of geared DC motor.

External Structure:
At the first sight, the external structure of a DC geared motor looks as a straight expansion
over the simple DC ones.

Figure 4.1.1: DC Gear Motor.

12
 Figure 4.1.2: Internally Threaded Shaft.

The outer body of the gear head is made of high density plastic but it is quite easy to open as
only screws are used to attach the outer and the inner structure. The major reason behind this
could be to lubricate gear head from time to time.The plastic body has a threading through
which nut can be easily mounted and vice versa from the gear head.

Figure 4.1.3: Internal parts of DC gear motor.

13
Geared DC motors can be defined as an extension of DC motor which already had its Insight
details demystified here. A geared DC Motor has a gear assembly attached to the motor. The
speed of motor is counted in terms of rotations of the shaft per minute and is termed as RPM.
The gear assembly helps in increasing the torque and reducing the speed. Using the correct
combination of gears in a gear motor, its speed can be reduced to any desirable figure. This
concept where gears reduce the speed of the vehicle but increase its torque is known as gear
reduction. This Insight will explore all the minor and major details that make the gear head
and hence the working of geared DC motor.

External Structure
At the first sight, the external structure of a DC geared motor looks as a straight expansion
over the simple DC ones.

Figure 4.1.4: Gear Head.

14
 Figure 4.1.5: Gear Head Assembly

The outer body of the gear head is made of high density plastic but it is quite easy to open as
only screws are used to attach the outer and the inner structure. The major reason behind this
could be to lubricate gear head from time to time.The plastic body has a threading through
which nut can be easily mounted and vice versa from the gear head.

The gear assembly is set up on two metallic cylinders whose working can be called as similar
to that of an axle. A total of three gears combine on these two cylinders to form the bottom
gear assembly out of which two gears share the same axle while one gear comes in between
them and takes a separate axle. The gears are basically in form of a small sprocket but since
they are not connected by a chain, they can be termed as duplex gears in terms of a second
cog arrangement coaxially over the base. Among the three gears, two are exactly same while
the third one is bigger in terms of the number of teeth at the upper layer of the duplex gear.
The third gear is connected to the gear at the upper portion of the gear head. The manner in
which they are located near the upper part of the gear head can be seen through the image
shown below.
The combination of bottom gear assembly with the upper one can be seen down under.

15
Figure 4.1.6:Gear Assembly.

The gear assembly is set up on two metallic cylinders whose working can be called as similar
to that of an axle. A total of three gears combine on these two cylinders to form the bottom
gear assembly out of which two gears share the same axle while one gear comes in between
them and takes a separate axle. The gears are basically in form of a small sprocket but since
they are not connected by a chain, they can be termed as duplex gears in terms of a second
cog arrangement coaxially over the base. Among the three gears, two are exactly same while
the third one is bigger in terms of the number of teeth at the upper layer of the duplex gear.
The third gear is connected to the gear at the upper portion of the gear head. The manner in
which they are located near the upper part of the gear head can be seen through the image
shown below.

16
4.2 CONTROLLER:

The microcontroller is small computer on a single circuit containing processor core, memory,
and programmable input/output peripherals. Program memory in the form of Ferroelectric
RAM, NOR flash or OTP ROM is also often included on chip, as well as a typically small
amount of RAM. Microcontrollers are designed for embedded applications, in contrast to
the microprocessors used in personal computers or other general purpose applications.
Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices, such as
automobile engine control systems, implantable medical devices, remote controls, office
machines, appliances, power tools, toys and other embedded systems. By reducing the size
and cost compared to a design that uses a separate microprocessor, memory, and input/output
devices, microcontrollers make it economical to digitally control even more devices and
processes. Mixed signal microcontrollers are common, integrating analogue components
needed to control non-digital electronic systems.

Figure -4.2.1 Circuit diagram

17
4.3 CAPACITOR:

Capacitors are common components of electronic circuits, used almost as frequently as

resistors. The basic difference between the two is the fact that capacitor resistance (called
reactance) depends on the frequency of the signal passing through the item. The symbol for
reactance is Xc and it can be calculated using the following formula:

f representing the frequency in Hz and C representing the capacitance in Farads.

For example, 5nF-capacitor's reactance at f=125kHz equals:

while, at f=1.25MHz, it equals:

A capacitor has an infinitely high reactance for direct current, because f=0.
Capacitors are used in circuits for many different purposes. They are common components of
filters, oscillators, power supplies, amplifiers, etc.
The basic characteristic of a capacitor is its capacity - the higher the capacity, the higher is
the amount of electricity it can hold. Capacity is measured in Farads (F). As one Farad
represents fairly high capacity, smaller values such as microfarad (µF), nanofarad (nF) and
picofarad (pF) are commonly used. As a reminder, relations between units are:
1F=106µF=109nF=1012pF,
that is 1µF=1000nF and 1nF=1000pF. It is essential to remember this notation, as same
values may be marked differently in some circuits. For example, 1500pF is the same as
1.5nF, 100nF is 0.1µF A simpler notation system is used as with resistors.

18
4.4 DIODE:

A diode is a semiconductor device which allows current to flow through it in only one
direction. Although a transistor is also a semiconductor device, it does not operate the way a
diode does. A diode is specifically made to allow current to flow through it in only one
direction. Some ways in which the diode can be used are listed here. A diode can be used as a
rectifier that converts AC (Alternating Current) to DC (Direct Current) for a power supply
device. Diodes can be used to separate the signal from radio frequencies. Diodes can be used
as an on/off switch that controls current.

Figure 4.4.1 Diodes

This symbol is used to indicate a diode in a circuit diagram. The meaning of the symbol
is (Anode) (Cathode). Current flows from the anode side to the cathode side

Figure 4.4.2 Diode symbols: a - standard diode, b - LED, c, d - Zener, e - photo, f,g - tunnel,
h - Scotty, i - breakdown, j - capacitate

19
4.4.1 V-I characteristics:

Figure 4.4.3 The V-I characteristics of a typical diode.[34 ]

When a small voltage is applied to the diode in the forward direction, current flows easily.
Because the diode has a ce7rtain amount of resistance, the voltage will drop slightly as
current flows through the diode. A typical diode causes a voltage drop of about 0.6 - 1V (V F)
(In the case of silicon diode, almost 0.6V). This voltage drop needs to be taken into
consideration in a circuit which uses many diodes in series. Also, the amount of current
passing through the diodes must be considered. When voltage is applied in the reverse
direction through a diode, the diode will have a great resistance to current flow. Different
diodes have different characteristics when reverse-biased. A given diode should be selected
depending on how it will be used in the circuit. The current that will flow through a diode
biased in the reverse direction will vary from several mA to just µA, which is very small. The
limiting voltages and currents permissible must be considered on a case by case basis. For
example, when using diodes for rectification, part of the time they will be required to
withstand a reverse voltage. If the diodes are not chosen carefully, they will break down.

20
4.5 INTEGRATED CIRCUITS:

Integrated circuits were made possible by experimental discoveries which showed that
semiconductor devices could perform the functions of vacuum tubes, and by mid-20th-
century technology advancements in semiconductor device fabrication. The integration of
large numbers of tiny transistors into a small chip was an enormous improvement over the
manual assembly of circuits using discrete electronic components. The integrated circuit's
mass production capability, reliability, and building-block approach to circuit design
ensured the rapid adoption of standardized ICs in place of designs using discrete transistors.

Figure 4.5.1 Integrated Circuit

There are two main advantages of ICs over discrete circuits: cost and performance. Cost is
low because the chips, with all their components, are printed as a unit by photolithography
and not constructed a transistor at a time. Performance is high since the components switch
quickly and consume little power, because the components are small and close together. As
of 2006, chip areas range from a few square mm to around 350 mm 2, with up to 1 million
transistors per mm2.

4.5.1 Advances in integrated circuits:

Among the most advanced integrated circuits are the microprocessors or "cores", which
control everything from computers to cellular phones to digital microwave ovens. Digital
memory chips and ASI8.1Cs are examples of other families of integrated circuits that are
important to the modern information society. While cost of designing and developing a
complex integrated circuit is quite high, when spread across typically millions of production
units the individual IC cost is minimized. The performance of ICs is high because the small
size allows short traces which in turn allows low power logic (such as CMOS) to be used at
fast switching speeds.

21
ICs have consistently migrated to smaller feature sizes over the years, allowing more circuitry
to be packed on each chip. This increased capacity per unit area can be used to decrease cost
and/or increase functionality—see Moore's law which, in its modern interpretation, states that
the number of transistors in an integrated circuit doubles every two years. In general, as the
feature size shrinks, almost everything improves—the cost per unit and the switching power
consumption go down, and the speed goes up. However, ICs with nanometer-scale devices
are not without their problems, principal among which is leakage current), although these
problems are not insurmountable and will likely be solved or at least ameliorated by the
introduction of high-k dielectrics. Since these speed and power consumption gains are
apparent to the end user, there is fierce competition among the manufacturers to use finer
geometries.

4.5.2 Popularity of IC’s:

Only a half century after their development was initiated, integrated circuits have become
ubiquitous. Computers, cellular phones, and other digital appliances are now inextricable
parts of the structure of modern societies. That is, modern computing, communications,
manufacturing and transport systems, including the Internet, all depend on the existence of
integrated circuits. Indeed, many scholars believe that the digital revolution brought about by
integrated circuits was one of the most significant occurrences in the history of mankind
Classification:
Integrated circuits can be classified into analog, digital and mixed signal (both analog and
digital on the same chip).

Figure 4.5.2 A CMOS 4000 IC

Digital integrated circuits can contain anything from a few thousand to millions of logic
gates, flip-flops, multiplexers, and other circuits in a few square millimetres. The small size
of these circuits allows high speed, low power dissipation, and reduced manufacturing cost

22
compared with board-level integration. These digital ICs, typically microprocessors, DSPs,
and micro controllers work using binary mathematics to process "one" and "zero" signals.
Analog ICs, such as sensors, power management circuits, and operational amplifiers, work by
processing continuous signals. They perform functions like amplification, active filtering,
demodulation, mixing, etc. Analog ICs ease the burden on circuit designers by having
expertly designed analog circuits available instead of designing a difficult analog circuit from
scratch.
ICs can also combine analog and digital circuits on a single chip to create functions such as
A/D converters and D/A converters. Such circuits offer smaller size and lower cost, but must
carefully account for signal interference.

23
4.6 RESISTOR:

Resistors are the most commonly used component in electronics and their purpose is to create
specified values of current and voltage in a circuit. A number of different resistors are shown
in the photos. (The resistors are on millimetre paper, with 1cm spacing to give some idea of
the dimensions). Photo 4.6.1(a) shows some low-power resistors, while photo 4.6.1(b) shows
some higher-power resistors. Resistors with power dissipation below 5 watt (most commonly
used types) are cylindrical in shape, with a wire protruding from each end for connecting to a
circuit . Resistors with power dissipation above 5 watt are shown below (photo 4.6.1-b).

Figure-4.6.1(b) High-power resistors and

Figure 4.6.1(a) Some low-power resistors
rheostats

The symbol for a resistor is shown in the following diagram (upper: American symbol, lower:
European symbol.)

4.6.1 Resistor symbols:

The unit for measuring resistance is the OHM. (the Greek letter Ω - called Omega). Higher
resistance values are represented by "k" (kilo-ohms) and M (meg ohms). For example, 120
000 Ω is represented as 120k, while 1 200 000 Ω is represented as 1M2. The dot is generally
omitted as it can easily be lost in the printing process. In some circuit diagrams, a value such
as 8 or 120 represents a resistance in ohms. Another common practice is to use the letter E for
resistance in ohms. The letter R can also be used. For example, 120E (120R) stands for 120
Ω, 1E2 stands for 1R2 etc.

24
4.6.2 Carbon film resistors:
This is the most general purpose, cheap resistor. Usually the tolerance of the resistance value
is ±5%. Power ratings of 1/8W, 1/4W and 1/2W are frequently used.
Carbon film resistors have a disadvantage; they tend to be electrically noisy. Metal film
resistors are recommended for use in analog circuits. However, I have never experienced any
problems with this noise. The physical size of the different resistors is as follows.

Rough size

Rating power Thickness Length

(W) (mm) (mm)
From the top of the photographs
1/8 2 3
1/8W
1/4W ¼ 2 6
1/2W
½ 3 9

Figure-4.6.2 Carbon film resistors

This resistor is called a Single-In-Line(SIL) resistor network. It is made with many resistors
of the same value, all in one package. One side of each resistor is connected with one side of
all the other resistors inside. One example of its use would be to control the current in a
circuit powering many light emitting diodes (LEDs).
In the photograph on the left, 8 resistors are housed in the package. Each of the leads on the
package is one resistor. The ninth lead on the left side is the common lead. The face value of
the resistance is printed.
Some resistor networks have a "4S" printed on the top of the resistor network. The 4S
indicates that the package contains 4 independent resistors that are not wired together inside.
The housing has eight leads instead of nine. The internal wiring of these typical resistor
networks has been illustrated below. The size (black part) of the resistor network which I

25
have is as follows: For the type with 9 leads, the thickness is 1.8 mm, the height 5mm, and
the width 23 mm. For the types with 8 component leads, the thickness is 1.8 mm, the height 5
mm, and the width 20 mm.

4.6.3 Metal film resistors:

Metal film resistors are used when a lower tolerance (more accurate value) is needed. They
are much more accurate in value than carbon film resistors. They have about ±0.05%
tolerance. They have about ±0.05% tolerance. I don't use any high tolerance resistors in my
circuits. Resistors that are about ±1% are more than sufficient. Ni-Cr (Nichrome) seems to be
used for the material of resistor. The metal film resistor is used for bridge circuits, filter
circuits, and low-noise analog signal circuits.

Rough size

Rating power Thickness Length

(W) (mm) (mm)

From the top of the photograph 1/8 2 3

1/8W (tolerance ±1%)
1/4W (tolerance ±1%) ¼ 2 6

1W (tolerance ±5%)
1 3.5 12
2W (tolerance ±5%)

2 5 15

Figure-4.6.3 Metal film resistors

4.7 COILS AND TRANSFORMERS:

26
4.7.1 Coils:
Coils are not a very common component in electronic circuits, however when they are used,
they need to be understood. They are encountered in oscillators, radio-receivers, transmitter
and similar devices containing oscillatory circuits. In amateur devices, coils can be made by
winding one or more layers of insulated copper wire onto a former such as PVC, cardboard,
etc. Factory-made coils come in different shapes and sizes, but the common feature for all is
an insulated body with turns of copper wire.
The basic characteristic of every coil is its inductance. Inductance is measured in Henry (H),
but more common are millihenry (mH) and microhenry (µH) as one Henry is quite a high
inductance value. As a reminder:

1H = 1000mH = 106 µH.

Coil inductance is marked by XL, and can be calculated using the following formula:

Where f represents the frequency of the voltage in Hz and the L represents the coil inductance
in H.

For example, if f equals 684 kHz, while L=0.6 mH, coil impedance will be:

The same coil would have three times higher impedance at three times higher frequency. As
can be seen from the formula above, coil impedance is in direct proportion to frequency, so
that coils, as well as capacitors, are used in circuits for filtering at specified frequencies. Note
that coil impedance equals zero for DC (f=0).
Several coils are shown on the figures 4.7.1, 4.7.2, 4.7.3, and 4.7.4.
The simplest coil is a single-layer air core coil. It is made on a cylindrical insulator (PVC,
cardboard, etc.), as shown in figure 4.7.1. In the figure 4.7.1(a), turns have space left between
them, while the common practice is to wind the wire with no space between turns. To prevent
the coil unwinding, the ends should be put through small holes as shown in the figure.

27
 Figure-4.7.1 Single-layer coil

Figure 4.7.1(b) shows how the coil is made. If the coil needs 120 turns with a tapping on the
thirtieth turn, there are two coils L1 with 30 turns and L2 with 90 turns. When the end of the
first and the beginning of the second coil are soldered, we get a "tapping."

A multilayered coil is shown in figure 4.7..2(a). The inside of the plastic former has a screw-
thread, so that the ferromagnetic core in the shape of a small screw can be inserted. Screwing
the core moves it along the axis and into the centre of the coil to increase the inductance. In
this manner, fine changes to the inductance can be made.

Figure-4.7.2(a). Multi-layered coil with core, b. Coupled coils

Figure-4.7..2(b) shows a high-frequency transformer. As can be seen, these are two coils are
coupled by magnetic induction on a shared body. When the coils are required to have exact
inductance values, each coil has a ferromagnetic core that can be adjusted along the coil axis.
At very high frequencies (above 50MHz) coil inductance is small, so coils need only a few
turns. These coils are made of thick copper wire (approx. 0.5mm) with no coil body, as
shown on the figure 4.7.3(a) Their inductance can be adjusted by physically stretching or
squeezing the turns together.

28
Figure-4.7.3(a). High frequency coil, b. Inter-frequency transformer

Figure b shows a metal casing containing two coils, with the schematic on the right. The
parallel connection of the first coil and capacitor C forms an oscillatory circuit. The second
coil is used for transferring the signal to the next stage. This is used in radio-receivers and
similar devices. The metal casing serves as a screen to prevent external signals affecting the
coils. For the casing to be effective, it must be earthed.

Figure below shows a "pot core" inductor. The core is made in two halves and is glued
together. The core is made of ferromagnetic material, commonly called "ferrite." These
inductors are used at frequencies up to 100kHz. Adjustment of the inductance can be made by
the brass or steel screw in the centre of the coil.

Figure-4.7.4 "pot core" inductor

4.7.2 Transformers:
For electronic devices to function it is necessary to have a DC power supply. Batteries and
rechargeable cells can fulfil the role, but a much more efficient way is to use a POWER
SUPPLY. The basic component of a power supply is a transformer to transform the 220V
"mains" to a lower value, say 12V. A common type of transformer has one primary winding
which connects to the 220V and one (or several) secondary windings for the lower voltages.

29
Most commonly, cores are made of E and I laminations, but some are made of ferromagnetic
material. There are also iron core transformers used for higher frequencies. Various types of
transformers are shown on the picture below.

Figure-4.7.5 Various types of transformers.

Symbols for a transformer are shown on the figure below. Two vertical lines indicate that
primary and secondary windings share the same core.

Figure-4.7.6 Transformer symbols.

With the transformer, manufacturers usually supply a diagram containing information about
the primary and secondary windings, the voltages and maximal currents. In the case where
the diagram is missing, there is a simple method for determining which winding is the
primary and which is the secondary: a primary winding consists of thinner wire and more
turns than the secondary. It has a higher resistance - and can be easily be tested by
ohmmeter. Figure 4.7.6(d) shows the symbol for a transformer with two independent
secondary windings, one of them has three tapings giving a total of 4 different output

30
voltages. The 5v secondary is made of thinner wire with a maximal current of 0.3A, while the
other winding is made of thicker wire with a maximal current of 1.5A. Maximum voltage on
the larger secondary is 48V, as shown on the figure. Note that voltages other than those
marked on the diagram can be produced - for example, a voltage between tappings marked
27V and 36V equals 9V, voltage between tappings marked 27V and 42V equals 15V, etc.

4.7.3 Working principles and basic characteristics:

As already stated, transformers consist of two windings, primary and the secondary (figure
4.7.7). When the voltage Up is connected to the primary winding (in our case the "mains" is
220V), AC current Ip flows through it. This current creates a magnetic field which passes to
the secondary winding via the core of the transformer, inducing voltage Us (24V in our
example). The "load" is connected to the secondary winding, shown in the diagram as Rp
(30Ω in our example). A typical load could be an electric bulb working at 24V with a
consumption of 19.2W.

Figure-4.5.7 Transformer: a. Working principles, b. Symbol

Transfer of electrical energy from the primary to the secondary is done via a magnetic field
(called "flux") and a magnetic circuit called the "core of the transformer." To prevent losses,
it is necessary to make sure the whole magnetic field created by the primary passes to the

31
secondary. This is achieved by using an iron core, which has much lower magnetic resistance
than air.
Primary voltage is the "mains" voltage. This value can be 220V or 110V, depending on the
country. Secondary voltage is usually much lower, such as 6V, 9V, 15V, 24V, etc, but can
also be higher than 220V, depending on the transformer's purpose. Relation of the primary
and secondary voltage is given with the following formula:

Where Ns and Np represent the number of turns on the primary and secondary winding,
respectively. For instance, if Ns equals 80 and Np equals 743, secondary voltage will be:

Relationship between the primary and secondary current is determined by the following
formula:

For instance, if Rp equals 30Ω, then the secondary current equals Ip = Up/Rp = 24V/30Ω =
0.8A. If Ns equals 80 and Np equals 743, primary current will be:

Transformer wattage can be calculated by the following formulae:

In our example, the power equals:

Everything up to this point relates to the ideal transformer. Clearly, there is no such thing as
perfect, as losses are inevitable. They are present due to the fact that the windings exhibit a
certain resistance value, which makes the transformer warm up during operation, and the fact

32
that the magnetic field created by the primary does not entirely pass to the secondary. This is
why the output wattage is less than the input wattage. Their ratio is called EFFICIENCY:

For transformers delivering hundreds of watts, efficiency is about µ=0.85, meaning that 85%
of the electrical energy taken from the mains gets to the consumer, while the 15% is lost due
to previously mentioned factors in the form of heat. For example, if power required by the
consumer equals Up*Ip = 30W, then the power which the transformer draws from the maains
equals:

To avoid any confusion here, bear in mind that manufacturers have already taken every
measure in minimizing the losses of transformers and other electronic components and that,
practically, this is the highest possible efficiency. When acquiring a transformer, you should
only worry about the required voltage and the maximal current of the secondary. Dividing
the wattage and the secondary voltage gets you the maximal current value for the consumer.
Dividing the wattage and the primary voltage gets you the current that the transformer draws
from network, which is important to know when buying the fuse. Anyhow, you should be
able to calculate any value you might need using the appropriate formulae from above.

4.7.4 Practical examples with coils and transformers:

On the figure 4.7.8(b) coils, along with the capacitor, form two filters for conducting the
currents to the speakers.

Figure-4.5.8 Coils and transformers

33
Figure-4.7.9 ( a) Amplifier with headphones, b() Band-switch, (c) Detector radio-receiver

The most obvious application for a transformer is in a power supply. A typical transformer is
shown in figure 4.7.8 and is used for converting 220V to 24V.

34
 CHAPTER 5

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

5.1 Advantages of the CVT:

Engines do not develop constant power at all speeds; they have specific speeds where torque
(pulling power), horsepower (speed power) or fuel efficiency are at their highest levels.
Because there are no gears to tie a given road speed directly to a given engine speed, the CVT
can vary the engine speed as needed to access maximum power as well as maximum fuel
efficiency. This allows the CVT to provide quicker acceleration than a conventional
automatic or manual transmission while delivering superior fuel economy.

5.2 Disadvantages of the CVT:

The CVT's biggest problem has been user acceptance. Because the CVT allows the engine to
rev at any speed, the noises coming from under the hood sound odd to ears accustomed to
conventional manual and automatic transmissions. The gradual changes in engine note sound
like a sliding transmission or a slipping clutch -- signs of trouble with a conventional
transmission, but perfectly normal for a CVT. Flooring an automatic car brings a lurch and a
sudden burst of power, whereas CVTs provide a smooth, rapid increase to maximum power.
To some drivers this makes the car feel slower, when in fact a CVT will generally out-
accelerate an automatic.
Automakers have gone to great lengths to make the CVT feel more like a conventional
transmission. Many CVTs are programmed to simulate the "kick-down" feel of a regular
automatic when the pedal is floored, and some CVTs offer a "manual" mode with steering-
wheel-mounted paddle shifters that simulates a conventional stepped transmission.
Because early automotive CVTs were limited as to how much horsepower they could handle,
there has been some concern about the long-term reliability of the CVT. Advanced
technology has made the CVT much more robust. Nissan has more than a million CVTs in
service around the world and says their long-term reliability is comparable to conventional
transmissions.

35
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