2018-Tyre Pattern Features and Their Effects On Passenger Vehicle Drag
2018-Tyre Pattern Features and Their Effects On Passenger Vehicle Drag
2018-Tyre Pattern Features and Their Effects On Passenger Vehicle Drag
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flow physics as it directly affects the Courant number (CFL). Ideally,
the CFL should be below 1 in the vast majority of the domain, which
would be the equivalent of a time step of 5x10-5 seconds with the
current mesh resolution. However, the computational costs for such a
small time step are not affordable within the available computational
resources for the project. Given that the flow is iterated several times
within each time step, and that a second order temporal discretization
is used, larger time steps could also be feasible. This is investigated
by performing simulations on the reference case, closed rims and slick
tyres, with multiple time step sizes and comparing the drag and lift
distributions. The times step sizes investigated are: 5x10-5 , 1x10-4 ,
2x10-4 , and 4x10-4 seconds. An investigation into the averaging interval
(a) Open rim (OR) (b) Closed rim (CR)
is also performed by extending the two seconds interval to 4 seconds for
Figure 2: Geometry representations of the rims. the reference case.
All simulations are done at 100 kph with the wheel rotation modelled
to simulate road conditions. The tunnel is accredited according the using a sliding mesh approach for modelling the rim spokes rotation and
European Accreditation procedure EA 4/02 and has a one count (0.001 an MRFg (Moving Reference Frame - grooves) approach for modelling
Cd ) measurement uncertainty for drag coefficient measurements within the tyre rotation. The MRFg approach combines the rotating wall
the same test, more details about the wind tunnel can be found in [23]. boundary condition on the tyre surface and the MRF approach inside
Only force measurements were performed during the test campaign. the lateral grooves. The details of its implementation and sensitivity
These are converted to aerodynamic coefficients, which are corrected analysis can be found in [22]. The simulations are performed in open
for wake blockage, solid blockage, and horizontal buoyancy. Figure 3 road conditions with a fully moving ground. The rectangular domain is
shows the car in the wind tunnel. 70 m long, 20 m wide, and 10 m high, with a velocity inlet, upstream of
the car, and a pressure outlet, downstream. The car geometry includes
a detailed engine bay however the cooling inlets have been sealed off
for all cases. By doing so any uncertainties from modelling the cooling
package and engine bay geometry are avoided.
Figure 3: The test vehicle in the wind tunnel with a closer look at the wheel.
Numerical setup
One mesh, for the complete domain, is built per rim which allows for all
The simulations are performed in StarCCM+ (v11.06) using a hybrid
various tyre configurations. This ensures an identical mesh for all tyre
RANS-LES turbulence modelling approach. The formulation used is
feature investigations per rim. The mesh surface sizes varied from 1 to
the Improved Delayed Detached Eddy Simulation (IDDES)[24], with
8 mm on the vehicle, with slow growth into the domain for key sensitive
second order temporal discretization and second order upwind spatial
areas around the car. Six to eight prism layers, with a first cell height of
discretization. A hybrid Gauss-Least Square Method (Gauss-LSQ)
0.01 mm, are built on all exterior surfaces which are directly exposed to
is used for gradient computation with second order accuracy. The
the main flow and are expected to have a boundary layer build up. This
simulations are solved up to a steady state k-w SST solution for
has also been performed on the wheels resulting in a y+ below one. For
initialization. Then, three seconds of physical time are computed
all other surfaces, only one prism layer with a height of 1 mm is built in
with gradual reduction of the timestep in order to allow the flow field to
order to reduce the mesh count while still ensuring a constant first cell
develop smoothly. Finally, two seconds of physical time with a timestep
height. The total mesh count ranged around 120 million cells, requiring
of 2x10-4 seconds are computed and averaged to obtain the mean flow
around 30 hours per simulation running on 2000 cores.
solution. Thus, the wheel rotates by 1 degree per time step and performs
around 28 revolutions during the averaging time.
Results and Discussion
When running an unsteady simulation it is important to choose the
averaging time and time step carefully to obtain accurate results. The The CFD methodology investigation results are presented in this section.
time step choice not only affects the sampling time but also affects the Then the CFD prediction capability for tyre modifications is compared
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to the wind tunnel predictions. the drag or lift deviate by significant values. This further confirms that
a time step of 2x10-4 is sufficient for the simulation setup.
The effects of changing time step size on overall drag and lift coefficients
can be seen in Figure 5, where the forces are averaged for 2 seconds.
They are presented in terms of deltas to the reference setup with 5x10-5
seconds. The overall drag and lift predictions do not change significantly
for time steps of 1x10-4 and 2x10-4 seconds, while 4x10-4 deviate from
the overall drag and front lift values. Thus, for the most time efficient
approach, the 2x10-4 seconds time step is preferable as it reduces the
simulation time by 60% from the 5x10-5 s time step, as shown in Figure 6.
The increase in time step is not linearly related to the time saving since
it is accompanied with an increase in inner iterations in order to get a
converged flow field within the time step.
Figure 7: The difference in aerodynamic coefficients along the length of the car
for a 2x10-4 vs 5x10-5 s.
With the time step set, the effect of averaging time on the results is
investigated by extending the averaging interval from two seconds to
four seconds. The overall drag and lift values, as well as the cumulative
drag and lift, showed no significant deviations and this can be seen
from the cumulative Cd and Cl , along the vehicle length, plots shown in
Figure 8.
Figure 5: Changes in drag and lift distribution when varying the time step relative
to 5x10-5 s.
Figure 8: The difference in aerodynamic coefficients along the length of the car
for a 2 s vs 4 s averaging time.
An analysis of looking into the flow quantities has also been performed
by 3D mapping the complete time averaged flow fields and analysing
the deviations. It has been noted that small deviations in velocity of
the order of 1 m/s can be seen in the rear wake area of the car. This
Figure 6: Changes in simulation solving time presented in percentage relative to is not surprising given that the rear wake frequency usually is of the
5x10-5 s. order of several Hertz, and hence a time averaging of 2 s might capture
a relatively small number of cycles. However, these deviations showed
very little effect on the pressure, less that 5 Pa deviations in the flow field
However, prediction of the overall drag value is not a sufficient measure with almost no deviations on the vehicle surface. Given this general
as the distribution over the vehicle must also be similarly predicted match in flow field comparison, the 2 seconds averaging time interval
in order to enable reliable local optimization. This is investigated by predicts the numerical results with acceptable accuracy, with a little
plotting the cumulative drag difference over the vehicle in order to over half the computational resources.
confirm that the drag development over the length of the vehicle is close.
The cumulative drag is obtained by summing the local drag contribution
for each vehicle surface cell along the length of the car (x-direction). Tyre Feature: rain grooves
Figure 7 presents the deltas of cumulative drag and lift development The changes in drag resulting from adding rain grooves to slick and
along the length of the vehicle for the case of 2x10-4 vs 5x10-5 seconds lateral grooved tyres on open and closed rims can be seen in Figure 9.
time steps. It can be seen that at no point along the vehicle length does Whenever a significant trend is present, for the closed rim cases (CR-S
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and CR-G) , as well as the open rim with lateral grooved tyre (OR-G), it
is predicted in the same direction with a similar magnitude. For the open
rim with slick tyre, OR-S, the drag changes are too small for any strong
conclusions to be drawn. The drag reduction in CFD can be traced to the
Figure 9: The change in drag when introducing rain grooves on various wheel
configurations from wind tunnel tests and CFD simulations.
rear wheels and the base area of the car. This was unexpected since it
has been previously observed that the rain grooves reduce the stagnation
(b) Closed rim rain grooved (CR-R)
pressure on the front tyre and equalize the low pressure behind it as it
connects the two areas, [16]. However, the flow around the underbody Mean Cp
seems to change and any benefits added from this effect are equalized
by increases in drag elsewhere around the front wheel. This can be seen
−0.3 −0.2 −0.1 0.0
in Figure 10, where, despite the fluctuations around the front wheel, the
drag difference between the rain grooved tyre and the slick tyre is null Figure 11: Mean pressure coefficient distribution on the base of the car for
at the middle of the car. Further downstream the drag reduction is seen different wheel configurations.
around the rear wheel area leading to a sharp reduction around the trunk
and base.
(a) Closed rim slick (CR-S) (b) Closed rim rain grooved (CR-R)
Figure 12: Mean lateral velocity in a plane 0.5 m behind the rear wheel centre
with in-plane streamlines.
Figure 11 shows the mean base pressure for the slick and rain grooved
tyres on a closed rim. The base pressure is higher when the rain grooves
are present as shown in Figure 11b compared to Figure 11a. Tyre feature: lateral grooves
Figure 11b also shows two strong low pressure spots on the lower outer The changes in drag resulting from adding lateral grooves to slick and
edge of the rear wheels, indicating a stronger inflow. It is the result of rain grooved tyres on open and closed rims can be seen in Figure 13.
a vortex created behind the rear wheel which moves towards the rear For the cases with the closed rim, CR-S and CR-R, the CFD prediction
wake and can be seen in Figure 12. is not correct.
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(a) Closed rim slick (CR-S)
Figure 13: The change in drag when introducing lateral grooves on various wheel
configurations from wind tunnel tests and CFD simulations.
The explanation for the discrepancy for both closed rim cases is not a
hundred percent clear. CFD seems to either over predict the drag with
the lateral grooves present, or under predict the drag when they are not.
The latter is the most likely scenario since, in reality the tyre shoulder is
a rough surface and not as smooth as simulated, and surface roughness in
(b) Open rim slick (OR-S)
such a sensitive area with high velocities and steep gradients could alter
the flow significantly if a separation is triggered. With the rim being
completely closed, the tyre shoulder will be the main factor determining
the flow behaviour around the wheel. The discrepancy in results between
CFD and experiments is significantly reduced with the open rim, OR-S
and OR-R, given the interaction with the rim spokes which alters and
likely dominates the flow in the close vicinity of the wheel. The effect
the rim introduces can be seen when looking at q-criterion around the
front left wheel, presented in Figure 14. The closed rim introduces very
few vortex structures, Figure 14a, while the open rim generates a small
sheet of vortices which covers most of the lower rim part, Figure 14b.
It is also worth noting that the tyre side wall in the simulations is
completely smooth unlike the test object which contains some protruding (c) Open rim lateral grooved (OR-G)
text spread in a sparse manner. This could also contribute to a slight
Mean Vorticity Magnitude [/s]
under prediction of the drag for the closed rim configurations with slicks.
The effect of this side writing would become less pronounced once
the lateral grooves are added as they introduce turbulent structures and 0 500 1000 1500 2000
vortices into the flow upstream of the side wall.
Figure 14: Isosurface of Q-criterion at 5000/s2 coloured by mean vorticity
The drag increase from adding the lateral grooves in CFD has been magnitude around the front left wheel.
directly linked to the front wheels without any major effects resulting
from the rear wheels. This is seen when plotting the change in cumulative
drag over the length of the vehicle. This is shown in Figure 15 for OR-S.
When adding the lateral grooves a sharp increase in drag takes place
around the front wheels, however when the flow stabilizes downstream
of the front wheels this increase in drag is not affected any more. Similar
behaviour has been observed with all configurations pointing to very
little change around the rear wheels.
The small vortices generated from the lateral grooves merge in the
contact patch separation, Figure 14c, and its imprint can be seen by
looking at the mean total pressure coefficient shown in Figure 16. The
outer low pressure region at the front tyre contact patch, is taller when the
lateral grooves are added. This can be seen when comparing Figure 16c
to Figure 16a which are located in a plane going through the front wheel
centre at x = 1.7. Further downstream half a meter behind the front Figure 15: The change in drag along the length of the car when introducing
lateral grooves on an open rim wheel with slick tyres.
wheel centre, at x = 2.2, this low pressure region stretches out in width
while moving away from the vehicle, which explains the lack of further
interactions downstream.
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is most likely the case.
Comparison to slick
(a) OR-S at x=1.7 (b) OR-S at x=2.2 where Cd con f , is the drag for the configuration of interest and Cd Slick
is the drag when changing to a slick. This results in a direct comparison
of the prediction capability of CFD compared to the wind tunnel
measurements. The capabilities are summarized in Figure 17 with
a dashed line highlighting the uncertainty margin. This margin is
based on the 0.001 Cd experimental repeatability uncertainty and a
0.002 Cd simulation uncertainty estimate from the CFD methodology
investigation.
Mean Total Cp
Figure 16: Mean total pressure coefficient around the front left wheel in a plane
at the front wheel center (x=1.7) and 0.5 m downstream (x=2.2).
Table 1: The change in drag when adding the detailed pattern on a slick tyre for
closed and open rim configurations.
The wind tunnel results are predicted well in CFD with the open rim
case, however the closed rim case is not. Again, when simulating with a
closed rim, it is not clear if the detailed tyre configuration is being over Figure 18: The change in drag along the length of the car when introducing
predicted or if the slick tyre case has been under predicted but the latter detailed pattern on an open rim wheel with slick tyres.
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Figure 18 shows the cumulative Cd , along the length of the car, difference
between detailed and slick pattern on an open rim. The increase is
drag around the front wheel is a result from both the lateral and rain
grooves. As described previously in the lateral grooves section, the
same effect of enlarged contact patch separation occurs and can be seen
when comparing Figure 19a to Figure 16a. The low pressure region also
stretches in width as the flow moves downstream. As the rain grooves
are present in this case, the flow is slightly altered leading to an increase
in pressure behind the tyre at the ground yet a reduction in pressure
around the side skirts, seen in Figure 19b. These effects seem to cancel
out resulting in a 0.005 net increase in Cd at x = 3 m, similar to the case
of the open rim with lateral grooved tyre (OR-G), Figure 15.
(a) OR-D at x=1.7 (b) OR-D at x=2.2 (b) Open rim detailed (OR-D)
Figure 19: Mean total pressure coefficient around the front left wheel in a plane Figure 20: Mean pressure coefficient distribution on the base of the car for
at the front wheel centre (x=1.7) and 0.5 m downstream (x=2.2) different wheel configurations.
Another interesting factor that changes with the addition of tyre details
is the ventilation moment, the aerodynamic resistance to the wheel’s Conclusion
rotation. Although difficult to measure in the wind tunnel where it needs
to be isolated from other losses, like rolling resistance, this is easily This work demonstrates the ability of CFD simulations using MRFg
calculated in CFD. The ventilation moment has been output for each approach to predict tyre feature effects. A study of the effects of time
time step and the average for the front left and rear left wheels can be step size and averaging time is presented to motivate the numerical setup.
seen in Figure 21. The ventilation moments on the right wheels were Overall, the drag change for tyre features was well predicted in the open
similar to the left wheels, hence the detailed results are only presented rim case. However, the closed rim case proved to be more challenging
for one side of the car. with the effects of lateral grooves slightly outside of uncertainty margins.
As expected, the ventilation moment on the open rim configurations The following conclusions can be made:
is significantly higher than the closed rim, which matches well with
earlier studies on the subject [25, 26]. It could also be seen that the • An averaging interval of 2 seconds with a time step of 2x10-4
ventilation moments for the front wheel, Figure 21a, are consistently seconds has proven to be sufficient to produce accurate results in
higher than the rear wheel, Figure 21b. This can be explained by the terms of drag and lift prediction.
fact that the front wheel is more exposed to the on coming flow. When
the rim is closed and the tyres are slicks, the ventilation drag is at its • The rain grooves effect is generally well predicted in simulations
lowest at 0.53 N·m, front, and 0.50 N·m, rear. However when the rim after comparison to wind tunnel results. The reduction in drag
is opened, the spokes interact more with the flow and the ventilation they introduce could be seen in CFD around the rear wheels and
moments increase by 0.22 N·m in the front, and 0.2 N·m in the rear. on base pressure.
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pressure and velocity measurements in planes in the vicinity of the
1946-4002, doi: 10.4271/2012-01-1166.
wheels. Ideally, the wind tunnel geometry could also be included in the
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ground system, struts, and tunnel blockage effect on the flow field. This - Their Impact on Wind Tunnel Test Techniques and on Vehicle
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performed, in order to check whether the observations reported in
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9
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[15] Haag, L., Blacha, T., and Indinger, T., “Experimental Investigation Road Vehicle Aerodynamics Group
on the Aerodynamics of Isolated Rotating Wheels and Evaluation Division of Vehicle Engineering and Autonomous Systems
of Wheel Rotation Models Using Unsteady CFD”, International Department of Mechanics and Maritime Sciences
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[19] Hobeika, T., Sebben, S., and Lofdahl, L., “Study of Different This work is funded by FFI (Fordonsstrategisk Forskning och Innovation,
Tyre Simulation Methods and Effects on Passenger Car Strategic Vehicle Research and Innovation) through Energimyndigheten
Aerodynamics”, International Vehicle Aerodynamics Conference (Swedish Energy Agency) project number 37195-1.
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Contact Information
Assoc. Prof. Simone Sebben
Road Vehicle Aerodynamics Group
Division of Vehicle Engineering and Autonomous Systems
Department of Mechanics and Maritime Sciences
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