GALILEO, University System of Georgia

GALILEO Open Learning Materials

English Open Textbooks English
Spring 2018

College ESL Writers: Applied Grammar and Composing Strategies for

Success
Barbara Hall
Georgia State University, bhall12@gsu.edu Elizabeth Wallace
Georgia State University, ewallace3@gsu.edu

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Hall, Barbara and Wallace, Elizabeth, "College ESL Writers: Applied Grammar and Composing Strategies for Success" (2018). English Open Textbooks.
14.

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College ESL Writers: Applied Grammar and
Composing Strategies for Success

This text was adapted from Business English for Success, a text adapted by The Saylor
Foundation, under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0
License without attribution as requested by the work's original creator or licensee.
Barbara Hall and Beth Wallace adapted this text in 2017 under a Grant from Affordable
Learning Georgia to Georgia State University Perimeter College.
Page 4

Preface
College ESL Writers: Applied Grammar and Composing Strategies for Success is designed as a
comprehensive grammar and writing etext for high intermediate and advanced level non-native speakers
of English. We open the text with a discussion on the sentence and then break it down into its elemental
components, before reconstructing them into effective sentences with paragraphs and larger academic
assignments. Following that, we provide instruction in paragraph and essay writing with several
opportunities to both review the fundamentals as well as to demonstrate mastery and move on to more
challenging assignments.
Design: We have structured the etext into three basic parts. Part I, Composing Strategies and
Techniques, includes a sequenced discussion from composing effective sentences through paragraph
and essay writing. This includes the prewriting and planning stages of writing as well as the revising and
editing stage in the first five chapters. Part II, Language Use, Grammar, and Mechanics, is meant to
be used as a grammar and mechanics handbook as well as the practice and review of idiomatic wording.
Part III, All About Writing: Samples, Topics, and Rubrics, has chapters with additional writing
topics for practice, sample student papers, and rubrics for evaluating writing.

A Note to the Instructor

College ESL Writers: Applied Grammar and Composing Strategies for Success provides instruction in
steps, builds writing, reading, and critical thinking, and combines comprehensive grammar review with
an introduction to paragraph writing and academic essay composition.
Beginning with the sentence and its essential elements, this book addresses each concept with clear,
concise, and effective examples that are immediately reinforced with exercises and opportunities to
demonstrate learning. Each chapter that follows allows students to demonstrate mastery of the principles
of quality writing. With its incremental approach, this book can address a range of writing levels and
abilities, helping students prepare for the next writing or university course. Constant reinforcement is
provided through examples and exercises, and the text involves students in the learning process through
reading of student samples, problem solving, and practicing the writing process.
Each chapter also has integrated examples that unify the discussion and form a common, easy-to-
understand basis for discussion and exploration. We are hoping that this will put students at ease and
allow for greater understanding and demonstration of mastery of the material.
Return to Table of Contents
Page 5
Tips for effective writing are included in every chapter as well. These exercises are especially helpful for
working with groups of students. Clear exercises teach sentence and paragraph writing skills that lead to
common English composition and documents.

A Note to the Student

Writing is often a challenge, especially when you are writing in a second language. If you ever felt
challenged to express yourself via the written word and in particular, in another language, this book is for
you. We encourage you to explore it, use the exercises as opportunities to learn new skills, and most of all,
to be successful in your achievement of your course objectives and goals. This text is available free online
and is the result of the dedication of many professionals who share the common goal of increasing access
to educational materials for all students. Please thank your instructor for choosing an open source text!

Features
> Exercises are integrated in each segment. Each concept is immediately reinforced as soon as it is
introduced to keep students on track.
> Exercises are designed to facilitate interaction and collaboration. This allows for peer-peer
engagement, development of interpersonal skills, and promotion of critical-thinking skills.
> Exercises that involve self-editing. This feature develops and promotes student interest in the
knowledge areas and content.
> Clear internal summaries and effective displays of information are available. This
contributes to ease of access to information and increases students' ability to locate desired content.
> Rule explanations are simplified with clear, relevant, and theme-based examples. This
feature provides context that will facilitate learning and increase knowledge retention.
> Easy maneuverability within sections of the book. Within the Table of Contents, you can click
on the section title to go to the appropriate section of the book. Also, at the bottom of each page is a link to
"Return to Table of Contents."
> Real student samples that serve as good models of writing are provided. The writing
samples that we have incorporated into this book come from our own college ESL students who have
agreed to publication of their papers. They write like you do! They are not professional writers, but have
been students in our college ESL classes.
> Remember: this text is meant to be adaptable and should be transformed to meet the
particular needs of your ESL students.
Page 6

Contents
Preface........................................................................................................
.2
A Note to the
Instructor.........................................................................2
A Note to the
Student.............................................................................3
Features.....................................................................................................
.3
CHAPTER 1: WRITING BASICS - WHAT MAKES A GOOD
SENTENCE?............................................................................................
14
1.1 Sentence Writing............................................................................................................14
Components of a Sentence.........................................................................................14

1.2 Sentence Structure..........................................................................................................18

Sentence Patterns.......................................................................................................18

1.3 Pronouns...........................................................................................................................20
Pronoun Agreement...................................................................................................20
Indefinite Pronouns and Agreement..........................................................................20
Collective Nouns.........................................................................................................21
Subject and Object Pronouns.....................................................................................22
Relative Pronouns......................................................................................................23

1.4 Adjectives and Adverbs................................................................................................23

1.5 Writing basics: End-of-chapter Exercise................................................................24

CHAPTER 2: SENTENCE VARIETY - HOW DO I REFINE MY

WRITING?.............................................................................................25
2.1 Sentence Variety............................................................................................................25
Incorporating Sentence Variety.................................................................................25
Using Sentence Variety at the Beginning of Sentences.............................................26
Connecting Ideas to Increase Sentence Variety.........................................................33

2.2 Coordination and Subordination..............................................................................38

Coordination and Sentence Combining.....................................................................39
Coordinating Conjunctions........................................................................................40
Page 8
Conjunctive Adverbs...................................................................................................40
Subordination and Sentence Combining...................................................................43
Subordinating Conjunctions......................................................................................44

2.3 Sentence Structure Boundaries and Associated Errors.......................................48

Sentence Structure.....................................................................................................48

2.4 Parallelism......................................................................................................................60
Using Parallelism........................................................................................................60
Creating Parallelism Using Coordinating Conjunctions............................................61
Creating Parallelism Using Than or As......................................................................62
Creating Parallelism Using Correlative Conjunctions...............................................63

2.5 Refining Your Writing: End-of-Chapter Exercises............................................66

CHAPTER 3: WRITING PARAGRAPHS - SEPARATING IDEAS

AND SHAPING CONTENT.................................................67
3.1 Effective Means for Writing a Paragraph................................................................67
Developing a Topic Sentence.....................................................................................67
Main Idea versus Controlling Idea.............................................................................68
Characteristics of a Good Topic Sentence..................................................................69
Developing Paragraphs That Use Topic Sentences, Supporting Ideas, and Transitions
Effectively.................................................................................................71
Identifying Parts of a Paragraph .................................................................................71
Supporting Sentences.................................................................................................74
Concluding Sentences................................................................................................. 76
Transitions .................................................................................................................. 77

3.2 Purpose, Audience, Tone, and Content....................................................................79

Identifying Common Academic Purposes..................................................................80
Identifying the Audience............................................................................................83
Selecting an Appropriate Tone...................................................................................85
Choosing Appropriate, Interesting Content...............................................................86

3.3 Writing Paragraphs: End-of-Chapter Exercises....................................................87

Page 9

CHAPTER 4: WRITING ESSAYS - FROM START TO

FINISH.....................................................................................................8
8
4.1 The Writing Process: Prewriting and Drafting......................................................88
Prewriting...................................................................................................................88
Choosing a Topic........................................................................................................89
Using Experience and Observations..........................................................................89
The Importance of Reading as Related to Writing....................................................89
Freewriting.................................................................................................................90
More Prewriting Techniques......................................................................................92
Topic Checklist - Developing a Good Topic..............................................................94

4.2 Developing a Strong, Clear Thesis Statement........................................................94

Elements of a Thesis Statement.................................................................................95
A Strong Thesis Statement.........................................................................................95
Examples of Appropriate Thesis Statements.............................................................97
Thesis Statement Revision.........................................................................................98

4.3 Outlining........................................................................................................................101
Organizing Ideas........................................................................................................101
Methods of Organizing Writing - What You Might See in Freshman
Composition ....................................................................................................................................101
Writing an Outline....................................................................................................102
Constructing Topic Outlines....................................................................................104
Checklist for Writing an Effective Topic Outline.....................................................104

4.4 Writing Introductory Paragraphs...........................................................................105

Attracting Interest in Your Introductory Paragraph...............................................106

4.5 Writing Body Paragraphs..........................................................................................107

Select Primary Support for Your Thesis...................................................................107
Using Evidence to Support Your Thesis...................................................................109
Choose Supporting Topic Sentences.........................................................................110

4.6 More About the Basic Elements of a First Draft....................................................111

The Role of Topic Sentences......................................................................................112
Page 10
The Role of Paragraphs.............................................................................................113
Starting Your First Draft...........................................................................................113
Continuing the First Draft.........................................................................................116

4.7 Writing a Conclusion..................................................................................................116

The Anatomy of a Strong Conclusion........................................................................116
Writing Your Own First Draft...................................................................................117

4.8 Writing Essays: End-of-Chapter Exercises...........................................................118

CHAPTER 5: REVISING AND EDITING.....................................119

5.1 Reviewing Your Essay..................................................................................................119
Understanding the Purpose of Revising and Editing...............................................119
The Importance of Unity and Coherence.................................................................120
Being Clear and Concise...........................................................................................124
Identifying Wordiness..............................................................................................125
Choosing Specific, Appropriate Words....................................................................126

5.2 Completing a Peer Review........................................................................................128

Using Feedback Objectively......................................................................................131
Using Feedback from Multiple Sources....................................................................131

5.3 Editing Your Draft for Standard Grammar and Mechanics..........................131

Formatting................................................................................................................134

5.4 Keeping Track of Your Sentence-Level Grammar Errors..............................135

CHAPTER 6: WORKING WITH WORDS - USAGE, FORM, &

CONTEXT........................................................................................138
6.1 Commonly Confused Words....................................................................................138
Recognizing Commonly Confused Words in Your Writing.....................................138
Strategies to Avoid Commonly Confused Words.....................................................145

6.2 Spelling...........................................................................................................................147
Common Spelling Rules...........................................................................................148
Commonly Misspelled Words..................................................................................149
Homonyms...............................................................................................................153
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6.3 Word Choice.................................................................................................................156

Using a Dictionary and Thesaurus............................................................................157
Using Proper Connotations......................................................................................158
Avoiding Slang..........................................................................................................159
Avoiding Cliches.......................................................................................................160
Avoiding Overly General Words................................................................................161
Synonyms...................................................................................................................161
Antonyms..................................................................................................................163

6.4 Word Form - Adjectives and Adverbs / Prefixes and Suffixes........................165

Adjectives and Adverbs............................................................................................165
Prefixes.....................................................................................................................170
Suffixes.......................................................................................................................172

6.5 Using Context Clues.................................................................................................175

Brief Definition or Restatement................................................................................175
Synonyms and Antonyms.........................................................................................176
Examples...................................................................................................................176

6.6 Working with Words: End-of-Chapter Exercises............................................178

CHAPTER 7: OVERVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR............181

7.1 Sentence Structure.......................................................................................................181
Basic Sentence Structures.........................................................................................181
Common Prepositions..............................................................................................182
The Structure of Questions.......................................................................................183
Adjectives..................................................................................................................183

7.2 Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers.........................................................................185

Misplaced Modifiers.................................................................................................185
Dangling Modifiers...................................................................................................186

7.3 Negative Statements....................................................................................................187

Double Negatives......................................................................................................189

7.4 Count and Noncount Nouns and Articles.............................................................190

Count and Noncount Nouns.....................................................................................190
Page 12
Definite and Indefinite Articles.................................................................................191
Two Article Rules - Reminders................................................................................192

7.5 Pronouns........................................................................................................................193
Types of Pronouns....................................................................................................193
Common Pronoun Errors.........................................................................................195
Relative Pronouns....................................................................................................196

7.6 Pronoun Agreement....................................................................................................198

Agreement in Number .............................................................................................. 199
Agreement in Person ................................................................................................ 199
Indefinite Pronouns and Agreement.......................................................................200
Collective Nouns.......................................................................................................201
Subject and Object Pronouns...................................................................................202
Who versus Whom....................................................................................................205

7.7 Overview of Verb Forms..........................................................................................206

Regular Verb Forms.................................................................................................206
Irregular Verb Forms................................................................................................207
Gerunds....................................................................................................................210
Infinitives...................................................................................................................211

7.8 Verb Tenses...................................................................................................................213

Simple Verb Tenses .................................................................................................. 213
To Be, To Do, and To Have .......................................................................................217
Perfect Verb Tenses..................................................................................................218
Progressive Verb Tenses........................................................................................... 221
Maintaining Consistent Verb Tense.........................................................................224

7.9 Modal Auxiliaries.......................................................................................................226

Modal Auxiliaries...................................................................................................... 227
Modals and Present Perfect Verbs ...........................................................................229

7.10 Subject-Verb Agreement..........................................................................................231

Agreement................................................................................................................. 231
Regular Verbs and Agreement .................................................................................232
Page 13
Verbs: Be, Have, and Do..........................................................................................234
Errors in Subject-Verb Agreement...........................................................................235
Compound Subjects..................................................................................................236
Separation of Subjects and Verbs.............................................................................237
Indefinite Pronouns..................................................................................................238
Collective Nouns.......................................................................................................239
The Subject Follows the Verb...................................................................................239
Here or There............................................................................................................239
Questions..................................................................................................................240

7.11 Preposition Use..........................................................................................................243

In, At, and On...........................................................................................................243
Prepositions after Verbs or Phrasal Verbs...............................................................244
Prepositions after Adjectives....................................................................................245

7.12 Overview of English Grammar: End-of-Chapter Exercises..........................248

CHAPTER 8: PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION .... 251

8.1 Commas..........................................................................................................................251
Commas after an Introductory Word(s) or Phrase(s).............................................251
Commas in a List of Items........................................................................................252
Commas and Coordinating Adjectives.....................................................................252
Commas before Conjunctions in Compound Sentences (FANBOYS).....................253
Commas before and after Interrupting Words........................................................254
Commas in Dates, Addresses, and the Greetings and Closings of Letters..............254
Commas to Introduce a Quote.................................................................................257

8.2 Semicolons.....................................................................................................................258
Semicolons to Join Two Independent Clauses........................................................258
Semicolons to Join Items in a List...........................................................................258

8.3 Colons............................................................................................................................260
Colons to Introduce a List........................................................................................260
Colons to Introduce Examples or Explanations......................................................260

8.4 Quotes...........................................................................................................................262
Page 14
Direct Quotations .....................................................................................................262
Punctuating Direct Quotations ................................................................................263
Quotations within Quotations ..................................................................................263
Titles .........................................................................................................................264

8.5 Apostrophes.................................................................................................................265
Possession.................................................................................................................265
Contractions ............................................................................................................. 265

8.6 Parentheses....................................................................................................................267
Learning Objectives .................................................................................................. 267

8.7 Dashes............................................................................................................................268
8.8 Hyphens........................................................................................................................269
Hyphens between Two Adjectives That Work as One .............................................269
Hyphens When a Word Breaks at the End of a Line...............................................269

8.9 Capitalization...............................................................................................................270
Capitalize the First Word of a Sentence...................................................................270
Capitalize Proper Nouns...........................................................................................270
Capitalize Days of the Week, Months of the Year, and Holidays............................272
Capitalize Titles ........................................................................................................ 272

8.10 End-of-Chapter Exercises........................................................................................274

Punctuation Exercises .............................................................................................. 274
Capitalization Exercises ........................................................................................... 277

CHAPTER 9: GOOD WRITING - MODELS AND SAMPLES

..................................................................................................................2
80
9.1 Qualities of Good Writing........................................................................................280
More Qualities of Good Writing...............................................................................281

9.2 Samples of Good Paragraph Writing...................................................................283

9.3 Samples of Good Essay Writing.............................................................................285

CHAPTER 10: SUGGESTED WRITING TOPICS & GRADING

RUBRICS..............................................................................................29
3
Page 15

10.1 Suggested Writing Topics.......................................................................................293

10.2 Sample Grading Rubrics.......................................................................................296
Sample Rubric #1 - High Intermediate/Advanced Academic Writing Courses......296
Sample Rubric #2 - High Intermediate/Advanced Academic Writing Courses .....297
Sample Rubric #3 - Freshman Composition Courses.............................................298
Page 16

Part I: Composing Strategies And Techniques

Page 17

Chapter 1: Writing Basics - What Makes A Good Sentence?

1.1 Sentence Writing
Learning Objectives
1. Identify the components of a basic sentence.
2. Identify the four most serious writing errors.
3. Review sentence structure formation and issues.
Imagine you are reading a book for school. You need to find important details that you can use for an
assignment. However, when you begin to read, you notice that the book has very little punctuation.
Sentences fail to form complete paragraphs and instead form one block of text without clear organization.
Most likely, this book would frustrate and confuse you. Without clear and concise sentences, it is difficult
to find the information you need.
For both students and professionals, clear communication is important. Whether you are typing an e-mail
or writing a report, it is your responsibility to present your thoughts and ideas clearly and precisely.
Writing in complete sentences is one way to ensure that you communicate well. This section covers how to
recognize and write basic sentence structures and how to avoid some common writing errors.
Components of a Sentence
Clearly written, complete sentences require key information: a subject, a verb and a complete idea. A
sentence needs to make sense on its own. Sometimes, complete sentences are also called independent
clauses. A clause is a group of words that may make up a sentence. An independent clause is a group of
words that may stand alone as a complete, grammatically correct thought. The following sentences show
independent clauses.

All complete sentences have at least one independent clause. You can identify an independent clause by
reading it on its own and looking for the subject and the verb.
Page 18
Subjects
When you read a sentence, you may first look for the subject, or what the sentence is about. The subject
usually appears at the beginning of a sentence as a noun or a pronoun. A noun is a word that identifies a
person, place, thing, or idea. A pronoun is a word that replaces a noun. Common pronouns are I, he, she,
it, you, they, and we. In the following sentences, the subject is underlined once.

In these sentences, the subject is a person: Malik. The pronoun He replaces and refers back to Malik.

In the first sentence, the subject is a place: computer lab. In the second sentence, the pronoun It
substitutes for computer lab as the subject.

In the first sentence, the subject is a thing: project. In the second sentence, the pronoun It stands in for
the project.

Tip
In this chapter, please refer to the following grammar key:
Page 19
Compound Subjects
A sentence may have more than one person, place, or thing as the subject. These subjects are called
compound subjects. Compound subjects are useful when you want to discuss several subjects at once.

Prepositional Phrases
You will often read a sentence that has more than one noun or pronoun in it. You may encounter a group
of words that includes a preposition with a noun or a pronoun. Prepositions connect a noun, pronoun, or
verb to another word that describes or modifies that noun, pronoun, or verb. Common prepositions
include in, on, at, under, near, by, for, with, and about. A group of words that begin with a preposition is
called a prepositional phrase. A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition, and the object of that
preposition is a noun. It cannot act as the subject of a sentence. The following circled phrases are
examples of prepositional phrases.

Verbs
Once you locate the subject of a sentence, you can move on to the next part of a complete sentence: the
verb. A verb is often an action word that shows what the subject is doing. A verb can also link the subject
to a describing word. There are three types of verbs that you can use in a sentence: action verbs, linking
verbs, or helping verbs.
Action Verbs
A verb that connects the subject to an action is called an action verb. An action verb answers the question
what is the subject doing? In the following sentences, the words underlined twice are action verbs.
Page 20

Linking Verbs
A verb can often connect the subject of the sentence to a describing word. This type of verb is called a
linking verb because it links the subject to a describing word. In the following sentences, the words
underlined twice are linking verbs.

If you have trouble telling the difference between action verbs and linking verbs, remember that an action
verb shows that the subject is doing something, whereas a linking verb simply connects the subject to
another word that describes or modifies the subject. A few verbs can be used as either action verbs or
linking verbs.

Although both sentences use the same verb, the two sentences have completely different meanings. In the
first sentence, the verb describes the boy's action. In the second sentence, the verb describes the boy's
appearance.
Helping Verbs
A third type of verb you may use as you write is a helping verb. Helping verbs are verbs that are used with
the main verb to describe a mood or tense. Helping verbs are usually a form of be, do, or have. The word
can is also used as a helping verb.
Page 21

Tip
Whenever you write or edit sentences, keep the subject and verb in mind. As you write, ask yourself these
questions to keep yourself on track:
Subject: Who or what is the sentence about?
Verb: Which word shows an action or links the subject to a description?
1.2 Sentence Structure
Now that you know what makes a complete sentence—a subject and a verb—you can use other parts of
speech to build on this basic structure. This section gives a general overview of sentence structure.
Chapter 2 goes into more detail on sentence variety and how to strengthen your writing. Good writers use
a variety of sentence structures to make their work more interesting.
Sentence Patterns
Six basic subject-verb patterns can enhance your writing. A sample sentence is provided for each pattern.
As you read each sentence, take note of where each part of the sentence falls. Notice that some sentence
patterns use action verbs and others use linking verbs.
Subject-Verb
Page 22
Subject-Linking Verb-Noun

Subject-Linking Verb-Adjective

Subj ect-Verb - Adverb

Subject-Verb-Direct Object
When you write a sentence with a direct object (DO), make sure that the DO receives the action of the
verb.

Subject-Verb-Indirect Object-Direct Object

In this sentence structure, an indirect object explains to whom or to what the action is being done. The
indirect object is a noun or pronoun, and it comes before the direct object in a sentence.
Page 23
1.3 Pronouns
Pronouns are very important to your writing and speaking. Without them, your language would be very
boring. Pronouns also help a writer avoid repetition of words. Knowing just how pronouns work is an
important aspect of clear and concise writing. Chapter 7 covers this in greater detail.
Pronoun Agreement
A pronoun is a word that takes the place of (or refers back to) a noun or another pronoun. The word or
words a pronoun refers to is called the antecedent of the pronoun.
1. Lani complained that she was exhausted.
o She refers to Lani.

o Lani is the antecedent of she.

2. Hieu left the party early, so I did not see him until Monday at work.
o Him refers to Hieu.

o Hieu is the antecedent of him.

3. Ansam and Sherry have been best friends ever since they were freshman in high school.
o They refers to Ansam and Sherry.

o Ansam and Sherry is the antecedent of they.

There are several types of pronoun agreement:
Agreement in number: If the pronoun takes the place of or refers to a singular noun, the pronoun
must also be singular. Likewise, if the pronoun refers to a plural noun, the pronoun must be plural.
Agreement in person:
Indefinite Pronouns and Agreement
Indefinite pronouns do not refer to a specific person or thing and are usually singular. Note that a
pronoun that refers to an indefinite singular pronoun should also be singular. The following are some
common indefinite pronouns:
Singular Pronouns Plural Pronouns
First Person I me my (mine) we us our (ours)
Second Person you you your (yours) you you your (your)
Third Person he, she, it him, her, it his, her, its they them their (theirs)
Page 24

Common Indefinite Pronouns

all each one few nothing several
any each other many one some
anybody either neither one another somebody
anything everybody nobody oneself someone
both everyone none other something
each everything no one others anyone

Collective Nouns
One issue with collective nouns is that writers sometimes want to use a plural verb with them. However,
even though they suggest more than one person, they are usually considered singular. Look over the
following examples of common collective nouns:
Common Collective Nouns
audience faculty public class government society company
band family school committee group team jiny
Page 25

Subject and Object Pronouns

Subject pronouns function as subjects in a sentence. Object pronouns function as the object of a verb or of
a preposition.
Singular Pronouns Plural Pronouns
Subject Object Subject Object
I me we us
you you you you
he, she, it him, her, it they them
The following sentences show pronouns as subjects:

The following sentences show pronouns as objects:

Tip
Note that a pronoun can also be the object of a preposition:
Page 26
The pronouns us and them are objects of the prepositions near and between. They answer the questions
near whom? And between whom?
Note that object pronouns are never used in the subject position. One way to remember this rule is to
remove the other subject in a compound subject, leave only the pronoun, and see whether the sentence
makes sense. For example, me visited the Grand Canyon last summer sounds immediately incorrect.
Relative Pronouns
A relative pronoun is a type of pronoun that helps connect details to the subject of the sentence and may
often combine two shorter sentences. The relative pronouns are who, whom, whose, which or that.
Chapter 2 discusses the use of relative pronouns in clauses.

Tip
Remember the following uses of relative pronouns:
• Who, whom, and whose refer only to people.
• Which refers to things.
• That refers to people or things.

Key Takeaways
• A pronoun is used in place of a noun.
• Pronouns and their antecedents need to agree in number and person.
• There are several types of pronouns, including subject and object pronouns, possessive pronouns, and
relative pronouns.
• Most indefinite pronouns are singular.
• Collective nouns are usually singular.
• Subject pronouns are the "who" and "what" the sentence is about.
• Object pronouns are the "who" and "what" that receives the action.
• A possessive pronoun is a pronoun showing ownership.
• Common pronoun errors include mixing up subject, object, and gender pronouns, and repeating the
subject of a sentence with a pronoun.
• Relative pronouns help combine two separate sentences.
1.4 Adjectives and Adverbs
Adjectives and adverbs are descriptive words that bring your writing to life.
An adjective is a word that describes a noun or a pronoun. It often answers questions such as which one,
what kind, or how many?
o The green sweater belongs to Iris. (The adjective green describes the noun sweater.)
Page 27

An adverb is a word that describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Adverbs frequently end in -ly.
They answer questions such as how, to what extent, why, when, and where.
o Francois sings horribly. (Horribly describes the verb sings. How does
Francois sing? He sing horribly.) o My sociology instructor is extremely wise. (Extremely describes the
adjective wise. How wise is the instructor? Extremely wise.) o He threw the ball very accurately. (Very
describes the adverb
accurately. How accurately did he throw the ball? Very accurately.)

Key Takeaways
• Adjectives describe a noun or a pronoun.
• Adverbs describe a verb, adjective, or another adverb.
• Most adverbs are formed by adding -ly to an adjective.
• Comparative adjectives and adverbs compare two persons or things.
• Superlative adjectives or adverbs compare more than two persons or things.
• The adjectives good and bad and the adverbs well and badly are unique in their comparative and
superlative forms and require special attention.
1.5 Writing basics: End-of-chapter Exercise
On your own sheet of paper, identify each sentence as a fragment, a run-on, or correct (no error). Then
rewrite the paragraph by correcting sentence fragments and run-ons.
Page 28

Chapter 2: Sentence Variety - How Do I Refine My Writing?

2.1 Sentence Variety
Learning Objectives
1. Identify ways to vary sentence structure.
2. Write and revise sentence structure at the beginning of sentences.
3. Write and revise sentence structure by connecting ideas.
4. Use correct punctuation when creating a variety of sentence structures.
Have you ever ordered a dish in a restaurant and been not happy with its taste, even though it contained
most of your favorite ingredients? Just as a meal might lack the finishing touches needed to spice it up, so
too might a paragraph contain all the basic components but still lack the stylistic finesse required to
engage a reader. Sometimes writers have a tendency to reuse the same sentence pattern throughout their
writing. Like any repetitive task, reading a text that contains too many sentences with the same length and
structure can become monotonous and boring. Experienced writers mix it up by using an assortment of
sentence patterns, rhythms, and lengths.
In this chapter, you will look at introducing sentence variety into your writing, how to open sentences
using a variety of techniques, and how to use different types of sentence structure when connecting ideas.
Each section also contains the punctuation to keep you from creating sentence structure errors. In
academic writing (and work situations), these techniques can bring life and make your writing more
enjoyable to read.
Incorporating Sentence Variety
Experienced writers incorporate sentence variety into their writing by varying sentence style and
structure. Using a mixture of different sentence structures reduces repetition and adds emphasis to
important points in the text. Read the following example:
During my time in office I have achieved several goals. I have helped increase funding for local schools. I
have reduced crime rates in the neighborhood. I have encouraged young people to get involved in their
community. My competitor argues that she is the better choice in the upcoming election. I argue that it is
ridiculous to fix something that isn't broken. If you reelect me this year, I promise to continue to serve this
community.
In this extract from an election campaign, the writer uses short, simple sentences of a similar length and
style. What did you think about this paragraph? Writers often mistakenly believe that this technique
makes the text more clear for the reader, but the result is a choppy, unsophisticated paragraph that does
not grab the audience's attention. Now read the revised paragraph with sentence variety:
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During my time in office, I have achieved several goals such as increase funding for local schools, reduce
crime rates in the neighborhood, and encourage young people to get involved in their community. Why fix
what isn't broken? My competitor argues that she is the better choice, but by electing me, I will continue
to achieve great things for this community. Don't take a chance on someone unknown; vote for the
candidate you know has proven success.
Notice how introducing a short rhetorical question among the longer sentences in the paragraph is an
effective means of keeping the reader's attention. In the revised version, the writer combines the choppy
sentences at the beginning into one longer sentence, which adds rhythm and interest to the paragraph.

Tip
Effective writers often implement the "rule of three," which is basically the thought that things that
contain three elements are more memorable and more satisfying to readers than any other number. Try to
use a series of three when providing examples, grouping adjectives, or generating a list.
Using Sentence Variety at the Beginning of Sentences
Read the following sentences and consider what they all have in common:
John and Amanda will be analyzing this week's financial report.
The car screeched to a halt just a few inches away from the young boy.
Students rarely come to the exam adequately prepared.
If you are having trouble figuring out why these sentences are similar, try underlining the subject in each.
You will notice that the subject is positioned at the beginning of each sentence—John and Amanda, the
car, students. Since the subject-verb-object pattern is the simplest sentence structure, many writers tend
to overuse this technique, which can result in repetitive paragraphs with little sentence variety.
Naomi wrote an essay about the 2008 government bailout. Read this excerpt from Naomi's essay:
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This section examines several ways to introduce sentence variety at the beginning of sentences, using
Naomi's essay as an example.
Starting a Sentence with an Adverb
One technique you can use so as to avoid beginning a sentence with the subject is to use an adverb. An
adverb is a word that describes a verb, adjective, or other adverb and often ends in -ly. Examples of
adverbs include quickly, softly, quietly, angrily, and timidly. Read the following sentences:
She slowly turned the corner and peered into the murky basement.
Slowly, she turned the corner and peered into the murky basement.
In the second sentence, the adverb slowly is placed at the beginning of the sentence. If you read the two
sentences aloud, you will notice that moving the adverb changes the rhythm of the sentence and slightly
alters its meaning. The second sentence emphasizes how the subject moves—slowly—creating a buildup of
tension. This technique is effective in fictional writing.
Note that an adverb used at the beginning of a sentence is usually followed by a comma. A comma
indicates that the reader should pause briefly, which creates a useful rhetorical device. Read the following
sentences aloud and consider the effect of pausing after the adverb:
Cautiously, he unlocked the kennel and waited for the dog's reaction. Solemnly, the policeman
approached the mayor and placed him under arrest. Suddenly, he slammed the door shut and sprinted
across the street.
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In an academic essay, moving an adverb to the beginning of a sentence serves to vary the rhythm of a
paragraph and increase sentence variety.

Naomi has used two adverbs in her essay that could be moved to the beginning of their respective
sentences. Notice how the following revised version creates a more varied paragraph:

Tip
Adverbs of time—adverbs that indicate when an action takes place—do not always require a comma when
used at the beginning of a sentence. Adverbs of time include words such as yesterday, today, later,
sometimes, often, and now.
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Exercise 1
On your own sheet of paper, rewrite the following sentences by moving the adverbs to the beginning.
1. The red truck sped furiously past the camper van, blaring its horn.
2. Fernando snatched at the bread hungrily, polishing off three slices in under a minute.
3. Underage drinking typically results from peer pressure and lack of parental attention.
4. The firefighters bravely tackled the blaze, but they were beaten back by flames.
5. Mayor Kasim Reed privately acknowledged that the budget was excessive and that further discussion
was needed.
Starting a Sentence with a Prepositional Phrase
A prepositional phrase is a group of words that behaves as an adjective or an adverb, modifying a noun or
a verb. Prepositional phrases contain a preposition (a word that specifies place, direction, or time) and an
object of the preposition (a noun phrase or pronoun that follows the preposition).
above beneath into till
across beside like toward
against between near under
after beyond off underneath
among by on until
around despite over up
at except past with
before for since without
behind from through
below inside throughout
Read the following sentence:
The terrified child hid underneath the table.
In this sentence, the prepositional phrase is underneath the table. The preposition underneath relates to
the object that follows the preposition—the table. Adjectives may be placed between the preposition and
the object in a prepositional phrase.
The terrified child hid underneath the heavy wooden table.
Some prepositional phrases can be moved to the beginning of a sentence in order to create variety in a
piece of writing. Look at the following revised sentence:
Underneath the heavy wooden table, the terrified child hid.
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Notice that when the prepositional phrase is moved to the beginning of the sentence, the emphasis shifts
from the subject—the terrified child—to the location in which the child is hiding. Words that are placed at
the beginning or end of a sentence generally receive the greatest emphasis. Take a look at the following
examples. The prepositional phrase is underlined in each:
The bandaged man waited in the doctor's office.
In the doctor's office, the bandaged man waited.
My train leaves the station at 6:45 a.m.
At 6:45 a.m., my train leaves the station.
Teenagers exchange drugs and money under the railway bridge.
Under the railway bridge, teenagers exchange drugs and money.
Prepositional phrases are useful in any type of writing. Take another look at Naomi's essay on the
government bailout.

Now read the revised version.

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The underlined words are all prepositional phrases. Notice how they add additional information to the
text and provide a sense of flow to the essay, making it less choppy and more pleasurable to read.
Unmovable Prepositional Phrases
Not all prepositional phrases can be placed at the beginning of a sentence. Read the following sentence:
I would like a chocolate sundae without whipped cream.
In this sentence, without whipped cream is the prepositional phrase. Because it describes the chocolate
sundae, it cannot be moved to the beginning of the sentence. "Without whipped cream I would like a
chocolate sundae" does not make as much (if any) sense. To determine whether a prepositional phrase
can be moved, we must determine the meaning of the sentence.
Overuse of Prepositional Phrases
Experienced writers often include more than one prepositional phrase in a sentence; however, it is
important not to overload your writing. Using too many modifiers in a paragraph may create an
unintentionally comical effect as the following example shows:
The treasure lay buried under the old oak tree, behind the crumbling fifteenth-century wall, near the
schoolyard, where children played merrily during their lunch hour, unaware of the riches that remained
hidden beneath their feet.
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A sentence is not necessarily effective just because it is long and complex. If your sentence appears
cluttered with prepositional phrases, divide it into two shorter sentences. The previous sentence is far
more effective when written as two simpler sentences:
The treasure lay buried under the old oak tree, behind the crumbling fifteenth-century wall. In the nearby
schoolyard, children played merrily during their lunch hour, unaware of the riches that remained hidden
beneath their feet.
Starting a Sentence by Inverting Subject and Verb
As we noted earlier, most writers follow the subject-verb-object sentence structure. In an inverted
sentence, the order is reversed so that the subject follows the verb. Read the following sentence pairs:
1. A truck was parked in the driveway.
2. Parked in the driveway was a truck.
1. A copy of the file is attached.
2. Attached is a copy of the file.
Notice how the second sentence in each pair places more emphasis on the subject—a truck in the first
example and the file in the second. This technique is useful for drawing the reader's attention to your
primary area of focus. We can apply this method to an academic essay. Take another look at Naomi's
paragraph.

To emphasize the subject in certain sentences, Naomi can invert the traditional sentence structure. Read
her revised paragraph:
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Notice that in the first underlined sentence, the subject (some economists) is placed after the verb
(argued). In the second underlined sentence, the subject (the government) is placed after the verb
(expects).

Exercise 2
On your own sheet of paper, rewrite the following sentences as inverted sentences.
1. Teresa will never attempt to run another marathon.
2. A detailed job description is enclosed with this letter.
3. Bathroom facilities are across the hall to the left of the water cooler.
4. The well-dressed stranger stumbled through the doorway.
5. My colleagues remain unconvinced about the proposed merger.
Connecting Ideas to Increase Sentence Variety
Reviewing and rewriting the beginning of sentences is a good way of introducing sentence variety into
your writing. Another useful technique is to connect two sentences using a modifier, a relative clause, or
an appositive. This section examines how to connect ideas across several sentences in order to increase
sentence variety and improve writing.
Joining Ideas Using an -ing Modifier
Sometimes it is possible to combine two sentences by converting one of them into a modifier using the -
ing verb form—singing, dancing, swimming. A modifier is a word
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or phrase that qualifies the meaning of another element in the sentence. Read the following example:
Original sentences: Steve checked the computer system. He discovered a virus.
Revised sentence: Checking the computer system, Steve discovered a virus.
To connect two sentences using an -ing modifier, add -ing to one of the verbs in the sentences (checking)
and delete the subject (Steve). Use a comma to separate the modifier from the subject of the sentence. It is
important to make sure that the main idea in your revised sentence is contained in the main clause, not in
the modifier. In this example, the main idea is that Steve discovered a virus, not that he checked the
computer system.
In the following example, an -ing modifier indicates that two actions are occurring at the same time:
1. Noticing the police car, she shifted gears and slowed down.
This means that she slowed down at the same time she noticed the police car.
2. Barking loudly, the dog ran across the driveway.
This means that the dog barked as it ran across the driveway.
You can add an -ing modifier to the beginning or the end of a sentence, depending on which fits best.
Beginning: Conducting a survey among her friends, Amanda found that few were happy in their
jobs.
End: Maria filed the final report, meeting her deadline. Joining Ideas Using an -ed Modifier
Some sentences can be combined using an -ed verb form—stopped, finished, played. To use this method,
one of the sentences must contain a form of be as a helping verb in addition to the -ed verb form. Take a
look at the following example:
Original sentences: The Ramirez family was delayed by a traffic jam. They arrived several hours after
the party started.
Revised sentence: Delayed by a traffic jam, the Ramirez family arrived several hours after the party
started.
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In the original version, was acts as a helping verb—it has no meaning by itself, but it serves a grammatical
function by placing the main verb (delayed) in the perfect tense.
To connect two sentences using an -ed modifier, drop the helping verb (was) and the subject (the Jones
family) from the sentence with an -ed verb form. This forms a modifying phrase (delayed by a traffic
jam) that can be added to the beginning or end of the other sentence according to which fits best. As with
the -ing modifier, be careful to place the word that the phrase modifies immediately after the phrase in
order to avoid a dangling modifier.
Using -ing or -ed modifiers can help streamline your writing by drawing obvious connections between two
sentences. Take a look at how Naomi might use modifiers in her paragraph.

The revised version of the essay uses the -ing modifier opting to draw a connection between the
government's decision to bail out the banks and the result of that decision— the acquisition of the
mortgage-backed securities.
Joining Ideas Using a Relative Clause
Another technique that writers use to combine sentences is to join them using a relative clause. A relative
clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb and describes a noun. Relative clauses
function as adjectives by answering questions such as which one? or what kind? Relative clauses begin
with a relative pronoun, such as who, whose, whom, which, or that. Read the following examples:
Original sentences: The managing director is visiting the company next week. He lives in Seattle.
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Revised sentence: The managing director, who lives in Seattle, is visiting the company next week.
To connect two sentences using a relative clause, substitute the subject of one of the sentences (he) for a
relative pronoun (who). This gives you a relative clause (who lives in Seattle) that can be placed next to
the noun it describes (the managing director). Make sure to keep the sentence you want to emphasize as
the main clause. For example, reversing the main clause and subordinate clause in the preceding sentence
emphasizes where the managing director lives, not the fact that he is visiting the company.
Revised sentence: The managing director, who is visiting the company next week, lives in Seattle.
Relative clauses are a useful way of providing additional, nonessential information in a sentence. Take a
look at how Naomi might incorporate relative clauses into her essay. Notice how the underlined relative
clauses can be removed from Naomi's essay without changing the meaning of the sentence.

Tip
To check the punctuation of relative clauses, assess whether or not the clause can be taken out of the
sentence without changing its meaning. If the relative clause is not essential to the meaning of the
sentence, it should be placed in commas. If the relative clause is essential to the meaning of the sentence,
it does not require commas around it.
Joining Ideas Using an Appositive
An appositive is a word or group of words that describes or renames a noun or pronoun. Incorporating
appositives into your writing is a useful way of combining sentences that are too short and choppy. Take a
look at the following example:
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Original sentences: Harland Sanders began serving food for hungry travelers in 1930. He is Colonel
Sanders or "the Colonel."
Revised sentence: Harland Sanders, "the Colonel," began serving food for hungry travelers in 1930.
In the revised sentence, "the Colonel" is an appositive because it renames Harland Sanders. To combine
two sentences using an appositive, drop the subject and verb from the sentence that renames the noun
and turn it into a phrase. Note that in the previous example, the appositive is positioned immediately after
the noun it describes. An appositive may be placed anywhere in a sentence, but it must come directly
before or after the noun to which it refers:
Appositive after noun: Scott, a poorly trained athlete, was not expected to win the race.
Appositive before noun: A poorly trained athlete, Scott was not expected to win the race.
Unlike relative clauses, appositives are always punctuated by a comma or a set commas. Take a look at the
way Naomi uses appositives to include additional facts in her essay.
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Exercise 3
On your own sheet of paper, rewrite the following sentence pairs as one sentence using the techniques
you have learned in this section.
1. Baby sharks are called pups. Pups can be born in one of three ways.
2. The Pacific Ocean is the world's largest ocean. It extends from the Arctic in the north to the Southern
Ocean in the south.
3. Michael Phelps won eight gold medals in the 2008 Olympics. He is a champion swimmer.
4. Punam introduced her colleague Timothy to her husband, Mahendra. She speculated that the two of
them would have a lot in common.
5. Cacao is harvested by hand. It is then sold to chocolate-processing companies at the
Coffee, Sugar, and Cocoa Exchange.

Key Takeaways
• Sentence variety reduces repetition in a piece of writing and adds emphasis to important points in the
text.
• Sentence variety can be introduced to the beginning of sentences by starting a sentence with an adverb,
starting a sentence with a prepositional phrase, or by inverting the subject and verb.
• Combine ideas, using modifiers, relative clauses, or appositives, to achieve sentence variety.
2.2 Coordination and Subordination
Learning Objectives
1. Identify coordination and subordination in writing.
2. Combine sentences and ideas using coordination.
3. Combine sentences and ideas using subordination.
In the previous section, we learned how to use different patterns to create sentence variety and to add
emphasis to important points in our writing. Next, we will examine two ways in which we can join
sentences with related ideas:
• Coordination - Joining two related ideas of equal importance.
• Subordination - Joining two related ideas of unequal importance.
Connecting sentences with coordinate or subordinate clauses creates more coherent paragraphs, and in
turn, produces more effective writing. In this section, you will read
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excerpts from Naomi's classmate named Joshua, who drafted an essay about wine production. Read this
excerpt from Joshua's essay.

This section examines several ways to combine sentences with coordination and subordination, using
Joshua's essay as an example.
Coordination and Sentence Combining
This method of combining sentences creates a compound sentence. Coordination joins two independent
clauses that contain related ideas of equal importance.
Original sentences: I spent my entire paycheck last week. I am staying home this weekend.
In their current form, these sentences contain two separate ideas that may or may not be related. Am I
staying home this week because I spent my paycheck, or is there another reason for my lack of enthusiasm
to leave the house? To indicate a relationship between the two ideas, we can use the coordinating
conjunction so:
Revised sentence: I spent my entire paycheck last week, so I am staying home this weekend.
The revised sentence illustrates that the two ideas are connected. Notice that the sentence retains two
independent clauses (I spent my entire paycheck; I am staying home this weekend) because each can
stand alone as a complete idea.
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Coordinating Conjunctions
A coordinating conjunction is a word that joins two independent clauses. The most common coordinating
conjunctions are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so. Note that a comma precedes the coordinating
conjunction when joining two clauses.
Independent Clause Coordinating Independent Revised Sentence
Conjunction Clause
I will not be attending for (indicates a I have no one to go I will not be attending the
the dance. reason or cause) with. dance, for I have no one to
go with.
I plan to stay home. and (joins two I will complete an I plan to stay home, and I
ideas) essay for class. will complete an essay for
class.
Jessie isn't going to be nor (indicates a Tom won't be there Jessie isn't going to be at the
at the dance. negative) either. dance, nor will Tom be there.
The fundraisers are but (indicates a I don't think many The fundraisers are hoping
hoping for a record- contrast) people are going. for a record-breaking
breaking attendance. attendance, but I don't think
many people are going.
I might go to the next or (offers an I might donate I might go to the next
fundraising event. alternative) some money to the fundraising event, or I might
cause. donate some money to the
cause.
My parents are worried yet (indicates a I have many My parents are worried that
that I am antisocial. reason) friends at school. I am antisocial, yet I have
many friends at school.
Buying a new dress is so (indicates a By staying home I Buying a new dress is
expensive. result) will save money. expensive, so by staying
home I will save money.

Tip
To help you remember the seven coordinating conjunctions, think of the acronym FANBOYS: for, and,
nor, but, or, yet, so. Remember that when you use a coordinating conjunction in a sentence, a comma
should precede it.
Conjunctive Adverbs
Another method of joining two independent clauses with related and equal ideas is to use a conjunctive
adverb and semicolon. A conjunctive adverb is a linking word that demonstrates a relationship between
two clauses. Read the following sentences:
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Original sentences: Bridget wants to take part in the next Olympics. She trains every day.
Since these sentences contain two equal and related ideas, they may be joined using a conjunctive adverb.
Now, read the revised sentence:
Revised sentence: Bridget wants to take part in the next Olympics; therefore, she trains every day.
The revised sentence explains the relationship between Bridget's desire to take part in the next Olympics
and her daily training. Notice that the conjunctive adverb comes after a semicolon that separates the two
clauses and is followed by a comma.
Review the following chart of some common conjunctive adverbs with examples of how they are used:
Function Conjunctive Adverb Example
Addition also, furthermore, Alicia was late for class and stuck in traffic; furthermore,
moreover, besides her shoe heel had broken and she had forgotten her lunch.
Compariso similarly, likewise Recycling aluminum cans is beneficial to the environment;
n similarly, reusing plastic bags and switching off lights
reduces waste.
Contrast instead, however, Most people do not walk to work; instead, they drive or
conversely take the train.
Emphasis namely, certainly, The Siberian tiger is a rare creature; indeed, there are
indeed fewer than five hundred left in the wild.
Cause and accordingly, I missed my train this morning; consequently, I was late
consequently, hence, for my meeting.
Effect
thus
Time finally, next, Tim crossed the barrier, jumped over the wall, and pushed
subsequently, then through the hole in the fence; finally, he made it to the
station.
Take a look at Joshua's essay on wine production and identify some areas in which he might use
coordination.
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Now look at Joshua's revised essay. Did you coordinate the same sentences? You may find that your
answers are different because there are usually several ways to join two independent clauses.
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Exercise 1
Combine each sentence pair into a single sentence using either a coordinating conjunction or a
conjunctive adverb. Then copy the combined sentence onto your own sheet of paper.
1. Pets are not allowed in Ms. Wallace's building. She owns several cats and a parrot.
2. New legislation prevents drivers from sending or reading text messages while driving. Many people
continue to use their phones illegally.
3. The coroner concluded that the young man had taken a lethal concoction of drugs. By the time his
relatives found him, nothing could be done.
4. Amphibians are vertebrates that live on land and in the water. Flatworms are invertebrates that live
only in water.
5. Priya carefully fed and watered her tomato plants all summer. The tomatoes grew juicy and ripe.
6. When he lost his car key, Olamileykan attempted to open the door with a wire hanger, a credit card, and
a paper clip. He called the manufacturer for advice.

Tip
When writing an essay or a report, it is important that you do not use excessive coordination. Workplace
documents should be clear and concise, so only join two clauses that are logically connected and can work
together to make one main point. If you repeat the same coordinating conjunction several times in a
sentence, you are probably including more than one idea. This may make it difficult for readers to pick out
the most important information in each sentence.
Subordination and Sentence Combining
Subordination is used to join two sentences with related ideas by merging them into a main clause (a
complete sentence) and a dependent clause (a construction that relies on the main clause to complete its
meaning). This creates a Complex sentence. Coordination allows a writer to give equal weight to the two
ideas that are being combined, and subordination enables a writer to emphasize one idea over the other.
Take a look at the following sentences:
Original sentences: Farnaz stopped to help the injured man. She would be late for work.
To illustrate that these two ideas are related, we can rewrite them as a single sentence using the
subordinating conjunction even though.
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Revised sentence: Even though Farnaz would be late for work, she stopped to help the injured man.
In the revised version, we now have an independent clause (she stopped to help the injured man) that
stands as a complete sentence and a dependent clause (even though Farnaz would be late for work) that
is subordinate to the main clause. Notice that the revised sentence emphasizes the fact that Tracy stopped
to help the injured man, rather than the fact she would be late for work. We could also write the sentence
this way:
Revised sentence: Farnaz stopped to help the injured man even though she would be late for work.
The meaning remains the same in both sentences, with the subordinating conjunction even though
introducing the dependent clause.

Tip
To punctuate sentences correctly, look at the position of the main clause and the subordinate clause. If a
subordinate clause precedes the main clause, use a comma. If the subordinate clause follows the main
cause, no punctuation is required.
Subordinating Conjunctions
A subordinating conjunction is a word that joins a subordinate (dependent) clause to a main
(independent) clause. Review the following chart of some common subordinating conjunctions and
examples of how they are used:
Function Subordinating Example
Conjunction
Concessio although, while, though, Sarah completed her report even though she had to
n whereas, even though stay late to get it done.
Condition if, unless, until Until we know what is causing the problem, we will
not be able to fix it.
Manner as if, as, though Everyone in the conference room stopped talking at
once, as though they had been stunned into silence.
Place where, wherever Rita is in San Jose where she has several important
client meetings.
Reason because, since, so that, in Because the air conditioning was turned up so high,
order that everyone in the office wore sweaters.
Time after, before, while, once, After the meeting had finished, we all went to lunch.
when
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Take a look at the excerpt from Jose's essay and identify some areas in which he might use subordination.

Now look at Jose's revised essay and compare your answers. You will probably notice that there are many
different ways to subordinate sentences.
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Exercise 2
Combine each sentence pair into a single sentence using a subordinating conjunction and then copy the
combined sentence onto your own sheet of paper.
1. Amir is going to Mexico. There are beautiful beaches in Mexico.
2. A snowstorm disrupted traffic all over the east coast. There will be long delivery delays this week.
3. My neighbor had his television volume turned up too high. I banged on his door and asked him to keep
the noise down.
4. Jessica prepared the potato salad and the sauteed vegetables. Brenda marinated the chicken.
5. Romeo poisons himself. Juliet awakes to find Romeo dead and stabs herself with a dagger.

Exercise 3
Combine each set of simple sentences into a compound or a complex sentence. Write the combined
sentence on your own sheet of paper.
1. Heroin is an extremely addictive drug. Thousands of heroin addicts die each year.
2. Shakespeare's writing is still relevant today. He wrote about timeless themes. These themes include
love, hate, jealousy, death, and destiny.
3. Originally, gay marriage was legal in only six states: Iowa, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Vermont, New
Hampshire, and Maine. The Supreme Court ruled it was legal in all states.
4. Prewriting is a vital stage of the writing process. Prewriting helps you organize your ideas. Types of
prewriting include outlining, brainstorming, and idea mapping.
5. Ernest Hemingway is a famous writer. He also served on the local school board. His house is in Key
West, Florida.
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Exercise 4
Copy the paragraph from Jose's essay onto your own sheet of paper. Then edit using the techniques you
have learned in this section. Join the underlined sentences using coordination or subordination. Check
your revised sentences for punctuation.

Key Takeaways
• Coordination and subordination join two sentences with related ideas.
• Coordination joins sentences with related and equal ideas, whereas subordination joins sentences with
related but unequal ideas.
• Sentences can be coordinated using either a coordinating conjunction and a comma or a conjunctive
adverb and a semicolon.
• Subordinate sentences are characterized by the use of a subordinate conjunction.
• In a subordinate sentence, a comma is used to separate the main clause from the dependent clause if the
dependent clause is placed at the beginning of the sentence.
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2.3 Sentence Structure Boundaries and Associated Errors

Sentence Structure
Chapter 1 covered the basics of sentence structure in creating a good sentences. It also covered the variety
of sentence patterns to make good sentences. As mentioned before, good writers use a variety of sentence
structures to make their work more interesting. However, students may have sentence structure issues
and you need to understand how these sentences are put together and how to fix the errors possibly made
in writing. This section will cover a variety of sentence structure boundaries and show you how to fix those
errors you may have such as fragments, comma splices and run-ons.
Fragments
As mentioned in Chapter 1, a sentence that is missing a subject or a verb is called a fragment. You can
easily fix a fragment by adding the missing subject or verb.
See whether you can identify what is missing in the following fragments:
Fragment: Told her about the broken vase.
Complete sentence: I told her about the broken vase.
Fragment: The store down on Main Street.
Complete sentence: The store down on Main Street sells music. The following Figure on the next
page gives you a good path to fix errors:
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Editing Fragments That Are Missing a Subject or a Verb
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Common Sentence Errors Which Cause Fragments
Fragments often occur because of some common error, such as starting a sentence with a preposition, a
dependent word, an infinitive, or a gerund. If you use the six basic sentence patterns discussed in Chapter
1 when you write, you should be able to avoid these errors and thus avoid writing fragments.
When you see a preposition, check to see that it is part of a sentence containing a subject and a verb. If it
is not connected to a complete sentence, it is a fragment, and you will need to fix this type of fragment by
combining it with another sentence. You can add the prepositional phrase to the end of the sentence. If
you add it to the beginning of the other sentence, insert a comma after the prepositional phrase.
Examples

The figure on the following page shows you the method to edit fragments that begin with a preposition:
Page 54
Editing Fragments That Begin with a Preposition
Page 55
Clauses that start with a dependent word—such as since, if, because, when, although, even though, after,
without, or unless—are similar to prepositional phrases. Like prepositional phrases, these clauses can be
fragments if they are not connected to an independent clause containing a subject and a verb. To fix the
problem, you can add such a fragment to the beginning or end of a sentence. If the fragment is added at
the beginning of a sentence, add a comma.

When you encounter a word ending in -ing in a sentence, identify whether or not this word is used as a
verb in the sentence. You may also look for a helping verb. If the word is not used as a verb or if no helping
verb is used with the -ing verb form, the verb is being used as a noun. An -ing verb form used as a noun is
called a gerund.

Once you know whether the -ing word is acting as a noun or a verb, look at the rest of the sentence. Does
the entire sentence make sense on its own? If not, what you are looking at is a fragment. You will need to
either add the parts of speech that are missing or combine the fragment with a nearby sentence.
Incorrect: Taking deep breaths. Saul prepared for his presentation.
Correct: Taking deep breaths, Saul prepared for his presentation.
Correct: Saul prepared for his presentation. He was taking deep breaths.
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Incorrect: Congratulating the entire team. Sarah raised her glass to toast their success.
Correct: She was congratulating the entire team. Sarah raised her glass to toast their success.
Correct: Congratulating the entire team, Sarah raised her glass to toast their success.
The figure on the following page shows you the method to edit fragments that begin with a gerund:
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Editing Fragments That Begin with Gerunds
Page 58
Another error in sentence construction is a fragment that begins with an infinitive. An
infinitive is a verb paired with the word to; for example, to run, to write, or to reach are all infinitives.
Although infinitives are verbs, they can be used as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. You can correct a
fragment that begins with an infinitive by either combining it with another sentence or adding the parts of
speech that are missing.
Incorrect: We needed to make three hundred more paper cranes. To reach the one thousand mark.
Correct: We needed to make three hundred more paper cranes to reach the one thousand mark.
Correct: We needed to make three hundred more paper cranes. We wanted to reach the one thousand
mark.

Exercise 1
Copy the following sentences onto your own sheet of paper and circle the fragments. Then combine the
fragment with the independent clause to create a complete sentence.
1. Working without taking a break. We try to get as much work done as we can in an hour.
2. I needed to bring work home. In order to meet the deadline.
3. Unless the ground thaws before spring break. We won't be planting any tulips this year.
4. Turning the lights off after he was done in the kitchen. Mohammed tries to conserve energy whenever
possible.
5. You'll find what you need if you look. On the shelf next to the potted plant.
6. To find the perfect apartment. Thuy scoured the classifieds each day.
Run-on Sentences
Just as short, incomplete sentences can be problematic, lengthy sentences can be problematic too.
Sentences with two or more independent clauses that have been incorrectly combined are known as run-
on sentences. A run-on sentence may consist of either a fused sentence or a comma splice or both.
When two complete sentences are combined into one without any punctuation, the result is a fused
sentence.
Fused sentence: A family of foxes lived under our shed young foxes played all over the yard.
When two complete sentences are joined by a comma, the result is a comma splice.
Comma splice: We looked outside, the kids were hopping on the trampoline.
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Writers sometimes create run-ons that are an entire paragraph. An example of writing with both a fused
sentence and a comma splice is the following:
Fused sentence and comma splice: A good communicator always possesses these traits like being a
good and non-interruptive listener this is the #1 traits that lets people know if you are a good
communicator, Confidence is one of them, Good posture, Respect, Clarity, Eye contact, body language is
another important of them too because we have verbal and non-verbal communication we have people
who cannot talk but use sign language to communicate.
Correcting a Run-on Sentence
Punctuation
One way to correct run-on sentences is to correct the punctuation. For example, adding a period will
correct the run-on by creating two separate sentences.

Using a semicolon between the two complete sentences will also correct the error. A semicolon allows you
to keep the two closely related ideas together in one sentence. When you punctuate with a semicolon,
make sure that both parts of the sentence are independent clauses. For more information on semicolons,
see Chapter 8.

When you use a semicolon to separate two independent clauses, you may wish to add a transition word to
show the connection between the two thoughts. After the semicolon, add the transition word and follow it
with a comma. For more information on transition words, see Chapter 8.
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Coordinating Conjunctions (FANBOYS)
You can also fix run-on sentences by adding a comma and a coordinating conjunction. A coordinating
conjunction acts as a link between two independent clauses. The acronym FANBOYS will help you
remember this group of coordinating conjunctions. These are the seven coordinating conjunctions that
you can use: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so. Use these words appropriately when you want to link the
two independent clauses.
Run-on: The new printer was installed, no one knew how to use it.
Complete sentence: The new printer was installed, but no one knew how to use it.
Dependent Words (Conjunctive Adverbs)
Adding dependent words is another way to link independent clauses. Like the coordinating conjunctions,
dependent words show a relationship between two independent clauses.
Run-on: We took the elevator, the others still got there before us.
Complete sentence: Although we took the elevator, the others got there before us.
Run-on: Cobwebs covered the furniture, the room hadn't been used in years.
Complete sentence: Cobwebs covered the furniture because the room hadn't been used in years.
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Sample e-mail

Discussion:
Isabelle's e-mail opens with two fragments and two run-on sentences containing comma splices. The e-
mail ends with another fragment. What effect would this e-mail have on Mr. Blankenship or other
readers? Mr. Blankenship or other readers may not think highly of Isabelle's communication skills or—
worse—may not understand the message at all! Communications written in precise, complete sentences
are not only more professional but also easier to understand. Before you hit the "send" button, read your
e-mail carefully to make sure that the sentences are complete, are not run together, and are correctly
punctuated.

Exercise 2
A reader can get lost or lose interest in material that is too dense and rambling. Use what you have
learned about run-on sentences to correct the following passages:
1. The report is due on Wednesday but we're flying back from Miami that morning. I told the project
manager that we would be able to get the report to her later that day she suggested that we come back a
day early to get the report done and I told her we had meetings until our flight took off. We e-mailed our
contact who said that they would check with his boss, she said that the project could afford a delay as long
as they wouldn't have to make any edits or changes to the file our new deadline is next Friday.
Page 62
2. Ana tried getting a reservation at the restaurant, but when she called they said that there was a waiting
list so she put our names down on the list when the day of our reservation arrived we only had to wait
thirty minutes because a table opened up unexpectedly which was good because we were able to catch a
movie after dinner in the time we'd expected to wait to be seated.
3. Without a doubt, my favorite artist is Leonardo da Vinci, not because of his paintings but because of his
fascinating designs, models, and sketches, including plans for scuba gear, a flying machine, and a life-size
mechanical lion that actually walked and moved its head. His paintings are beautiful too, especially when
you see the computer enhanced versions researchers use a variety of methods to discover and enhance the
paintings' original colors, the result of which are stunningly vibrant and yet delicate displays of the man's
genius.

Exercise 3
Edit this paragraph on your own paper to fix the run-on issues:
Communication is a big topic that if I keep going I could write up to two pages, in conclusion
communication is the way of life it can detect ones' feelings and emotions and that's where body language
comes in because you can tell if someone is paying attention to you speak by the way they are sitting,
looking or even the way they answer or reply to you, we all can be good communicators if we listen more
before we speak that's why we have one mouth and two ears talk less and listen more.

Key Takeaways
• A sentence is complete when it contains both a subject and verb. A complete sentence makes sense on its
own. Otherwise, it is a fragment!
• Every sentence must have a subject, which usually appears at the beginning of the sentence. A subject
may be a noun (a person, place, or thing) or a pronoun.
• A compound subject contains more than one noun.
• A prepositional phrase describes, or modifies, another word in the sentence but cannot be the subject of
a sentence.
• A verb is often an action word that indicates what the subject is doing. Verbs may be action verbs,
linking verbs, or helping verbs.
• Variety in sentence structure and length improves writing by making it more interesting and more
complex.
• Focusing on the six basic sentence patterns will enhance your writing.
• Fragments and run-on sentences are two common errors in sentence construction.
• Fragments can be corrected by adding a missing subject or verb. Fragments that begin with a
preposition or a dependent word can be corrected by combining the fragment with another sentence.
• Run-on sentences can be corrected by adding appropriate punctuation or adding a coordinating
conjunction.
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2.4 Parallelism
Learning Objectives
1. Identify sentences that are parallel and not parallel.
2. Identify ways to create parallelism in writing.
3. Write and revise sentences using parallelism.
Earlier in this chapter, we learned that increasing sentence variety adds interest to a piece of writing and
makes the reading process more enjoyable for others. Using a mixture of sentence lengths and patterns
throughout an essay is an important writing technique. However, it is equally important to avoid
introducing variation within individual sentences. A strong sentence is composed of balanced parts that
all have the same structure. In this section, we will examine how to create a balanced sentence structure
by using parallelism.
Using Parallelism
Parallelism is the use of similar structure in related words, clauses, or phrases. It creates a sense of
rhythm and balance within a sentence. As readers, we often correct faulty parallelism—a lack of parallel
structure—intuitively because an unbalanced sentence sounds awkward and poorly constructed. Read the
following sentences aloud:
Faulty parallelism: Kelly had to iron, do the washing, and shopping before her parents arrived.
Faulty parallelism: Driving a car requires coordination, patience, and to have good eyesight.
Faulty parallelism: Ali prefers jeans to wearing a suit.
All of these sentences contain faulty parallelism. Although they are factually correct, the construction is
clunky and confusing. In the first example, three different verb forms are used. In the second and third
examples, the writer begins each sentence by using a noun (coordination, jeans), but ends with a phrase
(to have good eyesight, wearing a suit). Now read the same three sentences that have correct parallelism.
Correct parallelism: Kelly had to do the ironing, washing, and shopping before her parents arrived.
Correct parallelism: Driving a car requires coordination, patience, and good eyesight.
Correct parallelism: Ali prefers wearing jeans to wearing a suit.
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When these sentences are written using a parallel structure, they sound more aesthetically pleasing
because they are balanced. Repetition of grammatical construction also minimizes the amount of work the
reader has to do to decode the sentence. This enables the reader to focus on the main idea in the sentence
and not on how the sentence is put together.

Tip
A simple way to check for parallelism in your writing is to make sure you have paired nouns with nouns,
verbs with verbs, prepositional phrases with prepositional phrases, and so on. Underline each element in
a sentence and check that the corresponding element uses the same grammatical form.
Creating Parallelism Using Coordinating Conjunctions
When you connect two clauses using a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so), make
sure that the same grammatical structure is used on each side of the conjunction. Take a look at the
following example:
Faulty parallelism: When I walk the dog, I like to listen to music and talking to friends on the
phone.
Correct parallelism: When I walk the dog, I like listening to music and talking to friends on the
phone.
The first sentence uses two different verb forms (to listen, talking). In the second sentence, the
grammatical construction on each side of the coordinating conjunction (and) is the same, creating a
parallel sentence.
The same technique should be used for joining items or lists in a series:
Faulty parallelism: This committee needs to decide whether the company should reduce its
workforce, cut its benefits, or lowering workers' wages.
Correct parallelism: This committee needs to decide whether the company should reduce its
workforce, cut its benefits, or lower workers' wages.
The first sentence contains two items that use the same verb construction (reduce, cut) and a third item
that uses a different verb form (lowering). The second sentence uses the same verb construction in all
three items, creating a parallel structure.
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Exercise 1
On your own sheet of paper, revise each of the following sentences to create parallel structure using
coordinating conjunctions.
1. Mr. Koirla enjoys reading and to play his guitar on weekends.
2. The doctor told Mrs. Hall that she should either eat less or should exercise more.
3. Breaking out of the prison compound, the escapees moved carefully, quietly, and were quick on their
feet.
4. I have read the book, but I have not watched the movie version.
5. Deal with a full inbox first thing in the morning, or by setting aside short periods of time in which to
answer e-mail queries.
Creating Parallelism Using Than or As
When you are making a comparison, the two items being compared should have a parallel structure.
Comparing two items without using parallel structure can lead to confusion about what is being
compared. Comparisons frequently use the words than or as, and the items on each side of these
comparison words should be parallel. Take a look at the following example:
Faulty parallelism: Swimming in the ocean is much tougher than a pool.
Correct parallelism: Swimming in the ocean is much tougher than swimming in a pool.
In the first sentence, the elements before the comparison word (than) are not equal to the elements after
the comparison word. It appears that the writer is comparing an action (swimming) with a noun (a pool).
In the second sentence, the writer uses the same grammatical construction to create a parallel structure.
This clarifies that an action is being compared with another action.
To correct some instances of faulty parallelism, it may be necessary to add or delete words in a sentence.
Faulty parallelism: A brisk walk is as beneficial to your health as going for a run.
Correct parallelism: Going for a brisk walk is as beneficial to your health as going for a run.
In this example, it is necessary to add the verb phrase going for to the sentence in order to clarify that the
act of walking is being compared to the act of running.
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Exercise 2
On your own sheet of paper, revise each of the following sentences to create parallel structure using
than or as.
1. I would rather work at a second job to pay for a new car than a loan.
2. How you look in the workplace is just as important as your behavior.
3. The firefighter spoke more of his childhood than he talked about his job.
4. Indian cuisine is far tastier than the food of Great Britain.
5. Amber's opponent was as tall as Amber and he carried far more weight.
Creating Parallelism Using Correlative Conjunctions
A correlative conjunction is a paired conjunction that connects two equal parts of a sentence and shows
the relationship between them. Common correlative conjunctions include the following:
• either...or
• not only...but also
• neither.nor
• whether.or
• rather.than
• both.and
Correlative conjunctions should follow the same grammatical structure to create a parallel sentence. Take
a look at the following example:
Faulty parallelism: We can neither wait for something to happen nor can we take evasive action.
Correct parallelism: We can neither wait for something to happen nor take evasive action.
When using a correlative conjunction, the words, phrases, or clauses following each part should be
parallel. In the first sentence, the construction of the second part of the sentence does not match the
construction of the first part. In the second sentence, omitting needless words and matching verb
constructions create a parallel structure. Sometimes, rearranging a sentence corrects faulty parallelism.
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Faulty parallelism: It was both a long movie and poorly written. Correct parallelism: The movie
was both long and poorly written.

Tip
This is an area where we see mistakes. To see examples of parallelism in use, read some of the great
historical speeches by rhetoricians such as Abraham Lincoln and Martin Luther King Jr. Notice how they
use parallel structures to emphasize important points and to create a smooth, easily understandable
oration.
Here is a link to text, audio, video, and the music of Martin Luther King's speech "I Have a Dream":
http: / / www.mlkonline.net/dream.html
Note that the spelling and grammar checker on most word processors will not draw attention to faulty
parallelism. When proofreading a document, read it aloud and listen for sentences that sound awkward
or poorly phrased.

Exercise 3
On your own sheet of paper, revise each of the following sentences to create parallel structure using
correlative conjunctions.
1. The cyclist owns both a mountain bike and has a racing bike.
2. The movie not only contained lots of action, but also it offered an important lesson.
3. My current job is neither exciting nor is it meaningful.
4. Antonio would rather listen to his father than be taking advice from me.
5. We are neither interested in buying a vacuum cleaner nor do we want to utilize your carpet cleaning
service.
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Exercise 4
Read through the following excerpt from Alex's essay and revise any instances of faulty parallelism.
Rewrite the sentences to create a parallel structure.

Key Takeaways
• Parallelism creates a sense of rhythm and balance in writing by using the same grammatical structure to
express equal ideas.
• Faulty parallelism occurs when elements of a sentence are not balanced, causing the sentence to sound
clunky and awkward.
• Parallelism may be created by connecting two clauses or making a list using coordinating conjunctions;
by comparing two items using than or as; or by connecting two parts of a sentence using correlative
conjunctions.
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2.5 Refining Your Writing: End-of-Chapter Exercises

1. Fix the following paragraph based the methods described in the sentence structure section:
I can't live without my Mom because my parents got divorced in 2012 and since that day my Mom has
sacrificed her life to give me a better life. After my parents got separated my Mom has never said no to me
for anything. She is my really good friend I can share anything with her and she always guides me through
it.
2. Children's stories are deliberately written in short, simple sentences to avoid confusion. Most
sentences are constructed using the standard subject-verb-object format. Choose a children's story that
is suitable for eight- to ten-year-olds. Rewrite a chapter of the story so that it appeals to a slightly older
age group, by editing for sentence variety. Experiment with the techniques you learned in "Sentence
Variety," including the three different ways to vary sentence structure at the beginning of a sentence
and the three different ways to connect ideas between sentences. Compare the revised chapter with the
original version and consider how sentence variety can be used to target a particular audience.
3. Compile a selection of real-life writing samples from the workplace or around the home. You might
like to choose one of the following: e-mail, junk mail, personal letter, company report, social networking
page, local newspaper, bulletin-board posting, or public notice. Choose two samples that lack sentence
variety. Highlight areas of each writing sample that you would edit for sentence variety and explain
why. Replace any recognizable name with a pseudonym, or a fictitious name.
4. Group activity. Choose a well-known speech, such as Martin Luther King's "I Have a Dream" speech,
Winston Churchill's "Blood, Toil, Tears, and Sweat" speech, or Barack Obama's inaugural address. Make a
copy of the speech and, as a group, underline examples of parallelism. Discuss the effects of using
parallelism and consider whether it is always used to achieve the same result or whether the writer
manipulates parallelism to create a variety of responses among his or her audience.
5. Group activity. Working in a small group, select a workplace document or academic essay. Examine
each paragraph and identify examples of sentence variety, coordination and subordination, and
parallelism. Then, choose one particular paragraph and discuss the following questions:
o Does the writer use sentence variety effectively?

o Does the writer connect his or her ideas effectively?

o Does the writer use subordination and coordination correctly?

o Does the writer use parallelism to emphasize his or her points?

As a group, identify the weaker areas of the paragraph and rewrite them. Focus on sentence structure and
sentence variation. Use coordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions to join sentences.
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Chapter 3: Writing Paragraphs - Separating Ideas And Shaping Content

3.1 Effective Means for Writing a Paragraph
Learning Objectives
1. Identify characteristics of a good topic sentence.
2. Identify the three parts of a developed paragraph.
3. Apply knowledge of topic sentences and parts of a developed paragraph in an assignment.
Now that you have identified common purposes for writing and learned how to select appropriate content
for a particular audience, you can think about the structure of a paragraph in greater detail. Composing an
effective paragraph requires a method similar to building a house. You may have the finest content, or
materials, but if you do not arrange them in the correct order, then the final product will not hold together
very well.
A strong paragraph contains three distinct components:
1. Topic sentence. The topic sentence is the main idea of the paragraph.
2. Body. The body is composed of the supporting sentences that develop the main point.
3. Conclusion. The conclusion is the final sentence that summarizes the main point.
The foundation of a good paragraph is the topic sentence, which expresses the main idea of the paragraph.
The topic sentence relates to the thesis, or main point, of the essay and guides the reader by signposting
what the paragraph is about. All the sentences in the rest of the paragraph should relate to the topic
sentence.
This section covers the major components of a paragraph and examines how to develop an effective topic
sentence.
Developing a Topic Sentence
Pick up any newspaper or magazine and read the first sentence of an article. Are you fairly confident that
you know what the rest of the article is about? If so, you have likely read the topic sentence. An effective
topic sentence combines a main idea with the writer's personal attitude or opinion. It serves to orient the
reader and provides an indication of what will follow in the rest of the paragraph. Read the following
example.
Creating a national set of standards for math and English education will improve student learning in
many states.
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This topic sentence declares a favorable position for standardizing math and English education. After
reading this sentence, a reader might reasonably expect the writer to provide supporting details and facts
as to why standardizing math and English education might improve student learning in many states. If
the purpose of the essay is actually to evaluate education in only one particular state, or to discuss math or
English education specifically, then the topic sentence is misleading.

Tip
When writing a draft of an essay, allow a friend or colleague to read the opening line of your first
paragraph. Ask your reader to predict what your paper will be about. If he or she is unable to guess your
topic accurately, you should consider revising your topic sentence so that it clearly defines your purpose in
writing.
Main Idea versus Controlling Idea
Topic sentences contain both a main idea (the subject, or topic that the writer is discussing) and a
controlling idea (the writer's specific stance on that subject). Just as a thesis statement includes an idea
that controls a document's focus, a topic sentence must also contain a controlling idea to direct the
paragraph. Different writers may use the same main idea but can steer their paragraph in a number of
different directions according to their stance on the subject.
Read the following examples.
• Marijuana is a destructive influence on teens and causes long-term brain damage.
• The anti-nausea properties in marijuana are a lifeline for many cancer patients.
• Legalizing marijuana would create a higher demand for harmful and dangerous drugs.
Although the main idea—marijuana—is the same in all three topic sentences, the controlling idea differs
depending on the writer's viewpoint.

Exercise 1
Circle the main idea and underline the controlling idea in each of the following topic sentences.
1. Exercising three times a week is the only way to maintain good physical health.
2. Sexism and racism are still rampant in today's workplace.
3. Raising the legal driving age to twenty-one would decrease road traffic accidents.
4. Owning a business is the only way to achieve financial success.
5. Dog owners should be prohibited from taking their pets on public beaches.
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Characteristics of a Good Topic Sentence
Five characteristics define a good topic sentence:
1. A good topic sentence provides an accurate indication of what will follow in the rest of the paragraph.
Weak example. People rarely give firefighters the credit they deserve for such a physically and
emotionally demanding job. (The paragraph is about a specific incident that involved firefighters;
therefore, this topic sentence is too general.)
Stronger example. During the October riots, Unit 3B went beyond the call of duty. (This topic sentence
is more specific and indicates that the paragraph will contain information about a particular incident
involving Unit 3B.)
2. A good topic sentence contains both a topic and a controlling idea or opinion.
Weak example. In this paper, I am going to discuss the rising suicide rate among young professionals.
(This topic sentence provides a main idea, but it does not present a controlling idea, or thesis.)
Stronger example. The rising suicide rate among young professionals is a cause for immediate concern.
(This topic sentence presents the writer's opinion on the subject of rising suicide rates among young
professionals.)
3. A good topic sentence is clear and easy to follow.
Weak example. In general, writing an essay, thesis, or other academic or nonacademic document is
considerably easier and of much higher quality if you first construct an outline, of which there are many
different types. (This topic sentence includes a main idea and a controlling thesis, but both are buried
beneath the confusing sentence structure and unnecessary vocabulary. These obstacles make it difficult
for the reader to follow.)
Stronger example. Most forms of writing can be improved by first creating an outline. (This topic
sentence cuts out unnecessary verbiage and simplifies the previous statement, making it easier for the
reader to follow.)
4. A good topic sentence does not include supporting details.
Weak example. Salaries should be capped in baseball for many reasons, most importantly so we don't
allow the same team to win year after year. (This topic sentence includes a supporting detail that should
be included later in the paragraph to back up the main point.)
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Stronger example. Introducing a salary cap would improve the game of baseball for many reasons.
(This topic sentence omits the additional supporting detail so that it can be expanded upon later in the
paragraph.)
5. A good topic sentence engages the reader by using interesting vocabulary.
Weak example. The military deserves better equipment. (This topic sentence includes a main idea and a
controlling thesis, but the language is bland and unexciting.)
Stronger example. The appalling lack of resources provided to the military is outrageous and requires
our immediate attention. (This topic sentence reiterates the same idea and controlling thesis, but
adjectives such as appalling and immediate better engage the reader. These words also indicate the
writer's tone.)

Exercise 2
Choose the most effective topic sentence from the following sentence pairs.
1. a. This paper will discuss the likelihood of the Democrats winning the next election.
b. To boost their chances of winning the next election, the Democrats need to listen to public opinion.
2. a. The unrealistic demands of union workers are crippling the economy for three main reasons.
b. Union workers are crippling the economy because companies are unable to remain competitive as a
result of added financial pressure.
3. a. Authors are losing money as a result of technological advances.
b. The introduction of new technology will devastate the literary world.
4. a. Rap music is produced by untalented individuals with oversized egos.
b. This essay will consider whether talent is required in the rap music industry.
Page 74

Exercise 3
Using the tips on developing effective topic sentences in this section, create a topic sentence on each of
the following subjects. Remember to include a controlling idea as well as a main idea. Write your
responses on your own sheet of paper.
1. Working while in high school
2. Attending a two-year college
3. The legal drinking age
4. Using public transportation

Tip
When writing to professors or colleagues, use the "top-down" approach—keep the topic sentence at the
beginning of each paragraph so that readers immediately understand the gist of the message. This method
saves busy colleagues precious time and effort trying to figure out the main points and relevant details.
Developing Paragraphs That Use Topic Sentences, Supporting Ideas, and Transitions
Effectively
Learning how to develop a good topic sentence is the first step toward writing a solid paragraph. Once you
have composed your topic sentence, you have a guideline for the rest of the paragraph. To complete the
paragraph, a writer must support the topic sentence with additional information and summarize the main
point with a concluding sentence.
This section identifies the three major structural parts of a paragraph and covers how to develop a
paragraph using transitional words and phrases.
Identifying Parts of a Paragraph
An effective paragraph contains three main parts: a topic sentence, the body, and the concluding sentence.
A topic sentence is often the first sentence of a paragraph. This chapter has already discussed its purpose
—to express a main idea combined with the writer's attitude about the subject. Below you will see how the
topic sentence can
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appear in a variety of positions in effective writing. In standard academic writing, the preferred position is
the first sentence of the paragraph. The body of the paragraph usually follows, containing supporting
details. Supporting sentences help explain, prove, or enhance the topic sentence. The concluding sentence
is the last sentence in the paragraph. It reminds the reader of the main point by restating it in different
words.
Paragraph Structure Graphic Organizer
Topic Sentence
(main idea + personal opinions) Body
Supporting Sentence_
Supporting Sentence_
Supporting Sentence_

Conclusion
(Summary of main idea + personal opinion)
Concluding Sentence_

Read the following paragraph. The topic sentence is underlined for you.
After reading the new TV guide this week, I had just one thought—we are still being bombarded with
reality shows. This season, the plague of reality television continues to darken our airwaves. Along with
the return of viewer favorites, we are to be cursed with yet another mindless creation. Prisoner follows the
daily lives of eight suburban housewives who have chosen to be put in jail for the purposes of this fake
psychological experiment. A preview for the first episode shows the usual tears and tantrums associated
with reality television. I dread to think what producers will come up with next season, but if any of them
are reading this blog—stop it! We've had enough reality television to last us a lifetime!
The first sentence of this paragraph is the topic sentence. It tells the reader that the paragraph will be
about reality television shows, and it expresses the writer's distaste for these shows through the use of the
word bombarded.
Each of the following sentences in the paragraph supports the topic sentence by providing further
information about a specific reality television show. The final sentence
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is the concluding sentence. It reiterates the main point that viewers are bored with reality television shows
by using different words from the topic sentence.
Paragraphs that begin with the topic sentence move from the general to the specific. They open with a
general statement about a subject (reality shows) and then discuss specific examples (the reality show
Prisoner). Most academic essays contain the topic sentence at the beginning of the first paragraph.
Now take a look at the following paragraph. The topic sentence is underlined for you.
Last year, a cat traveled 130 miles to reach its family, who had moved to another state and had left their
pet behind. Even though it had never been to their new home, the cat was able to track down its former
owners. A dog in my neighborhood can predict when its master is about to have a seizure. It makes sure
that he does not hurt himself during an epileptic fit. Compared to many animals, our own senses are
almost dull.
The last sentence of this paragraph is the topic sentence. It draws on specific examples (a cat that tracked
down its owners and a dog that can predict seizures) and then makes a general statement that draws a
conclusion from these examples (animals' senses are better than humans'). In this case, the supporting
sentences are placed before the topic sentence and the concluding sentence is the same as the topic
sentence.
This technique is frequently used in persuasive writing. The writer produces detailed examples as
evidence to back up his or her point, preparing the reader to accept the concluding topic sentence as the
truth.
Sometimes, the topic sentence appears in the middle of a paragraph. Read the following example. The
topic sentence is underlined for you.
For many years, I suffered from severe anxiety every time I took an exam. Hours before the exam, my
heart would begin pounding, my legs would shake, and sometimes I would become physically unable to
move. Last year, I was referred to a specialist and finally found a way to control my anxiety—breathing
exercises. It seems so simple, but by doing just a few breathing exercises a couple of hours before an exam,
I gradually got my anxiety under control. The exercises help slow my heart rate and make me feel less
anxious. Better yet, they require no pills, no equipment, and very little time. It's amazing how just
breathing correctly has helped me learn to manage my anxiety symptoms.
In this paragraph, the underlined sentence is the topic sentence. It expresses the main idea—that
breathing exercises can help control anxiety. The preceding sentences enable the writer to build up to his
main point (breathing exercises can help control anxiety) by using a personal anecdote (how he used to
suffer from anxiety). The supporting sentences then expand on how breathing exercises help the writer by
providing additional information. The last sentence is the concluding sentence and restates how breathing
can help manage anxiety.
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Placing a topic sentence in the middle of a paragraph is often used in creative writing. If you notice that
you have used a topic sentence in the middle of a paragraph in an academic essay, read through the
paragraph carefully to make sure that it contains only one major topic.

Exercise 4
Identify the topic sentence, supporting sentences, and concluding sentence in the following paragraph.
The desert provides a harsh environment in which few mammals are able to adapt. Of these hardy
creatures, the kangaroo rat is possibly the most fascinating. Able to live in some of the most arid parts of
the southwest, the kangaroo rat neither sweats nor pants to keep cool. Its specialized kidneys enable it to
survive on a miniscule amount of water. Unlike other desert creatures, the kangaroo rat does not store
water in its body but instead is able to convert the dry seeds it eats into moisture. Its ability to adapt to
such a hostile environment makes the kangaroo rat a truly amazing creature.
Supporting Sentences
If you think of a paragraph as a hamburger, the supporting sentences are the meat inside the bun. They
make up the body of the paragraph by explaining, proving, or enhancing the controlling idea in the topic
sentence. Most paragraphs contain three to six supporting sentences depending on the audience and
purpose for writing. A supporting sentence usually offers one of the following:
• Reason
Example: The refusal of the baby boom generation to retire is contributing to the current lack of
available jobs.
• Fact
Example: Many families now rely on older relatives to support them financially.
• Statistics
Example: Nearly 10 percent of adults are currently unemployed in the United
States.
• Quotation
Example: "We will not allow this situation to continue," stated Senator Johns.
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• Personal Support
Example: Last year, my uncle Bill was asked to retire at the age of fifty-five.
The type of supporting sentence you choose will depend on what you are writing and why you are writing.
For example, if you are attempting to persuade your audience to take a particular position you should rely
on facts, statistics, and concrete examples, rather than personal opinions. Read the following example:
There are numerous advantages to owning a hybrid car. (Topic sentence)
First, they get 20 percent to 35 percent more miles to the gallon than a fuel-efficient gas-powered vehicle.
(Supporting sentence 1: a statistic)
Second, they produce very few emissions during low speed city driving.
(Supporting sentence 2: fact)
Because they do not require gas, hybrid cars reduce dependency on fossil fuels, which helps lower prices
at the pump. (Supporting sentence 3: reason)
Alexis bought a hybrid car two years ago and has been extremely impressed with its performance.
(Supporting sentence 4: personal example)
"It's the cheapest car I've ever had," she said. "The running costs are far lower than previous gas powered
vehicles I've owned." (Supporting sentence 5: quotation)
Given the low running costs and environmental benefits of owning a hybrid car, it is likely that many
more people will follow Alex's example in the near future.
(Concluding sentence)
To find information for your supporting sentences, you might consider using one of the following sources:
• Reference book
• Encyclopedia
• Website
• Biography/autobiography
• Map
• Dictionary
• Newspaper/magazine
• Interview
• Previous experience
• Personal research
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Tip
When searching for information on the Internet, remember that some websites are more reliable than
others. Websites ending in .gov or .edu are generally more reliable than websites ending in .com or .org.
Wikis and blogs are not reliable sources of information because they are subject to inaccuracies.
Concluding Sentences
An effective concluding sentence draws together all the ideas you have raised in your paragraph. It
reminds readers of the main point—the topic sentence—without restating it in exactly the same words.
Using the hamburger example, the top bun (the topic sentence) and the bottom bun (the concluding
sentence) are very similar. They frame the "meat" or body of the paragraph. Compare the topic sentence
and concluding sentence from the previous example:
Topic sentence: There are numerous advantages to owning a hybrid car.
Concluding sentence: Given the low running costs and environmental benefits of owning a hybrid car,
it is likely that many more people will follow Alex's example in the near future.
Notice the use of the synonyms advantages and benefits. The concluding sentence reiterates the idea that
owning a hybrid is advantageous without using the exact same words. It also summarizes two examples of
the advantages covered in the supporting sentences: low running costs and environmental benefits.
You should avoid introducing any new ideas into your concluding sentence. A conclusion is intended to
provide the reader with a sense of completion. Introducing a subject that is not covered in the paragraph
will confuse the reader and weaken your writing.
A concluding sentence may do any of the following:
• Restate the main idea.
Example: Childhood obesity is a growing problem in the United States.
• Summarize the key points in the paragraph.
Example: A lack of healthy choices, poor parenting, and an addiction to video games are among the
many factors contributing to childhood obesity.
• Draw a conclusion based on the information in the paragraph.
Example: These statistics indicate that unless we take action, childhood obesity rates will continue to
rise.
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• Make a prediction, suggestion, or recommendation about the information in the paragraph.
Example: Based on this research, more than 60 percent of children in the United States will be morbidly
obese by the year 2030 unless we take evasive action.
• Offer an additional observation about the controlling idea. Example: Childhood obesity is an entirely
preventable tragedy.

Exercise 5
On your own paper, write one example of each type of concluding sentence based on a topic of your
choice.
Transitions
A strong paragraph moves seamlessly from the topic sentence into the supporting sentences and on to the
concluding sentence. To help organize a paragraph and ensure that ideas logically connect to one another,
writers use transitional words and phrases. A transition is a connecting word that describes a relationship
between ideas. Take another look at the earlier example:
There are numerous advantages to owning a hybrid car. First, they get 20 percent to 35 percent more
miles to the gallon than a fuel-efficient gas-powered vehicle. Second, they produce very few emissions
during low speed city driving. Because they do not require gas, hybrid cars reduce dependency on fossil
fuels, which helps lower prices at the pump. Alexis bought a hybrid car two years ago and has been
extremely impressed with its performance. "It's the cheapest car I've ever had," she said. "The running
costs are far lower than previous gas-powered vehicles I've owned." Given the low running costs and
environmental benefits of owning a hybrid car, it is likely that many more people will follow Alexis'
example in the near future.
Each of the underlined words is a transition word. Words such as first and second are transition words
that show sequence or clarify order. They help organize the writer's ideas by showing that he or she has
another point to make in support of the topic sentence. Other transition words that show order include
third, also, and furthermore.
The transition word because is a transition word of consequence that continues a line of thought. It
indicates that the writer will provide an explanation of a result. In this sentence, the writer explains why
hybrid cars will reduce dependency on fossil fuels (because they do not require gas). Other transition
words of consequence include as a result, so that, since, or for this reason.
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To include a summarizing transition in her concluding sentence, the writer could rewrite the final
sentence as follows:
All in all, given the low running costs and environmental benefits of owning a hybrid car, it is likely that
many more people will follow Alexis' example in the near future.
The following chart provides some useful transition words to connect supporting sentences and
concluding sentences.
Useful Transitional Words and Phrases
For Supporting Sentences
above all but for instance in moreover subsequentl
particular y
also conversely furthermor later on nevertheless therefore
e
aside from correspondingly however likewise on one hand to begin
with
at the same for example in addition meanwhile on the
time contrary
For Concluding Sentences
after all all things in brief in on the whole to sum up
considered
summary
all in all finally in thus
conclusion

Exercise 6
Using your own paper, write a paragraph on a topic of your choice. Be sure to include a topic sentence,
supporting sentences, and a concluding sentence and to use transitional words and phrases to link your
ideas together.
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Key Takeaways
• A good paragraph contains three distinct components: a topic sentence, body, and concluding sentence.
• The topic sentence expresses the main idea of the paragraph combined with the writer's attitude or
opinion about the topic.
• Good topic sentences contain both a main idea and a controlling idea, are clear and easy to follow, use
engaging vocabulary, and provide an accurate indication of what will follow in the rest of the paragraph.
• Topic sentences may be placed at the beginning, middle, or end of a paragraph. In most academic essays,
the topic sentence is placed at the beginning of a paragraph.
• Supporting sentences help explain, prove, or enhance the topic sentence by offering facts, reasons,
statistics, quotations, or examples.
• Concluding sentences summarize the key points in a paragraph and reiterate the main idea without
repeating it word for word.
• Transitional words and phrases help organize ideas in a paragraph and show how these ideas relate to
one another.
3.2 Purpose, Audience, Tone, and Content
Learning Objectives
1. Identify the four common academic purposes.
2. Identify audience, tone, and content.
3. Apply purpose, audience, tone, and content to a specific assignment.
Imagine reading one long block of text, with each idea blurring into the next. Even if you are reading a
thrilling novel or an interesting news article, you will likely lose interest in what the author has to say very
quickly. During the writing process, it is helpful to position yourself as a reader. Ask yourself whether you
can focus easily on each point you make. One technique that effective writers use is to begin a fresh
paragraph for each new idea they introduce.
Paragraphs separate ideas into logical, manageable chunks. One paragraph focuses on only one main idea
and presents coherent sentences to support that one point. Because all the sentences in one paragraph
support the same point, a paragraph may stand on its own. To create longer assignments and to discuss
more than one point, writers group together paragraphs.
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Three elements shape the content of each paragraph:
1) Purpose. The reason the writer composes the paragraph.
2) Tone. The attitude the writer conveys about the paragraph's subject.
3) Audience. The individual or group whom the writer intends to address.
Purpose, Audience, Tone, and Content Triangle

The assignment's purpose, audience, and tone dictate what the paragraph covers and how it will support
one main point. This section covers how purpose, audience, and tone affect reading and writing
paragraphs.
Identifying Common Academic Purposes
The purpose for a piece of writing identifies the reason you write a particular document. Basically, the
purpose of a piece of writing answers the question "Why?" For example, why write a play? To entertain a
packed theater. Why write instructions to the babysitter? To inform him or her of your schedule and rules.
Why write a letter to your congressman? To persuade him to address your community's needs.
In academic settings, the reasons for writing fulfill these main purposes: to summarize, to analyze, to
synthesize, and to evaluate. You will encounter these four purposes not only as you read for your classes
but also as you read for work or pleasure. Because reading and writing work together, your writing skills
will improve as you read.
Eventually, your instructors will ask you to complete assignments specifically designed to meet one of
these purposes. As you will see, the purpose for writing will guide you
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through each part of the paper, helping you make decisions about content and style. For now, identifying
these purposes by reading paragraphs will prepare you to write individual paragraphs and to build longer
assignments.
Summary Paragraphs
A summary shrinks a large amount of information into only the essentials. You probably summarize
events, books, and movies daily. Think about the last blockbuster movie you saw or the last novel you
read. Chances are, at some point in a casual conversation with a friend, coworker, or classmate, you
compressed all the action in a two-hour film or in a two-hundred-page book into a brief description of the
major plot movements. While in conversation, you probably described the major highlights, or the main
points in just a few sentences, using your own vocabulary and manner of speaking.
Similarly, a summary paragraph condenses a long piece of writing into a smaller paragraph by extracting
only the vital information. A summary uses only the writer's own words. Like the summary's purpose in
daily conversation, the purpose of an academic summary paragraph is to maintain all the essential
information from a longer document. Although shorter than the original piece of writing, a summary
should still communicate all the key points and key support. In other words, summary paragraphs should
be succinct and to the point.
Analysis Paragraphs
An analysis separates complex materials in their different parts and studies how the parts relate to one
another. The analysis of simple table salt, for example, would require a deconstruction of its parts—the
elements sodium (Na) and chloride (Cl). Then, scientists would study how the two elements interact to
create the compound NaCl, or sodium chloride, which is also called simple table salt.
Analysis is not limited to the sciences, of course. An analysis paragraph in academic writing fulfills the
same purpose. Instead of deconstructing compounds, academic analysis paragraphs typically deconstruct
documents. An analysis takes apart a primary source (an essay, a book, an article, etc.) point by point. It
communicates the main points of the document by examining individual points and identifying how the
points relate to one another.
Synthesis Paragraphs
A synthesis combines two or more items to create an entirely new item. Consider the electronic musical
instrument aptly named the synthesizer. It looks like a simple keyboard but displays a dashboard of
switches, buttons, and levers. With the flip of a few switches, a musician may combine the distinct sounds
of a piano, a flute, or a guitar—or any other combination of instruments—to create a new sound. The
purpose of the synthesizer is to blend together the notes from individual instruments to form new, unique
notes.
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The purpose of an academic synthesis is to blend individual documents into a new document. An
academic synthesis paragraph considers the main points from one or more pieces of writing and links the
main points together to create a new point, one not replicated in either document.
Evaluation Paragraphs
An evaluation judges the value of something and determines its worth. Evaluations in everyday
experiences are often not only dictated by set standards but also influenced by opinion and prior
knowledge. For example, at work, a supervisor may complete an employee evaluation by judging his
subordinate's performance based on the company's goals. If the company focuses on improving
communication, the supervisor will rate the employee's customer service according to a standard scale.
However, the evaluation still depends on the supervisor's opinion and prior experience with the employee.
The purpose of the evaluation is to determine how well the employee performs at his or her
job.
An academic evaluation communicates your opinion, and its justifications, about a document or a topic of
discussion. Evaluations are influenced by your reading of the document, your prior knowledge, and your
prior experience with the topic or issue. Because an evaluation incorporates your point of view and
reasons for your point of view, it typically requires more critical thinking and a combination of summary,
analysis, and synthesis skills. Thus evaluation paragraphs often follow summary, analysis, and synthesis
paragraphs.

Tip
When reviewing directions for assignments, look for the verbs summarize, analyze, synthesize, or
evaluate. Instructors often use these words to clearly indicate the assignment's purpose. These words will
cue you on how to complete the assignment because you will know its exact purpose.

Exercise 1
Read the following paragraphs about four films and then identify the purpose of each paragraph.
1. This film could easily have been cut down to less than two hours. By the final scene, I noticed that most
of my fellow moviegoers were snoozing in their seats and were barely paying attention to what was
happening on screen. Although the director sticks diligently to the book, he tries too hard to cram in all
the action, which is just too ambitious for such a detail-oriented story. If you want my advice, read the
book and give the movie a miss.
2. During the opening scene, we learn that the character Laura is adopted and that she has spent the past
three years desperately trying to track down her real parents. Having exhausted all the usual options—
adoption agencies, online searches, family trees, and so
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on—she is on the verge of giving up when she meets a stranger on a bus. The chance encounter leads to a
complicated chain of events that ultimately result in Laura getting her lifelong wish. But is it really what
she wants? Throughout the rest of the film, Laura discovers that sometimes the past is best left where it
belongs.
3. To create the feeling of being gripped in a vice, the director, May Lee, uses a variety of elements to
gradually increase the tension. The creepy, haunting melody that subtly enhances the earlier scenes
becomes ever more insistent, rising to a disturbing crescendo toward the end of the movie. The
desperation of the actors, combined with the claustrophobic atmosphere and tight camera angles create a
realistic firestorm, from which there is little hope of escape. Walking out of the theater at the end feels like
staggering out of a Roman dungeon.
Identifying the Audience
Imagine you must give a presentation to a group of college classmates. Weeks before the big day, you
spend time creating and rehearsing the presentation. You must make important, careful decisions not
only about the content but also about your delivery. Will the presentation require technology to project
figures and charts? Should the presentation define important words? Should you wear your suit and dress
shirt? The answers to these questions will help you develop an appropriate relationship with your
audience, making them more receptive to your message.
Now imagine you must explain the same concepts from your presentation to a group of high school
students. Those important questions you previously answered may now require different answers. The
figures and charts may be too sophisticated, and the terms will certainly require definitions. You may even
reconsider your outfit and sport a more casual look. Because the audience has shifted, your presentation
and delivery will shift as well to create a new relationship with the new audience.
In these two situations, the audience—the individuals who will watch and listen to the presentation—plays
a role in the development of presentation. As you prepare the presentation, you visualize the audience to
anticipate their expectations and reactions. What you imagine affects the information you choose to
present and how you will present it. Then, during the presentation, you meet the audience in person and
discover immediately how well you perform.
Although the audience for writing assignments—your readers—may not appear in person, they play an
equally vital role. Even in everyday writing activities, you identify your readers' characteristics, interests,
and expectations before making decisions about what you write. In fact, thinking about audience has
become so common that you may not even detect the audience-driven decisions.
For example, you update your status on a social networking site with the awareness of who will digitally
follow the post. If you want to brag about a good grade, you may write the post to please family members.
If you want to describe a funny moment, you may write with your friends' senses of humor in mind. Even
at work, you send e-mails with an awareness of an unintended receiver who could intercept the message.
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In other words, being aware of "invisible" readers is a skill you most likely already possess and one you
rely on every day. Consider the following paragraphs. Which one would the author send to her parents?
Which one would she send to her best friend?
Example A
Last Saturday, I volunteered at a local hospital. The visit was fun and rewarding. I even learned how to do
cardiopulmonary resuscitation, or CPR. Unfortunately, I think caught a cold from one of the patients. This
week, I will rest in bed and drink plenty of clear fluids. I hope I am well by next Saturday to volunteer
again.
Example B
OMG! You won't believe this! My advisor forced me to do my community service hours at this hospital all
weekend! We learned CPR but we did it on dummies, not even real peeps. And some kid sneezed on me
and got me sick! I was so bored and sniffling all weekend; I hope I don't have to go back next week. I
definitely do NOT want to miss the basketball tournament!
Most likely, you matched each paragraph to its intended audience with little hesitation. Because each
paragraph reveals the author's relationship with her intended readers, you can identify the audience fairly
quickly. When writing your own paragraphs, you must engage with your audience to build an appropriate
relationship given your subject. Imagining your readers during each stage of the writing process will help
you make decisions about your writing. Ultimately, the people you visualize will affect what and how you
write.

Tip
While giving a speech, you may articulate an inspiring or critical message, but if you left your hair a mess
and laced up mismatched shoes, your audience would not take you seriously. They may be too distracted
by your appearance to listen to your words.
Similarly, grammar and sentence structure serve as the appearance of a piece of writing. Polishing your
work using correct grammar will impress your readers and allow them to focus on what you have to say.
Because focusing on audience will enhance your writing, your process, and your finished product, you
must consider the specific traits of your audience members. Use your imagination to anticipate the
readers' demographics, education, prior knowledge, and expectations.
• Demographics. These measure important data about a group of people, such as their age range, their
ethnicity, their religious beliefs, or their gender. Certain topics and assignments will require these kinds of
considerations about your audience. For other topics and assignments, these measurements may not
influence your writing in the end. Regardless, it is important to consider demographics when you begin to
think about your purpose for writing.
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• Education. Education considers the audience's level of schooling. If audience members have earned a
doctorate degree, for example, you may need to elevate your style and use more formal language. Or, if
audience members are still in college, you could write in a more relaxed style. An audience member's
major or emphasis may also dictate your writing.
• Prior knowledge. This refers to what the audience already knows about your topic. If your readers
have studied certain topics, they may already know some terms and concepts related to the topic. You may
decide whether to define terms and explain concepts based on your audience's prior knowledge. Although
you cannot peer inside the brains of your readers to discover their knowledge, you can make reasonable
assumptions. For instance, a nursing major would presumably know more about health-related topics
than a business major would.
• Expectations. These indicate what readers will look for while reading your assignment. Readers may
expect consistencies in the assignment's appearance, such as correct grammar and traditional formatting
like double-spaced lines and legible font. Readers may also have content-based expectations given the
assignment's purpose and organization. In an essay titled "The Economics of Enlightenment: The Effects
of Rising Tuition," for example, audience members may expect to read about the economic repercussions
of college tuition costs.

Tip
Also, remember that decisions about style depend on audience, purpose, and content. Identifying your
audience's demographics, education, prior knowledge, and expectations will affect how you write, but
purpose and content play an equally important role. The next subsection covers how to select an
appropriate tone to match the audience and purpose.
Selecting an Appropriate Tone
Tone identifies a speaker's attitude toward a subject or another person. You may pick up a person's tone of
voice fairly easily in conversation. A friend who tells you about her weekend may speak excitedly about a
fun skiing trip. An instructor who means business may speak in a low, slow voice to emphasize her serious
mood. Or, a coworker who needs to let off some steam after a long meeting may crack a sarcastic joke.
Just as speakers transmit emotion through voice, writers can transmit through writing a range of
attitudes, from excited and humorous to somber and critical. These emotions create connections among
the audience, the author, and the subject, ultimately building a relationship between the audience and the
text. To stimulate these connections, writers intimate their attitudes and feelings with useful devices, such
as sentence structure, word choice, punctuation, and formal or informal language. Keep in mind that the
writer's attitude should always appropriately match the audience and the purpose.
Read the following paragraph and consider the writer's tone. How would you describe the writer's attitude
toward wildlife conservation?
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Many species of plants and animals are disappearing right before our eyes. If we don't act fast, it might be
too late to save them. Human activities, including pollution, deforestation, hunting, and overpopulation,
are devastating the natural environment. Without our help, many species will not survive long enough for
our children to see them in the wild. Take the tiger, for example. Today, tigers occupy just 7 percent of
their historical range, and many local populations are already extinct. Hunted for their beautiful pelt and
other body parts, the tiger population has plummeted from one hundred thousand in 1920 to just a few
thousand. Contact your local wildlife conservation society today to find out how you can stop this terrible
destruction.
Choosing Appropriate, Interesting Content
Content refers to all the written substance in a document. After selecting an audience and a purpose, you
must choose what information will make it to the page. Content may consist of examples, statistics, facts,
anecdotes, testimonies, and observations, but no matter the type, the information must be appropriate
and interesting for the audience and purpose. An essay written for third graders that summarizes the
legislative process, for example, would have to contain succinct and simple content.
Content is also shaped by tone. When the tone matches the content, the audience will be more engaged,
and you will build a stronger relationship with your readers. Consider that audience of third graders. You
would choose simple content that the audience will easily understand, and you would express that content
through an enthusiastic tone. The same considerations apply to all audiences and purposes.

Key Takeaways
• Paragraphs separate ideas into logical, manageable chunks of information.
• The content of each paragraph and document is shaped by purpose, audience, and tone.
• The four common academic purposes are to summarize, to analyze, to synthesize, and to evaluate.
• Identifying the audience's demographics, education, prior knowledge, and expectations will affect how
and what you write.
• Devices such as sentence structure, word choice, punctuation, and formal or informal language
communicate tone and create a relationship between the writer and his or her audience.
• Content may consist of examples, statistics, facts, anecdotes, testimonies, and observations. All content
must be appropriate and interesting for the audience, purpose and tone.
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3.3 Writing Paragraphs: End-of-Chapter Exercises

1. Select one of the following topics or choose a topic of your choice:
1. Working part-time while attending college
2. Health care reform
3. Introducing a four-day work week
4. Bringing pets to work
5. Taking on-line classes
Create a topic sentence based on the topic you chose, remembering to include both a main idea and a
controlling idea. Next, write an alternative topic sentence using the same main idea but a different
controlling idea. Explain how each fully developed paragraph might differ in tone and content.
2. Group activity. Working in a small group, select a writing sample or academic essay that has a clear
thesis. Examine each paragraph and identify the topic sentence, supporting sentences, and concluding
sentence. Then, choose one particular paragraph and discuss the following questions:
o Is the topic sentence clearly identifiable or is it implied? o Do all the supporting sentences relate to the
topic sentence? o Does the writer use effective transitions to link his or her ideas? o Does the concluding
sentence accurately summarize the main point of the paragraph?
As a group, identify the weakest areas of the paragraph and rewrite them. Focus on the relationship
among the topic sentence, supporting sentences, and concluding sentence. Use transitions to illustrate the
connection between each sentence in the paragraph.
3. Peer activity. Using the information you have learned in this chapter, write a paragraph about a
current event. Underline the topic sentence in your paragraph. Now, rewrite the paragraph, placing the
topic sentence in a different part of the paragraph. Read the two paragraphs aloud to a peer and have him
or her identify the topic sentence. Discuss which paragraph is more effective and why.
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Chapter 4: Writing Essays - From Start To Finish

4.1 The Writing Process: Prewriting and Drafting
Learning Objective
1. Conquer the blank page
2. Use prewriting strategies to choose a topic and narrow the focus.
If you think that a blank sheet of paper or a blinking cursor on the computer screen is a scary sight, you
are not alone. Many writers, students, and employees find that beginning to write can be intimidating.
When faced with a blank page, however, experienced writers remind themselves that writing, like other
everyday activities, is a process. Every process, from writing to cooking, bike riding, and learning to use a
new cell phone, will get significantly easier with practice.
Just as you need a recipe, ingredients, and proper tools to cook a delicious meal, you also need a plan,
resources, and adequate time to create a good written composition. In other words, writing is a process
that requires following steps and using strategies to accomplish your goals.
These are the five steps in the writing process:
1. Prewriting
2. Outlining the structure of ideas
3. Writing a rough draft
4. Revising
5. Editing
Effective writing can be simply described as good ideas that are expressed well and arranged in the proper
order. This chapter will give you the chance to work on all these important aspects of writing. Although
many more prewriting strategies exist, this chapter covers just a few techniques: using experience and
observations, freewriting, brainstorming, and mapping. Using the strategies in this chapter can help you
overcome the fear of the blank page and confidently begin the writing process.
Prewriting
Prewriting is the stage of the writing process during which you transfer your abstract thoughts into more
concrete ideas in ink on paper (or in type on a computer screen). Although prewriting techniques can be
helpful in all stages of the writing process, the following strategies are best used when initially deciding on
a topic:
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1. Using experience and observations
2. Reading
3. Freewriting
At this stage in the writing process, it is OK if you choose a general topic. Later you will learn more
prewriting strategies that will narrow the focus of the topic.
Choosing a Topic
In addition to understanding that writing is a process, writers also understand that choosing a good
general topic for an assignment is an essential step. Sometimes your instructor will give you an idea to
begin an assignment, and other times your instructor will ask you to come up with a topic on your own. A
good topic not only covers what an assignment will be about but also fits the assignment's purpose and its
audience.
In this chapter, you will follow a writer named Tuyet as she prepares a piece of writing. You will also be
planning one of your own. The first important step is for you to tell yourself why you are writing (to
inform, to explain, or some other purpose) and for whom you are writing. Write your purpose and your
audience on your own sheet of paper, and keep the paper close by as you read and complete exercises in
this chapter.
My purpose:________
My audience:_______
Using Experience and Observations
When selecting a topic, you may also want to consider something that interests you or something based
on your own life and personal experiences. Even everyday observations can lead to interesting topics.
After writers think about their experiences and observations, they often take notes on paper to better
develop their thoughts. These notes help writers discover what they have to say about their topic.

Tip
Have you seen an attention-grabbing story on your local news channel? Many current issues appear on
television, in magazines, and on the Internet. These can all provide inspiration for your writing.
The Importance of Reading as Related to Writing
Reading plays a vital role in all the stages of the writing process, but it first figures in the development of
ideas and topics. Different kinds of documents can help you choose a topic and also develop that topic.
For example, a magazine advertising the latest research on the threat of global warming may catch your
eye in the supermarket. This cover may interest you, and you may consider global warming as a topic. Or
maybe a
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novel's courtroom drama sparks your curiosity of a particular lawsuit or legal controversy.
After you choose a topic, critical reading is essential to the development of a topic. While reading almost
any document, you evaluate the author's point of view by thinking about his main idea and his support.
When you judge the author's argument, you discover more about not only the author's opinion but also
your own. If this step already seems daunting, remember that even the best writers need to use prewriting
strategies to generate ideas.

Tip
The steps in the writing process may seem time consuming at first, but following these steps will save you
time in the future. The more you plan in the beginning by reading and using prewriting strategies, the less
time you may spend writing and editing later because your ideas will develop more swiftly.
Prewriting strategies depend on your critical reading skills. Reading prewriting exercises (and outlines
and drafts later in the writing process) will further develop your topic and ideas. As you continue to follow
the writing process, you will see how Tuyet uses critical reading skills to assess her own prewriting
exercises.
Freewriting
Freewriting is an exercise in which you write freely about any topic for a set amount of time (usually three
to five minutes). During the time limit, you may jot down any thoughts that come to your mind. Try not to
worry about grammar, spelling, or punctuation. Instead, write as quickly as you can without stopping. If
you get stuck, just copy the same word or phrase over and over until you come up with a new thought.
Writing often comes easier when you have a personal connection with the topic you have chosen.
Remember, to generate ideas in your freewriting, you may also think about readings that you have
enjoyed or that have challenged your thinking. Doing this may lead your thoughts in interesting
directions.
Quickly recording your thoughts on paper will help you discover what you have to say about a topic. When
writing quickly, try not to doubt or question your ideas. Allow yourself to write freely and
unselfconsciously. Once you start writing with few limitations, you may find you have more to say than
you first realized. Your flow of thoughts can lead you to discover even more ideas about the topic.
Freewriting may even lead you to discover another topic that excites you even more.
Look at Tuyet's example. The instructor allowed the members of the class to choose their own topics, and
Tuyet thought about her experiences as a communications major. She used this freewriting exercise to
help her generate more concrete ideas from her own experience.
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Tip
Some prewriting strategies can be used together. For example, you could use experience and observations
to come up with a topic related to your course studies. Then you could use freewriting to describe your
topic in more detail and figure out what you have to say about it.

Exercise 1
Free write about one event you have recently experienced. With this event in mind, write without
stopping for five minutes. After you finish, read over what you wrote. Does anything stand out to you as
a good general topic to write about?
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More Prewriting Techniques
The prewriting techniques of freewriting and asking questions helped Tuyet think more about her topic,
but the following prewriting strategies can help her (and you) narrow the focus of the topic:
• Narrowing the focus
• Brainstorming
• Idea mapping
Narrowing the Focus
Narrowing the focus means breaking up the topic into subtopics, or more specific points. Generating lots
of subtopics will help you eventually select the ones that fit the assignment and appeal to you and your
audience.
After rereading her syllabus, Tuyet realized her general topic, mass media, is too broad for her class's
short paper requirement. Three pages are not enough to cover all the concerns in mass media today. Tuyet
also realized that although her readers are other communications majors who are interested in the topic,
they may want to read a paper about a particular issue in mass media.
Brainstorming
Brainstorming is similar to list making. You can make a list on your own or in a group with your
classmates. Start with a blank sheet of paper (or a blank computer document) and write your general topic
across the top. Underneath your topic, make a list of more specific ideas. Think of your general topic as a
broad category and the list items as things that fit in that category. Often you will find that one item can
lead to the next, creating a flow of ideas that can help you narrow your focus to a more specific paper
topic. Here is Tuyet's brainstorming list:
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From this list, Tuyet could narrow her focus to a particular technology under the broad category of mass
media.
Idea Mapping
Idea mapping allows you to visualize your ideas on paper using circles, lines, and arrows. This technique
is also known as clustering because ideas are broken down and clustered, or grouped together. Many
writers like this method because the shapes show how the ideas relate or connect, and writers can find a
focused topic from the connections mapped. Using idea mapping, you might discover interesting
connections between topics that you had not thought of before.
To create an idea map, start with your general topic in a circle in the center of a blank sheet of paper. Then
write specific ideas around it and use lines or arrows to connect them together. Add and cluster as many
ideas as you can think of.
In addition to brainstorming, Tuyet tried idea mapping. Review the following idea map that Tuyet
created:
Tuyet's Idea Map

Notice Tuyet's largest circle contains her general topic, mass media. Then, the general topic branches into
two subtopics written in two smaller circles: television and radio. The subtopic television branches into
even more specific topics: cable and DVDs. From there, Tuyet drew more circles and wrote more specific
ideas: high definition and digital recording from cable and Blu-ray from DVDs. The radio topic led Tuyet
to draw connections between music, downloads versus CDs, and, finally, piracy.
From this idea map, Tuyet saw she could consider narrowing the focus of her mass media topic to the
more specific topic of music piracy.
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Topic Checklist - Developing a Good Topic
The following checklist can help you decide if your narrowed topic is a good topic for your assignment.
• Am I interested in this topic?
• Would my audience be interested?
• Do I have prior knowledge or experience with this topic? If so, would I be comfortable exploring this
topic and sharing my experiences?
• Do I want to learn more about this topic?
• Is this topic specific?
• Does it fit the length of the assignment?
With your narrowed focus in mind, answer the bulleted questions in the checklist for developing a good
topic. If you can answer "yes" to all the questions, write your topic on the line. If you answer "no" to any of
the questions, think about another topic or adjust the one you have and try the prewriting strategies again.
My narrowed topic:________

Key Takeaways
• All writers rely on steps and strategies to begin the writing process.
• The steps in the writing process are prewriting, outlining, writing a rough draft, revising, and editing.
• Prewriting is the transfer of ideas from abstract thoughts into words, phrases, and sentences on paper.
• A good topic interests the writer, appeals to the audience, and fits the purpose of the assignment.
• Writers often choose a general topic first and then narrow the focus to a more specific topic.
4.2 Developing a Strong, Clear Thesis Statement
Learning Objectives
1. Develop a strong, clear thesis statement with the proper elements.
2. Revise your thesis statement.
Have you ever known a person who was not very good at telling stories? You probably had trouble
following his train of thought as he jumped around from point to point, either being too brief in places
that needed further explanation or providing too many details on a meaningless element. Maybe he told
the end of the story first, then moved to the beginning and later added details to the middle. His ideas
were probably scattered,
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and the story did not flow very well. When the story was over, you probably had many questions.
Just as a personal anecdote can be a disorganized mess, an essay can fall into the same trap of being out of
order and confusing. That is why writers need a thesis statement to provide a specific focus for their essay
and to organize what they are about to discuss in the body.
Just like a topic sentence summarizes a single paragraph, the thesis statement summarizes an entire
essay. It tells the reader the point you want to make in your essay, while the essay itself supports that
point. It is like a signpost that signals the essay's destination. You should form your thesis before you
begin to organize an essay, but you may find that it needs revision as the essay develops.
Elements of a Thesis Statement
For every essay you write, you must focus on a central idea. This idea stems from a topic you have chosen
or been assigned or from a question your teacher has asked. It is not enough merely to discuss a general
topic or simply answer a question with a yes or no. You have to form a specific opinion, and then
articulate that into a controlling idea—the main idea upon which you build your thesis.
Remember that a thesis is not the topic itself, but rather your interpretation of the question or subject. For
whatever topic your professor gives you, you must ask yourself, "What do I want to say about it?" Asking
and then answering this question is vital to forming a thesis that is precise, forceful and confident.
A thesis is one sentence long and appears toward the end of your introduction. It is specific and focuses on
one to three points of a single idea—points that are able to be demonstrated in the body. It forecasts the
content of the essay and suggests how you will organize your information. Remember that a thesis
statement does not summarize an issue but rather dissects it.
A Strong Thesis Statement
A strong thesis statement contains the following qualities:
Specificity. A thesis statement must concentrate on a specific area of a general topic. As you may recall,
the creation of a thesis statement begins when you choose a broad subject and then narrow down its parts
until you pinpoint a specific aspect of that topic. For example, health care is a broad topic, but a proper
thesis statement would focus on a specific area of that topic, such as options for individuals without health
care coverage.
Precision. A strong thesis statement must be precise enough to allow for a coherent argument and to
remain focused on the topic. If the specific topic is options for individuals without health care coverage,
then your precise thesis
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statement must make an exact claim about it, such as that limited options exist for those who are
uninsured by their employers. You must further pinpoint what you are going to discuss regarding these
limited effects, such as whom they affect and what the cause is.
Ability to be argued. A thesis statement must present a relevant and specific argument. A factual
statement often is not considered arguable. Be sure your thesis statement contains a point of view that can
be supported with evidence.
Ability to be demonstrated. For any claim you make in your thesis, you must be able to provide
reasons and examples for your opinion. You can rely on personal observations in order to do this, or you
can consult outside sources to demonstrate that what you assert is valid. A worthy argument is backed by
examples and details.
Forcefulness. A thesis statement that is forceful shows readers that you are, in fact, making an
argument. The tone is assertive and takes a stance that others might oppose.
Confidence. In addition to using force in your thesis statement, you must also use confidence in your
claim. Phrases such as I feel or I believe actually weaken the readers' sense of your confidence because
these phrases imply that you are the only person who feels the way you do. In other words, your stance
has insufficient backing. Taking an authoritative stance on the matter persuades your readers to have
faith in your argument and open their minds to what you have to
say.

Tip
Even in a personal essay that allows the use of first person, your thesis should not contain phrases such
as in my opinion or I believe. These statements reduce your credibility and weaken your argument. Your
opinion is more convincing when you use a firm attitude.

Exercise 1
On a separate sheet of paper, write a thesis statement for each of the following topics. Remember to
make each statement specific, precise, demonstrable, forceful and confident.
Topics
• Texting while driving
• The legal drinking age in the United States
• Teenagers having jobs while in high school
• Advantages of being bilingual
• Maintaining a healthy life style while in college
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Examples of Appropriate Thesis Statements
Each of the following thesis statements meets several of the following requirements:
• Specificity
• Precision
• Ability to be argued
• Ability to be demonstrated
• Forcefulness
• Confidence
1. Closing all American borders for a period of five years is one solution that will tackle illegal
immigration.
2. Compared to an absolute divorce, no-fault divorce is less expensive, promotes fairer settlements, and
reflects a more realistic view of the causes for marital breakdown.
3. Exposing children from an early age to the dangers of drug abuse is a sure method of preventing future
drug addicts.
4. In today's crumbling job market, a high school diploma is not significant enough education to land a
stable, lucrative job.

Tip
You can find thesis statements in many places, such as in the news; in the opinions of friends, coworkers
or teachers; and even in songs you hear on the radio. Become aware of thesis statements in everyday life
by paying attention to people's opinions and their reasons for those opinions. Pay attention to your own
everyday thesis statements as well, as these can become material for future essays.
Now that you have read about the contents of a good thesis statement and have seen examples, take a look
at the pitfalls to avoid when composing your own thesis:
• A thesis is weak when it is simply a declaration of your subject or a description of what you will discuss
in your essay.
Weak thesis statement: My paper will explain why imagination is more important than knowledge.
• A thesis is weak when it makes an unreasonable or outrageous claim or insults the opposing side.
Weak thesis statement: Religious radicals across America are trying to legislate their Puritanical
beliefs by banning required high school books.
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• A thesis is weak when it contains an obvious fact or something that no one can disagree with or provides
a dead end.
Weak thesis statement: Advertising companies use sex to sell their products.
• A thesis is weak when the statement is too broad.
Weak thesis statement: The life of Abraham Lincoln was long and challenging.

Exercise 2
Read the following thesis statements. On a separate piece of paper, identify each as weak or strong. For
those that are weak, list the reasons why. Then revise the weak statements so that they conform to the
requirements of a strong thesis.
1. The subject of this paper is my experience with snakes as pets.
2. The government must expand its funding for research on renewable energy resources in order to
prepare for the impending end of oil.
3. Edgar Allan Poe was a poet who lived in Baltimore during the nineteenth century.
4. In this essay, I will give you lots of reasons why slot machines should not be legalized in Baltimore.
5. Despite his promises during his campaign, President Kennedy took few executive measures to support
civil rights legislation.
6. Because many children's toys have potential safety hazards that could lead to injury, it is clear that not
all children's toys are safe.
7. My experience with young children has taught me that I want to be a disciplinary parent because I
believe that a child without discipline can be a parent's worst nightmare.
Thesis Statement Revision
Your thesis will probably change as you write, so you will need to modify it to reflect exactly what you have
discussed in your essay. Your thesis may begin as a working thesis statement, an indefinite statement that
you make about your topic early in the writing process for the purpose of planning and guiding your
writing.
Working thesis statements often become stronger as you gather information and form new opinions and
reasons for those opinions. Revision helps you strengthen your thesis so that it matches what you have
expressed in the body of the paper.
You can cut down on irrelevant aspects and revise your thesis by taking the following steps:
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1. Pinpoint and replace all nonspecific words, such as people, everything, society, or life, with more
precise words in order to reduce any vagueness.
Working thesis: Young people have to work hard to succeed in life.
Revised thesis: Recent college graduates must have discipline and persistence in order to find and
maintain a stable job in which they can use and be appreciated for their talents.
The revised thesis makes a more specific statement about success and what it means to work hard. The
original includes too broad a range of people and does not define exactly what success entails. By
replacing those general words like people and work hard, the writer can better focus his or her research
and gain more direction in his or her writing.
2. Clarify ideas that need explanation by asking yourself questions that narrow your thesis.
Working thesis: The welfare system is a joke.
Revised thesis: The welfare system keeps a socioeconomic class from gaining employment by alluring
members of that class with unearned income, instead of programs to improve their education and skill
sets.
A joke means many things to many people. Readers bring all sorts of backgrounds and perspectives to the
reading process and would need clarification for a word so vague. This expression may also be too
informal for the selected audience. By asking questions, the writer can devise a more precise and
appropriate explanation for joke.
Working thesis: DeKalb County schoolteachers are not paid enough.
Revised thesis: The DeKalb County legislature cannot afford to pay its educators, resulting in job cuts
and resignations in a district that sorely needs highly qualified and dedicated teachers.
The linking verb in this working thesis statement is the word are. Linking verbs often make thesis
statements weak because they do not express action. Rather, they connect words and phrases to the
second half of the sentence. Readers might wonder, "Why are they not paid enough?" But this statement
does not compel them to ask many more questions. The writer should ask himself or herself questions in
order to replace the linking verb with an action verb, thus forming a stronger thesis statement, one that
takes a more definitive stance on the issue:
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o Who is not paying the teachers enough?

o What is considered "enough"?

o What is the problem?

o What are the results

3. Omit any general claims that are hard to support.
Working thesis: Today's teenage girls are too sexualized.
Revised thesis: Teenage girls who are captivated by the sexual images on MTV are conditioned to
believe that a woman's worth depends on her sensuality, a feeling that harms their self-esteem and
behavior.
It is true that some young women in today's society are more sexualized than in the past, but that is not
true for all girls. Many girls have strict parents, dress appropriately, and do not engage in sexual activity
while in middle school and high school. The writer of this thesis should ask the following questions:
o Which teenage girls? o What constitutes "too" sexualized? o Why are they behaving that way? o Where
does this behavior show up? o What are the repercussions?

Tip
The best way to revise your thesis statement is to ask questions about it and then examine the answers to
those questions. By challenging your own ideas and forming definite reasons for those ideas, you grow
closer to a more precise point of view, which you can then incorporate into your thesis statement.

Key Takeaways
• Proper essays require a thesis statement to provide a specific focus and suggest how the essay will be
organized.
• A thesis statement is your interpretation of the subject, not the topic itself.
• A strong thesis is specific, precise, forceful, confident, and is able to be demonstrated.
• A strong thesis challenges readers with a point of view that can be debated and can be supported with
evidence.
• A weak thesis is simply a declaration of your topic or contains an obvious fact that cannot be argued.
• Depending on your topic, it may or may not be appropriate to use first person point of view.
• Revise your thesis by ensuring all words are specific, all ideas are exact, and all verbs express action.
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4.3 Outlining
Learning Objectives
1. Identify the steps in constructing an outline.
2. Construct a topic outline and a sentence outline.
Your prewriting activities and readings have helped you gather information for your assignment. The
more you sort through the pieces of information you found, the more you will begin to see the connections
between them. Patterns and gaps may begin to stand out. But only when you start to organize your ideas
will you be able to translate your raw insights into a form that will communicate meaning to your
audience.

Tip
Longer papers require more reading and planning than shorter papers do. Most writers discover that the
more they know about a topic, the more they can write about it with intelligence and interest.
Organizing Ideas
When you write, you need to organize your ideas in an order that makes sense. The writing you complete
in all your courses exposes how analytically and critically your mind works. In some courses, the only
direct contact you may have with your instructor is through the assignments you write for the course. You
can make a good impression by spending time ordering your ideas.
Order refers to your choice of what to present first, second, third, and so on in your writing. The order you
pick closely relates to your purpose for writing that particular assignment. For example, when telling a
story, it may be important to first describe the background for the action. Or you may need to first
describe a 3-D movie projector or a television studio to help readers visualize the setting and scene. You
may want to group your support effectively to convince readers that your point of view on an issue is well
reasoned and worthy of belief.
In longer pieces of writing, you may organize different parts in different ways so that your purpose stands
out clearly and all parts of the paper work together to consistently develop your main point.
Methods of Organizing Writing - What You Might See in Freshman Composition
The three common methods of organizing writing are chronological order, spatial order, and order of
importance. You need to keep these methods of organization in mind as you plan how to arrange the
information you have gathered in an outline. An outline is a written plan that serves as a skeleton for the
paragraphs you write. Later, when you
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draft paragraphs in the next stage of the writing process, you will add support to create "flesh" and
"muscle" for your assignment.
When you write, your goal is not only to complete an assignment but also to write for a specific purpose—
perhaps to inform, to explain, to persuade, or for a combination of these purposes. Your purpose for
writing should always be in the back of your mind, because it will help you decide which pieces of
information belong together and how you will order them. In other words, choose the order that will most
effectively fit your purpose and support your main point.
"Order versus Purpose" shows the connection between order and purpose
Order Purpose
Chronological Order To explain the history of an event or a topic
To tell a story or relate an experience
To explain how to do or make something
To explain the steps in a process
Spatial Order To help readers visualize something as you want them to see it
To create a main impression using the senses (sight, touch, taste, smell,
and sound)
Order of Importance To persuade or convince
To rank items by their importance, benefit, or significance
Writing an Outline
For an essay question on a test or a brief oral presentation in class, you may need to prepare a short,
informal outline in which you jot down key ideas in the order you will present them. This kind of outline
reminds you to stay focused in a stressful situation and to include all the good ideas that help you explain
or prove your point.
For a longer assignment, like an essay or a research paper, many college instructors require students to
submit a formal outline before writing a major paper as a way to be sure you are on the right track and are
working in an organized manner. A formal outline is a detailed guide that shows how all your supporting
ideas relate to each other. It helps you distinguish between ideas that are of equal importance and ones
that are of lesser importance. You build your paper based on the framework created by the outline.
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Tip
Instructors may also require you to submit an outline with your final draft to check the direction of the
assignment and the logic of your final draft. If you are required to submit an outline with the final draft of
a paper, remember to revise the outline to reflect any changes you made while writing the paper.
There are two types of formal outlines: the topic outline and the sentence outline. You format both types
of formal outlines in the same way.
• Place your thesis (not your introduction) at the top of the outline page.
• Use roman numerals (I, II, III, IV, V, etc.) to identify main points that develop the thesis statement.
• Use capital letters (A, B, C, D, etc.) to divide your main points into parts, the subheadings.
• Use arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc.) if you need to subdivide any As, Bs, or Cs into smaller parts. This
will be the examples and specifics of your paper.
Here is what the skeleton of a traditional formal outline looks like. The indention helps clarify how the
ideas are related.
Thesis statement
1. Main point 1 — becomes the topic sentence of body paragraph 1
A. Supporting detail — becomes a support sentence of body paragraph 1
Subpoint 1 Subpoint 2
B. Supporting detail — becomes a support sentence of body paragraph 1
Subpoint 1 Subpoint 2
C. Supporting detail — becomes a support sentence of body paragraph 1
Subpoint 1 Subpoint 2
2. Main point 2 — becomes the topic sentence of body paragraph 2
A. Supporting detail — becomes a support sentence of body paragraph 2
Subpoint 1 Subpoint 2
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B. Supporting detail — becomes a support sentence of body paragraph 2
Subpoint 1 Subpoint 2
C. Supporting detail — becomes a support sentence of body paragraph 2 3. Main point 3 — becomes the
topic sentence of body paragraph 3
A. Supporting detail — becomes a support sentence of body paragraph 3
Subpoint 1 Subpoint 2
B. Supporting detail — becomes a support sentence of body paragraph 3
Subpoint 1 Subpoint 2
C. Supporting detail — becomes a support sentence of body paragraph 3
Subpoint 1 Subpoint 2

Tip
In an outline, any supporting detail can be developed with subpoints. For simplicity, the model shows
them only under the first main point.
Formal outlines are often quite rigid in their organization. As many instructors will specify, you cannot
subdivide one point if it is only one part. For example, for every roman numeral I, there must be a II. For
every A, there must be a B. For every Arabic numeral 1, there must be a 2.
Constructing Topic Outlines
A topic outline is the same as a sentence outline except you use words or phrases instead of complete
sentences. Words and phrases keep the outline short and easier to comprehend. All the headings,
however, must be written in parallel structure.
Checklist for Writing an Effective Topic Outline
This checklist can help you write an effective topic outline for your assignment. It will also help you
discover where you may need to do additional reading or prewriting.
• Do I have a controlling idea that guides the development of the entire piece of writing?
• Do I have three or more main points that I want to make in this piece of writing? Does each main point
connect to my controlling idea?
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• Is my outline in the best order—chronological order, spatial order, or order of importance—for me to
present my main points? Will this order help me get my main point across?
• Do I have supporting details that will help me inform, explain, or prove my main points?
• Do I need to add more support? If so, where?
• Do I need to make any adjustments in my working thesis statement before I consider it the final version?

Key Takeaways
• Writers must put their ideas in order so the assignment makes sense. The most common orders are
chronological order, spatial order, and order of importance.
• After gathering and evaluating the information you found for your essay, the next step is to write a
working, or preliminary, thesis statement.
• The working thesis statement expresses the main idea that you want to develop in the entire piece of
writing. It can be modified as you continue the writing process.
• Effective writers prepare a formal outline to organize their main ideas and supporting details in the
order they will be presented.
• A topic outline uses words and phrases to express the ideas.
• The writer's thesis statement is placed at the beginning of the outline, and the outline may end with
suggestions for the concluding paragraph.
4.4 Writing Introductory Paragraphs
Learning Objectives
1. Recognize the importance of strong introductory paragraphs.
2. Learn to engage the reader immediately with the introductory paragraph.
Picture your introduction as a storefront window: You have a certain amount of space to attract your
customers (readers) to your goods (subject) and bring them inside your store (discussion). Once you have
enticed them with something intriguing, you then point them in a specific direction and try to make the
sale (convince them to accept your thesis).
Your introduction is an invitation to your readers to consider what you have to say and then to follow your
train of thought as you expand upon your thesis statement.
An introduction serves the following purposes:
1. Establishes your voice and tone, or your attitude, toward the subject
2. Introduces the general topic of the essay
3. States the thesis that will be supported in the body paragraphs
First impressions are crucial and can leave lasting effects in your reader's mind, which is why the
introduction is so important to your essay. If your introductory paragraph is
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dull or disjointed, your reader probably will not have much interest in continuing with the essay.
Attracting Interest in Your Introductory Paragraph
Your introduction should begin with an engaging statement devised to provoke your readers' interest. In
the next few sentences, introduce them to your topic by stating general facts or ideas about the subject. As
you move deeper into your introduction, you gradually narrow the focus, moving closer to your thesis.
Moving smoothly and logically from your introductory remarks to your thesis statement can be achieved
using a funnel technique, as illustrated in the diagram in the figure below "Funnel Technique".
Funnel Technique

The Funnel Technique, or General to Specific, is a very common introductory technique. Other good
introductory "lead-in" techniques are the following: the use of a question (that is answered in the
thesis); the use of a dictionary definition; an anecdote (short personal story), background
information (the "back story" that give explanation of why you are writing on this topic), a striking fact or
statistic.

Tip
Make sure your essay is balanced by not having an excessively long or short introduction or conclusion.
Check that they match each other in length as closely as possible, and try to mirror the formula you used
in each. Parallelism strengthens the message of your essay.
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Key Takeaways
• A strong opening captures your readers' interest and introduces them to your topic before you present
your thesis statement.
• An introduction should restate your thesis, review your main points, and emphasize the importance of
the topic.
• The funnel technique to writing the introduction begins with generalities and gradually narrows your
focus until you present your thesis.
• A good introduction engages people's emotions or logic, questions or explains the subject, or provides a
striking image or quotation.
• Carefully chosen diction in both the introduction prevents any confusing or boring ideas.
4.5 Writing Body Paragraphs
Learning Objectives
1. Select primary support related to your thesis.
2. Support your topic sentences.
3. Providing connections between thesis and body paragraphs.
If your thesis and outline give the reader a roadmap to your essay, then body paragraphs should closely
follow that map. The reader should be able to predict what follows your introductory paragraph by simply
reading the thesis statement. Using transition words helps in connecting ideas for your reader and creates
coherence. See Chapter 5 for chart of effective transitions.
The body paragraphs present the evidence you have gathered to confirm your thesis. Before you begin to
support your thesis in the body, you must find information from a variety of sources that support and give
credit to what you are trying to prove.
Select Primary Support for Your Thesis
Without primary support, your argument is not likely to be convincing. Primary support can be described
as the major points you choose to expand on your thesis. It is the most important information you select
to argue for your point of view. Each point you choose will be incorporated into the topic sentence for each
body paragraph you write. Your primary supporting points are further supported by supporting details
within the paragraphs.
Identify the Characteristics of Good Primary Support
In order to fulfill the requirements of good primary support, the information you choose must meet the
following standards:
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• Be specific. The main points you make about your thesis and the examples you use to expand on those
points need to be specific. Use specific examples to provide the evidence and to build upon your general
ideas. These types of examples give your reader something narrow to focus on, and if used properly, they
leave little doubt about your claim. General examples, while they convey the necessary information, are
not nearly as compelling or useful in writing because they are too obvious and typical.
• Be relevant to the thesis. Primary support is considered strong when it relates directly to the thesis.
Primary support should show, explain, or prove your main argument without delving into irrelevant
details. When faced with lots of information that could be used to prove your thesis, you may think you
need to include it all in your body paragraphs. But effective writers resist the temptation to lose focus.
Choose your examples wisely by making sure they directly connect to your thesis.
• Be detailed. Remember that your thesis, while specific, should not be very detailed. The body
paragraphs are where you develop the discussion that a thorough essay requires. Using detailed support
shows readers that you have considered all the facts and chosen only the most precise details to enhance
your point of view.
Prewrite to Identify Primary Supporting Points for a Thesis Statement
Recall that when you prewrite you essentially make a list of examples or reasons why you support your
stance. Stemming from each point, you further provide details to support those reasons. After prewriting,
you are then able to look back at the information and choose the most compelling pieces you will use in
your body paragraphs.

Exercise 1
Choose one of the following working thesis statements. On a separate sheet of paper, write for at least
five minutes using one of the prewriting techniques you learned in this chapter.
1. Unleashed dogs on city streets are a dangerous nuisance.
2. Students cheat for many different reasons.
3. Drug use among teens and young adults is a problem.
4. The most important change that should occur at my college or university is_.
Select the Most Effective Primary Supporting Points for a Thesis Statement
After you have prewritten about your working thesis statement, you may have generated a lot of
information, which may be edited out later. Remember that your primary
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support must be relevant to your thesis. Remind yourself of your main argument, and delete any ideas
that do not directly relate to it. Omitting unrelated ideas ensures that you will use only the most
convincing information in your body paragraphs. Choose at least three of only the most compelling
points. These will serve as the topic sentences for your body paragraphs.

Exercise 2
Refer to the previous exercise and select three of your most compelling reasons to support the thesis
statement. Remember that the points you choose must be specific and relevant to the thesis. The
statements you choose will be your primary support points, and you will later incorporate them into the
topic sentences for the body paragraphs. You may also choose to outline your reasons, as part of your
pre-writing.
Using Evidence to Support Your Thesis
When you support your thesis, you are revealing evidence. Evidence includes anything that can help
support your stance. The following are the kinds of evidence you will encounter as you conduct your
research:
1. Facts. Facts are the best kind of evidence to use because they often cannot be disputed. They can
support your stance by providing background information on or a solid foundation for your point of view.
However, some facts may still need explanation. For example, the sentence "The most populated state in
the United States is California" is a pure fact, but it may require some explanation to make it relevant to
your specific argument.
2. Judgments. Judgments are conclusions drawn from the given facts. Judgments are more credible
than opinions because they are founded upon careful reasoning and examination of a topic.
3. Testimony. Testimony consists of direct quotations from either an eyewitness or an expert witness.
An eyewitness is someone who has direct experience with a subject; he adds authenticity to an argument
based on facts. An expert witness is a person who has extensive experience with a topic. This person
studies the facts and provides commentary based on either facts or judgments, or both. An expert witness
adds authority and credibility to an argument.
4. Personal observation. Personal observation is similar to testimony, but personal observation
consists of your testimony. It reflects what you know to be true because you have experiences and have
formed either opinions or judgments about them. For instance, if you are one of five children and your
thesis states that being part of a large family is beneficial to a child's social development, you could use
your own experience to support your thesis.
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Choose Supporting Topic Sentences
Each body paragraph contains a topic sentence that states one aspect of your thesis and then expands
upon it. Like the thesis statement, each topic sentence should be specific and supported by concrete
details, facts, or explanations.
Each body paragraph should comprise the following elements:
topic sentence + supporting details (examples, reasons, or arguments)
As you read earlier, topic sentences indicate the location and main points of the basic arguments of your
essay. These sentences are vital to writing your body paragraphs because they always refer back to and
support your thesis statement. Topic sentences are linked to the ideas you have introduced in your thesis,
thus reminding readers what your essay is about. A paragraph without a clearly identified topic sentence
may be unclear and scattered, just like an essay without a thesis statement.

Tip
Unless your teacher instructs otherwise, you should include at least three body paragraphs in your essay.
A five-paragraph essay, including the introduction and conclusion, is commonly the standard for exams
and essay assignments. It is not, however, the only format for an academic essay. It is, perhaps, the most
familiar one.
Draft Supporting Detail Sentences for Each Primary Support Sentence
After deciding which primary support points you will use as your topic sentences, you must add details to
clarify and demonstrate each of those points. These supporting details provide examples, facts, or
evidence that support the topic sentence.
The writer drafts possible supporting detail sentences for each primary support sentence based on the
thesis statement:
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Tip
You have the option of writing your topic sentences in one of three ways. You can state it at the beginning
of the body paragraph, or at the end of the paragraph, or you do not have to write it at all. This is called an
implied topic sentence. An implied topic sentence lets readers form the main idea for themselves. For
beginning writers, it is best to not use implied topic sentences because it makes it harder to focus your
writing. Your instructor may also want to clearly identify the sentences that support your thesis.
Print out the first draft of your essay and use a highlighter to mark your topic sentences in the body
paragraphs. Make sure they are clearly stated and accurately present your paragraphs, as well as
accurately reflect your thesis. If your topic sentence contains information that does not exist in the rest of
the paragraph, rewrite it to more accurately match the rest of the paragraph.

Key Takeaways
• Your body paragraphs should closely follow the path set forth by your thesis statement.
• Strong body paragraphs contain evidence that supports your thesis.
• Primary support comprises the most important points you use to support your thesis.
• Strong primary support is specific, detailed, and relevant to the thesis.
• Prewriting helps you determine your most compelling primary support.
• Evidence includes facts, judgments, testimony, and personal observation.
• Reliable sources may include newspapers, magazines, academic journals, books, encyclopedias, and
firsthand testimony.
• A topic sentence presents one point of your thesis statement while the information in the rest of the
paragraph supports that point.
• A body paragraph comprises a topic sentence plus supporting details.
4.6 More About the Basic Elements of a First Draft
If you have been using the information in this chapter step by step to help you develop an assignment, you
may already have a topic outline to direct your writing. Knowing what a first draft looks like will help you
make the creative leap from the outline to the first draft. A first draft should include the following
elements:
• An introduction that piques the audience's interest, tells what the essay is about, and motivates readers
to keep reading.
• A thesis statement that presents the main point, or controlling idea, of the entire piece of writing.
• A topic sentence in each paragraph that states the main idea of the paragraph and implies how that main
idea connects to the thesis statement.
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• Supporting sentences in each paragraph that develop or explain the topic sentence. These can be specific
facts, examples, anecdotes, or other details that elaborate on the topic sentence.
• A conclusion that reinforces the thesis statement and leaves the audience with a feeling of completion.
These elements follow the standard five-paragraph essay format, which you probably first encountered in
high school. This basic format is valid for most essays you will write in college, even much longer ones.
The Role of Topic Sentences
Topic sentences make the structure of a text and the writer's basic arguments easy to locate and
comprehend. In college writing, using a topic sentence in each paragraph of the essay is the standard rule.
However, the topic sentence does not always have to be the first sentence in your paragraph even if it the
first item in your formal outline.
The topic sentence can be the first, middle, or final sentence in a paragraph. The assignment's audience
and purpose will often determine where a topic sentence belongs. When the purpose of the assignment is
to persuade, for example, the topic sentence should be the first sentence in a paragraph. In a persuasive
essay, the writer's point of view should be clearly expressed at the beginning of each paragraph.
Choosing where to position the topic sentence depends not only on your audience and purpose but also on
the essay's arrangement, or order. When you organize information according to order of importance, the
topic sentence may be the final sentence in a paragraph. All the supporting sentences build up to the topic
sentence. Chronological order may also position the topic sentence as the final sentence because the
controlling idea of the paragraph may make the most sense at the end of a sequence.
When you organize information according to spatial order, a topic sentence may appear as the middle
sentence in a paragraph. An essay arranged by spatial order often contains paragraphs that begin with
descriptions. A reader may first need a visual in his or her mind before understanding the development of
the paragraph. When the topic sentence is in the middle, it unites the details that come before it with the
ones that come after it.

Tip
When you begin to draft your paragraphs, you should follow your outline fairly closely. After all, you spent
valuable time developing those ideas. However, as you begin to express your ideas in complete sentences,
it might strike you that the topic sentence might work better at the end of the paragraph or in the middle.
Try it. Writing a draft, by its nature, is a good time for experimentation.
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As you read critically throughout the writing process, keep topic sentences in mind. Developing topic
sentences and thinking about their placement in a paragraph will prepare you to write the rest of the
paragraph.
The Role of Paragraphs
The paragraph is the main structural component of an essay as well as other forms of writing. Each
paragraph of an essay adds another related main idea to support the writer's thesis, or controlling idea.
Each related main idea is supported and developed with facts, examples, and other details that explain it.
By exploring and refining one main idea at a time, writers build a strong case for their thesis.
Students often ask the question: "How long should a paragraph be?" One answer to this important
question may be "long enough"—long enough for you to address your points and explain your main idea.
To grab attention or to present succinct supporting ideas, a paragraph can be fairly short and consist of
two to three sentences. A paragraph in a complex essay about some abstract point in philosophy or
archaeology can be three-quarters of a page or more in length. As long as the writer maintains close focus
on the topic and does not ramble, a long paragraph is acceptable in college-level writing. In general, try to
keep the paragraphs longer than one sentence but shorter than one full page of double-spaced text.
Journalistic style often calls for brief two- or three-sentence paragraphs because of how people read the
news, both online and in print. Blogs and other online information sources often adopt this paragraphing
style, too. Readers often skim the first paragraphs of a great many articles before settling on the handful of
stories they want to read in detail.
You may find that a particular paragraph you write may be longer than one that will hold your audience's
interest. In such cases, you should divide the paragraph into two or more shorter paragraphs, adding a
topic statement or some kind of transitional word or phrase at the start of the new paragraph. Transition
words or phrases show the connection between the two ideas.
In all cases, however, be guided by what your instructor wants and expects to find in your draft. Many
instructors will expect you to develop a mature college-level style as you progress through the semester's
assignments.
Starting Your First Draft
Now we are finally ready to look over Tuyet's shoulder as she begins to write her essay about digital
technology and the confusing choices that consumers face. As she does, you should have in front of you
your outline, with its thesis statement and topic sentences, and the notes you wrote earlier in this lesson
on your purpose and audience. Reviewing these will put both you and Tuyet in the proper mind-set to
start.
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The following is Tuyet's thesis statement:

Here are the notes that Tuyet wrote to herself to characterize her purpose and audience:

Tuyet chose to begin by writing a quick introduction based on her thesis statement. She knew that she
would want to improve her introduction significantly when she revised. Right now, she just wanted to give
herself a starting point. You will read her introduction again in the chapter on "Revising and Editing"
when she revises it.
With her thesis statement and her purpose and audience notes in front of her, Tuyet then looked at her
outline. She chose to use that outline because it includes the topic sentences. The following is the portion
of her outline of one of her body paragraphs. The roman numeral II identifies the topic sentence for the
paragraph, capital letters indicate supporting details, and Arabic numerals label subpoints.
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Tuyet then began to expand the ideas in her outline into a paragraph. Notice how the outline helped her
guarantee that all her sentences in the body of the paragraph develop the topic sentence.
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In your documents, observe any formatting requirements—for margins, headers, placement of page
numbers, and other layout matters—that your instructor requires.
Continuing the First Draft
Tuyet continued writing her essay, moving to the second and third body paragraphs. She had supporting
details but no numbered subpoints in her outline, so she had to consult her prewriting notes for specific
information to include. Then she began to write the conclusion of her paper.
4.7 Writing a Conclusion
It is not unusual to want to rush when you approach your conclusion, and even experienced writers may
fade. But what good writers remember is that it is vital to put just as much attention into the conclusion as
in the rest of the essay. After all, a hasty ending can undermine an otherwise strong essay.
A conclusion that does not correspond to the rest of your essay, has loose ends, or is unorganized can
unsettle your readers and raise doubts about the entire essay. However, if you have worked hard to write
the introduction and body, your conclusion can often be the most logical part to compose.
The Anatomy of a Strong Conclusion
Keep in mind that the ideas in your conclusion must conform to the rest of your essay. In order to tie
these components together, restate your thesis at the beginning of your conclusion. This helps you
assemble, in an orderly fashion, all the information you have explained in the body. Repeating the exact
words of your thesis is usually seen as being redundant, but phrasing the main ideas in different language
is a good idea. A strong conclusion reviews your main points and emphasizes the importance of the topic.
The construction of the conclusion is similar to the introduction, in which you make general introductory
statements and then present your thesis. The difference is that in the conclusion you first paraphrase, or
state in different words, your thesis and then follow up with general concluding remarks. These sentences
should progressively broaden the focus of your thesis and maneuver your readers out of the essay.
Many writers like to end their essays with a final emphatic statement. This strong closing statement will
cause your readers to continue thinking about the implications of your essay; it will make your conclusion,
and thus your essay, more memorable. Another powerful technique is to challenge your readers to make a
change in either their thoughts or their actions. Challenging your readers to see the subject through new
eyes is a powerful way to ease yourself and your readers out of the essay. Thinking about how your
particular topic fits into the larger world view and expressing the wider, global
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issues is also another technique for ending. Sometimes, this is called the "so, what?" conclusion (as in,
why does this issue really matter? Or why is this important?)
Remember that often when the instructor is reading your last paragraph, he or she is deciding on the
grade for that paper. Thus, it is important to end your paper skillfully.
It is wise to avoid doing any of the following in your conclusion:
• Introducing new material
• Contradicting your thesis
• Changing your thesis
• Using apologies or disclaimers
Introducing new material in your conclusion has an unsettling effect on your reader. When you raise new
points, you make your reader want more information, which you could not possibly provide in the limited
space of your final paragraph.
Contradicting or changing your thesis statement causes your readers to think that you do not actually
have a conviction about your topic. After all, you have spent several paragraphs adhering to a singular
point of view. When you change sides or open up your point of view in the conclusion, your reader
becomes less inclined to believe your original argument.
By apologizing for your opinion or stating that you know it is tough to digest, you are in fact admitting
that even you know what you have discussed is irrelevant or unconvincing. You do not want your readers
to feel this way. Effective writers stand by their thesis statement and do not stray from it.
Make sure your essay is balanced by not having an excessively long or short introduction or conclusion.
Check that they match each other in length as closely as possible, and try to mirror the formula you used
in each. Parallelism strengthens the message of your essay.

Tip
When closing your essay, do not expressly state that you are drawing to a close. Your reader will know that
a conclusion is forthcoming. In advanced academic writing, you would not necessarily rely on statements
such as in conclusion, it is clear that, as you can see, or in summation. However, until you are more
comfortable with essay writing skills, you should feel free to use a transition that indicates a closing.
Writing Your Own First Draft
Now you may begin your own first draft, if you have not already done so. Follow the suggestions and the
guidelines presented in this section.
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Key Takeaways
• Make the writing process work for you. Use any and all of the strategies that help you move forward in
the writing process.
• Always be aware of your purpose for writing and the needs of your audience. Cater to those needs in
every sensible way.
• Remember to include all the key structural parts of an essay: a thesis statement that is part of your
introductory paragraph, three or more body paragraphs as described in your outline, and a concluding
paragraph. Then add an engaging title to draw in readers.
• Write paragraphs of an appropriate length for your writing assignment. Paragraphs in college-level
writing can be a page long, as long as they cover the main topics in your outline.
• Use your outline to guide the development of your paragraphs and the elaboration of your ideas. Each
main idea, indicated by a roman numeral in your outline, becomes the topic of a new paragraph. Develop
it with the supporting details and the subpoints of those details that you included in your outline.
• Generally speaking, write your introduction and conclusion last, after you have fleshed out the body
paragraphs.
• A conclusion that does not connect to the rest of the essay can diminish the effect of your paper.
• The conclusion should remain true to your thesis statement. It is best to avoid changing your tone or
your main idea and avoid introducing any new material.
• Closing with a final emphatic statement or a thoughtful reflection provides closure for your readers and
makes your essay more memorable.
4.8 Writing Essays: End-of-Chapter Exercises
1. On a separate sheet of paper, choose one of the examples of a proper thesis statement from this chapter
(one that interests you) and form three supporting points for that statement. After you have formed your
three points, write a topic sentence for each body paragraph. Make sure that your topic sentences can be
backed up with examples and details.
2. On a separate sheet of a paper, write an introduction for an essay based on the thesis statement from
the group activity using the techniques for introductory paragraphs that you learned in this chapter.
3. Start a journal in which you record "spoken" thesis statements. Start listening closely to the opinions
expressed by your teachers, classmates, friends, and family members. Ask them to provide at least three
reasons for their opinion and record them in the journal. Use this as material for future essays.
4. Open a magazine and read a lengthy article. See if you can pinpoint the thesis statement as well as the
topic sentence for each paragraph and its supporting details.
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Chapter 5: Revising And Editing

5.1 Reviewing Your Essay
Learning Objectives
1. Identify major areas of concern in the draft essay during revising and editing.
2. Use peer reviews and editing checklists to assist revising and editing.
3. Revise and edit the first draft of your essay and produce a final draft.
Revising and editing are the two tasks you undertake to significantly improve your essay. Both are very
important elements of the writing process. You may think that a completed first draft means little
improvement is needed. However, even experienced writers need to improve their drafts and rely on peers
during revising and editing. You may know that athletes miss catches, fumble balls, or overshoot goals.
Dancers forget steps, turn too slowly, or miss beats. For both athletes and dancers, the more they practice,
the stronger their performance will become. Web designers seek better images, a more clever design, or a
more appealing background for their web pages. Writing has the same capacity to profit from
improvement and revision.
Understanding the Purpose of Revising and Editing
Revising and editing allow you to examine two important aspects of your writing separately, so that you
can give each task your undivided attention.
• When you revise, you take a second look at your ideas. You might add, cut, move, or change
information in order to make your ideas clearer, more accurate, more interesting, or more convincing.
• When you edit, you take a second look at how you expressed your ideas. You add or change words. You
fix any problems in grammar, punctuation, and sentence structure. You improve your writing style. You
make your essay into a polished, mature piece of writing, the end product of your best efforts.
• Many people hear the words critic, critical, and criticism and pick up only negative vibes that provoke
feelings that make them blush, grumble, or shout. However, as a writer and a thinker, you need to learn to
be critical of yourself in a positive way and have high expectations for your work. You also need to train
your eye and trust your ability to fix what needs fixing. For this, you need to teach yourself where to look.
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Tip
How do you get the best out of your revisions and editing? Here are some strategies that writers have
developed to look at their first drafts from a fresh perspective. Try them over the course of this semester;
then keep using the ones that bring results.
• Take a break. You are proud of what you wrote, but you might be too close to it to make changes. Set
aside your writing for a few hours or even a day until you can look at it objectively.
• Ask someone you trust for feedback and constructive criticism.
• Pretend you are one of your readers. Are you satisfied or dissatisfied? Why?
• Use the resources that your college provides. Find out where your school's writing lab is located and ask
about the assistance they provide online and in person.
The Importance of Unity and Coherence
Following your outline or other organizational plan closely offers you a reasonable guarantee that your
writing will stay on purpose and not drift away from the controlling idea. However, when writers are
rushed, are tired, or cannot find the right words, their writing may become less than they want it to be.
Their writing may no longer be clear and concise, and they may be adding information that is not needed
to develop the main idea.
When a piece of writing has unity, all the ideas in each paragraph and in the entire essay clearly belong
and are arranged in an order that makes logical sense. When the writing has coherence, the ideas flow
smoothly. The wording clearly indicates how one idea leads to another within a paragraph and from
paragraph to paragraph.

Tip
Reading your writing aloud will often help you find problems with unity and coherence. Listen for the
clarity and flow of your ideas. Identify places where you find yourself confused, and write a note to
yourself about possible fixes.
Creating Unity
Sometimes writers get caught up in the moment and cannot resist a good digression. Even though you
might enjoy such detours when you chat with friends, unplanned digressions usually harm a piece of
writing.
Tuyet stayed close to her outline when she drafted the three body paragraphs of her essay she tentatively
titled "Digital Technology: The Newest and the Best at What Price?" But a recent shopping trip for an
HDTV upset her enough that she digressed from the main topic of her third paragraph and included
comments about the sales staff at the electronics store she visited. When she revised her essay, she deleted
the off-topic sentences that affected the unity of the paragraph.
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Read the following paragraph twice, the first time without Tuyet's changes, and the second time with
them.

Exercise 1
Answer the following questions about Tuyet's paragraph:
1. Do you agree with Tuyet's decision to make the deletions she made? Did she cut too much, too little, or
just enough? Explain.
2. Is the explanation of what screen resolution means a digression? Or is it audience friendly and essential
to understanding the paragraph? Explain.
3. Is the use of 2nd person, "you," acceptable in a college paper?

Tip
When you reread your writing to find revisions to make, look for each type of problem in a separate
sweep. Read it straight through once to locate any problems with unity. Read it straight through a second
time to find problems with coherence. You may follow this same practice during many stages of the
writing process.
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Creating Coherence
Careful writers use transitions to clarify how the ideas in their sentences and paragraphs are related.
These words and phrases help the writing flow smoothly. Adding transitions is not the only way to
improve coherence, but they are often useful and give a mature feel to your essays. The table below,
"Common Transitional Words and Phrases," groups many common transitions according to their
purpose.
Common Transitional Words and Phrases
Transitions That Show Sequence or Time
After before later
afterward before long meanwhile
as soon as finally next
at first first, second, third soon
at last in the first place then

Transitions That Show Position

Above across at the bottom
at the top behind below
Beside beyond inside
Near next to opposite
to the left, to the right, to the side under where
Transitions That Show a Conclusion
Indeed hence all in all
in the final analysis therefore thus
Transitions That Continue a Line of Thought
consequently furthermore additionally
because besides the fact following this idea further
in addition in the same way moreover
looking further considering..., it is clear that
Transitions That Change a Line of Thought
but yet however
nevertheless on the contrary on the other hand
Transitions That Show Importance
above all best especially
in fact more important most important
most worst
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Transitions That Introduce the Final Thoughts in a Paragraph or Essay

finally last in conclusion
most of all least of all last of all
All-Purpose Transitions to Open Paragraphs or to Connect Ideas Inside
Paragraphs
admittedly at this point certainly
granted it is true generally speaking
in general in this situation no doubt
no one denies obviously of course
to be sure undoubtedly unquestionably
Transitions that Introduce Examples
for instance for example specifically
Transitions That Clarify the Order of Events or Steps
first, second, third generally, furthermore, finally in the first place, also,
last
in the first place, finally likewise, lastly thus, additionally

Tip
Many writers make their revisions on a printed copy and then transfer them to the version onscreen. They
conventionally use a small arrow called a caret (A) to show where to insert an addition or correction.
After Tuyet revised for unity, she next examined her paragraph about televisions to check for coherence.
She looked for places where she needed to add a transition or perhaps reword the text to make the flow of
ideas clear. In the version that follows, she has already deleted the sentences that were off topic.
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Exercise 2
Answer the following questions about Tuyet's revised paragraph.
1. Do you agree with the transitions and other changes that Tuyet made to her paragraph? Which would
you keep and which were unnecessary? Explain.
2. What transition words or phrases did Tuyet add to her paragraph? Why did she choose each one?
3. What effect does adding additional sentences have on the coherence of the paragraph? Explain. When
you read both versions aloud, which version has a more logical flow of ideas? Explain.
Being Clear and Concise
Some writers are very methodical and painstaking when they write a first draft. Other writers unleash a
lot of words in order to get out all that they feel they need to say. Do either of these composing styles
match your style? Or is your composing style somewhere in between? No matter which description best
fits you, the first draft of almost every piece of writing, no matter its author, can be made clearer and more
concise.
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If you have a tendency to write too much, you will need to look for unnecessary words. If you have a
tendency to be vague or imprecise in your wording, you will need to find specific words to replace any
overly general language.
Identifying Wordiness
Sometimes writers use too many words when fewer words will appeal more to their audience and better fit
their purpose. Here are some common examples of wordiness to look for in your draft. Eliminating
wordiness helps all readers, because it makes your ideas clear, direct, and straightforward.
• Sentences that begin with There is or There are .
Wordy: There are two major experiments that the Biology Department sponsors.
Revised: The Biology Department sponsors two major experiments.
• Sentences with unnecessary modifiers.
Wordy: Two extremely famous and well-known consumer advocates spoke eloquently in favor of the
proposed important legislation.
Revised: Two well-known consumer advocates spoke in favor of the proposed legislation.
• Sentences with phrases that add little to the meaning. Be judicious when you use phrases such
as in terms of, with a mind to, on the subject of, as to whether or not, more or less, as far as...is
concerned, and similar expressions. You can usually find a more straightforward way to state your point.
Wordy: As a world leader in the field of green technology, the company plans to focus its efforts in the
area of geothermal energy.
A report as to whether or not to use geysers as an energy source is in the process of preparation.
Revised: As a world leader in green technology, the company plans to focus on geothermal energy.
A report about using geysers as an energy source is in preparation.
• Sentences in the passive voice or with forms of the verb to be. Sentences with passive-voice
verbs often create confusion, because the subject of the sentence does not perform an action. Sentences
are clearer when the subject of the sentence performs the action and is followed by a strong verb. Use
strong
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active-voice verbs in place of forms of to be, which can lead to wordiness. Avoid passive voice when you
can.
Wordy: It might perhaps be said that using a GPS device is something that is a benefit to drivers who
have a poor sense of direction.
Revised: Using a GPS device benefits drivers who have a poor sense of direction.
• Sentences with phrases that can be shortened.
Wordy: The e-book reader, which is a recent invention, may become as commonplace as the cell phone.
Revised: The e-book reader, a recent invention, may become as commonplace as the cell phone.
Wordy: My over-sixty uncle bought an e-book reader, and his wife bought an e-book reader, too.
Revised: My over-sixty uncle and his wife both bought e-book readers. Choosing Specific,
Appropriate Words
Most college essays should be written in formal English suitable for an academic situation. Follow these
principles to be sure that your word choice is appropriate.
• Avoid slang. Find alternatives to bummer, kids, hanging out.
• Avoid language that is overly casual. Write about "men and women" rather than "girls and guys"
unless you are trying to create a specific effect. A formal tone calls for formal language.
• Avoid contractions. Use do not in place of don't, I am in place of I'm, have not in place of haven't,
and so on. Contractions are considered casual speech.
• Avoid cliches. Overused expressions such as green with envy, face the music, better late than never,
and similar expressions are empty of meaning and may not appeal to your audience.
• Be careful when you use words that sound alike but have different meanings. Some
examples are allusion/illusion, complement/compliment, council/counsel, concurrent/consecutive,
founder/flounder, and historic/historical. When in doubt, check a dictionary.
• Choose words with the connotations you want. Choosing a word for its connotations is as
important in formal essay writing as it is in all kinds of writing. Compare the positive connotations of the
word proud and the negative connotations of arrogant and conceited.
• Use specific words rather than overly general words. Find synonyms for thing, people, nice,
good, bad, interesting, and other vague words. Or use specific details to make your exact meaning clear.
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Now read the revisions below Tuyet made to make her third paragraph clearer and more concise. She has
already incorporated the changes she made to improve unity and coherence.

Exercise 3
Answer the following questions about Tuyet's revised paragraph:
1. Read the unrevised and the revised paragraphs aloud. Explain in your own words how changes in word
choice have affected Tuyet's writing.
2. Do you agree with the changes that Mariah made to her paragraph? Which changes would you keep and
which were unnecessary? Explain. What other changes would you have made?
3. What effect does removing contractions and the pronoun you have on the tone of the paragraph? How
would you characterize the tone now? Is it more academic? Why?
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5.2 Completing a Peer Review

After working so closely with a piece of writing, writers often need to step back and ask for a more
objective reader. What writers most need is feedback from readers who can respond only to the words on
the page. When they are ready, writers show their drafts to someone, sometimes a classmate, they respect
and who can give an honest response about the essay's strengths and weaknesses.
Sooner or later, someone is going to hand you a piece of writing and ask for your opinion. You may be
asked to review another student's essay as part of your class work. Perhaps a friend or a younger brother
or sister has come to you for help. If you develop a reputation for being a good writer, then the chances are
good that even your boss might ask you to look over letters or policy statements and offer your
professional opinion. In any case, if you really want to do a good job in these situations, you're going to
need reviewing skills. You're going to need to be able to identify problems, suggest alternatives, and, more
importantly, support everything you say with reasonable claims. Furthermore, you must do all this in a
convincing way that makes the writer want to make the changes you suggest. You must know what's
wrong with a document, why it's wrong, and how to fix it.
You've probably heard the saying, "A writer is his own worst critic." Whoever said this undoubtedly
suffered from poor self-reviewing skills. After all, it's easier to spot problems in other people's writing
because our own ego (or pride) doesn't get in the way. Another problem is that sometimes we get so
caught up in what we want to get across in our writing that we don't pay enough attention to how we're
expressing it -- a sentence that makes perfect sense to us might be total gibberish to someone else.
Thankfully, these are all problems that can be overcome. You can learn to fairly and accurately review
your own work. One way you can get better at self-reviewing is to spend time reviewing other people's
work. Eventually, you'll develop a knack for spotting errors that will serve you well as you edit and revise
your own work.
Writers, particularly new writers, often find that letting other writers review their work is tremendously
helpful. Most universities have writing centers, where students can have their essays reviewed for free by
experienced student writers or tutors. These tutors can work with you one-on-one to help you improve
your writing and earn better grades.
You should realize that reviewing your work, like planning, drafting, or revising, is a recursive process. It
is not something a writer does just at the end of his work. For instance, you may want to write an
introduction to an essay and have it reviewed by a teacher or classmate before trudging forward. If you're
on the wrong track, you'd be better off knowing about it sooner rather than later -- especially if a deadline
or due date is looming.
You, too, can ask a peer to read your draft when it is ready. After evaluating the feedback and assessing
what is most helpful, the reader's feedback will help you when you revise your draft. This process is called
peer review.
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You can work with a partner in your class and identify specific ways to strengthen each other's essays.
Although you may be uncomfortable sharing your writing at first, remember that each writer is working
toward the same goal: a final draft that fits the audience and the purpose. Maintaining a positive attitude
when providing feedback will put you and your partner at ease. The box that follows provides a useful
framework for the peer review session.

Questions for Peer Review

Questions for Peer Review Writer's Name_

Title of essay:_______

Peer reviewers name:_________

l. This essay is about_.

2. The main points in this essay are_.

3. What I most liked a hour, this essay is_.

4 . These three points struck me as the strongest:

1. Point:_________

Why:________

2. Point:__________

Why:_________

3. Point:____________

Why:________

5. These places in your essay are not clear to me:

1. Where:__________

Needs improvement because

2. Where:_______

Needs improvement because

3. Where:___________

Needs improvement because

6. The one additional change you could make that would improve this essay significantly is_______
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Another Format for Peer Review

When you're reviewing your own paper or the paper of a friend or classmate, ask yourself a few questions:
ORGANIZATION
1. What are your initial thoughts? What strengths and weaknesses does the paper have? What parts
confused you, or might be confusing to other readers? What's the most important thing that the writer is
trying to say?
2. How is the paper you're reviewing organized? Again, does it start with the broad and move to specifics?
Do all sentences support the paragraph's topic sentence, and do all paragraphs support the thesis? Is
there an Introduction that draws in the reader, or does it restate the assignment and become redundant?
Is the paper organized in a way that will make sense to readers? Does the writer employ transitions
effectively? Does the paper flow from beginning to end?
FOCUS AND STYLE
1. Is the paper focused on the assignment? Does it follow the same thought throughout the paper, or does
it jump from subject to subject? Do I feel like I'm still learning about/thinking about the same subject at
the end of the paper that I was at the beginning of the paper?
2. Try to paraphrase the thesis of the paper as a promise: In this paper, the writer will... Does the writer
fulfill his/her obligation stated in the thesis?
3. What's the writer's position on the issue? What words does the writer use to indicate his/her position?
4. In what style is the paper written? Does it work for the subject matter and assignment? Will the paper
appeal to its intended audience? Is the writing at an appropriate level for the target audience?
DEVELOPMENT
1. Does the title indicate what the paper is about? Does it catch your interest? Does the opening paragraph
draw you in? If not, can you suggest a different approach to catch the readers' attention?
2. How is the development of the paper carried out? Does it start with a broad subject and then move to
something more specific?
3. Does the concluding sentence draw the argument of the paper to a close by bringing together the main
points provided in the paper, or does it just end? Does the writer conclude in a memorable way, or does
he/she simply trail off? If the ending is too abrupt or too vague, can you suggest some other way to
conclude the paper? Does the ending introduce any new topics?
CONVENTIONS
1. Are common or appropriate writing conventions followed?
2. Are grammar, spelling, punctuation and other mechanics observed?
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Exercise 4
Exchange essays with a classmate and complete a peer review of each other's draft in progress.
Remember to give positive feedback and to be courteous, polite, and constructive in your responses.
Focus on providing one positive comment and one question for more information to the author.
Using Feedback Objectively
The purpose of peer feedback is to receive constructive criticism of your essay. Your peer reviewer is your
first real audience, and you have the opportunity to learn what confuses and delights a reader so that you
can improve your work before sharing the final draft with a wider audience (or your intended audience).
It may not be necessary to incorporate every recommendation your peer reviewer makes. However, if you
start to observe a pattern in the responses you receive from peer reviewers, you might want to take that
feedback into consideration in future assignments. For example, if you read consistent comments about a
need for more attention to how your paper holds together, then you may want to consider reviewing a list
of transitions and connectors for this paper as well as in future assignments.
Using Feedback from Multiple Sources
You might get feedback from more than one reader as you share different stages of your revised draft. In
this situation, you may receive feedback from readers who do not understand the assignment or who lack
your involvement with and enthusiasm for it.
You need to evaluate the responses you receive according to two important criteria:
1. Determine if the feedback supports the purpose of the assignment.
2. Determine if the suggested revisions are appropriate to the audience.
Then, using these standards, accept or reject revision feedback. You may also ask your teacher for advice
at this point.
5.3 Editing Your Draft for Standard Grammar and Mechanics
If you have been incorporating each set of revisions as Tuyet has, you have produced multiple drafts of
your writing. So far, all your changes have been content changes. Perhaps with the help of peer feedback,
you have made sure that you sufficiently supported your ideas. You have checked for problems with unity
and coherence. You
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have examined your essay for word choice, revising to cut unnecessary words and to replace weak wording
with specific and appropriate wording.
The next step after revising the content is editing. When you edit, you examine the surface features of your
text. You examine your spelling, grammar, usage, and punctuation. You also make sure you use the proper
format when creating your finished assignment.

Tip
Editing often takes time. Budgeting time into the writing process allows you to complete additional edits
after revising. Editing and proofreading your writing helps you create a finished work that represents
your best efforts. Here are a few more tips to remember about your readers:
• Readers do not notice correct spelling, but they do notice misspellings.
• Readers look past your sentences to get to your ideas—unless the sentences are awkward, poorly
constructed, and frustrating to read.
• Readers notice when every sentence has the same rhythm as every other sentence, with no variety.
• Readers do not cheer when you use there, their, and they're correctly, but they notice when you do not.
• Readers will notice the care with which you handled your assignment and your attention to detail in the
delivery of an error-free document.
The next chapters of this book offer a useful review of word choice, usage, grammar, and mechanics. Use
them to help you eliminate major errors in your writing and refine your understanding of the conventions
of language. Do not hesitate to ask for help, too, from peer tutors in your academic department or in the
college's writing lab.
In the meantime, use the checklist on the next page to help you edit your writing.
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Checklist
Editing Your Writing Grammar
• Are some sentences actually sentence fragments?
• Are some sentences run-on sentences? How can I correct them?
• Do some sentences need conjunctions between independent clauses?
• Does every verb agree with its subject?
• Is every verb in the correct tense?
• Are tense forms, especially for irregular verbs, written correctly?
• Have I used subject, object, and possessive personal pronouns correctly?
• Have I used who and whom correctly?
• Is the antecedent of every pronoun clear?
• Do all personal pronouns agree with their antecedents?
• Have I used the correct comparative and superlative forms of adjectives and adverbs?
• Is it clear which word a participial phrase modifies, or is it a dangling modifier?
• Have I checked all nouns for number and agreement and for correct article use?
Sentence Structure
• Are all my sentences simple sentences, or do I vary my sentence structure?
• Have I chosen the best coordinating or subordinating conjunctions to join clauses?
• Have I created long sentences with too much information that should be shortened for clarity?
• Do I see any mistakes in parallel structure? Punctuation
• Does every sentence end with the correct end punctuation?
• Can I justify the use of every exclamation point?
• Have I used apostrophes correctly to write all singular and plural possessive forms?
• Have I used quotation marks correctly?
Mechanics and Usage
• Can I find any spelling errors? How can I correct them?
• Have I used capital letters where they are needed?
• Have I written abbreviations, where allowed, correctly?
• Can I find any errors in the use of commonly confused words, such as to/too/two?
• If my paper is typed, have I followed the correct format that my professor requires?
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Tip
Be careful about relying too much on spelling checkers and grammar checkers. A spelling checker cannot
recognize that you meant to write principle but wrote principal instead. A grammar checker often queries
constructions that are perfectly correct. The program does not understand your meaning; it makes its
check against a general set of formulas that might not apply in each instance. If you use a grammar
checker, accept the suggestions that make sense, but consider why the suggestions came up.
Proofreading requires patience; it is very easy to read past a mistake. Set your paper aside for at least a
few hours, if not a day or more, so your mind will rest. Some professional proofreaders read a text
backward so they can concentrate on spelling and punctuation. Another helpful technique is to slowly
read a paper aloud, paying attention to every word, letter, and punctuation mark.
If you need additional proofreading help, ask a reliable friend, a classmate, or a peer tutor to make a final
pass on your paper to look for anything you missed.
Formatting
Remember to use proper format when creating your finished assignment. For most academic papers, the
appropriate format would be to use 1" margins, "Times New Roman" font in 12 point, and double spaced.
It is good to get in the habit of typing all papers that way which will make it easier when you are doing
much longer research papers.
Sometimes an instructor, a department, or a college will require students to follow specific instructions on
titles, margins, page numbers, or the location of the writer's name. These requirements may be more
detailed and rigid for research projects and term papers, which often observe the American Psychological
Association (APA) or Modern Language Association (MLA) style guides, especially when citations of
sources are included.
To ensure the format is correct and follows any specific instructions, make a final check before you submit
an assignment.

Key Takeaways
• Revising and editing are the stages of the writing process in which you improve your work before
producing a final draft.
• During revising, you add, cut, move, or change information in order to improve content.
• During editing, you take a second look at the words and sentences you used to express your ideas and fix
any problems in grammar, punctuation, and sentence structure.
• Unity in writing means that all the ideas in each paragraph and in the entire essay clearly belong
together and are arranged in an order that makes logical sense.
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• Coherence in writing means that the writer's wording clearly indicates how one idea leads to another
within a paragraph and between paragraphs.
• Transitional words and phrases effectively make writing more coherent.
• Writing should be clear and concise, with no unnecessary words.
• Effective formal writing uses specific, appropriate words and avoids slang, contractions, cliches, and
overly general words.
• Peer reviews, done properly, can give writers objective feedback about their writing. It is the writer's
responsibility to evaluate the results of peer reviews and incorporate only useful feedback.
• Remember to budget time for careful editing and proofreading. Use all available resources, including
editing checklists, peer editing, and your institution's writing lab, to improve your editing skills.
5.4 Keeping Track of Your Sentence-Level Grammar Errors
On the next page, you will see an Error Analysis Checklist for you to use when you receive
your paper with comments from your instructor.
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ERROR ANALYSIS CHECKLIST

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Part II: Language Use, Grammar & Mechanics

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Chapter 6: Working With Words - Usage, Form, & Context

6.1 Commonly Confused Words
Learning Objectives
1. Identify commonly confused words.
2. Use strategies to avoid commonly confused words.
Just as a mason uses bricks to build sturdy homes, writers use words to build successful documents.
Consider the construction of a building. Builders need to use tough, reliable materials to build a solid and
structurally sound skyscraper. From the foundation to the roof and every floor in between, every part is
necessary. Writers need to use strong, meaningful words from the first sentence to the last and in every
sentence in between.
You already know many words that you use every day as part of your writing and speaking vocabulary.
You probably also know that certain words fit better in certain situations. Letters, e-mails, and even
quickly jotted grocery lists require the proper selection of vocabulary. Imagine you are writing a grocery
list to purchase the ingredients for a recipe but accidentally write down cilantro when the recipe calls for
parsley. Even though cilantro and parsley look remarkably alike, each produces a very different effect in
food. This seemingly small error could radically alter the flavor of your dish!
Having a solid everyday vocabulary will help you while writing, but learning new words and avoiding
common word errors will make a real impression on your readers. Experienced writers know that
deliberate, careful word selection and usage can lead to more polished, more meaningful work. This
chapter covers word choice and vocabulary-building strategies that will improve your writing.
Recognizing Commonly Confused Words in Your Writing
Some words in English cause trouble for speakers and writers because these words share a similar
pronunciation, meaning, or spelling with another word. These words are called commonly confused
words. For example, read aloud the following sentences containing the commonly confused words new
and knew:
I liked her new sweater.
I knew she would wear that sweater today.
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These words may sound alike when spoken, but they carry entirely different usages and meanings. New is
an adjective that describes the sweater, and knew is the past tense of the verb to know. To read a general
word use for adjectives, verbs, and other parts of speech see Chapter 1.
New and knew are just two of the words that can be confusing because of their similarities. Familiarize
yourself with the following list of commonly confused words. Recognizing these words in your own
writing and in other pieces of writing can help you choose the correct word.
Commonly Confused Words
A, An, And
• A (article). Used before a word that begins with a consonant.
a key, a mouse, a screen
• An (article). Used before a word that begins with a vowel.
an airplane, an ocean, an igloo
• And (conjunction). Connects two or more words together.
peanut butter and jelly, pen and pencil, jump and shout Accept, Except
• Accept (verb). Means to take or agree to something offered.
They accepted our proposal for the conference.
• Except (conjunction). Means only or but.
We could fly there except the tickets cost too much.
Affect, Effect
• Affect (verb). Means to create a change.
Hurricane winds affect the amount of rainfall.
• Effect (noun). Means an outcome or result.
The heavy rains will have an effect on the crop growth.
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Are, Our
• Are (verb). A conjugated form of the verb to be.
My cousins are all tall and blonde.
• Our (pronoun). Indicates possession, usually follows the pronoun we.
We will bring our cameras to take pictures.
By, Buy
• By (preposition). Means next to.
My glasses are by the bed.
• Buy (verb). Means to purchase.
I will buy new glasses after the doctor's appointment.
Its, It's
• Its (pronoun). A form of it that shows possession.
The butterfly flapped its wings.
• It's (contraction). Joins the words it and is.
It's the most beautiful butterfly I have ever seen.
Know, No
• Know (verb). Means to understand or possess knowledge.
I know the male peacock sports the brilliant feathers.
• No. Used to make a negative.
I have no time to visit the zoo this weekend.
Loose, Lose
• Loose (adjective). Describes something that is not tight or is detached.
Without a belt, her pants are loose on her waist.
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• Lose (verb). Means to forget, to give up, or to fail to earn something.
She will lose even more weight after finishing the marathon training.
Of, Have
• Of (preposition). Means from or about.
I studied maps of the city to know where to rent a new apartment.
• Have (verb). Means to possess something.
I have many friends to help me move.
• Have (linking verb). Used to connect verbs.
I should have helped her with that heavy box. Quite, Quiet, Quit
• Quite (adverb). Means really or truly.
My work will require quite a lot of concentration.
• Quiet (adjective). Means not loud.
I need a quiet room to complete the assignments.
• Quit (verb). Means to stop or to end.
I will quit when I am hungry for dinner.
Right, Write
• Right (adjective). Means proper or correct.
When bowling, she practices the right form.
• Right (adjective). Also means the opposite of left.
The ball curved to the right and hit the last pin.
• Write (verb). Means to communicate on paper.
After the team members bowl, I will write down their scores.
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Set, Sit
• Set (verb). Means to put an item down.
She set the mug on the saucer.
• Set (noun). Means a group of similar objects.
All the mugs and saucers belonged in a set.
• Sit (verb). Means to lower oneself down on a chair or another place
I'll sit on the sofa while she brews the tea. Suppose, Supposed
• Suppose (verb). Means to think or to consider
I suppose I will bake the bread, because no one else has the recipe.
• Suppose (verb). Means to suggest.
Suppose we all split the cost of the dinner.
• Supposed (verb). The past tense form of the verb suppose, meaning required or allowed.
She was supposed to create the menu.
Than, Then
• Than (conjunction). Used to connect two or more items when comparing
Registered nurses require less schooling than doctors.
• Then (adverb). Means next or at a specific time.
Doctors first complete medical school and then obtain a residency. Their, They're, There
• Their (pronoun). A form of they that shows possession.
The dog walker feeds their dogs everyday at two o'clock.
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• They're (contraction). Joins the words they and are.
They're the sweetest dogs in the neighborhood.
• There (adverb). Indicates a particular place.
The dogs' bowls are over there, next to the pantry.
• There (pronoun). Indicates the presence of something
There are more treats if the dogs behave.
To, Two, Too
• To (preposition). Indicates movement.
Let's go to the circus.
• To. A word that completes an infinitive verb.
to play, to ride, to watch.
• Two. The number after one. It describes how many.
Two clowns squirted the elephants with water.
• Too (adverb). Means also or very.
The tents were too loud, and we left.
Use, Used
• Use (verb). Means to apply for some purpose.
We use a weed whacker to trim the hedges.
• Used. The past tense form of the verb to use
He used the lawnmower last night before it rained.
• Used to. Indicates something done in the past but not in the present
He used to hire a team to landscape, but now he landscapes alone.
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Who's, Whose
• Who's (contraction). Joins the words who and either is or has.
Who's the new student? Who's met him?
• Whose (pronoun). A form of who that shows possession.
Whose schedule allows them to take the new student on a campus tour?
Your, You're
• Your (pronoun). A form of you that shows possession.
Your book bag is unzipped.
• You're (contraction). Joins the words you and are.
You're the girl with the unzipped book bag.
The English language contains so many words; no one can say for certain how many words exist. In fact,
many words in English are borrowed from other languages. Many words have multiple meanings and
forms, further expanding the immeasurable number of English words. Although the list of commonly
confused words serves as a helpful guide, even these words may have more meanings than shown here.
When in doubt, consult an expert: the dictionary!

Exercise 1
Complete the following sentences by selecting the correct word.
1. My little cousin turns_(to, too, two) years old tomorrow.
2. The next-door neighbor's dog is_(quite, quiet, quit) loud. He barks constantly
throughout the night.
3. _(Your, You're) mother called this morning to talk about the party.
4. I would rather eat a slice of chocolate cake_(than, then) eat a chocolate muffin.
5. Before the meeting, he drank a cup of coffee, and_(than, then) he brushed his
teeth.
6. Do you have any_(loose, lose) change to pay the parking meter?
7. Father must_(have, of) left his briefcase at the office.
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8. Before playing ice hockey, I was_(suppose, supposed) to read the contract, but
I only skimmed it and signed my name quickly, which may_(affect, effect) my
understanding of the rules.
9. Tonight she will_(set, sit) down and_(right, write) a cover letter to
accompany her resume and job application.
10. It must be fall, because the leaves_(are, our) changing, and_(it's, its)
getting darker earlier.
Strategies to Avoid Commonly Confused Words
When writing, you need to choose the correct word according to its spelling and meaning in the context.
Not only does selecting the correct word improve your vocabulary and your writing, but it also makes a
good impression on your readers. It also helps reduce confusion and improve clarity. The following
strategies can help you avoid misusing confusing words.
1. Use a dictionary. Keep a dictionary at your desk while you write. Look up words when you are
uncertain of their meanings or spellings. Many dictionaries are also available online, and the Internet's
easy access will not slow you down. Check out your cell phone or smartphone to see if a dictionary app is
available.
2. Keep a list of words you commonly confuse. Be aware of the words that often confuse you. When
you notice a pattern of confusing words, keep a list nearby, and consult the list as you write. Check the list
again before you submit an assignment to your instructor.
3. Study the list of commonly confused words. You may not yet know which words confuse you, but
before you sit down to write, study the words on the list. Prepare your mind for working with words by
reviewing the commonly confused words identified in this chapter.

Tip
Commonly confused words appear in many locations, not just at work or at school. Be on the lookout for
misused words wherever you find yourself throughout the day. Make a mental note of the error and
remember its correction for your own pieces of writing. Also, remember that spellcheck will not usually
catch these words because they would be spelled correctly.
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A Commonly Misused Word on a Public Sign

Do you see the mistake? Because this sign was probably created using a computer, you can see that
spellcheck would NOT catch this because it is a word - just not the right word!

Writers at Work
All employers value effective communication. From an application to an interview to the first month on
the job, employers pay attention to your vocabulary. You do not need a large vocabulary to succeed, but
you do need to be able to express yourself clearly and avoid commonly misused words.
When giving an important presentation on the effect of inflation on profit margins, you must know the
difference between effect and affect and choose the correct word. When writing an e-mail to confirm
deliveries, you must know if the shipment will arrive in to days, too days, or two days. Confusion may
arise if you choose the wrong word.
Consistently using the proper words will improve your communication and make a positive impression on
your boss and colleagues.
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Exercise 2
The following paragraph contains eleven errors. Find each misused word and correct it by adding the
proper word.
The original United States Declaration of Independence sets in a case at the Rotunda for the Charters of
Freedom as part of the National Archives in Washington, DC. Since 1952, over one million visitors each
year of passed through the Rotunda too snap a photograph to capture they're experience. Although signs
state, "No Flash Photography," forgetful tourists leave the flash on, an a bright light flickers for just a
millisecond. This millisecond of light may not seem like enough to effect the precious document, but
supposed how much light could be generated when all those milliseconds are added up. According to the
National Archives administrators, its enough to significantly damage the historic document. So, now, the
signs display quit a different message: "No Photography." Visitors continue to travel to see the Declaration
that began are country, but know longer can personal pictures serve as mementos. The administrators'
compromise, they say, is a visit to the gift shop for a preprinted photograph.

Key Takeaways
• In order to write accurately, it is important for writers to be aware of commonly confused words.
• Although commonly confused words may look alike or sound alike, their meanings are very different.
• Consulting the dictionary is one way to make sure you are using the correct word in your writing. You
may also keep a list of commonly confused words nearby when you write or study the chart in this book.
• Choosing the proper words leaves a positive impression on your readers.
6.2 Spelling
Learning Objectives
1. Identify common spelling rules.
2. Identify commonly misspelled words.
3. Identify commonly misused homonyms.
One essential aspect of good writing is accurate spelling. With computer spell checkers, spelling may seem
simple, but these programs fail to catch every error. Spell checkers identify some errors, but writers still
have to consider the flagged words and suggested replacements. Writers are still responsible for the errors
that remain.
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For example, if the spell checker highlights a word that is misspelled and gives you a list of alternative
words, you may choose a word that you never intended even though it is spelled correctly. This can change
the meaning of your sentence. It can also confuse readers, making them lose interest. Computer spell
checkers are useful editing tools, but they can never replace human knowledge of spelling rules,
homonyms, and commonly misspelled words.
Common Spelling Rules
The best way to master new words is to understand the key spelling rules. Keep in mind, however, that
some spelling rules carry exceptions. A spell checker may catch these exceptions, but knowing them
yourself will prepare you to spell accurately on the first try. You may want to try memorizing each rule and
its exception like you would memorize a rhyme or lyrics to a song.
Write i before e except after c, or when pronounced ay like "neighbor" or "weigh."
• achieve, niece, alien
• receive, deceive
When words end in a consonant plus y, drop the y and add an i before adding another ending.
• happy + er = happier
• cry + ed = cried
When words end in a vowel plus y, keep the y and add the ending.
• delay + ed = delayed
Memorize the following exceptions to this rule: day, lay, say, pay = daily, laid, said, paid
When adding an ending that begins with a vowel, such as -able, -ence, -ing, or -ity, drop the last e in a
word.
• write + ing = writing
• pure + ity = purity
When adding an ending that begins with a consonant, such as -less, -ment, or -ly, keep the last e in a
word.
• hope + less = hopeless
• advertise + ment = advertisement
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For many words ending in a consonant and an o, add -s when using the plural form.
• photo + s = photos
• soprano + s = sopranos
Add -es to words that end in s, ch, sh, and x.
• church + es = churches
• fax + es = faxes

Exercise 1
Identify and correct the nine misspelled words in the following paragraph.
Sherman J. Alexie Jr. was born in October 1966. He is a Spokane/Coeur d'Alene Indian and an American
writer, poet, and filmmaker. Alexie was born with hydrocephalus, or water on the brain. This condition
led doctors to predict that he would likly suffer long-term brain damage and possibly mental retardation.
Although Alexie survived with no mental disabilitys, he did suffer other serious side effects from his
condition that plagud him throughout his childhood. Amazingly, Alexie learned to read by the age of
three, and by age five he had read novels such as John Steinbeck's The Grapes of Wrath. Raised on an
Indian reservation, Alexie often felt aleinated from his peers due to his avid love for reading and also from
the long-term effects of his illness, which often kept him from socializeing with his peers on the
reservation. The reading skills he displaid at such a young age foreshadowed what he would later become.
Today Alexie is a prolific and successful writer with several story anthologeis to his credit, noteably The
Lone Ranger and Tonto Fistfght in Heaven and The Toughest Indian in the World. Most of his fiction is
about contemporary Native Americans who are influenced by pop culture and pow wows and everything
in between. His work is sometimes funny but always thoughtful and full of richness and depth. Alexie also
writes poetry, novels, and screenplays. His latest collection of storys is called War Dances, which came
out in 2009.
Commonly Misspelled Words
Below is a list of commonly misspelled words. You probably use these words every day in either speaking
or writing. Each word has a segment in bold type, which indicates the problem area of the word that is
often spelled incorrectly. If you can, use this list as a guide before, during, and after you write.
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Commonly Misspelled Words

across disappoint integration particular separate
address disapprove intelligent perform similar
answer doesn't interest perhaps since
argument eighth interfere personnel speech
athlete embarrass jewelry possess strength
beginning environment judgment possible success
behavior exaggerate knowledge prefer surprise
calendar familiar maintain prejudice taught
career finally mathematics privilege temperature
conscience government meant probably thorough
crowded grammar necessary psychology thought
definite height nervous pursue tired
describe illegal occasion reference until
desperate immediately opinion rhythm weight
different important optimist ridiculous written

Tip
Use the following two tricks to help you master these troublesome words:
1. Copy each word a few times and underline the problem area.
2. Copy the words onto flash cards and have a friend test you.
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Exercise 2
Identify and correct the ten commonly misspelled words in the following paragraphs.
Brooklyn is one of the five boroughs that make up New York City. It is located on the eastern shore of
Long Island directly accross the East River from the island of Manhattan. Its beginings stretch back to the
sixteenth century when it was founded by the Dutch who originally called it "Breuckelen." Immedietely
after the Dutch settled Brooklyn, it came under British rule. However, neither the Dutch nor the British
were Brooklyn's first inhabitants. When European settlers first arrived, Brooklyn was largely inhabited by
the Lenapi, a collective name for several organized bands of Native American people who settled a large
area of land that extended from upstate New York through the entire state of New Jersey. They are
sometimes referred to as the Delaware Indians. Over time, the Lenapi succumbed to European diseases or
conflicts between European settlers or other Native American enemies. Finalley, they were pushed out of
Brooklyn completely by the British.
In 1776, Brooklyn was the site of the first importent battle of the American Revolution known as the Battle
of Brooklyn. The colonists lost this battle, which was led by George Washington, but over the next two
years they would win the war, kicking the British out of the colonies once and for all.
By the end of the nineteenth century, Brooklyn grew to be a city in its own right. The completion of the
Brooklyn Bridge was an ocasion for celebration; transportation and commerce between Brooklyn and
Manhattan now became much easier. Eventually, in 1898, Brooklyn lost its seperate identity as an
independent city and became one of five boroughs of New York City. However, in some people's opinien,
the intagration into New York City should have never happened; they though Brooklyn should have
remained an independent city.

Tip
Eight Tips to Improve Spelling Skills
1. Read the words in your assignment carefully, and avoid skimming over the page. Focusing
on your written assignment word by word will help you pay close attention to each word's spelling.
Skimming quickly, you may overlook misspelled words.
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2. Use mnemonic devices to remember the correct spelling of words. Mnemonic devices, or
memory techniques and learning aids, include inventive sayings or practices that help you remember. For
example, the saying "It is important to be a beautiful person inside and out" may help you remember that
beautiful begins with "be a." The practice of pronouncing the word Wednesday Wed-nes-day may help
you remember how to spell the word correctly.
3. Use a dictionary. Many professional writers rely on the dictionary—either in print or online. If you
find it difficult to use a regular dictionary, ask your instructor to help you find a "poor speller's
dictionary."
4. Use your computer's spell checker. The spell checker will not solve all your spelling problems, but
it is a useful tool. See the introduction to this section for cautions about spell checkers.
5. Keep a list of frequently misspelled words. You will often misspell the same words again and
again, but do not let this discourage you. All writers struggle with the spellings of certain words; they
become aware of their spelling weaknesses and work to improve. Be aware of which words you commonly
misspell, and you can add them to a list to learn to spell them correctly.
6. Look over corrected papers for misspelled words. Add these words to your list and practice
writing each word four to five times each. Writing teachers will especially notice which words you
frequently misspell, and it will help you excel in your classes if they see your spelling improve.
7. Test yourself with flashcards. Sometimes the old-fashioned methods are best, and for spelling, this
tried and true technique has worked for many students. You can work with a peer or alone.
8. Review the common spelling rules explained in this chapter. Take the necessary time to
master the material; you may return to the rules in this chapter again and again, as needed.
Also, remember to focus on spelling during the editing and revising step of the writing process. Start with
the big ideas such as organizing your piece of writing and developing effective paragraphs, and then work
your way down toward the smaller—but equally important—details like spelling and punctuation. To read
more about the writing process and editing and revising, see Chapter 5.
In today's job market, writing e-mails has become a means by which many people find employment. E-
mails to prospective employers require thoughtful word choice, accurate spelling, and perfect
punctuation. Employers' inboxes are inundated with countless emails daily. If even the subject line of an
e-mail contains a spelling error, it will likely be overlooked and someone else's e-mail will take priority.
The best thing to do after you proofread an e-mail to an employer and run the spell checker is to have an
additional set of eyes go over it with you; one of your teachers may be able to read the e-mail and give you
suggestions for improvement. Most colleges and universities have writing centers, which may also be able
to assist you.
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Homonyms
Homonyms are words that sound like one another but have different meanings. Commonly Misused
Homonyms Principle, Principal
• Principle (noun). A fundamental concept that is accepted as true.
The principle of human equality is an important foundation for all nations.
• Principal (noun). The original amount of debt on which interest is calculated.
The payment plan allows me to pay back only the principal amount, not any compounded interest.
• Principal (noun). A person who is the main authority of a school. The principal held a conference
for both parents and teachers.
Where, Wear, Ware
• Where (adverb). The place in which something happens. Where is the restaurant?
• Wear (verb). To carry or have on the body.
I will wear my hiking shoes when go on a climb tomorrow morning.
• Ware (noun). Articles of merchandise or manufacture (usually, wares). When I return from shopping,
I will show you my wares.
Lead, Led
• Lead (noun). A type of metal used in pipes and batteries. The lead pipes in my homes are old and
need to be replaced.
• Led (verb). The past tense of the verb lead.
After the garden, she led the patrons through the museum.
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Which, Witch
• Which (pronoun). Replaces one out of a group. Which apartment is yours?
• Witch (noun). A person who practices sorcery or who has supernatural powers.
She thinks she is a witch, but she does not seem to have any powers. Peace, Piece
• Peace (noun). A state of tranquility or quiet.
For once, there was peace between the argumentative brothers.
• Piece (noun). A part of a whole.
I would like a large piece of cake, thank you. Passed, Past
• Passed (verb). To go away or move.
He passed the slower cars on the road using the left lane.
• Past (noun). Having existed or taken place in a period before the present. The argument happened in
the past, so there is no use in dwelling on it.
Lessen, Lesson
• Lessen (verb). To reduce in number, size, or degree.
My dentist gave me medicine to lessen the pain of my aching tooth.
• Lesson (noun). A reading or exercise to be studied by a student. Today's lesson was about mortgage
interest rates.
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Patience, Patients
• Patience (noun). The capacity of being patient (waiting for a period of time or enduring pains and
trials calmly).
The novice teacher's patience with the unruly class was astounding.
• Patients (plural noun). Individuals under medical care.
The patients were tired of eating the hospital food, and they could not wait for a home-cooked meal.
Sees, Seas, Seize
• Sees (verb). To perceive with the eye. He sees a whale through his binoculars.
• Seas (plural noun). The plural of sea, a great body of salt water.
The tidal fluctuation of the oceans and seas are influenced by the moon.
• Seize (verb). To possess or take by force. The king plans to seize all the peasants' land.
Threw, Through
• Threw (verb). The past tense of throw. She threw the football with perfect form.
• Through (preposition). A word that indicates movement. She walked through the door and out of
his life.

Exercise 3
Complete the following sentences by selecting the correct homonym.
1. Do you agree with the underlying_(principle, principal) that ensures
copyrights are protected in the digital age?
2. I like to_(where, wear, ware) unique clothing from thrift stores that do not
have company logos on them.
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3. Marjan felt like she was being_(led, lead) on a wild goose chase, and she did
not like it one bit.
4. Serina described_(witch, which) house was hers, but now that I am here, they
all look the same.
5. Seeing his friend without a lunch, Miguel gave her a_(peace, piece) of his
apple.
6. Do you think that it is healthy for mother to talk about the_(passed, past) all
the time?
7. Eating healthier foods will_(lessen, lesson) the risk of heart disease.
8. I know it sounds cliche, but my father had the_(patients, patience) of a saint.
9. Daniela_(sees, seas, seize) possibilities in the bleakest situations, and that it is
why she is successful.
10. Everyone goes_(through, threw) hardships in life regardless of who they are.

Key Takeaways
• Accurate, error-free spelling enhances your credibility with the reader.
• Mastering the rules of spelling may help you become a better speller.
• Knowing the commonly misused homonyms may prevent spelling errors.
• Studying the list of commonly misspelled words in this chapter, or studying a list of your own, is one way
to improve your spelling skills.
6.3 Word Choice
Learning Objectives
1. Identify the reasons why using a dictionary and thesaurus is important when writing.
2. Identify how to use proper connotations.
3. Identify how to avoid using slang, cliches, and overly general words in your writing.
4. Recognize how synonyms improve writing.
5. Identify common antonyms to increase your vocabulary.
Effective writing involves making conscious choices with words. When you prepare to sit down to write
your first draft, you likely have already completed some freewriting exercises, chosen your topic,
developed your thesis statement, written an outline, and even selected your sources. When it is time to
write your first draft, start to consider which words to use to best convey your ideas to the reader.
Some writers are picky about word choice as they start drafting. They may practice some specific
strategies, such as using a dictionary and thesaurus, using words and phrases with proper connotations,
and avoiding slang, cliches, and overly general words.
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Once you understand these tricks of the trade, you can move ahead confidently in writing your
assignment. Remember, the skill and accuracy of your word choice is a major factor in developing your
writing style. Precise selection of your words will help you be more clearly understood—in both writing
and speaking.
As you work with your draft, you will want to pay particular attention to the words you have chosen. Do
they express exactly what you are trying to convey? Can you choose better, more effective words?
Familiarity with synonyms and antonyms can be helpful in answering these questions.
Using a Dictionary and Thesaurus
Even professional writers need help with the meanings, spellings, pronunciations, and uses of particular
words. In fact, they rely on dictionaries to help them write better. No one knows every word in the English
language and their multiple uses and meanings, so all writers, from novices to professionals, can benefit
from the use of dictionaries.
Most dictionaries provide the following information:
• Spelling. How the word and its different forms are spelled.
• Pronunciation. How to say the word.
• Part of speech. The function of the word.
• Definition. The meaning of the word.
• Synonyms. Words that have similar meanings.
• Etymology. The history of the word.
Look at the following sample dictionary entry and see which of the preceeding information you can
identify:
myth, mith, n. [Gr. mythos, a word, a fable, a legend.] A fable or legend embodying the convictions of a
people as to their gods or other divine beings, their own beginnings and early history and the heroes
connected with it, or the origin of the world; any invented story; something or someone having no
existence in fact.—myth • ic, myth • i • cal
Like a dictionary, a thesaurus is another indispensable writing tool. A thesaurus gives you a list of
synonyms, words that have the same (or very close to the same) meaning as another word. It also lists
antonyms, words with the opposite meaning of the word. A thesaurus will help you when you are looking
for the perfect word with just the right meaning to convey your ideas. It will also help you learn more
words and use the ones you already know more correctly.
precocious, adj, She's such a precocious little girl!: uncommonly smart, mature, advanced, smart,
bright, brilliant, gifted, quick, clever, apt.
Ant. slow, backward, stupid.
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Using Proper Connotations
A denotation is the dictionary definition of a word. A connotation, on the other hand, is the emotional or
cultural meaning attached to a word. The connotation of a word can be positive, negative, or neutral. Keep
in mind the connotative meaning when choosing a word.
Scrawny
• Denotation: Exceptionally thin and slight or meager in body or size.
• Word used in a sentence: Although he was a premature baby and a scrawny
child, Martin has developed into a strong man.
• Connotation: (Negative) In this sentence the word scrawny may have a negative connotation in the
readers' minds. They might find it to mean a weakness or a personal flaw; however, the word fits into the
sentence appropriately.
Skinny
• Denotation: Lacking sufficient flesh, very thin.
• Word used in a sentence: Skinny jeans have become very fashionable in the past couple of years.
• Connotation: (Positive) Based on cultural and personal impressions of what it means to be skinny, the
reader may have positive connotations of the word skinny.
Lean
• Denotation: Lacking or deficient in flesh; containing little or no fat.
• Word used in a sentence: My brother has a lean figure, whereas I have a more muscular build.
• Connotation: (Neutral) In this sentence, lean has a neutral connotation. It does not call to mind an
overly skinny person like the word scrawny, nor does imply the positive cultural impressions of the word
skinny. It is merely a neutral descriptive word.
Notice that all the words have a very similar denotation; however, the connotations of each word differ.
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Exercise 1
In the first column, you will find words with similar denotations. Identify the words' connotations as
positive, negative, or neutral by writing the word in the appropriate box. Copy the chart onto your own
piece of paper.
Positive Negative Neutral
curious, nosy, interested
lazy, relaxed, slow
courageous, foolhardy, assured
new, newfangled, modern
mansion, shack, residence
spinster, unmarried woman, career woman
giggle, laugh, cackle
boring, routine, prosaic
noted, notorious, famous
assertive, confident, pushy
Avoiding Slang
Slang describes informal words that are considered nonstandard English. Slang often changes with
passing fads and may be used by or familiar to only a specific group of people. Most people use slang
when they speak and in personal correspondences, such as e-mails, text messages, and instant messages.
Slang is appropriate between friends in an informal context but should be avoided in formal academic
writing.

Exercise 2
Edit the following paragraph by replacing the slang words and phrases with more formal language.
Rewrite the paragraph on your own sheet of paper.
I felt like such an airhead when I got up to give my speech. As I walked toward the podium, I banged my
knee on a chair. Man, I felt like such a klutz. On top of that, I kept saying "like" and "um," and I could not
stop fidgeting. I was so stressed out about being up there. I feel like I've been practicing this speech 24/7,
and I still bombed. It was ten minutes of me going off about how we sometimes have to do things we don't
enjoy doing.
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Wow, did I ever prove my point. My speech was so bad I'm surprised that people didn't boo. My teacher
said not to sweat it, though. Everyone gets nervous his or her first time speaking in public, and she said,
with time, I would become a whiz at this speech giving stuff. I wonder if I have the guts to do it again.
Avoiding Cliches
Cliches are descriptive expressions that have lost their effectiveness because they are overused. Writing
that uses cliches often suffers from a lack of originality and insight. Avoiding cliches in formal writing will
help you write in original and fresh ways.
• Cliched: Whenever my brother and I get into an argument, he always says something that makes my
blood boil.
• Plain: Whenever my brother and I get into an argument, he always says something that makes me
really angry.
• Original: Whenever my brother and I get into an argument, he always says something that makes me
want to go to the gym and punch the bag for a few hours.

Tip
Think about all the cliche phrases that you hear in popular music or in everyday conversation. What
would happen if these cliches were transformed into something unique?

Exercise 3
On your own sheet of paper, revise the following sentences by replacing the cliches with fresh, original
descriptions.
1. She is writing a memoir in which she will air her family's dirty laundry.
2. Beth had an ax to grind with Allen, and she planned to confront him at the party.
3. Mr. Nguyen was at his wit's end with the rowdy class of seventh graders.
4. The bottom line is that Joel was fired because he missed too many days of work.
5. Sometimes it is hard to make ends meet with just one paycheck.
6. My brain is fried from pulling an all-nighter.
7. Maria left the dishes in the sink all week to give Jose a taste of his own medicine.
8. While they were at the carnival Janice exclaimed, "Time sure does fly when you are having fun!"
9. Jeremy became tongue-tied after the interviewer asked him where he saw himself in five years.
10. Jordan was dressed to the nines that night.
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Avoiding Overly General Words
Specific words and images make your writing more interesting to read. Whenever possible, avoid overly
general words in your writing; instead, try to replace general language with particular nouns, verbs, and
modifiers that convey details and that bring yours words to life. Add words that provide color, texture,
sound, and even smell to your writing.
• General: My new puppy is cute.
• Specific: My new puppy is a ball of white fuzz with the biggest black eyes I have ever seen.
• General: My teacher told us that plagiarism is bad.
• Specific: My teacher, Ms. Atwater, created a presentation detailing exactly how plagiarism is illegal and
unethical.

Exercise 4
Revise the following sentences by replacing the overly general words with more precise and attractive
language. Write the new sentences on your own sheet of paper.
1. Adyam got into her car and drove off.
2. I would like to travel to outer space because it would be amazing.
3. Drashty came home after a bad day at the office.
4. I thought Mohamed's essay was fascinating.
5. The dog walked up the street.
6. The coal miners were tired after a long day.
7. The tropical fish are pretty.
8. I sweat a lot after running.
9. The goalie blocked the shot.
10. I enjoyed my Mexican meal.
Synonyms
Synonyms are words that have the same, or almost the same, meaning as another word. You can say an
"easy task" or a "simple task" because easy and simple are synonyms. You can say Hong Kong is a "large
city" or a "metropolis" because city and metropolis are synonyms.
However, it is important to remember that not all pairs of words in the English language are so easily
interchangeable. The slight but important differences in meaning between synonyms can make a big
difference in your writing. For example, the words boring and insipid may have similar meanings, but the
subtle differences between the two will affect
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the message your writing conveys. The word insipid evokes a scholarly and perhaps more pretentious
message than boring.
The English language is full of pairs of words that have subtle distinctions between them. All writers,
professionals and beginners alike, face the challenge of choosing the most appropriate synonym to best
convey their ideas. When you pay particular attention to synonyms in your writing, it comes across to
your reader. The sentences become much more clear and rich in meaning.

Writers at Work
Any writing you do at work involves a careful choice of words. For example, if you are writing an e-mail to
your employer regarding your earnings, you can use the word pay, salary, or hourly wage. There are also
other synonyms to choose from. Just keep in mind that the word you choose will have an effect on the
reader, so you want to choose wisely to get the desired effect.

Exercise 5
Replace the underlined words in the paragraphs with appropriate synonyms. Write the new paragraph
on your own sheet of paper.
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Exercise 6
On your own sheet of paper, write a sentence with each of the following words that illustrates the
specific meaning of each synonym.
1. leave, abandon
2. mad, insane
3. outside, exterior
4. poor, destitute
5. quiet, peaceful
6. riot, revolt
7. rude, impolite
8. talk, conversation
9. hug, embrace
10. home, residence
Antonyms
Antonyms are words that have the opposite meaning of a given word. The study of antonyms will not only
help you choose the most appropriate word as you write; it will also sharpen your overall sense of
language. The following table lists common words and their antonyms.

Common Antonyms
Word Antonym Word Antonym
absence presence frequent seldom
accept refuse harmful harmless
accurate inaccurate horizontal vertical
advantage disadvantage imitation genuine
ancient modern inhabited uninhabited
abundant scarce inferior superior
artificial natural intentional accidental
attractive repulsive justice injustice
borrow lend knowledge ignorance
bravery cowardice landlord tenant
create destroy, demolish likely unlikely
bold timid, meek minority majority
capable incapable miser spendthrift
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combine separate obedient disobedient

conceal reveal optimist pessimist
common rare permanent temporary
decrease increase plentiful scarce
definite indefinite private public
despair hope prudent imprudent
discourage encourage qualified unqualified
employer employee satisfactory unsatisfactory
expand contract tame wild
forget remember vacant occupied

Tip
Learning antonyms is an effective way to increase your vocabulary. Memorizing words in combination
with or in relation to other words often helps us retain them.

Exercise 7
Correct the following sentences by replacing the underlined words with an antonym. Write the antonym
on your own sheet of paper.
1. The pilot who landed the plane was a coward because no one was injured.
2. Even though the botany lecture was two hours long, Gerard found it incredibly dull.
3. My mother says it is impolite to say thank you like you really mean it.
4. Although I have learned a lot of information through textbooks, it is life experience that has given me
ignorance.
5. When our instructor said the final paper was compulsory, it was music to my ears!
6. My only virtues are coffee, video games, and really loud music.
7. Elvin was so bold when he walked in the classroom that he sat in the back row and did not participate.
8. Maria thinks elephants who live in freedom have a sad look in their eyes.
9. The teacher filled her students' minds with gloomy thoughts about their futures.
10. The guest attended to every one of our needs.

Writing Application
Write a paragraph that describes your favorite dish or food. Use as many synonyms as you can in the
description, even if it seems too many. Be creative. Consult a thesaurus, and take this opportunity to use
words you have never used before. Be prepared to share your paragraph.
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Key Takeaways
• Using a dictionary and thesaurus as you write will improve your writing by improving your word choice.
• Connotations of words may be positive, neutral, or negative.
• Slang, cliches, and overly general words should be avoided in academic writing.
• Synonyms are words that have the same, or almost the same, meaning as another word.
• Antonyms are words that have the opposite meaning of another word.
• Choosing the right synonym refines your writing.
• Learning common antonyms sharpens your sense of language and expands your vocabulary.
6.4 Word Form — Adjectives and Adverbs / Prefixes and Suffixes
Learning Objectives
1. Identify adjectives and adverbs.
2. Use adjectives and adverbs correctly.
3. Identify the meanings of common prefixes.
4. Become familiar with common suffix rules.
Adjectives and adverbs are descriptive words that bring your writing to life. Using the appropriate word
form in your writing shows you understand how word variety and use is important. This also helps your
writing be clear to the reader.
The English language contains an enormous and ever-growing number of words. Enhancing your
vocabulary by learning new words can seem overwhelming, but if you know the common prefixes and
suffixes of English, you will understand many more words. Mastering common prefixes and suffixes is like
learning a code. Once you crack the code, you can not only spell words more correctly but also recognize
and perhaps even define unfamiliar words.
Adjectives and Adverbs
An adjective is a word that describes a noun or a pronoun. It often answers questions such as which one,
what kind, or how many?
• The green sweater belongs to Iris.
• She looks beautiful.
o In sentence 1, the adjective green describes the noun sweater. o In sentence 2, the adjective beautiful
describes the pronoun she.
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An adverb is a word that describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Adverbs frequently end in -ly.
They answer questions such as how, to what extent, why, when, and where.
• Bertrand sings horribly.
• My sociology instructor is extremely wise.
• He threw the ball very accurately.
o In sentence 3, horribly describes the verb sings. How does Bertrand sing? He sings horribly.

o In sentence 4, extremely describes the adjective wise. How wise is the

instructor? Extremely wise. o In sentence 5, very describes the adverb accurately. How accurately did
he throw the ball? Very accurately.
Comparative versus Superlative
Comparative adjectives and adverbs are used to compare two people or things.
1. Jorge is thin.
2. Steven is thinner than Jorge.
o Sentence 1 describes Jorge with the adjective thin.

o Sentence 2 compares Jorge to Steven, stating that Steven is thinner. So thinner is the comparative form
of thin.
Form comparatives in one of the following two ways:
1. If the adjective or adverb is a one syllable word, add -er to it to form the comparative. For example, big,
fast, and short would become bigger, faster, and shorter in the comparative form.
2. If the adjective or adverb is a word of two or more syllables, place the word more in front of it to form
the comparative. For example, happily, comfortable, and jealous would become more happily, more
comfortable, and more jealous in the comparative.
Superlative adjectives and adverbs are used to compare more than two people or two things.
1. Fatoumata is the loudest cheerleader on the squad.
2. Kenyatta was voted the most confident student by her graduating class.
o Sentence 1 shows that Fatoumata is not just louder than one other person, but she is the loudest of all
the cheerleaders on the squad.
o Sentence 2 shows that Kenyatta was voted the most confident student of all the students in her class.
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Form superlatives in one of the following two ways:
1. If the adjective or adverb is a one-syllable word, add -est to form the superlative. For example, big, fast,
and short would become biggest, fastest, and shortest in the superlative form.
2. If the adjective or adverb is a word of two or more syllables, place the word most in front of it. For
example, happily, comfortable, and jealous would become most happily, most comfortable, and most
jealous in the superlative form.

Tip
Remember the following exception: If the word has two syllables and ends in -y, change the -y to an -i and
add -est. For example, happy would change to happiest in the superlative form; healthy would change to
healthiest.

Exercise 2
Edit the following paragraph by correcting the six errors in comparative and superlative adjectives.
Our argument started on the most sunny afternoon that I have ever experienced. Enis and I were sitting
on my front stoop when I started it. I told him that my dog, Jacko, was more smart than his dog, Merlin. I
could not help myself. Merlin never came when he was called, and he chased his tail and barked at rocks. I
told Enis that Merlin was the most dumbest dog on the block. I guess I was angrier about a bad grade that
I received, so I decided to pick on poor little Merlin. Even though Enis insulted Jacko too, I felt I had been
more mean. The next day I apologized to Enis and brought Merlin some of Jacko's treats. When Merlin
placed his paw on my knee and licked my hand, I was the most sorry person on the block.
Irregular Words: Good, Well, Bad, and Badly
Good, well, bad, and badly are often used incorrectly. Study the following chart to learn the correct usage
of these words and their comparative and superlative forms.
Comparative Superlative
Adjective good better best
Adverb well better best
Adjective bad worse worst
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Comparative Superlative
Adverb badly worse worst
Good versus Well
Good is always an adjective—that is, a word that describes a noun or a pronoun. The second sentence is
correct because well is an adverb that tells how something is done.
Incorrect: Cecilia felt that she had never done so good on a test.
Correct: Cecilia felt that she had never done so well on a test.
Well is always an adverb that describes a verb, adverb, or adjective. The second sentence is correct
because good is an adjective that describes the noun score.
Incorrect: Cecilia's team received a well score.
Correct: Cecilia's team received a good score.
Bad versus Badly
Bad is always an adjective. The second sentence is correct because badly is an adverb that tells how the
speaker did on the test.
Incorrect: I did bad on my accounting test because I didn't study.
Correct: I did badly on my accounting test because I didn't study.
Badly is always an adverb. The second sentence is correct because bad is an adjective that describes the
noun thunderstorm.
Incorrect: The coming thunderstorm looked badly.
Correct: The coming thunderstorm looked bad.
Better and Worse
The following are examples of the use of better and worse:
Tyra likes sprinting better than long distance running. The traffic is worse in Chicago than in Atlanta.
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Best and Worst
The following are examples of the use of best and worst: Tyra sprints best of all the other competitors.
Peter finished worst of all the runners in the race.

Tip
Remember better and worse compare two persons or things. Best and worst compare three or more
persons or things.

Exercise 3
Write good, well, bad, or badly to complete each sentence. Copy the completed sentence onto your own
sheet of paper.
1. Fasika always felt_if she did not see the sun in the morning.
2. The school board president gave a_speech for once.
3. Although my dog, Comet, is mischievous, he always behaves_at the dog park.
4. I thought my back injury was_at first, but it turned out to be minor.
5. Razak was shaking_from the extreme cold.
6. Apple crisp is a very_dessert that can be made using whole grains instead of
white flour.
7. The meeting with my son's math teacher went very_.
8. Juan has a_appetite, especially when it comes to dessert.
9. Magritte thought the guests had a_time at the party because most people left
early.
10. She_wanted to win the writing contest prize, which included a trip to New
York.

Exercise 4
Write the correct comparative or superlative form of the word in parentheses. Copy the completed
sentence onto your own sheet of paper.
1. This research paper is_(good) than my last one.
2. Grace likes country music_(well) of all.
3. My motorcycle rides_(bad) than it did last summer.
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4. That is the_(bad) j oke my father ever told.
5. The hockey team played_(badly) than it did last season.
6. Heejoo plays guitar_(well) than she plays the piano.
7. It will go down as one of the_(bad) movies I have ever seen.
8. The deforestation in the Amazon is_(bad) than it was last year.
9. Movie ticket sales are_(good) this year than last.
10. My husband says mystery novels are the_(good) types of books.

Tip
The irregular words good, well, bad, and badly are often misused along with their comparative and
superlative forms better, best, worse, and worst. You may not hear the difference between worse and
worst, and therefore type it incorrectly. In a formal or business-like tone, use each of these words to write
eight separate sentences. Assume these sentences will be seen and judged by your current or future
employer.

Key Takeaways
• Adjectives describe a noun or a pronoun.
• Adverbs describe a verb, adjective, or another adverb.
• Most adverbs are formed by adding -ly to an adjective.
• Comparative adjectives and adverbs compare two persons or things.
• Superlative adjectives or adverbs compare more than two persons or things.
• The adjectives good and bad and the adverbs well and badly are unique in their comparative and
superlative forms and require special attention.
Prefixes
A prefix is a word part added to the beginning of a word to create a new meaning. The main rule to
remember when adding a prefix to a word is not to add letters or leave out any letters. See the following
table "Common Prefixes" for examples of this rule.
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Common Prefixes
Prefix Meaning Example
dis not, opposite of dis + satisfied = dissatisfied
mis wrongly mis + spell = misspell
un not un + acceptable = unacceptable
re again re + election = reelection
inter between inter + related = interrelated
pre before pre + pay = prepay
non not non + sense = nonsense
super above super + script = superscript
sub under sub + merge = submerge
anti against, opposing anti + bacterial = antibacterial

Exercise 5
Identify the five words with prefixes in the following paragraph, and write their meanings on a
separate sheet of paper.
At first, I thought one of my fuzzy, orange socks disappeared in the dryer, but I could not find it in there.
Because it was my favorite pair, nothing was going to prevent me from finding that sock. I looked all
around my bedroom, under the bed, on top of the bed, and in my closet, but I still could not find it. I did
not know that I would discover the answer just as I gave up my search. As I sat down on the couch in the
family room, my Dad was reclining on his chair. I laughed when I saw that one of his feet was orange and
the other blue! I forgot that he was color-blind. Next time he does laundry I will have to supervise him
while he folds the socks so that he does not accidentally take one of mine!
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Exercise 6
Add the correct prefix to the word to complete each sentence. Write the word on your own sheet of
paper.
1. I wanted to ease my stomach_comfort, so I drank some ginger root tea.
2. Lenny looked funny in his_matched shirt and pants.
3. Hang felt_glamorous at the party because she was the only one not wearing a
dress.
4. My mother said those_aging creams do not work, so I should not waste my
money on them.
5. The child's_standard performance on the test alarmed his parents.
6. When my sister first saw the meteor, she thought it was a_natural
phenomenon.
7. Even though she got an excellent job offer, Mariam did not want to_locate to a
different country.
8. With a small class size, the students get to_act with the teacher more
frequently.
9. I slipped on the ice because I did not heed the_cautions about watching my
step.
10. A_combatant is another word for civilian.
Suffixes
A suffix is a word part added to the end of a word to create a new meaning. Study the suffix rules in the
following boxes.
Rule 1
When adding the suffixes -ness and -ly to a word, the spelling of the word does not change.
Examples:
• dark + ness = darkness
• scholar + ly = scholarly
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Exceptions to Rule 1: When the word ends in y, change the y to i before adding -ness and -ly.
Examples:
• ready + ly = readily
• happy + ness = happiness
Rule 2
When the suffix begins with a vowel, drop the silent e in the root word.
Examples:
• care + ing = caring
• use + able = usable
Exceptions to Rule 2: When the word ends in ce or ge, keep the silent e if the suffix begins with a or o.
Examples:
• replace + able = replaceable
• courage + ous = courageous
Rule 3
When the suffix begins with a consonant, keep the silent e in the original word.
Examples:
• care + ful = careful
• care + less = careless
Exceptions to Rule 3:
Examples:
• true + ly = truly
• argue + ment = argument
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Rule 4
When the word ends in a consonant plus y, change the y to i before any suffix not beginning with i.
Examples:
• sunny + er = sunnier
• hurry + ing = hurrying
Rule 5
When the suffix begins with a vowel, double the final consonant only if (1) the word has only one syllable
or is accented on the last syllable and (2) the word ends in a single vowel followed by a single consonant.
Examples:
• tan + ing = tanning (one syllable word)
• regret + ing = regretting (The accent is on the last syllable; the word ends in a single vowel followed by a
single consonant.)
• cancel + ed = canceled (The accent is not on the last syllable.)
• prefer + ed = preferred

Exercise 7
On your own sheet of paper, write correctly the forms of the words with their suffixes.
1. refer + ed
2. refer + ence
3. mope + ing
4. approve + al
5. green + ness
6. benefit + ed
7. resubmit + ing
8. use + age
9. greedy + ly
10. excite + ment
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Key Takeaways
• A prefix is a word part added to the beginning of a word that changes the word's meaning.
• A suffix is a word part added to the end of a word that changes the word's meaning.
• Learning the meanings of prefixes and suffixes will help expand your vocabulary, which will help
improve your writing.
6.5 Using Context Clues
Learning Objectives
1. Identify the different types of context clues.
2. Practice using context clues while reading.
Context clues are bits of information within a text that will assist you in deciphering the meaning of
unknown words. Since most of your knowledge of vocabulary comes from reading, it is important that you
recognize context clues. By becoming more aware of particular words and phrases surrounding a difficult
word, you can make logical guesses about its meaning. The following are the different types of context
clues:
• Brief definition or restatement
• Synonyms and antonyms
• Examples
Brief Definition or Restatement
Sometimes a text directly states the definition or a restatement of the unknown word. The brief definition
or restatement is signaled by a word or a punctuation mark. Consider the following example:
If you visit Alaska, you will likely see many glaciers, or slow moving masses of ice.
In this sentence, the word glaciers is defined by the phrase that follows the signal word or, which is slow
moving masses of ice.
In other instances, the text may restate the meaning of the word in a different way, by using punctuation
as a signal. Look at the following example:
Marina was indignant—fuming mad—when she discovered her brother had left for the party without her.
Although fuming mad is not a formal definition of the word indignant, it does serve to define it. These
two examples use signals—the word or and the punctuation dashes—to
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indicate the meaning of the unfamiliar word. Other signals to look for are the words i's, as, means, known
as, and refers to.
Synonyms and Antonyms
Sometimes a text gives a synonym of the unknown word to signal the meaning of the unfamiliar word:
When you interpret an image, you actively question and examine what the image connotes and suggests.
In this sentence the word suggests is a synonym of the word connotes. The word and sometimes signals
synonyms.
Likewise, the word but may signal a contrast, which can help you define a word by its antonym.
I abhor clothes shopping, but I adore grocery shopping.
The word abhor is contrasted with its opposite: adore. From this context, the reader can guess that abhor
means to dislike greatly.
Examples
Sometimes a text will give you an example of the word that sheds light on its meaning:
I knew Mark's ailurophobia was in full force because he began trembling and stuttering when he saw my
cat, Ludwig, slink out from under the bed.
Although ailurophobia is an unknown word, the sentence gives an example of its effects. Based on this
example, a reader could confidently surmise that the word means a fear of cats.

Tip
Look for signal words like such as, for instance, and for example. These words signal that a word's
meaning may be revealed through an example.
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Exercise 1
Identify the context clue that helps define the underlined words in each of the following sentences. Write
the context clue on your own sheet of paper.

Exercise 2
On your own sheet of paper, write the name of the context clue that helps to define the underlined words.
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Tip
In addition to context clues to help you figure out the meaning of a word, examine the following word
parts: prefixes, roots, and suffixes.
Also, in spoken language, jargon is a type of communication often used in the workplace. It is the
technical language of a special field. Imagine it is your first time working as a server in a restaurant and
your manager tells you he is going to "eighty-six" the roasted chicken. If you do not realize that "eighty-
six" means to remove an item from the menu, you could be confused. You will definitely encounter jargon
that will likely be foreign to you when you begin work. If you cannot understand the jargon based on the
context, it is always a good policy to ask.

Key Takeaways
• Context clues are words or phrases within a text that help clarify vocabulary that is unknown to you.
• There are several types of context clues including brief definition and restatement, synonyms and
antonyms, and example.
6.6 Working with Words: End-of-Chapter Exercises
1. Proofread the paragraph and correct any commonly confused words and misspelled words.
Grunge, or the Seattle sound, is a type of rock music that became quiet popular in the late 1980s and early
1990s. It began in Seattle, Washington. Grunge musicians rejected the dramatic an expensive stage
productions that were trendy at the time. There music was striped down with an emphasis on distorted
electric guitars. Grunge musicians did not ware makeup or sport extravagent hairstyles like many of the
day's rock musicians and bands. Many grunge musicians would by they're clothes from secondhand
stores. The lyrics too grunge songs were also quit different compared two what was populer at the time.
Grunge lyrics are charecterized by dark or socially conscience themes. Grunge music is still admired today
buy music lovers of all ages.
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2. Complete the following sentences by filling in the blank line with the correct homonym or frequently
misspelled word.
1. William asked me a serious question and_(then, than) interrupted me
when I attempted to answer.
2. A hot compress will_(lessen, lesson) the pain of muscle cramps.
3. Alperen was not a graceful_(looser, loser) because he knocked his chair
over and stormed off the basketball court.
4. Please consider the_(effects, affects) of not getting enough green
vegetables in your diet.
5. _(Except, Accept) for Ajay, we all had our tickets to the play.
6. I am_(threw, through) with this magazine, so you can read it if you like.
7. I don't care_(whose, who's) coming to the party and_(whose,
who's) not.
8. Ebru could_(sea, see) the soaring hawk through her binoculars.
9. The_(principal, principle) gave the students a very long lecture about peer
pressure.
10. Dr. Singh nearly lost his_(patience, patients) with one of his
_(patience, patients).
3. Rewrite the following personal essay by replacing the slang, cliches, and overly general language
with stronger, more precise language.
My biggest regret happened in high school. I had always felt like a fish out of water, so during my
sophomore year I was determined to fit in with the cool people. Man, was that an uphill battle. I don't
even know why I tried, but hindsight is 20/20 I guess. The first thing I did was change the way I dressed. I
went from wearing clothes I was comfortable in to wearing stuff that was so not me. Then I started
wearing a ton of makeup, and my brother was all like, "What happened to your face?" Not only did my
looks change, my personality changed a lot too. I started to act all stuck up and bossy with my friends, and
they didn't know how to respond to this person that used to be me. Luckily, this phase didn't last more
than a couple of months. I decided it was more fun to be me than to try to be someone else. I guess you
can't fit a square peg in a round hole after all.
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4. Write the correct synonym for each word.
1. lenient_(relaxed, callous)
2. abandon_(vacate, deceive)
3. berate_(criticize, encourage)
4. experienced_(callow, matured)
5. spiteful_(malevolent, mellow)
6. tame_(subdued, wild)
7. tasty_(savory, bland)
8. banal_(common, interesting)
9. contradict_(deny, revolt)
10. vain_(boastful, simple)
5. Complete the following sentences by selecting the correct comparative or superlative adjective or
adverb. Then copy the completed sentence onto your own sheet of paper.
1. Deniz has a (cheerful)_outlook on life than her husband.
2. I don't mean to brag, but I think I am the (good)_cook in my family.
3. Lydia is the (thoughtful)_person I know.
4. Italy experienced the (bad)_heat wave in its history last year.
5. My teacher, Ms. Beckett, is the (strange)_person I know, and I like
that.
6. Dang's drawing skills are (good)_this semester than last.
7. My handwriting is the (sloppy)_of all my classmates.
8. Melvin's soccer team played (badly)_than it did last season.
9. Josie's pen writes (smooth)_than mine.
10. I felt (lucky)_than my sister because I got in to the college of my
choice.
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Chapter 7: Overview Of English Grammar

7.1 Sentence Structure
Learning Objectives
1. Identify the basic structures of sentences.
2. Determine ways to turn sentences into questions.
3. Define adjectives and how they are used.
If your first language is not English, you will most likely need some extra help when writing in Standard,
or formal, English. New students of Standard English often make similar kinds of errors. Even when you
have been speaking English for a long time, you may not feel as confident in your written English skills.
This chapter provides an overview of English grammar and covers the most common errors made by
English language learners and helps you avoid similar mistakes in your college writing.
Basic Sentence Structures
The most basic sentence structure in English is a subject plus a verb. A subject performs the action in the
sentence, and the verb identifies the action. Keep in mind that in some languages, such as Spanish and
Italian, an obvious subject does not always perform the action in a sentence; the subject is often implied
by the verb. However, every sentence in English must have a subject and a verb to express a complete
thought.

Not all sentences are as simple as a subject plus a verb. To form more complex sentences, writers build
upon this basic structure. Adding a prepositional phrase to the basic sentence creates a more complex
sentence. A preposition is a part of speech that relates a noun or a pronoun to another word in a sentence.
It also introduces a prepositional phrase. If you can identify a preposition, you will be able to identify a
prepositional phrase.
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On is the preposition. On the couch is the prepositional phrase.

Common Prepositions
about beside off
above between on
across by over
after during through
against except to
along for toward
among from under
around in until
at into up
before like with
behind of without
Another sentence structure that is important to understand is subject + verb + object. There are two types
of objects: direct objects and indirect objects.
A direct object receives the action of the verb.

The letter directly receives the action of the verb writes.

Tip
A quick way to find the direct object is to ask what? or who?
Sentence: Maurice kicked the ball. What did Maurice kick? The direct object, ball.
Sentence: Maurice kicked Tom by accident. Who did Maurice kick? The direct object, Tom.
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An indirect object does not receive the action of the verb.

The action (writes) is performed for or to the indirect object (me).

Tip
Even though the indirect object is not found after a preposition in English, it can be discovered by asking
to whom? or for whom? after the verb.
Sentence: Dad baked the children some cookies.
For whom did Dad bake the cookies? The indirect object, children.
The Structure of Questions
English speakers rely on the following two common ways to turn sentences into questions:
1. Move the helping verb and add a question mark.
2. Add the verb do, does, or did and add a question mark.
Move the helping verb and add a question mark.
Sentence: Sierra can pack these boxes.
Question: Can Sierra pack these boxes?
Add the verb do, does, or did, and add a question mark:
Sentence: Jolene skated across the pond.
Question: Did Jolene skate across the pond? Adjectives
An adjective is a kind of descriptive word that describes a noun or a pronoun. It tells which one, what
kind, and how many. Adjectives make your writing more lively and interesting. Keep in mind, a common
error that English language learners make is
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misplacing the adjectives in a sentence. It is important to know where to place the adjective in a sentence
so that readers are not confused.
If you are using more than one adjective to describe a noun, place the adjectives in the following order
before the noun:
1. Opinion: an interesting book, a boring movie, a fun ride
2. Size: a large box, a tiny turtle, a tall woman
3. Shape: a round ball, a long hose, a square field
4. Age: a new day, an old horse, a modern building
5. Color: an orange sunset, a green jacket, a red bug
6. Ethnicity: Italian cheese, French wine, Chinese tea
7. Material: silk shirt, wool socks, a cotton dress

Tip
Adjectives can also be placed at the end of a sentence if they describe the subject of a sentence and appear
after the verb. This is called a predicate adjective.
Sentence: My English teacher is well-meaning and deliberate.

Key Takeaways
• The most basic sentence structure is a subject plus a verb that expresses a complete thought.
• Adding a prepositional phrase or a direct or indirect object to a sentence makes it more complex.
• English speakers change a sentence into a question in one of the following two ways: moving the helping
verb and adding a question mark or adding the verb do, does, or did and adding a question mark.
• Adjectives follow a particular order before the noun they describe. The order is opinion, size, shape, age,
color, ethnicity, and material.

Writing Application
Write a paragraph about a memorable family trip. Use at least two adjectives to describe each noun in
your paragraph. Proofread your paragraph, and then exchange papers with a classmate. Check your
classmate's use of adjectives to make sure they are correct.
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7.2 Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers

Learning Objectives
1. Identify modifiers.
2. Learn how to correct misplaced and dangling modifiers.
A modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that clarifies or describes another word, phrase, or clause.
Sometimes writers use modifiers incorrectly, leading to strange and unintentionally humorous sentences.
The two common types of modifier errors are called misplaced modifiers and dangling modifiers. If either
of these errors occurs, readers can no longer read smoothly. Instead, they become stumped trying to
figure out what the writer meant to say. A writer's goal must always be to communicate clearly and to
avoid distracting the reader with strange sentences or awkward sentence constructions. The good news is
that these errors can be easily overcome.
Misplaced Modifiers
A misplaced modifier is a modifier that is placed too far from the word or words it modifies. Misplaced
modifiers make the sentence awkward and sometimes unintentionally humorous.
Incorrect: She wore a bicycle helmet on her head that was too large.
Correct: She wore a bicycle helmet that was too large on her head.
• Notice in the incorrect sentence it sounds as if her head was too large! Of course, the writer is referring
to the helmet, not to the person's head. The corrected version of the sentence clarifies the writer's
meaning.
Look at the following two examples:
Incorrect: They bought a kitten for my brother they call Shadow.
Correct: They bought a kitten they call Shadow for my brother.
• In the incorrect sentence, it seems that the brother's name is Shadow. That's because the modifier is too
far from the word it modifies, which is kitten.
Incorrect: The patient was referred to the physician with stomach pains.
Correct: The patient with stomach pains was referred to the physician.
• The incorrect sentence reads as if it is the physician who has stomach pains! What the writer means is
that the patient has stomach pains.
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Tip
Simple modifiers like only, almost, just, nearly, and barely often get used incorrectly because writers
often stick them in the wrong place.
Confusing: Padam almost found fifty cents under the sofa cushions. Repaired: Padam found almost
fifty cents under the sofa cushions.
• How do you almost find something? Either you find it or you do not. The repaired sentence is much
clearer.

Exercise 1
On a separate sheet of paper, rewrite the following sentences to correct the misplaced modifiers.
1. The young lady was walking the dog on the telephone.
2. I heard that there was a robbery on the evening news.
3. Uncle Sayed bought a running stroller for the baby that he called "Speed Racer."
4. Rolling down the mountain, the explorer stopped the boulder with his powerful foot.
5. We are looking for a babysitter for our precious six-year-old who doesn't drink or smoke and owns a
car.
6. The teacher served cookies to the children wrapped in aluminum foil.
7. The mysterious woman walked toward the car holding an umbrella.
8. We returned the wine to the waiter that was sour.
9. Emmanuel spotted a stray puppy driving home from work.
10. I ate nothing but a cold bowl of noodles for dinner.
Dangling Modifiers
A dangling modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that describes something that has been left out of the
sentence. When there is nothing that the word, phrase, or clause can modify, the modifier is said to
dangle.
Incorrect: Riding in the sports car, the world whizzed by rapidly.
Correct: As Priya was riding in the sports car, the world whizzed by rapidly.
• In the incorrect sentence, riding in the sports car is dangling. The reader is left wondering who is riding
in the sports car. The writer must tell the reader!
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7.3 Negative Statements

Learning Objectives
1. Identify a negative statement.
2. Write negative statements.
Negative statements are the opposite of positive statements and are necessary to express an opposing
idea. The following charts list negative words and helping verbs that can be combined to form a negative
statement.
Negative Words
never no hardly
nobody none scarcely
no one not barely
nowhere rarely
i i«

Common Helping Verbs

am is are
was were be
being been have
has had do
does did can
could may might
must will should
would ought to used to
The following examples show several ways to make a sentence negative in the present tense.
1. A helping verb used with the negative word not. Sentence: My guests are arriving now. Negative: My
guests are not arriving now.
2. The negative word no. Sentence: Minh has money. Negative: Minh has no money.
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3. The contraction n't. Sentence: Yen misses her mom. Negative: Yen doesn't miss her mom.
4. The negative adverb rarely.
Sentence: I always go to the gym after work. Negative: I rarely go to the gym after work.
5. The negative subject nobody.
Sentence: Everybody gets the day off.
Negative: Nobody gets the day off.
The following sentences show you the ways to make a sentence negative in the past tense.
Sentence: Huong called me yesterday. Negative: Huong did not call me yesterday.
Sentence: Ning went to the grocery store. Negative: Ning never went to the grocery store.
Sentence: Pia laughed when she saw the huge pile of laundry.
Negative: Pia did not laugh when she saw the huge pile of laundry.
Notice that when forming a negative in the past tense, the helping verb did is what signals the past tense,
and the main verb laugh does not have an -ed ending.

Exercise 1
Rewrite the following paragraph by correcting the errors in the past-tense negative sentences.
Gifty no did call me when she reached North Carolina. I was worried because she not drove alone before.
She was going to meet her friend, Backary, who lived in a town called Asheville, North Carolina. I did
never want to worry, but she said she was going to call
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when she reached there. Finally, four hours later, she called and said, "Mom, I'm sorry I did not call. I lost
track of time because I was so happy to see my friend Backary!" I was relieved.
Double Negatives
Double negatives are two negatives used in the same phrase or sentence. They are considered incorrect in
Standard English. You should avoid using double negatives in all formal writing. If you want to say
something negative, use only one negative word in the sentence. Return to the beginning of this section
for a list of negative words, and then study the following examples.

Tip
Ain't is considered a contraction of am not. Although some may use it in everyday speech, it is considered
incorrect in Standard English. Avoid using it when speaking and writing in formal contexts.

Exercise 2
On your own sheet of paper, correct the double negatives and rewrite the following sentences.
1. Jose didn't like none of the choices on the menu.
2. Luiza can't make no friends with nobody.
3. The Southwest hardly had no rain last summer.
4. My kids never get into no trouble.
5. I could not do nothing about the past.
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Key Takeaways
• Negatives are usually formed using a negative word plus a helping verb.
• Double negatives are considered incorrect in Standard English.
• Only one negative word is used to express a negative statement.
7.4 Count and Noncount Nouns and Articles
Learning Objectives
1. Define and use count and noncount nouns.
2. Recognize and use definite and indefinite articles.
Nouns are words that name things, places, people, and ideas. Right now, you may be surrounded by
desks, computers, and notebooks. These are called count nouns because you can count the exact number
of desks, computers, and notebooks—three desks, one computer, and six notebooks, for example.
On the other hand, you may be carrying a small amount of money in your wallet and sitting on a piece of
furniture. These are called noncount nouns. Although you can count the pieces of furniture or the amount
of money, you cannot add a number in front of money or furniture and simply add -s to the end of the
noun. Instead, you must use other words and phrases to indicate the quantity of money and furniture.
Incorrect: five moneys, two furnitures, three sugars
Correct: some money, two pieces of furniture, two teaspoons of sugar
Count and Noncount Nouns
A count noun refers to people, places, and things that are separate units. You make count nouns plural by
adding -s.

Table of Count Nouns

Count Noun Sentence
Quarter It takes six quarters to do my laundry.
Chair Make sure to push in your chairs before leaving class.
Candidate The two candidates debated the issue.
Adult The three adults in the room acted like children.
Comedian The two comedians made the audience laugh.
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A noncount noun identifies a whole object that cannot separate and count individually. Noncount nouns
may refer to concrete objects or abstract objects. A concrete noun identifies an object you can see, taste,
touch, or count. An abstract noun identifies an object that you cannot see, touch, or count. There are some
exceptions, but most abstract nouns cannot be made plural, so they are noncount nouns. Examples of
abstract nouns include anger, education, melancholy, softness, violence, and conduct.

Table of Types of Noncount Nouns

Type of Noncount Examples Sentence
Noun
Food sugar, salt, pepper, lettuce, Add more sugar to my coffee,
rice please.
Solids concrete, chocolate, silver, The ice cream was covered in creamy
soap chocolate.
Abstract Nouns peace, warmth, hospitality, I need more information
information about the insurance policy.

Exercise 1
On a separate sheet of paper, identify whether the italicized noun in the sentence is a count or noncount
noun by writing C or NC above the noun.
1. The amount of traffic on the way home was terrible.
2. Forgiveness is an important part of growing up.
3. I made caramel sauce for the organic apples I bought.
4. I prefer film cameras instead of digital ones.
5. My favorite subject is history.
6. "Freedom is just another word for nothing left to lose." Definite and Indefinite Articles
The word the is a definite article. It refers to one or more specific things. For example, the woman refers
to not any woman but a particular woman. The definite article the is used before singular and plural count
nouns.
The words a and an are indefinite articles. They refer to one nonspecific thing. For example, a woman
refers to any woman, not a specific, particular woman. The indefinite article a or an is used before a
singular count noun.
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Definite Articles (The) and Indefinite Articles (A/An) with Count Nouns I saw the concert. (singular,
refers to a specific concert) I saw the concerts. (plural, refers to more than one specific concert) I saw the
U2 concert last night. (singular, refers to a specific concert) I saw a concert. (singular, refers to any
nonspecific concert)
Two Article Rules - Reminders
The following rules will help to determine when and what kind of article needs to be used.
Rule 1: A singular count noun needs an article or a determiner.
Choose a or an if the noun is indefinite. Choose the if the noun is definite

Rule 2: A plural or non-count noun does not need an article unless it is definite. Exercise 2
On a separate sheet of paper, write the correct article in the blank for each of the following sentences.
Write OK if the sentence is correct.
1. (A/An/The) camel can live for days without water._
2. I enjoyed (a/an/the) pastries at the Bar Mitzvah._
3. (A/An/The) politician spoke of many important issues._
4. I really enjoyed (a/an/the) actor's performance in the play._
5. (A/An/The) goal I have is to run a marathon this year._

Exercise 3
Correct the misused or missing articles and rewrite the paragraph:
Stars are large balls of spinning hot gas like our sun. The stars look tiny because they are far away. Many
of them are much larger than sun. Did you know that a Milky Way galaxy has between two hundred billion
and four hundred billion stars in it? Scientists estimate that there may be as many as five hundred billion
galaxies in an entire universe! Just like a human being, the star has a life cycle from birth to death, but its
lifespan is billions of
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years long. The star is born in a cloud of cosmic gas and dust called a nebula. Our sun was born in the
nebula nearly five billion years ago. Photographs of the star-forming nebulas are astonishing.

Key Takeaways
• You can make count nouns plural by adding -s.
• Count nouns are individual people, places, or things that can be counted, such as politicians, deserts, or
candles.
• Noncount nouns refer to whole things that cannot be made plural, such as salt, peace, or happiness.
• The is a definite article and is used to refer to a specific person, place, or thing, such as the Queen of
England.
• A and an are indefinite articles, and they refer to nonspecific people, places, or things, such as an apple
or a bicycle.
7.5 Pronouns
Learning Objectives
1. Recognize subject and object pronouns.
2. Identify possessive pronouns.
3. Determine common pronoun errors.
A pronoun is a word that can be used in place of the noun. We use pronouns so we do not have to repeat
words. For example, imagine writing the following sentence: Afrah put her scarf on because Afrah was
cold. The sentence sounds a bit strange because Afrah is named twice; however, if you use a pronoun, the
sentence will be shorter and less repetitive. You might rewrite the sentence to something similar to the
following: Afrah put her scarf on because she was cold. She refers to Afrah, so you do not have to write the
name twice.
Types of Pronouns
Subject pronouns are often the subject of a sentence—"who" and "what" the sentence is about.
Sentence: She loves the desserts in France. She is the subject.
Sentence: By lunch time, they were hungry. They is the subject.
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Object pronouns are often the object of the verb— "who" or "what" was acted upon. Sentence: Beza's
thoughtfulness touched him. Him is the object of the verb touched. Sentence: We lifted it. It is the
object of the verb lifted.

Tip
The masculine subject pronoun is he, and the masculine object pronoun is him. The feminine subject
pronoun is she, and the feminine object pronoun is her.
A pronoun that shows possession or ownership is called a possessive pronoun. Sentence: The teacher
took her apple and left. The pronoun her shows the teacher owns the apple.
Sentence: The hikers spotted their guide on the trail.
The pronoun their shows the hikers follow the guide who was assigned to the hikers.

Table of Pronoun Types

Subject Pronouns I, you, he, she, it, we, they
Object Pronouns me, you, him, her, it, us, them
Possessive Pronouns my (mine), your(s), his, hers, its, our(s), their(s)
Relative Pronouns who, whose, whom, which, that
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Exercise 1
On a separate sheet of paper, complete the following sentences by circling the correct pronoun.
1. Unfortunately, the house was too expensive for (we, us, they).
2. I completed (mine, my, your) research paper, and she completed (his, hers, theirs).
3. My dog Buster is old, but (he, it, them) is very playful.
4. That ring belongs to my father, so it is (hers, his, theirs).
5. I cannot find my textbook, so I think (they, it, he) is lost.
Common Pronoun Errors
English language learners often make the same errors when using pronouns. The following examples
illustrate common errors.
Incorrect: Me and Daniela went to the restaurant for lunch.
This sentence is incorrect because an object pronoun (me) is used instead of a subject pronoun.
Correct: Daniela and I went to the restaurant for lunch.
This sentence is now correct because a subject pronoun (I) is used.
Incorrect: Marco put her grocery bag on the counter.
This sentence is incorrect because the pronoun her refers to a female, and Marco is a male.
Correct: Marco put his grocery bag on the counter.
This sentence is now correct because the male pronoun his refers to the male person, Marco.
Incorrect: The woman she went to work earlier than usual.
This sentence is incorrect because the subject the woman is repeated by the pronoun she. Sometimes this
is a feature of oral speech, but never of written
text.
Correct: The woman went to work earlier than usual. OR
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Correct: She went to work earlier than usual.
These sentences are now correct because the unnecessary repeated subject has been removed.

Exercise 2
On a separate sheet of paper, correct the following sentences that have pronoun errors. If the sentence is
correct as it is, write OK.
1. Us are going to the county fair this weekend.
2. Mohamed did not want to see a movie because she had a headache.
3. The teacher congratulated Maria and me.
4. The eighth grade students they were all behaving mysteriously well.
5. Dominique and he received the best grade on the grammar test.
Relative Pronouns
A relative pronoun is a type of pronoun that helps connect details to the subject of the sentence and may
often combine two shorter sentences. The relative pronouns are who, whom, whose, which or that and
sometimes when and where.
Sentence: A relative pronoun is a type of pronoun.
The subject of this sentence is a relative pronoun. The clause is a type of pronoun gives some information
about the subject.
The relative pronoun that may be added to give more details to the subject.
Sentence using a relative pronoun: A relative pronoun is a type of pronoun that helps connect
details to the subject of the sentence.

Tip
Remember the following uses of relative pronouns:
• Who, whom, and whose refer only to people.
• Which refers to things.
• That refers to people or things.
The following examples show how a relative pronoun may be used to connect two sentences and to
connect details to the subject.
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Sentence 1: Gossip is a form of communication. Sentence 2: It is a waste of time and energy.
Combination of 1 and 2: Gossip is a form of communication that is a waste of time and energy.
Notice how the relative pronoun that replaces the subject it in sentence 2.
That is called a relative pronoun because it connects the details (is a waste of time and energy) to the
subject (Gossip).
Sentence 1: My grandmother is eighty years old.
Sentence 2: She collects seashells.
Combination of 1 and 2: My grandmother, who is eighty years old, collects seashells.
Notice how the relative pronoun who replaces the subject she in sentence 2.
Who is called a relative pronoun because it connects the details (is eighty years old) to the subject (My
grandmother).

Exercise 3
On a separate sheet of paper, complete the following sentences by selecting the correct relative pronoun.
1. He showed me a photo (who, that) upset me.
2. Soccer is a fast moving game (who, that) has many fans worldwide.
3. Juan is a man (which, who) has high standards for everything.
4. Jamaica is a beautiful country (that, who) I would like to visit next year.
5. My mother only eats bananas (who, that) are green.

Exercise 4
On a separate sheet of paper, combine the two sentences into one sentence using a relative pronoun.
1. Sayed is a dependable person. He will never let you down.
2. I rode a roller coaster. It was scary.
3. At the beach, I always dig my feet into the sand. It protects them from the hot sun.
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4. Sova is trying not to use so many plastic products. They are not good for the environment.
5. My Aunt Cynthia is teaching me how to drive. She has never been in accident or gotten a ticket.

Key Takeaways
• A pronoun is used in place of a noun.
• There are several types of pronouns, including subject and object pronouns, possessive pronouns, and
relative pronouns.
• Subject pronouns are the "who" and "what" the sentence is about.
• Object pronouns are the "who" and "what" that receives the action.
• A possessive pronoun is a pronoun showing ownership.
• Common pronoun errors include mixing up subject, object, and gender pronouns, and repeating the
subject of a sentence with a pronoun.
• Relative pronouns help combine two separate sentences.
7.6 Pronoun Agreement
Learning Objectives
1. Identify pronouns and their antecedents.
2. Use pronouns and their antecedents correctly.
If there were no pronouns, all types of writing would be quite tedious to read. We would soon be
frustrated by reading sentences like Bob said that Bob was tired or Christina told the class that Christina
received an A. Pronouns help a writer avoid constant repetition. Knowing just how pronouns work is an
important aspect of clear and concise writing.
A pronoun is a word that takes the place of (or refers back to) a noun or another pronoun. The word or
words a pronoun refers to is called the antecedent of the pronoun.
1. Lani complained that she was exhausted.
o She refers to Lani.

o Lani is the antecedent of she.

2. Hieu left the party early, so I did not see him until Monday at work.
o Him refers to Hieu.

o Jeremy is the antecedent of him.

3. Ansam and Sherry have been best friends ever since they were freshman in high school.
o They refers to Ansam and Sherry.

o Ansam and Sherry is the antecedent of they.

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Pronoun agreement errors occur when the pronoun and the antecedent do not match or agree with each
other. There are several types of pronoun agreement.
Agreement in Number
If the pronoun takes the place of or refers to a singular noun, the pronoun must also be singular.

Agreement in Person
Singular Pronouns Plural Pronouns
First Person I me my (mine) we us our (ours)
Second Person you you your (yours) you you your (your)
Third Person he, she, it him, her, it his, her, its they them their (theirs)
If you use a consistent person, your reader is less likely to be confused.
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Exercise 1
Edit the following paragraph by correcting pronoun agreement errors in number and person.
Over spring break I visited my older cousin, Diana, and they took me to a butterfly exhibit at a museum.
Diana and I have been close ever since she was young. Our mothers are twin sisters, and she is
inseparable! Diana knows how much I love butterflies, so it was their special present to me. I have a soft
spot for caterpillars too. I love them because something about the way it transforms is so interesting to
me. One summer my grandmother gave me a butterfly growing kit, and you got to see the entire life cycle
of five Painted Lady butterflies. I even got to set it free. So when my cousin said they wanted to take me to
the butterfly exhibit, I was really excited!
Indefinite Pronouns and Agreement
Indefinite pronouns do not refer to a specific person or thing and are usually singular. Note that a
pronoun that refers to an indefinite singular pronoun should also be singular. The following are some
common indefinite pronouns.
Common Indefinite Pronouns
all each one few nothing several
any each other many one some
anybody either neither one another somebody
anything everybody nobody oneself someone
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Common Indefinite Pronouns

both everyone none other something
each everything no one others anyone

Collective Nouns
Collective nouns suggest more than one person but are usually considered singular. Look over the
following examples of collective nouns.
Common Collective Nouns
audience faculty public company tribe
band family school committee group team
class government society
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Exercise 2
Complete the following sentences by selecting the correct pronoun. Copy the completed sentence onto
your own sheet of paper. Then circle the noun the pronoun replaces.
1. In the current economy, nobody wants to waste_money on frivolous things.
2. If anybody chooses to go to medical school,_must be prepared to work long
hours.
3. The plumbing crew did_best to repair the broken pipes before the next ice
storm.
4. If someone is rude to you, try giving_a smile in return.
5. My family has_faults, but I still love them no matter what.
6. The school of education plans to train_students to be literacy tutors.
7. The commencement speaker said that each student has a responsibility toward
8. My mother's singing group has_rehearsals on Thursday evenings.
9. No one should suffer_pains alone.
10. I thought the flock of birds lost_way in the storm.
Subject and Object Pronouns
Subject pronouns function as subjects in a sentence. Object pronouns function as the object of a verb or of
a preposition.
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Singular Pronouns Plural Pronouns

Subject Object Subject Object
I me we us
you you you you
he, she, it him, her, it they them
The following sentences show pronouns as subjects:
1. She loves the Blue Ridge Mountains in the fall.
2. Every summer, they picked up litter from national parks.
The following sentences show pronouns as objects:
1. Marie leaned over and kissed him.
2. Barbara moved it to the corner.
Note that a pronoun can also be the object of a preposition.
Near them, the children played.
My mother stood between us.
The pronouns us and them are objects of the prepositions near and between. They answer the questions
near whom? And between whom?
Compound subject pronouns are two or more pronouns joined by a conjunction or a preposition that
function as the subject of the sentence.
The following sentences show pronouns with compound subjects:
Incorrect: Me and Harriet visited the Grand Canyon last summer.
Correct: Harriet and I visited the Grand Canyon last summer.
Correct: Jenna accompanied Harriet and me on our trip.
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Tip
Note that object pronouns are never used in the subject position. One way to remember this rule is to
remove the other subject in a compound subject, leave only the pronoun, and see whether the sentence
makes sense. For example, me visited the Grand Canyon last summer sounds immediately incorrect.
Compound object pronouns are two or more pronouns joined by a conjunction or a preposition that
function as the object of the sentence.
Incorrect: I have a good feeling about Debra and I.
Correct: I have a good feeling about Debra and me.
It is correct to write Debra and me, as opposed to me and Debra. Just remember it is more polite to refer
to yourself last.

Tip
In casual conversation, people sometimes mix up subject and object pronouns. For instance, you might
say, "Me and Donnie went to a movie last night." However, when you are writing or speaking at work or in
any other formal situation, you need to remember the distinctions between subject and object pronouns
and be able to correct yourself. These subtle grammar corrections will enhance your professional image
and reputation.

Exercise 3
Revise the following sentences in which the subject and object pronouns are used incorrectly. Copy the
revised sentence onto your own sheet of paper. Write a C for each sentence that is correct.
1. Meera and me enjoy doing yoga together on Sundays.
2. She and him have decided to sell their house.
3. Between you and I, I do not think Jeffrey will win the election.
4. They and I met while on vacation in Mexico.
5. Napping on the beach never gets boring for Alice and I.
6. New Year's Eve is not a good time for she and I to have a serious talk.
7. You exercise much more often than me.
8. I am going to the comedy club with Yolanda and she.
9. The cooking instructor taught her and me a lot.
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Who versus Whom
Who or whoever is always the subject of a verb. Use who or whoever when the pronoun performs the
action indicated by the verb.
Who won the marathon last Tuesday?
I wonder who came up with that terrible idea!
On the other hand, whom and whomever serve as objects. They are used when the pronoun does not
perform an action. Use whom or whomever when the pronoun is the direct object of a verb or the object
of a preposition.
Whom did Frank marry the third time? (direct object of verb)
From whom did you buy that old record player? (object of preposition)

Tip
If you are having trouble deciding when to use who and whom, try this trick. Take the following sentence:
Who/Whom do I consider my best friend?
Reorder the sentence in your head, using either he or him in place of who or whom.
I consider him my best friend.
I consider he my best friend.
Which sentence sounds better? The first one, of course. So the trick is, if you can use him, you should use
whom.

Exercise 4
Complete the following sentences by adding who or whom. Copy the completed sentence onto your own
sheet of paper.
1. _hit the home run?
2. I remember_won the Academy Award for Best Actor last year.
3. To_is the letter addressed?
4. I have no idea_left the iron on, but I am going to find out.
5. _are you going to recommend for the internship?
6. With_are you going to Hawaii?
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7. No one knew_the famous actor was.
8. _in the office knows how to fix the copy machine?
9. From_did you get the concert tickets?
10. No one knew_ate the cake mom was saving.

Key Takeaways
• Pronouns and their antecedents need to agree in number and person.
• Most indefinite pronouns are singular.
• Collective nouns are usually singular.
• Pronouns can function as subjects or objects.
• Subject pronouns are never used as objects, and object pronouns are never used as subjects.
• Who serves as a subject of a verb.
• Whom serves as an object of a sentence or the object of a preposition.
7.7 Overview of Verb Forms
Learning Objectives
1. Use the correct regular verb forms in basic sentences.
2. Use the correct irregular verb forms in basic sentences.
3. Use the correct gerund or infinitive form in sentences.
Regular Verb Forms
Verbs in English can change forms in five basic ways:
BASE PAST PAST PARTICIPLE 3rd PERSON SINGULAR PROGRESSIVE
TALK TALKED TALKED TALKS TALKING
JUMP JUMPED JUMPED JUMPS JUMPING
Verbs also can indicate actions or states of being in the past, present, or future using tenses. Regular verbs
follow regular patterns when shifting from the present to past tense. For example, to form a past-tense or
past-participle verb form, add -ed or -d to the end of a verb. You can avoid mistakes by understanding this
basic pattern.
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Verb tense identifies the time of action described in a sentence. Verbs take different forms to indicate
different tenses. Verb tenses indicate
• an action or state of being in the present,
• an action or state of being in the past,
• an action or state of being in the future.
Helping verbs, such as be and have, also work to create verb tenses, such as the future tense.

Irregular Verb Forms

The past tense of irregular verbs is not formed using the patterns that regular verbs follow. Study the
chart below which lists the most common irregular verbs.
The best way to learn irregular verbs is to memorize them. With the help of a classmate, create flashcards
of irregular verbs and test yourselves until you master them.

Table of Irregular Verbs

Simple Present Past Simple Present Past
be was, were lose lost
become became make made
begin began mean meant
blow blew meet met
break broke pay paid
bring brought put put
build built quit quit
burst burst read read
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Simple Present Past Simple Present Past

buy bought ride rode
catch caught ring rang
choose chose rise rose
come came run ran
cut cut say said
dive dove (dived) see saw
do did seek sought
draw drew sell sold
drink drank send sent
drive drove set set
eat ate shake shook
fall fell shine shone (shined)
feed fed shrink shrank (shrunk)
feel felt sing sang
fight fought sit sat
find found sleep slept
fly flew speak spoke
forget forgot spend spent
forgive forgave spring sprang
freeze froze stand stood
get got steal stole
give gave strike struck
went swim swam
grow grew swing swung
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Simple Present Past Simple Present Past

have had take took
hear heard teach taught
hide hid tear tore
hold held tell told
hurt hurt think thought
keep kept throw threw
know knew understand understood
lay laid wake woke
lead led wear wore
leave left win won
let let wind wound
Here we see the irregular verb in the past tense.

Exercise 1
Complete the following sentences by selecting the correct form of the irregular verb in simple present,
simple past, or simple future tense. Copy the corrected sentence onto your own sheet of paper.
1. Marina finally (forgived, forgave, will forgive) her sister for snooping around her room.
2. The house (shook, shaked, shakes) as the airplane rumbled overhead.
3. I (buyed, bought, buy) several items of clothing at the thrift store on Wednesday.
4. She (put, putted, puts) the lotion in her shopping basket and proceeded to the checkout line.
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5. The prized goose (layed, laid, lay) several golden eggs last night.
6. Mr. Batista (teached, taught, taughted) the class how to use correct punctuation.
7. I (drink, drank, will drink) several glasses of sparkling cider instead of champagne on New Year's Eve
next year.
8. Although Hector (growed, grew, grows) three inches in one year, we still called him "Little Hector."
9. Yesterday our tour guide (lead, led, will lead) us through the maze of people in Times Square.
10. The rock band (burst, bursted, bursts) onto the music scene with their catchy songs. Gerunds
A gerund is a form of a verb that is used as a noun. All gerunds end in -ing. Since gerunds function as
nouns, they occupy places in a sentence that a noun would, such as the subject, direct object, and object of
a preposition.
You can use a gerund in the following ways:
1. As a subject
Traveling is Cynthia's favorite pastime.
2. As a direct object I enjoy jogging.
3. As an object of a proposition
The librarian scolded me for laughing. Often verbs are followed by gerunds. Study for examples.
Table of Gerunds and Verbs
Gerund Verb Followed by a Gerund
moving Delilah considered moving to Paris.
cleaning I hate cleaning the bathroom.
winning Longa imagines winning an Oscar one day.
worrying Mom says she has stopped worrying.
taking She admitted taking the pumpkin.
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Infinitives
An infinitive is a form of a verb that comes after the word to and acts as a noun, adjective, or adverb.
to + verb = infinitive
Examples of infinitives include the following: to move, to sleep, to look, to throw, to read, and to sneeze.

Often verbs are followed by infinitives. Table of Infinitives and Verbs

Infinitive Verb Followed by Infinitive
to help Preeti offered to help her move.
to arrive Sonia expects to arrive early.
to win Sunita wants to win the writing contest.
to close He forgot to close the curtains.
to eat She likes to eat late.
You may wonder which verbs can be followed by gerunds and which verbs can be followed by infinitives.
With the following verbs, you can use either a gerund or an infinitive.

Table of Infinitives and Gerund Verbs

Base Form of Verb Sentences with Verbs Followed by Gerunds and Infinitives
begin 1. Juanita began crying.
2. Juanita began to cry.
hate 1. Marie hated talking on the phone.
2. Marie hated to talk on the phone.
forget 1. Wendell forgot paying the bills.
2. Wendell forgot to pay the bills.
like 1. I liked leaving messages.
2. I liked to leave messages.
continue 1. He continued listening to the news.
2. He continued to listen to the news.
start 1. I will start recycling immediately.
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2. I will start to recycle immediately.

try 1. Mikhail will try climbing the tree.
2. Mikhail will try to climb the tree.
prefer 1. I prefer baking.
2. I prefer to bake.
love 1. Joshua loves diving.
2. Joshua loves to dive.

Exercise 2
On your own sheet of paper, complete the following sentences by choosing the correct infinitive or
gerund.
1. I meant_(to kiss, kissing) my kids before they left for school.
2. The children hoped (to go, going) to a restaurant for dinner.
3. Do you intend_(to eat, eating) the entire pie?
4. Crystal postponed_(to get dressed, getting dressed) for the party.
5. When we finish_(to play, playing) this game, we will go home.

Key Takeaways
• Regular verbs follow regular patterns when shifting from present to past tense.
• Irregular verbs do not follow regular, predictable patterns when shifting from present to past tense.
• Forms of Irregular Verbs must be practiced and memorized.

Writing Application
Tell a family story. You likely have several family stories to choose from, but pick the one that you find
most interesting to write about. Use as many details as you can in the telling. As you write and proofread,
make sure your all your verbs are correct and the tenses are consistent.
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7.8 Verb Tenses

Learning Objectives
1. Identify simple verb tenses.
2. Recognize to be, to have, and to do verbs.
3. Use perfect verb tenses.
4. Apply progressive verb tenses.
5. Define gerunds and infinitives.
You must always use a verb in every sentence you write. Verbs are parts of speech that indicate actions or
states of being. The most basic sentence structure is a subject followed by a verb.
Simple Verb Tenses
Verb tenses tell the reader when the action takes place. The action could be in the past, present, or future.
Past <- Present -> Future
Yesterday I Today I jump. Tomorrow I will jump.
jumped.
Simple present verbs are used in the following situations:
1. When the action takes place now I drink the water greedily.
2. When the action is something that happens regularly I always cross my fingers for good luck.
3. When describing things that are generally true College tuition is very costly.
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Table of Regular Simple Present Tense Verbs

Verb I He/She/It You We They
ask ask asks ask ask ask
bake bake bakes bake bake bake
cook cook cooks cook cook cook
cough cough coughs cough cough cough
clap clap claps clap clap clap
dance dance dances dance dance dance
erase erase erases erase erase erase
kiss kiss kisses kiss kiss kiss
push push pushes push push push
wash wash washes wash wash wash
When it is he, she, or it doing the present tense action, remember to add -s, or -es to the end of the verb or
to change the y to -ies.
Simple past verbs are used when the action has already taken place and is now finished:
• I washed my uniform last night.
• I asked for more pie.
• I coughed loudly last night.

Table of Regular Simple Past Tense Verbs

Verb I He/She/It You We They
ask asked asked asked asked asked
bake baked baked baked baked baked
cook cooked cooked cooked cooked cooked
cough coughed coughed coughed coughed coughed
clap clapped clapped clapped clapped clapped
dance danced danced danced danced danced
erase erased erased erased erased erased
kiss kissed kissed kissed kissed kissed
push pushed pushed pushed pushed pushed
wash washed washed washed washed washed
When he, she, or it is doing the action in the past tense, remember to add -d or -ed to the end of regular
verbs.
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Simple future verbs are used when the action has not yet taken place:
• I will work late tomorrow.
• I will kiss my boyfriend when I see him.
• I will erase the board after class.

Table of Regular Simple Future Tense Verbs

Verb I He/She/It You We They
ask will ask will ask will ask will ask will ask
bake will bake will bake will bake will bake will bake
cook will cook will cook will cook will cook will cook
cough will cough will cough will cough will cough will cough
clap will clap will clap will clap will clap will clap
dance will dance will dance will dance will dance will dance
erase will erase will erase will erase will erase will erase
kiss will kiss will kiss will kiss will kiss will kiss
push will push will push will push will push will push
wash will wash will wash will wash will wash will wash
Going to can also be added to the main verb to make it future tense: • I am going to go to work
tomorrow.

Exercise 1
Complete the following sentences by selecting the correct form of the verb in simple present, simple past,
or simple future tenses. Write the corrected sentence on your own sheet of paper.
1. The Dust Bowl (is, was, will be) a name given to a period of very destructive dust storms that occurred
in the United States during the 1930s.
2. Historians today (consider, considered, will consider) The Dust Bowl to be one of the worst weather of
events in American history.
3. The Dust Bowl mostly (affects, affected, will affect) the states of Kansas, Colorado, Oklahoma, Texas,
and New Mexico.
4. Dust storms (continue, continued, will continue) to occur in these dry regions, but not to the
devastating degree of the 1930s.
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5. The dust storms during The Dust Bowl (cause, caused, will cause) irreparable damage to farms and the
environment for a period of several years.
6. When early settlers (move, moved, will move) into this area, they (remove, removed, will remove) the
natural prairie grasses in order to plant crops and graze their cattle.
7. They did not (realize, realized, will realize) that the grasses kept the soil in place.
8. There (is, was, will be) also a severe drought that (affects, affected, will affect) the region.
9. The worst dust storm (happens, happened, will happen) on April 14, 1935, a day called Black Sunday.
10. The Dust Bowl era finally came to end in 1939 when the rains (arrive, arrived, will arrive).
11. Dust storms (continue, continued, will continue) to affect the region, but hopefully they will not be as
destructive as the storms of the 1930s.

Exercise 2
On a separate sheet of paper, complete the following sentences by adding the verb in the correct simple
tense.
1. Please do not (erase, erased, will erase) what I have written on the board.
2. They (dance, danced, will dance) for hours after the party was over.
3. Hong (wash, washed, will wash) his laundry after several weeks had passed.
4. Yesterday Mom (ask, asked, will ask) me about my plans for college.
5. I (bake, baked, will bake) several dozen cookies for tomorrow's bake sale.

Exercise 3
Correct the verb tense mistakes in the following paragraph.
Last summer, I walk around Walden Pond. Walden Pond is in Concord, Massachusetts. It is where the
philosopher Henry David Thoreau will live during the mid-nineteenth century. During his time there, he
wrote a book called Walden. Walden is a book of Thoreau's reflections on the natural environment. It will
be consider a classic in American literature. I did not know that Walden Pond is consider the birthplace of
the environmental movement. It was very relaxing there. I will listen to birds, frogs, and crickets, not to
mention the peaceful sound of the pond itself.
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To Be, To Do, and To Have
There are some irregular verbs in English that are formed in special ways. The most common of these are
the verbs to be, to have, and to do.

Table of Verb Forms of To Be, To Do, and To Have

Base Form Present Tense Form Past Tense Form Future Tense Form
be am/is/are was/were will be
do do/does did will do
have have/has had will have

Tip
Memorize the present tense forms of to be, to do, and to have. A song or rhythmic pattern will make them
easier to memorize.
Review these examples of to be, to do, and to have used in sentences.
Past — Present — Future
To Be
Yesterday I was angry. Today I am not angry. Tomorrow I will be angry.

To Do
I did my best yesterday. I do my best every day. Tomorrow I will do my best.

To Have
Yesterday I had ten dollars. Today I have ten dollars. Tomorrow I will have ten dollars.
Remember the following uses of to be, to have and to do: To Be
• I — am/was/will be
• you/we/they — are/were/will be
• he/she/it — is/was/will be
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To Have
• I/you/we/they — have/had/ will have
• he/ she/it — has/had/will have
To Do
• I/you/we/they — do/did/will do
• he/she/it — does/did/will do

Tip
Remember, if you have a compound subject like Marie and Jennifer, think of the subject as they to
determine the correct verb form.
• Maria and Luis (they) have a house on Bainbridge Island. Similarly, single names can be thought of as
he, she, or it.
• LeBron (he) has scored thirty points so far.

Exercise 4
On a separate sheet of paper, complete the following sentences by circling the correct form of the verbs
to be, to have, and to do in the three simple tenses.
1. Stefano always (do, does, will do) his taxes the day before they are due.
2. We (are, is, was) planning a surprise birthday party for my mother.
3. Turtles (have, had, has) the most beautiful patterns on their shells.
4. I always (do, did, will do) my homework before dinner, so I can eat in peace.
5. You (is, are, was) so much smarter than you think!
Perfect Verb Tenses
Up to this point, we have covered the three simple verb tenses—simple present, simple past, and simple
future. Now we will add three more tenses, which are called perfect tenses. They are present perfect, past
perfect, and future perfect. These are the three basic tenses of English. A past participle is often called the
-ed form of a verb because it is formed by adding -d or -ed to the base form of regular verbs. Past
participles can also end in -t or -en. Keep in mind, however, the past participle is also formed in various
other ways for irregular verbs. The past participle can be used to form the present perfect tense.
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Review the following basic formula for the present perfect tense:
has
Subject + or + past participle
have
I have helped
The present perfect tense has a connection with the past and the present.

Use the present perfect tense to describe a continuing situation and to describe an action that has just
happened.
• I have worked as a caretaker since June.
This sentence tells us that the subject has worked as a caretaker in the past and is still working as a
caretaker in the present.
• Dmitri has just received an award from the Dean of Students.
This sentence tells us that Dmitri has very recently received the award. The word just emphasizes that the
action happened very recently.
Study the following basic formula for the past perfect tense:
Subject + had or have + past participle
I had listened
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• The bus had left by the time Theo arrived at the station.
Notice that both actions occurred entirely in the past, but one action occurred before the other. At some
time in the past, Theo arrived (simple past tense) at the station, but at some time before that, the bus had
left (past perfect).
Look at the following basic formula for the future perfect tense:
Subject + will have + past participle
I will have graduated

The future perfect tense describes an action from the past in the future, as if the past event has already
occurred. Use the future perfect tense when you anticipate completing an event in the future, but you have
not completed it yet.
• You will have forgotten me after you move to London.
Notice that both actions occur in the future, but one action will occur before the other. At some time in the
future, the subject (you) will move (future tense) to London, and at some time after that, the subject will
have forgotten (future perfect tense) the speaker, me.
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Exercise 5
On a separate sheet of paper, complete the following sentences by using the correct perfect verb tense
for the verb in parentheses.
1. I plan to start a compost bin because I_(to want) one for a long time now.
2. My brother told me he_(to argue) with his friend about politics.
3. By the time we reach the mountain top the sun_(to set).
4. Beza_(to walk) several miles in the past three hours.
5. His mother_(to offer) to pay him to work in her office.
Progressive Verb Tenses
Progressive verb tenses describe a continuing or unfinished action, such as I am going, I was going, or I
will be going.
The present progressive tense describes an action or state of being that takes place in the present and that
continues to take place.
To make verbs in the present progressive tense, combine these two parts:
Present tense form of to be + -ing (present participle)
am/is/are help helping
You should use the present progressive tense to describe a planned activity, to describe an activity that is
recurring right now, and to describe an activity that is in progress, although not actually occurring at the
time of speaking:
• Preeti is starting school on Tuesday. This sentence describes a planned activity.
• Janetta is getting her teeth cleaned right now.
This sentence describes an activity that is occurring right now.
• I am studying ballet at school.
This sentence describes an activity that is in progress but not actually occurring at the time of speaking.
The past progressive tense describes an action or state of being that took place in the past and that
continues to take place.
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To make verbs in the past progressive tense, combine these two parts:
Past tense form of to be + -ing (present participle)
was/were helping
You should use the past progressive tense to describe a continuous action in the past, to describe a past
activity in progress while another activity occurred, or to describe two past activities in progress at the
same time:
• Elena and I were planning a vacation.
This sentence describes a continuous action in the past.
• I was helping a customer when I smelled delicious fried chicken.
This sentence describes a past activity in progress while another activity occurred.
• While I was finishing my homework, my wife was talking on the phone.
This sentence describes two past activities in progress at the same time.
The future progressive tense describes an action or state of being that will take place in the future and that
will continue to take place. The action will have started at that future moment, but it will not have finished
at that moment.
To make verbs in the future progressive tense, combine these parts:
Future tense form of + -ing (present participle)
to be
will be helping
Use the future progressive tense to describe an activity that will be in progress in the future:
• Samantha and I will be dancing in the school play next week.
• Tomorrow Anita will be reading two of her poems.
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Exercise 6
On a separate sheet of paper, revise the following sentences, written in simple tenses, using the
progressive tenses indicated in parentheses.
1. He prepared the food while I watched. (past progressive tense)
2. Yusuf Mohammed will speak at the conference. (future progressive)
3. Josie traveled to Egypt last July. (past progressive tense)
4. My foot aches, so I know it will rain. (present progressive tense)
5. Micah will talk a lot when I see him. (future progressive)
6. I yawn a lot because I feel tired. (present progressive tense)
Similar to the present perfect tense, the present perfect progressive tense is used to indicate an action that
was begun in the past and continues into the present. However, the present perfect progressive is used
when you want to stress that the action is ongoing.
To make verbs in the present perfect progressive tense, combine the following parts:
Present tense form of to have + been + -ing (present participle)
has or have been helping
• She has been talking for the last hour.
This sentence indicates that she started talking in the past and is continuing to talk in the present.
• I have been feeling tired lately.
This sentence indicates that I started feeling tired in the past, and I continue to feel tired in the present.
Instead of indicating time, as in the first sentence, the second sentence uses the adverb lately. You can
also use the adverb recently when using the present perfect progressive tense.
Similar to the past perfect tense, the past perfect progressive tense is used to indicate an action that was
begun in the past and continued until another time in the past. The past perfect progressive does not
continue into the present but stops at a designated moment in the past.
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To make verbs in the past perfect progressive tense, combine the following parts:
Past tense form of to have + been + -ing (present participle)
had been helping
• The employees had been talking until their boss arrived.
This sentence indicates that the employees were talking in the past and they stopped talking when their
boss arrived, which also happened in the past.
• I had been working all day.
This sentence implies that I was working in the past. The action does not continue into the future, and the
sentence implies that the subject stopped working for unstated reasons.
The future perfect progressive tense is rarely used. It is used to indicate an action that will begin in the
future and will continue until another time in the future.
To make verbs in the future perfect progressive tense, combine the following parts:
Future tense form of to have + been + -ing (present participle)
will have been helping
• By the end of the meeting, I will have been hearing about mortgages and taxes for eight hours.
This sentence indicates that in the future I will hear about mortgages and taxes for eight hours, but it has
not happened yet. It also indicates the action of hearing will continue until the end of the meeting,
something that is also in the future.
Maintaining Consistent Verb Tense
Consistent verb tense means the same verb tense is used throughout a sentence or a paragraph. As you
write and revise, it is important to use the same verb tense consistently and to avoid shifting from one
tense to another unless there is a good reason for the tense shift. In the following box, see whether you
notice the difference between a sentence with consistent tense and one with inconsistent tense.
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Tip
In some cases, clear communication will call for different tenses. Look at the following example:

If the time frame for each action or state is different, a tense shift is appropriate. Exercise 7
Edit the following paragraph by correcting the inconsistent verb tense. Copy the corrected paragraph
onto your own sheet of paper.
In the Middle Ages, most people lived in villages and work as agricultural laborers, or peasants. Every
village has a "lord," and the peasants worked on his land. Much of what they produce go to the lord and
his family. What little food was leftover goes to support the peasants' families. In return for their labor,
the lord offers them protection. A peasant's day usually began before sunrise and involves long hours of
backbreaking work, which includes plowing the land, planting seeds, and cutting crops for harvesting. The
working life of a peasant in the Middle Ages is usually demanding and exhausting.

Writers at Work
Read the following excerpt from an e-mail:
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The inconsistent tense in the e-mail will very likely distract the reader from its overall point. Most likely,
your coworkers will not correct your verb tenses or call attention to grammatical errors, but it is
important to keep in mind that errors such as these do have a subtle negative impact in how you present
yourself in public.

Key Takeaways
• Verb tenses tell the reader when the action takes place.
• Actions could be in the past, present, or future.
• There are some irregular verbs in English that are formed in special ways. The most common of these
irregular verbs are the verbs to be, to have, and to do.
• There are six main verb tenses in English: simple present, simple past, simple future, present perfect,
past perfect, and future perfect.
• It is important to maintain consistent verb tense in a text and insert time markers when you are
changing tenses.

Writing Application
Write about a lively event that is either remembered or imagined. Ask yourself the following three
questions: What happened during the event? What happened after the event? Looking back, what do you
think of the event now? Answer each question in a separate paragraph to keep the present, past, and
future tense verbs separate.
7.9 Modal Auxiliaries
Learning Objectives
1. Define and identify modal auxiliaries.
2. Learn how and when to use modal auxiliaries.
We all need to express our moods and emotions, both in writing and in our everyday life. We do this by
using modal auxiliaries.
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Modal Auxiliaries
Modal auxiliaries are a type of helping verb that are used only with a main verb to help express its mood.
The following is the basic formula for using a modal auxiliary:
Subject + modal auxiliary + main verb
James may call

There are ten main modal auxiliaries in English. Table of Modal Auxiliaries
Modal Use Modal Auxiliary + Main Verb
Auxiliary
can Expresses an ability or possibility I can lift this forty-pound box.
(ability)
We can embrace green sources of
energy. (possibility)
could Expresses an ability in the past; a present I could beat you at chess when we
possibility; a past or future permission were kids. (past ability)
We could bake a pie! (present
possibility)
Could we pick some flowers from
the garden? (future permission)
may Expresses uncertain future action; I may attend the concert.
permission; ask a yes-no question (uncertain future action)
You may begin the exam.
(permission)
May I attend the concert? (yes-no
questions)
might Expresses uncertain future action I might attend the concert
(uncertain future action—same as
may)
shall Expresses intended future action I shall go to the opera. (intended
future action)
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Modal Use Modal Auxiliary + Main Verb

Auxiliary
should Expresses obligation; ask if an obligation I should mail my RSVP. (obligation,
exists same as ought to)
Should I call my mother? (asking if
an obligation exists)
will Expresses intended future action; ask a I will get an A in this class.
favor; ask for information (intended future action)
Will you buy me some chocolate?
(favor)
Will you be finished soon?
(information)
would States a preference; request a choice I would like the steak, please.
politely; explain an action; introduce (preference)
habitual past actions
Would you like to have breakfast in
bed? (request a choice politely)
I would go with you if I didn't have
to babysit tonight. (explain an action)
He would write to me every week
when we were dating. (habitual past
action)
must Expresses obligation We must be on time for class.
ought to Expresses obligation I ought to mail my RSVP.
(obligation, same as may)
Use the following format to form a yes-no question with a modal auxiliary:
Modal auxiliary + subject + main verb
Should I drive?
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Be aware of these four common errors when using modal auxiliaries:
1. Using an infinitive instead of a base verb after a modal: Incorrect: I can to move this heavy table.
Correct: I can move this heavy table.
2. Using a gerund instead of an infinitive or a base verb after a modal: Incorrect: I could moving to the
United States.
Correct: I could move to the United States.
3. Using two modals in a row:
Incorrect: I should must renew my passport. Correct: I must renew my passport. Correct: I
should renew my passport.
4. Leaving out a modal: Incorrect: I renew my passport. Correct: I must renew my passport.

Exercise 1
Edit the following paragraph by correcting the common modal auxiliary errors.
I may to go to France on vacation next summer. I shall might visit the Palace of Versailles. I would to drive
around the countryside. I could imagining myself living there; however, I will not move to France because
my family should miss me very much.
Modals and Present Perfect Verbs
In the previous section, we defined present perfect verb tense as describing a continuing situation or
something that has just happened.
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Remember, when a sentence contains a modal auxiliary before the verb, the helping verb is always have.

Be aware of the following common errors when using modal auxiliaries in the present perfect tense:
1. Using had instead of have
Incorrect: Jamie would had attended the party, but he was sick. Correct: Jamie would have
attended the party, but he was sick.
2. Leaving out have
Incorrect: Jamie would attended the party, but he was sick. Correct: Jamie would have attended
the party, but he was sick.
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Exercise 2
On a separate sheet of paper, complete the following sentences by changing the given verb form to a
modal auxiliary in present perfect tense.
1. The man_(laugh).
2. The frogs_(croak).
3. My writing teacher_(smile).
4. The audience_(cheer) all night.
5. My best friend_(giggled).

Key Takeaways
• The basic formula for using a modal auxiliary is
subject + modal auxiliary + main verb
• There are ten main modal auxiliaries in English: can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would,
must, and ought to.
• The four common types of errors when using modals include the following: using an infinitive instead of
a base verb after a modal, using a gerund instead of an infinitive or a base verb after a modal, using two
modals in a row, and leaving out a modal.
• In the present perfect tense, when a sentence has a modal auxiliary before the verb, the helping verb is
always have.
• The two common errors when using modals in the present perfect tense include using had instead of
have and leaving out have.
7.10 Subject-Verb Agreement
Learning Objectives
1. Define subject-verb agreement.
2. Identify common errors in subject-verb agreement.
Subject-verb agreement is one of the most common errors that people make. Having a solid
understanding of this concept is critical when making a good impression, and it will help ensure that your
ideas are communicated clearly.
Agreement
Agreement in speech and in writing refers to the proper grammatical match between words and phrases.
Parts of sentences must agree, or correspond with other parts, in number, person, case, and gender.
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• Number. All parts must match in singular or plural forms.
• Person. All parts must match in first person (I), second person (you), or third person (he, she, it, they)
forms.
• Case. All parts must match in subjective (I, you, he, she, it, they, we), objective (me, her, him, them, us),
or possessive (my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, their, theirs, our, ours) forms.
• Gender. All parts must match in male or female forms.
Subject-verb agreement describes the proper match between subjects and verbs.
Because subjects and verbs are either singular or plural, the subject of a sentence and the verb of a
sentence must agree with each other in number. That is, a singular subject belongs with a singular verb
form, and a plural subject belongs with a plural verb form.

Regular Verbs and Agreement

Regular verbs follow a predictable pattern. For example, in the third person singular, regular verbs always
end in -s. Other forms of regular verbs do not end in -s. Study the following regular verb forms in the
present tense.
Singular Form Plural Form
First Person I live. We live.
Second Person You live. You live.
Third Person He/She/It lives. They live.
Add an -es to the third person singular form of regular verbs that end in -sh, -x, -ch, and -s. (I wish/He
wishes, I fix/She fixes, I watch/It watches, I kiss/He kisses.)
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In these sentences, the verb form stays the same for the first person singular and the first person plural.

In these sentences, the verb form stays the same for the second person singular and the second person
plural. In the singular form, the pronoun you refers to one person. In the plural form, the pronoun you
refers to a group of people, such as a team.

In this sentence, the subject is mother. Because the sentence only refers to one mother, the subject is
singular. If you replaced the word "mother" with a pronoun, it would be "she" which would take the third
person singular form. Therefore, the verb in this sentence must be in the third person singular form.

In this sentence, the subject is friends. Because this subject refers to more than one person, the subject is
plural. The verb in this sentence must be in the third person plural form.
Many singular subjects can be made plural by adding an -s. Most regular verbs in the present tense end
with an -s in the third person singular. This does not make the verbs plural.
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Exercise 1
On your own sheet of paper, write the correct verb form for each of the following sentences.
1. I (brush/brushes) my teeth twice a day.
2. You (wear/wears) the same shoes every time we go out.
3. He (kick/kicks) the soccer ball into the goal.
4. Juana (watch/watches) foreign films.
5. Karina (hide/hides) behind the door.
6. We (want/wants) to have dinner with you.
7. You (work/works) together to finish the project.
8. They (need/needs) to score another point to win the game.
9. It (eat/eats) four times a day.
10. David (fix/fixes) his own motorcycle.
Verbs: Be, Have, and Do
Not all verbs follow a predictable pattern. These verbs are called irregular verbs. Some of the most
common irregular verbs are be, have, and do. Learn the forms of these verbs in the present tense to avoid
errors in subject-verb agreement.
Be
Study the different forms of the verb to be in the present tense.
Singular Form Plural Form
First Person I am. We are.
Second Person You are. You are.
Third Person He/She/It is. They are.
Have
Study the different forms of the verb to have in the present tense.
Singular Form Plural Form
First Person I have. We have.
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Singular Form Plural Form

Second Person You have. You have.
Third Person He/She/It has. They have.
Do
Study the different forms of the verb to do in the present tense.
Singular Form Plural Form
First Person I do. We do.
Second Person You do. You do.
Third person He/She/It does. They do.

Exercise 2
Complete the following sentences by writing the correct present tense form of be, have, or do. Use your
own sheet of paper to complete this exercise.
1. I_sure that you will succeed.
2. They_front-row tickets to the show.
3. She_a great Shakira impersonation.
4. We_so excited to meet you in person!
5. She_a fever and a sore throat.
6. You_not know what you are talking about.
7. You_all going to pass this class.
8. He_not going to like that.
9. It_appear to be the right size.
10. They_ready to take this job seriously.
Errors in Subject-Verb Agreement
Errors in subject-verb agreement may occur when
• a sentence contains a compound subject;
• the subject of the sentence is separate from the verb;
• the subject of the sentence is an indefinite pronoun, such as anyone or everyone;
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• the subject of the sentence is a collective noun, such as team or organization;
• the subject appears after the verb.
Recognizing the sources of common errors in subject-verb agreement will help you avoid these errors in
your writing. This section covers the subject-verb agreement errors in more detail.
Compound Subjects
A compound subject is formed by two or more nouns and the coordinating conjunctions and, or, or nor. A
compound subject can be made of singular subjects, plural subjects, or a combination of singular and
plural subjects.
Compound subjects combined with and take a plural verb form.

Compound subjects combined with or and nor are treated separately. The verb must agree with the
subject that is nearest to the verb.
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Tip
If you can substitute the word they for the compound subject, then the sentence takes the third person
plural verb form.
Separation of Subjects and Verbs
As you read or write, you may come across a sentence that contains a phrase or clause that separates the
subject from the verb. Often, prepositional phrases or dependent clauses add more information to the
sentence and appear between the subject and the verb. However, the subject and the verb must still agree.

Tip
If you have trouble finding the subject and verb, cross out or ignore the phrases and clauses that begin
with prepositions or dependent words. The subject of a sentence will never be in a prepositional phrase or
dependent clause.
The following is an example of a subject and verb separated by a prepositional phrase:

The following is an example of a subject and verb separated by a dependent clause:

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Indefinite Pronouns
Indefinite pronouns refer to an unspecified person, thing, or number. When an indefinite pronoun serves
as the subject of a sentence, you will often use a singular verb form.
To determine whether to use a singular or plural verb with an indefinite pronoun, consider the noun that
the pronoun would refer to. If the noun is plural, then use a plural verb with the indefinite pronoun. View
the chart to see a list of common indefinite pronouns and the verb forms they agree with.
Indefinite Pronouns That Always Take Indefinite Pronouns That Can Take a
a Singular Verb Singular or Plural Verb
anybody, anyone, anything All
Each Any
everybody, everyone, everything None
Much Some
Many
nobody, no one, nothing
somebody, someone, something

The indefinite pronoun everybody takes a singular verb form because everybody refers to a group
performing the same action as a single unit.

The indefinite pronoun all takes a plural verb form because all refers to the plural noun people. Because
people is plural, all is plural.
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In this sentence, the indefinite pronoun all takes a singular verb form because all refers to the singular
noun cake. Because cake is singular, all is singular.
Collective Nouns
A collective noun is a noun that identifies more than one person, place, or thing and considers those
people, places, or things one singular unit. Because collective nouns are counted as one, they are singular
and require a singular verb. Some commonly used collective nouns are group, team, army, flock, family,
and class.

In this sentence, class is a collective noun. Although the class consists of many students, the class is
treated as a singular unit and requires a singular verb form.
The Subject Follows the Verb
You may encounter sentences in which the subject comes after the verb instead of before the verb. In
other words, the subject of the sentence may not appear where you expect it to appear. To ensure proper
subject-verb agreement, you must correctly identify the subject and the verb.
Here or There
In sentences that begin with here or there, the subject follows the verb.

If you have trouble identifying the subject and the verb in sentences that start with here or there; it may
help to reverse the order of the sentence so the subject comes first.
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Questions
When you ask questions, a question word (who, what, where, when, why, or how) appears first. The verb
and then the subject follow.

Tip
If you have trouble finding the subject and the verb in questions, try answering the question being asked.

Exercise 3
Correct the errors in subject-verb agreement in the following sentences. If there are no errors in subject-
verb agreement, write OK. Copy the corrected sentence or the word OK on your own sheet of notebook
paper.
1. My dog and cats chases each other all the time.
2. The books that are in my library is the best I have ever read.
3. Everyone are going to the concert except me.
4. My family are moving to California.
5. Here is the lake I told you about.
6. These is the newspapers I was supposed to deliver.
7. Which room is bigger?
8. When are the movie going to start?
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9. My sister and brother cleans up after themselves.
10. Some of the clothes is packed away in the attic.

Exercise 4
Correct the errors in subject-verb agreement in the following paragraph. Copy the paragraph on a piece
of notebook paper and make corrections.
Dear Hiring Manager,
I feels that I am the ideal candidate for the receptionist position at your company. I has three years of
experience as a receptionist in a company that is similar to yours. My phone skills and written
communication is excellent. These skills, and others that I have learned on the job, helps me understand
that every person in a company helps make the business a success. At my current job, the team always say
that I am very helpful. Everyone appreciate when I go the extra mile to get the job done right. My current
employer and coworkers feels that I am an asset to the team. I is efficient and organized. Is there any
other details about me that you would like to know? If so, please contact me. Here are my resume. You can
reach me by e-mail or phone. I looks forward to speaking with you in person.
Thanks,
VyNguyen
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Writing at Work
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handle your next project? Probably not! Mistakes in subject-verb agreement can cost a company business.
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Key Takeaways
• Parts of sentences must agree in number, person, case, and gender.
• A verb must always agree with its subject in number. A singular subject requires a singular verb; a plural
subject requires a plural verb.
• Irregular verbs do not follow a predictable pattern in their singular and plural forms. Common irregular
verbs are to be, to have, and to do.
• A compound subject is formed when two or more nouns are joined by the words and, or, or nor.
• In some sentences, the subject and verb may be separated by a phrase or clause, but the verb must still
agree with the subject.
• Indefinite pronouns, such as anyone, each, everyone, many, no one, and something, refer to unspecified
people or objects. Most indefinite pronouns are singular.
• A collective noun is a noun that identifies more than one person, place, or thing and treats those people,
places, or things one singular unit. Collective nouns require singular verbs.
• In sentences that begin with here and there, the subject follows the verb.
• In questions, the subject follows the verb.
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7.11 Preposition Use

Learning Objectives
1. Identify prepositions.
2. Learn how and when to use prepositions.
A preposition is a word that connects a noun or a pronoun to another word in a sentence. Most
prepositions such as above, below, and behind usually indicate a location in the physical world, but some
prepositions such as during, after, and until show location in time.
In, At, and On
The prepositions in, at, and on are used to indicate both location and time, but they are used in specific
ways. Review the tables below to learn when to use each one.
Prepositio Time Example Place Example
n
year in 1942 country in Zimbabwe
in
month in August state in California
season in the city in Chicago
summer
time of day (not in the
with night) afternoon
Prepositio Time Example Place Example
n
day on Monday surfaces on the table
on
date on May 23 streets on 124th Street
specific days/dates on Monday modes of on the bus
transportation
Preposition Time Example Place Example
time at five addresses at 1600 Pennsylvania
at o'clock Avenue
with night at night location at Rooney's Grill
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Exercise 1
Edit the following letter from a resident to her landlord by correcting errors with in, at, and on.
Dear Mrs. Salazar,
I am writing this letter to inform you that I will be vacating apartment 2A in 356 Maple Street at
Wednesday, June 30, 2010. I will be cleaning the apartment at the Monday before I leave. I will return the
keys to you on 5 p.m., sharp, at June 30. If you have any questions or specific instructions for me, please
contact me in my office. I have enjoyed living at Austin, Texas, but I want to explore other parts of the
country now.
Sincerely, Milani Davis
Prepositions after Verbs or Phrasal Verbs
Prepositions often follow verbs to create expressions with distinct meanings. These expressions are
sometimes called prepositional verbs. It is important to remember that these expressions cannot be
separated.

Table of Verbs and Prepositions

Verb + Meaning Example
Preposition
agree with to agree with something or someone My husband always agrees
with me.
apologize for to express regret for something, to say sorry I apologize for being late.
about something
apply for to ask for something formally I will apply for that job.
believe in to have a firm conviction in something; to I believe in educating the
believe in the existence of something world's women.
care about to think that someone or something is I care about the health of
important our oceans.
hear about to be told about something or someone I heard about the
teachers' strike.
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Verb + Meaning Example

Preposition
look after to watch or to protect someone or Will you look after my dog
something
while I am on vacation?
talk about to discuss something We will talk about the
importance of recycling.
speak to, with to talk to/with someone I will speak to his teacher
tomorrow.
wait for to await the arrival of someone or I will wait for my package to
something arrive.

Tip
It is a good idea to memorize these combinations of verbs plus prepositions. Write them down in a
notebook along with the definition and practice using them when you speak.

Exercise 2
On a separate sheet of paper, complete the following sentences by writing the correct preposition after
the verb.
1. Adomako does not_(apologize for, believe in) aliens or ghosts.
2. It is impolite to_(hear about, talk about) people when they are not here.
3. Manuel said he was going to_(believe in, apply for) the internship.
4. Jonas would not_(talk about, apologize for) eating the last piece of cake.
5. I_(care about, agree with) the environment very much.
Prepositions after Adjectives
Similar to prepositions after verbs, prepositions after adjectives create expressions with distinct meanings
unique to English. Remember, like prepositional verbs, these expressions also cannot be separated.
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Table of Adjectives and Prepositions

Adjective + Meaning Example
Preposition
angry at, to feel or show anger toward (or about) I am angry about the oil spill in
someone or something the ocean.
about
confused about to be unable to think with clarity about Shawn was confused about the
someone or something. concepts presented at the
meeting.
disappointed in, to feel dissatisfaction with someone or I was disappointed in my
with something husband because he voted for
that candidate.
dressed in to clothe the body He was dressed in a pin-striped
suit.
happy for to show happiness for someone or I was happy for my sister who
something graduated from college.
interested in giving attention to something, expressing I am interested in musical
interest theater.
jealous of to feel resentful or bitter toward someone I was jealous of her because she
or something (because of their status, always went on vacation.
possessions, or ability)
thankful for to express thanks for something I am thankful for my wonderful
friends.
tired of to be disgusted with, have a distaste for I was tired of driving for hours
without end.
worried about to express anxiety or worry about I am worried about my father's
something health.

Exercise 3
On a separate sheet of paper, complete the following sentences by writing the correct preposition after
the verb.
1. Meera was deeply_(interested in, thankful for) marine biology.
2. I was_(jealous of, disappointed in) the season finale of my favorite show.
3. Jordan won the race, and I am_(happy for, interested in) him.
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4. The lawyer was_(thankful for, confused about) the details of the case.
5. Chloe was_(dressed in, tired of) a comfortable blue tunic.

Tip
The following adjectives are always followed by the preposition at:
• Good
She is really good at chess.
• Excellent
Henry is excellent at drawing.
• Brilliant
Mariana is brilliant at playing the violin.

Key Takeaways
• The prepositions in, at, and on are used to indicate both location and time, but they are used in specific
ways.
• The preposition in is used when expressing the following: year, month, season, time of day (not with
night), country, state, and city.
• The preposition on is used to express day, date, and specific days or dates and surfaces, streets, and
transportation modes.
• The preposition at is used for expressions of time, with night, and with addresses and locations.
• Prepositions often follow verbs to create expressions with distinct meanings that are unique to English.
• Prepositions also follow adjectives to create expressions with distinct meanings that are unique to
English.

Writing Application
Write about a happy childhood memory using as many prepositions followed by verbs and adjectives as
you can. Use at least ten. When you are finished, exchange papers with a classmate and correct any
preposition errors you find.
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7.12 Overview of English Grammar: End-of-Chapter

Exercises
1. Each sentence contains an error in subject-verb agreement, irregular verb form, or consistent verb
tense. Identify the type of error. Then, on your own sheet of paper, rewrite the sentence correctly.
1. Maria and Thien meets me at the community center for cooking classes on Tuesdays.
2. John's ability to laugh at almost anything amaze me.
3. Samantha and I were walking near the lake when the large, colorful bird appears.
4. I builded my own telescope using materials I bought at the hardware store.
5. My mother freezed the remaining tomatoes from her garden so that she could use them during the
winter.
6. Jankiben asked the stranger sitting next to him for the time, and she says it was past midnight.
7. My mother and brother wears glasses, but my father and sister do not.
8. We held our noses as the skunk runs away.
9. Neither Sorana nor Ana are excited about the early morning swim meet.
10. My hands hurted at the thought of transcribing all those notes.
11. The police questioned the suspect for hours but she gives them no useful information.
12. Terry takes short weekend trips because her job as a therapist was very emotionally draining.
13. She criticize delicately, making sure not to hurt anyone's feelings.
14. Manisa winded the old clock and set it atop her nightstand.
15. Cherie losed four poker hands in a row before realizing that she was playing against professionals.
16. James and Juan describes their trip to the Amazon in vivid detail.
17. You should decides for yourself whether or not to reduce the amount of processed foods in your diet.
18. The oil rig exploded and spills millions of gallons of oil into the ocean.
19. The handsome vampire appeared out of nowhere and smiles at the smitten woman.
20. The batter swinged at the ball several times but never hit it.
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2. On a separate sheet of paper, create questions from the following sentences.
1. My daughter will have to think about her college options.
2. Otto is waiting in the car for his girlfriend.
3. The article talks about conserving energy.
4. We need to reduce our needs.
5. Rusha is always complaining about her work.
3. Underline the prepositional phrase in each of the following sentences.
1. Monica told us about her trip.
2. I hope we have sunshine throughout the summer.
3. The panther climbed up the tree.
4. The little boy was standing behind his mother's legs.
5. We stayed awake until dawn.
4. Place the following sets of adjectives in the correct order before the noun.
1. eyes: black, mesmerizing
2. jacket: vintage, orange, suede
3. pineapple: ripe, yellow, sweet
4. vacation: fun, skiing
5. movie: hilarious, independent
5. On a separate sheet of paper, rewrite the positive sentences as negative sentences. Be sure to keep the
sentences in the present tense.
1. Sometimes I work on Saturdays.
2. The garden attracts butterflies and bees.
3. He breathes loudly at night.
4. I chew on blades of grass in the summer time.
5. I communicate well with my husband.
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6. On a separate sheet of paper, rewrite the following paragraph by correcting the double negatives.
That morning it was so hot Forrest felt like he couldn't hardly breathe. Ain't nothing would get him out
the door into that scorching heat. Then he remembered his dog, Zeus, who started whining right then.
Zeus was whining and barking so much that Forrest didn't have no choice but to get off the couch and face
the day. That dog didn't do nothing but sniff around the bushes and try to stay in the shade while Forrest
was sweating in the sun holding the leash. He couldn't not wait for winter to come.
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Chapter 8: Punctuation And Capitalization

Suppose you are presenting a speech. If you speak too quickly, your audience will not be able to
understand what you are saying. It is important to stop and take a breath a few times as you read from
your notes. But how do you know where to pause, where to change your voice, and where to stop? The
answer is easy. You can use the punctuation marks you encounter as a guide for your pacing.
Punctuation marks provide visual clues to readers, telling them how they should read the sentence. Some
punctuation marks tell you that you are reading a list of items while other marks tell you that a sentence
contains two independent ideas. Punctuation marks tell you not only when a sentence ends but also what
kind of sentence you have read. This chapter covers different types of punctuation and the meanings they
convey.
8.1 Commas
Learning Objectives
1. Identify the uses of commas.
2. Correctly use commas in sentences.
One of the punctuation clues to reading you may encounter is the comma. The comma is a punctuation
mark that indicates a pause in a sentence or a separation of things in a list. Commas can be used in a
variety of ways. Look at some of the following sentences to see how you might use a comma when writing
a sentence.
• Introductory word(s): Personally, I think the practice is helpful.
• Lists: The barn, the tool shed, and the back porch were destroyed by the wind.
• Coordinating adjectives: He was tired, hungry, and late.
• Conjunctions in compound sentences: The bedroom door was closed, so the children knew their
mother was asleep.
• Interrupting words: I knew where it was hidden, of course, but I wanted them to find it themselves.
• Dates, addresses, greetings, and letters: The letter was postmarked December 8,
1945.
Commas after an Introductory Word(s) or Phrase(s)
You may notice a comma that appears near the beginning of the sentence, usually after a word or phrase.
This comma lets the reader know where the introductory word or phrase ends and the main sentence
begins.
Without spoiling the surprise, we need to tell her to save the date.
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In this sentence, without spoiling the surprise is an introductory phrase, while we need to tell her to save
the date is the main sentence. Notice how they are separated by a comma. When only an introductory
word appears in the sentence, a comma also follows the introductory word.

Ironically, she already had plans for that day. Exercise 1

Look for the introductory word or phrase(s). On your own sheet of paper, copy the sentence and add a
comma to correct the sentence.
1. Suddenly the dog ran into the house.
2. In the blink of an eye the kids were ready to go to the movies.
3. Confused he tried opening the box from the other end.
4. Every year we go camping in the woods.
5. Without a doubt green is my favorite color.
6. Hesitating she looked back at the directions before proceeding.
7. Fortunately the sleeping baby did not stir when the doorbell rang.
8. Believe it or not the criminal was able to rob the same bank three times.
Commas in a List of Items
When you want to list several nouns in a sentence, you separate each word with a comma. This allows the
reader to pause after each item and identify which words are included in the grouping. When you list
items in a sentence, put a comma after each noun, then add the word and before the last item. However,
you do not need to include a comma after the last item.
We'll need to get flour, tomatoes, and cheese at the store.
The pizza will be topped with olives, peppers, and pineapple chunks.
Commas and Coordinating Adjectives
You can use commas to list both adjectives and nouns. A string of adjectives that describe a noun are
called coordinating adjectives. These adjectives come before the noun they modify and are separated by
commas. One important thing to note, however, is that unlike listing nouns, the word and does not always
need to be before the last adjective.
It was a bright, windy, clear day.
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Our kite glowed red, yellow, and blue in the morning sunlight. Exercise 2
On your own sheet of paper, use what you have learned so far about comma use to add commas to the
following sentences.
1. Monday Tuesday and Wednesday are all booked with meetings.
2. It was a quiet uneventful unproductive day.
3. We'll need to prepare statements for the Trumps Kardasians and Clintons before their portfolio reviews
next week.
4. Donald Kim and Hillary finished their report last Tuesday.
5. With cold wet aching fingers he was able to secure the sails before the storm.
6. He wrote his name on the board in clear precise delicate letters.
Commas before Conjunctions in Compound Sentences (FANBOYS)
Commas are sometimes used to separate two independent clauses. The comma comes after the first
independent clause and is followed by a conjunction. We call those coordinating conjunctions "Fanboys"
which stands for for, and, nor, but, or, yet and so.
He missed class today, and he thinks he will be out tomorrow, too.
He says his fever is gone, but he is still very tired.

Exercise 3
On your own sheet of paper, create a compound sentence by combining the two independent clauses
with a comma and a coordinating conjunction.
1. The presentation was scheduled for Monday. The weather delayed the presentation for four days.
2. He wanted a snack before bedtime. He ate some fruit.
3. The patient is in the next room. I can hardly hear anything.
4. We could go camping for vacation. We could go to the beach for vacation.
5. I want to get a better job. I am taking courses at night.
6. I've got to get this paper done. I have class in ten minutes.
7. The weather was clear yesterday. We decided to go on a picnic.
8. I have never dealt with this client before. I know Leonardo has worked with them. Let's ask Leonardo
for his help.
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Commas before and after Interrupting Words
In conversations, you might interrupt your train of thought by giving more details about what you are
talking about. In a sentence, you might interrupt your train of thought with a word or phrase called
interrupting words. Interrupting words can come at the beginning or middle of a sentence. When the
interrupting words appear at the beginning of the sentence, a comma appears after the word or phrase.
If you can believe it, people once thought the sun and planets orbited around Earth.
Luckily, some people questioned that theory.
When interrupting words come in the middle of a sentence, they are separated from the rest of the
sentence by commas. You can determine where the commas should go by looking for the part of the
sentence that is not essential for the sentence to make sense.
An Italian astronomer, Galileo, proved that Earth orbited the sun.
We have known, for hundreds of years now, that the Earth and other planets exist in a solar system.

Exercise 4
On your own sheet of paper, copy the sentence and insert commas to separate the interrupting words
from the rest of the sentence.
1. I asked my neighbors the retired couple from Florida to bring in my mail.
2. Without a doubt his work has improved over the last few weeks.
3. Our professor Mr. Alamut drilled the lessons into our heads.
4. The meeting is at noon unfortunately which means I will be late for lunch.
5. We came in time for the last part of dinner but most importantly we came in time for dessert.
6. All of a sudden our network crashed and we lost our files.
7. Alex hand the wrench to me before the pipe comes loose again.
Commas in Dates, Addresses, and the Greetings and Closings of Letters
You also use commas when you write the date, such as in cover letters and e-mails. Commas are used
when you write the date, when you include an address, and when you greet someone.
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If you are writing out the full date, add a comma after the day and before the year. You do not need to add
a comma when you write the month and day or when you write the month and the year. If you need to
continue the sentence after you add a date that includes the day and year, add a comma after the end of
the date.
The letter is postmarked May 4, 2001.
Her birthday is May 5.
He visited the country in July 2009.
I registered for the conference on March 7, 2010, so we should get our tickets soon.
You also use commas when you include addresses and locations. When you include an address in a
sentence, be sure to place a comma after the street and after the city. Do not place a comma between the
state and the zip code. Like a date, if you need to continue the sentence after adding the address, simply
add a comma after the address.
We moved to 4542 Boxcutter Lane, Hope, Missouri 70832.
After moving to Boston, Massachusetts, Eric used public transportation to get to work.
Greetings are also separated by commas. When you write an e-mail or a letter, you add a comma after the
greeting word or the person's name. You also need to include a comma after the closing, which is the word
or phrase you put before your signature.
Hello,
I would like more information about your job posting. Thank you, Anita Al-Sayf
Dear Mrs. Al-Sayf,
Thank you for your letter. Please read the attached document for details. Sincerely,
Jack Fromont
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Exercise 5
On your own sheet of paper, use what you have learned about using commas to edit the following letter.
March 27 2010
Alexa Marche
14 Taylor Drive Apt. 6
New Castle Maine 90342
Dear Mr. Timmons
Thank you for agreeing to meet with me. I am available on Monday the fifth. I can stop by your office at
any time. Is your address still 7309 Marcourt Circle #501? Please get back to me at your earliest
convenience.
Thank you
Alexa

Exercise 6
On your own sheet of paper, use what you have learned about comma usage to edit the following
paragraphs.
1. My brother Nathaniel is a collector of many rare unusual things. He has collected lunch boxes limited
edition books and hatpins at various points of his life. His current collection of unusual bottles has over
fifty pieces. Usually he sells one collection before starting another.
2. Our meeting is scheduled for Thursday March 20. In that time we need to gather all our documents
together. Alice is in charge of the timetables and schedules. Tom is in charge of updating the guidelines. I
am in charge of the presentation. To prepare for this meeting please print out any e-mails faxes or
documents you have referred to when writing your sample.
3. It was a cool crisp autumn day when the group set out. They needed to cover several miles before they
made camp so they walked at a brisk pace. The leader of the group Garth kept checking his watch and
their GPS location. Isabelle Raoul and Maggie took turns carrying the equipment while Carrie took notes
about the wildlife they saw. As a
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result no one noticed the darkening sky until the first drops of rain splattered on their faces.
4. Please have your report complete and filed by April 15 2010. In your submission letter please include
your contact information the position you are applying for and two people we can contact as references.
We will not be available for consultation after April 10 but you may contact the office if you have any
questions. Thank you HR Department.
Commas to Introduce a Quote
You can use a comma to introduce a quote.
Mark Twain said it best, "When in doubt, tell the truth."
If a quote is longer than 40 words (or some say four lines), skip a line after the comma and indent the left
margin of the quote five spaces. Because longer quotations use line spacing and indentation to indicate a
quote, quotation marks are not necessary. For example:
My father always said that Mark Twain described people the best when he said,
There are basically two types of people. People who accomplish things, and people who claim to have
accomplished things. The first group is less crowded.

Tip
Long quotations, which are forty words or more, are called block quotations. Block quotations frequently
appear in longer essays and research papers.

Key Takeaways
• Punctuation marks provide visual cues to readers to tell them how to read a sentence. Punctuation
marks convey meaning.
• Commas indicate a pause or a list in a sentence.
• A comma should be used after an introductory word to separate this word from the main sentence.
• A comma comes after each noun in a list. The word and is added before the last noun, which is not
followed by a comma.
• A comma comes after every coordinating adjective except for the last adjective.
• Commas can be used to separate the two independent clauses in compound sentences as long as a
conjunction follows the comma.
• Commas are used to separate interrupting words from the rest of the sentence.
• When you write the date, you add a comma between the day and the year. You also add a comma after
the year if the sentence continues after the date.
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• When they are used in a sentence, addresses have commas after the street address, and the city. If a
sentence continues after the address, a comma comes after the zip code.
• When you write a letter, you use commas in your greeting at the beginning and in your closing at the end
of your letter.
• A comma can separate the speaker from the quotation as shown above.
• For a longer quotation, you can introduce it with a comma before the block quotation begins.
8.2 Semicolons
Learning Objectives
1. Identify the uses of semicolons.
2. Properly use semicolons in sentences.
Another punctuation mark that you will encounter is the semicolon (;). Like most punctuation marks, the
semicolon can be used in a variety of ways. The semicolon indicates a break in the flow of a sentence, but
functions differently than a period or a comma. When you encounter a semicolon while reading aloud,
this represents a good place to pause and take a breath.
Semicolons to Join Two Independent Clauses
Use a semicolon to combine two closely related independent clauses. Relying on a period to separate the
related clauses into two shorter sentences could lead to choppy writing. Using a comma would create an
awkward run-on sentence.
Correct: Be sure to wear clean, well-pressed clothes to the interview; appearances are important.
Choppy: Be sure to wear clean, well-pressed clothes to the interview. Appearances are important.
Incorrect: Be sure to wear clean, well-pressed clothes to the interview, appearances are important.
In this case, writing the independent clauses as two sentences separated by a period is correct. However,
using a semicolon to combine the clauses can make your writing more interesting by creating a variety of
sentence lengths and structures while preserving the flow of ideas.
Semicolons to Join Items in a List
You can also use a semicolon to join items in a list when the items in the list already require commas.
Semicolons help the reader distinguish between items in the list.
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Correct: The color combinations we can choose from are black, white, and grey; green, brown, and black;
or red, green, and brown.
Incorrect: The color combinations we can choose from are black, white, and grey, green, brown, and
black, or red, green, and brown.
By using semicolons in this sentence, the reader can easily distinguish between the three sets of colors.

Takeaways
Use semicolons to join two main clauses. Do not use semicolons with coordinating conjunctions
(Fanboys) such as and, or, and but.

Exercise 1
On your own sheet of paper, correct the following sentences by adding semicolons. If the sentence is
correct as it is, write OK.
1. I did not notice that you were in the office I was behind the front desk all day.
2. Do you want turkey, spinach, and cheese roast beef, lettuce, and cheese or ham, tomato, and cheese?
3. Please close the blinds there is a glare on the screen.
4. Unbelievably, no one was hurt in the accident.
5. I cannot decide if I want my room to be green, brown, and purple green, black, and brown or green,
brown, and dark red.
6. Let's go for a walk the air is so refreshing.

Key Takeaways
• Use a semicolon to join two independent clauses.
• Use a semicolon to separate items in a list when those items already require a comma.
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8.3 Colons
Learning Objectives
1. Identify the uses of colons.
2. Properly use colons in sentences.
The colon (:) is another punctuation mark used to indicate a full stop. Use a colon to introduce lists,
quotes, examples, and explanations. You can also use a colon after the greeting in business letters and
memos.
Dear Hiring Manager:
To: Human Resources
From: Deanna Dean
Colons to Introduce a List
Use a colon to introduce a list of items. Introduce the list with an independent clause.
The team will tour three states: New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland.
I have to take four classes this semester: Composition, Statistics, Ethics, and Italian.
Colons to Introduce Examples or Explanations
Use a colon to introduce an example or to further explain an idea presented in the first part of a sentence.
The first part of the sentence must always be an independent clause; that is, it must stand alone as a
complete thought with a subject and verb. Do not use a colon after phrases like such as or for example.
Correct: Our company offers many publishing services: writing, editing, and reviewing.
Incorrect: Our company offers many publishing services, such as: writing, editing, and reviewing.

Tip
Capitalize the first letter following a colon for a proper noun, the beginning of a quote, or the first letter of
another independent clause. Do NOT capitalize if the information following the colon is not a complete
sentence.
Proper noun: We visited three countries: Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador.
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Beginning of a quote: My mother loved this line from Hamlet: "To thine own self be
true."
Two independent clauses: There are drawbacks to modern technology: My brother's cell phone died
and he lost a lot of phone numbers.

Incorrect: The recipe is simple: Tomato, basil, and avocado. Exercise 1

On your own sheet of paper, correct the following sentences by adding semicolons or colons where
needed. If the sentence does not need a semicolon or colon, write OK.
1. Don't give up you never know what tomorrow brings.
2. Our records show that the patient was admitted on March 9, 2010 January 13, 2010 and November 16,
2009.
3. Allow me to introduce myself I am the greatest ice-carver in the world.
4. Where I come from there are three ways to get to the grocery store by car, by bus, and by foot.
5. Listen closely you will want to remember this speech.
6. I have lived in Sedona, Arizona Baltimore, Maryland and Knoxville, Tennessee.
7. The boss's message was clear Lateness would not be tolerated.
8. Next semester, we will read some more contemporary authors, such as Vonnegut, Miller,
9. My little sister said what we were all thinking "We should have stayed home."
10. Trust me I have done this before.

Key Takeaways
• Use a colon to introduce a list, quote, or example.
• Use a colon after a greeting in business letters and memos.
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8.4 Quotes
Learning Objectives
1. Identify the uses of quotes.
2. Correctly use quotes in sentences.
Quotation marks (" ") set off a group of words from the rest of the text. Use quotation marks to indicate
direct quotations of another person's words or to indicate a title. Quotation marks always appear in pairs.
Direct Quotations
A direct quotation is an exact account of what someone said or wrote. To include a direct quotation in
your writing, enclose the words in quotation marks. An indirect quotation is a restatement of what
someone said or wrote. An indirect quotation does not use the person's exact words. You do not need to
use quotation marks for indirect quotations.
Direct quotation: Carly said, "I'm not ever going back there again."
Indirect quotation: Carly said that she would never go back there.

Writers at Work
Most word processing software is designed to catch errors in grammar, spelling, and punctuation. While
this can be a useful tool, it is better to be well acquainted with the rules of punctuation than to leave the
thinking to the computer. Properly punctuated writing will convey your meaning clearly. Consider the
subtle shifts in meaning in the following sentences:
• The client said he thought our manuscript was garbage.
• The client said, "He thought our manuscript was garbage."
The first sentence reads as an indirect quote in which the client does not like the manuscript. However,
did he actually use the word "garbage"? (This would be alarming!) Or has the speaker paraphrased (and
exaggerated) the client's words?
The second sentence reads as a direct quote from the client, but who is "he" in this sentence? Is it a third
party?
Word processing software would not catch this because the sentences are not grammatically incorrect.
However, the meanings of the sentences are not the same. Understanding punctuation will help you write
what you mean, and in this case, could save a lot of confusion around the office!
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Punctuating Direct Quotations
Quotation marks show readers another person's exact words. Often, you will want to identify who is
speaking. You can do this at the beginning, middle, or end of the quote. Notice the use of commas and
capitalized words.
Beginning: Madison said, "Let's stop at the farmers market to buy some fresh vegetables for dinner."
Middle: "Let's stop at the farmers market," Madison said, "to buy some fresh vegetables for dinner."
End: "Let's stop at the farmers market to buy some fresh vegetables for dinner," Madison said.
Speaker not identified: "Let's stop at the farmers market to buy some fresh vegetables for dinner."
Always capitalize the first letter of a quote even if it is not the beginning of the sentence. When using
identifying words in the middle of the quote, the beginning of the second part of the quote does not need
to be capitalized.
Use commas between identifying words and quotes. Quotation marks must be placed after commas and
periods. Place quotation marks after question marks and exclamation points only if the question or
exclamation is part of the quoted text.
Question is part of quoted text: The new employee asked, "When is lunch?"
Question is not part of quoted text: Did you hear her say you were "the next Picasso"?
Exclamation is part of quoted text: My supervisor beamed, "Thanks for all of your hard work!"
Exclamation is not part of quoted text: He said I "single-handedly saved the company thousands of
dollars"!
Quotations within Quotations
Use single quotation marks (' ') to show a quotation within in a quotation.
Theresa said, "I wanted to take my dog to the festival, but the man at the gate said, 'No dogs allowed.'"
"When you say, 'I can't help it,' what exactly does that mean?" "The instructions say, 'Tighten the screws
one at a time.'"
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Titles
Use quotation marks around titles of short works of writing, such as essays, songs, poems, short stories,
and chapters in books. Usually, titles of longer works, such as books, magazines, albums, newspapers, and
novels, are italicized or underlined depending on whether typed or handwritten.
Short Work:
"Annabelle Lee" is one of my favorite romantic poems. Newspaper:
The New York Times has been in publication since 1851. The New York Times has been in publication
since 1851. Writers at Work
In many businesses, the difference between exact wording and a paraphrase is extremely important. For
legal purposes, or for the purposes of doing a job correctly, it can be important to know exactly what the
client, customer, or supervisor said. Sometimes, important details can be lost when instructions are
paraphrased. Use quotes to indicate exact words where needed, and let your readers know the source of
the quotation (client, customer, peer, etc.).

Exercise 1
Copy the following sentences onto your own sheet of paper, and correct them by adding quotation
marks where necessary. If the sentence does not need any quotation marks, write OK.
1. Yasmin said, I don't feel like cooking. Let's go out to eat.
2. Where should we go? said Russell.
3. Yasmin said it didn't matter to her.
4. I know, said Russell, let's go to the Two Roads Juice Bar.
5. Perfect! said Yasmin.
6. Did you know that the name of the Juice Bar is a reference to a poem? asked Russell.
7. I didn't! exclaimed Yasmin. Which poem?
8. The Road Not Taken, by Robert Frost Russell explained.
9. Oh! said Yasmin, Is that the one that starts with the line, Two roads diverged in a yellow wood?
10. That's the one said Russell.
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Key Takeaways
• Use quotation marks to enclose direct quotes and titles of short works.
• Use single quotation marks to enclose a quote within a quote.
• Do not use any quotation marks for indirect quotations.
8.5 Apostrophes
Learning Objectives
1. Identify the uses of apostrophes.
2. Correctly use apostrophes in sentences.
An apostrophe (') is a punctuation mark that is used with a noun to show possession or to indicate where a
letter has been left out to form a contraction.
Possession
An apostrophe and the letter s indicate who or what owns something. To show possession with a singular
noun, add apostrophe s ('s).
Jen's dance routine mesmerized everyone in the room.
The dog's leash is hanging on the hook beside the door.
Jess's sister is also coming to the party.
Notice that singular nouns that end in s still take the apostrophe s ('s) ending to show possession.
To show possession with a plural noun that ends in s, just add an apostrophe ('). If the plural noun does
not end in s, add an apostrophe and an s ('s).
Plural noun that ends in s: The drummers' sticks all moved in the same rhythm, like a machine.
Plural noun that does not end in s: The people's votes clearly showed that no one supported the
management decision.
Contractions
A contraction is a word that is formed by combining two words. In a contraction, an apostrophe shows
where one or more letters have been left out. Contractions are commonly used in informal writing but not
in formal writing.
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Page I do not like ice cream. I don't like ice cream.
Notice how the words do and not have been combined to form the contraction don't. The apostrophe
shows where the o in not has been left out.
We will see you later.
We'll see you later.
Look at the chart for some examples of commonly used contractions.
aren't are not
can't cannot
doesn't does not
don't do not
isn't is not
he'll he will
I'll I will
she'll she will
they'll they will
you'll you will
it's it is, it has
let's let us
she's she is, she has
there's there is, there has
who's who is, who has

Tip
Be careful not to confuse it's with its. It's is a contraction of the words it and is. Its is a possessive
pronoun.
It's cold and rainy outside. (It is cold and rainy outside.)
The cat was chasing its tail. (Shows that the tail belongs to the cat.)
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When in doubt, substitute the words it is in a sentence. If sentence still makes sense, use the contraction
it's.

Exercise 1
On your own sheet of paper, correct the following sentences by adding apostrophes. If the sentence is
correct as it is, write OK.
1. "What a beautiful child! She has her mothers eyes."
2. My brothers wife is one of my best friends.
3. I couldnt believe it when I found out that I got the job!
4. My supervisors informed me that I wouldnt be able to take the days off.
5. Each of the students responses were unique.
6. Wont you please join me for dinner tonight?

Key Takeaways
• Use apostrophes to show possession. Add 's to singular nouns and plural nouns that do not end in s. Add
' to plural nouns that end in s.
• Use apostrophes in contractions to show where a letter or letters have been left out.
8.6 Parentheses
Learning Objectives
1. Identify the uses of parentheses.
2. Properly use parentheses in sentences.
Parentheses ( ) are punctuation marks that are always used in pairs and contain material that is secondary
to the meaning of a sentence. Parentheses must never contain the subject or verb of a sentence. A
sentence should make sense if you delete any text within parentheses and the parentheses.
Attack of the Killer Tomatoes has to be the worst movie I have seen (so far).
Your spinach and garlic salad is one of the most delicious (and nutritious) foods I have ever tasted!
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Exercise 1
On your own sheet of paper, clarify the following sentences by adding parentheses. If the sentence is
clear as it is, write OK.
1. Are you going to the seminar this weekend I am?
2. I recommend that you try the sushi bar unless you don't like sushi.
3. I was able to solve the puzzle after taking a few moments to think about it.
4. Please complete the questionnaire at the end of this letter.
5. Has anyone besides me read the assignment?
6. Please be sure to circle not underline the correct answers.

Key Takeaways
• Parentheses enclose information that is secondary to the meaning of a sentence.
• Parentheses are always used in pairs.
8.7 Dashes
Learning Objectives
1. Identify the uses of dashes.
2. Correctly use dashes in sentences.
A dash (—) is a punctuation mark used to set off information in a sentence for emphasis. You can enclose
text between two dashes, or use just one dash. To create a dash in Microsoft Word, type two hyphens
together. Do not put a space between dashes and
text.
Arrive to the interview early—but not too early. Any of the suits—except for the purple one—should be fine
to wear. Exercise 1
On your own sheet of paper, clarify the following sentences by adding dashes. If the sentence is clear as
it is, write OK.
1. Which hairstyle do you prefer short or long?
2. I don't know I hadn't even thought about that.
3. Guess what I got the job!
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4. I will be happy to work over the weekend if I can have Monday off.
5. You have all the qualities that we are looking for in a candidate intelligence, dedication, and a strong
work ethic.

Key Takeaways
• Dashes indicate a pause in text.
• Dashes set off information in a sentence to show emphasis.
8.8 Hyphens
Learning Objectives
1. Identify the uses of hyphens.
2. Properly use hyphens in sentences.
A hyphen (-) looks similar to a dash but is not as long as a dash and used in different ways.
Hyphens between Two Adjectives That Work as One
Use a hyphen to combine words that work together to form a single description.
The fifty-five-year-old athlete was just as qualified for the marathon as his younger opponents.
My doctor recommended against taking the medication, since it can be habit-forming.
My study group focused on preparing for the mid-year review. Hyphens When a Word Breaks at the
End of a Line
Use a hyphen to divide a word across two lines of text. You may notice that most word-processing
programs will do this for you. If you have to manually insert a hyphen, place the hyphen between two
syllables. If you are unsure of where to place the hyphen, consult a dictionary or move the entire word to
the next line.
My supervisor was concerned that the team meeting would conflict with the client meeting.
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Key Takeaways
• Hyphens join words that work as one adjective.
• Hyphens break words across two lines of text.
8.9 Capitalization
Learning Objectives
1. Learn the basic rules of capitalization.
2. Identify common capitalization errors.
Text messages, casual e-mails, and instant messages often ignore the rules of capitalization. In fact, it can
seem unnecessary to capitalize in these contexts. In other, more formal forms of communication,
however, knowing the basic rules of capitalization and using capitalization correctly gives the reader the
impression that you choose your words carefully and care about the ideas you are conveying.
Capitalize the First Word of a Sentence

Capitalize Proper Nouns

Proper nouns—the names of specific people, places, objects, streets, buildings, events, or titles of
individuals—are always capitalized.
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Tip
Always capitalize nationalities, races, languages, and religions. For example, American, African American,
Hispanic, Catholic, Protestant, Jewish, Muslim, Hindu, Buddhist, and so on.
Do not capitalize nouns for people, places, things, streets, buildings, events, and titles when the noun is
used in general or common way. See the following chart for the difference between proper nouns and
common nouns.
Common Noun Proper Noun
museum The Art Institute of Chicago
theater Apollo Theater
country Malaysia
uncle Uncle Javier
doctor Dr. Jackson
book Pride and Prejudice
college Smith College
war the Spanish-American War
historical event The Renaissance

Exercise 1
On your own sheet of paper, write five proper nouns for each common noun that is listed. The first one
has been done for you.
Common noun: river
1. Nile River 2.
3. 4. 5.
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Common noun: musician
1. 2.
3. 4. 5.
Common noun: magazine
1. 2.
3. 4.
Capitalize Days of the Week, Months of the Year, and Holidays

Capitalize Titles

Tip
Computer-related words such as "Internet" and "World Wide Web" are usually capitalized; however, "e-
mail" and "online" are never capitalized.
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Exercise 2
Edit the following sentences by correcting the capitalization of the titles or names.
1. The prince of england enjoys playing polo.
2. "Ode to a nightingale" is a sad poem.
3. My sister loves to read magazines such as the new yorker.
4. The house on Mango street is an excellent novel written by Sandra Cisneros.
5. My physician, dr. alvarez, always makes me feel comfortable in her office.

Exercise 3
Edit the following paragraphs by correcting the capitalization.
david grann's the lost City of Z mimics the snake-like winding of the amazon River. The three distinct
Stories that are introduced are like twists in the River. First, the Author describes his own journey to the
amazon in the present day, which is contrasted by an account of percy fawcett's voyage in 1925 and a
depiction of James Lynch's expedition in 1996. Where does the river lead these explorers? the answer is
one that both the Author and the reader are hungry to discover.
The first lines of the preface pull the reader in immediately because we know the author, david grann, is
lost in the amazon. It is a compelling beginning not only because it's thrilling but also because this is a
true account of grann's experience. grann has dropped the reader smack in the middle of his conflict by
admitting the recklessness of his decision to come to this place. the suspense is further perpetuated by his
unnerving observation that he always considered himself A Neutral Witness, never getting personally
involved in his stories, a notion that is swiftly contradicted in the opening pages, as the reader can clearly
perceive that he is in a dire predicament—and frighteningly involved.

Writers at Work
Did you know that, if you use all capital letters to convey a message, the capital letters come across like
shouting? In addition, all capital letters are actually more difficult to read and may annoy the reader. To
avoid "shouting" at or annoying your reader, follow the rules of capitalization and find other ways to
emphasize your point.
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Key Takeaways
• Learning and applying the basic rules of capitalization is a fundamental aspect of good writing.
• Identifying and correcting errors in capitalization is an important writing skill.

Writing Application
Write a one-page autobiography. Make sure to identify people, places, and dates and use capitalization
correctly.
8.10 End-of-Chapter Exercises
Learning Objectives
1. Use the skills you have learned in this chapter.
2. Work collaboratively with other students.
Punctuation Exercises
1. Each sentence contains a punctuation error. On your own sheet of paper, correct each sentence by
adding the correct punctuation. The headings will let you know which type of punctuation mistakes to
look for. If the sentence does not need corrections, write OK.
Commas
1. The wedding will be July 13 2012.
2. The date by the way is the anniversary of the day that they met.
3. The groom the bride and their parents are all planning the event.
4. Actually all of their friends and relatives are involved in the planning.
5. The bride is a baker so she will be making the wedding cake herself.
6. The photographer the caterer and the musician will all be friends.
Semicolons
7. Some people spend a lot of money hiring people for wedding services they are lucky to have such
talented friends.
8. The flowers will be either roses, daisies, orchids, or tulips it will depend on which flowers are in season.
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Colons
9. There will be three colors for the wedding: white, black, and gold.
10. They've finally narrowed down the dinner choices salmon, steak, and a vegan stew.
11. Their wedding invitations contained the following quote from the Roman poet Ovid If you want to be
loved, be lovable.
Quotes
12. The invitations said that the wedding would be "outdoor casual."
13. "What exactly does 'outdoor casual' mean?" I asked the bride.
14. She told me to dress comfortably and wear shoes that do not sink into the ground.
Apostrophes
15. On the day of the wedding, were going to rent a limo.
16. My brothers wife will make the arrangements.
17. Shes a great party organizer.
Parentheses
18. On the day of the wedding, the bride looked more beautiful than ever and I've known her for fifteen
years.
19. All the details were perfect in my opinion.
Dashes
20. Everyone danced at the wedding except my mother.
21. It was to be expected she just had hip surgery.
Hyphens
22. The groom danced with his new mother in law.
23. It was a spectacular, fun filled day for everyone.
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2. Each sentence contains a punctuation error. On your own sheet of paper, correct each sentence by
adding commas, semicolons, colons, apostrophes, parentheses, hyphens, and dashes as needed.
1. My mothers garden is full of beautiful flowers.
2. She has carefully planted several species of roses peonies and irises.
3. She is especially proud of her thirty year old Japanese maple tree.
4. I am especially proud of the sunflowers I planted them!
5. You should see the birds that are attracted to the garden hummingbirds, finches, robins, and sparrows.
6. I like to watch the hummingbirds they are my favorite.
7. We spend a lot of time in the garden planting weeding and just enjoying the view.
8. Each flower has its own personality some seem shy and others seem bold.
9. Arent gardens wonderful?
10. You should come visit sometime Do you like to garden?
3. The following paragraph contains errors in punctuation. On your own sheet of paper, correct the
paragraph by adding commas, semicolons, colons, apostrophes, parentheses, hyphens, and dashes as
needed. There may be more than one way to correct the paragraph.
May 18 2011
Dear Hiring Manager
Allow me to introduce myself in my previous position I was known as the King of Sales. I hope to earn the
same title within your company. My name is Frances Fortune. I have thirteen years experience in
corporate sales and account management. I have been the top rated seller for two years in a row in my
previous position. Clients recognize me as dependable honest and resourceful. I have a strong work ethic
and great interpersonal skills. I excel at goal setting and time management. However you don't have to
take my word for it I will be happy to provide personal and professional references upon request. Youre
welcome to contact my previous employer to inquire about my work performance. I look forward to
speaking with you in person in the near future.
Sincerely Frances Fortune
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4. Read the following paragraph. Edit by adding apostrophes, parentheses, dashes, and hyphens where
needed. There may be more than one correct way to edit some sentences. Consider how the punctuation
you choose affects the meaning of the sentence.
I was a little nervous about the interview it was my first in years. I had to borrow my roommates suit, but
it fit me well. A few days ago, I started to research the companys history and mission. I felt like I was well
qualified for the job. When I arrived, I shook hands with the interviewer she had a strong grip! It nearly
caught me off guard, but I did my best to smile and relax. I was a little distracted by all the books in the
womans office she must have had a hundred books in that tiny room. However, I think my responses to
her questions were good. Ill send her an e-mail to thank her for her time. Hopefully shell call me soon
about the position.
Capitalization Exercises
1. Read the following paragraph. Edit by fixing the capitalization where needed.
Life topics excite me to write about. life has been very good to me, So I have plenty of wonderful
experiences. There are plenty of Things that i can't live without. The most important would be love. My
mom always tells me that Love is life. The Bible also speaks about three main thing we need in life, and
The most important out of all three is Love. Love is Everything in my opinion. Love is very important to
me because It makes me happy.
2. Each sentence contains a capitalization error. There may be more than one. Correct each sentence by
fixing as needed.
1) Marc came to the united states from Uganda.
2) She has carefully planted several species of flowers from japan.
3) I am especially proud of the Sunflowers I planted.
4) This summer, Elizabeth is travelling to Montreal, quebec, canada.
5) I like to eat ethnic food such as ethiopian.
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3. Correct the capitalization errors in the following fictional story. Copy the corrected paragraph onto
your own sheet of paper.
lance worthington signed a Recording Contract with Capitol records on june 15, 2007. Despite selling two
million copies of his Debut Album, nothing to lose, lance lost quite a bit as his tax returns from the irs
revealed. lance did not think it was fair that the Record Company kept so much of his earnings, so he
decided to hire robert bergman, a prominent music Attorney with a Shark-like reputation. bergman
represented lance all the way to the supreme court, where lance won the case against capitol records.
Lance worthington was instrumental in changing intellectual property rights and long standing Record
Company practices. All artists and musicians can thank him for his brave stance against record
companies. Lance subsequently formed his own independent record label called worthy records. worthy is
now a successful Label based out of chicago, illinois, and its Artists have appeared on well known shows
such as The tonight show and Saturday night live. Lance worthington is a model for success in the do-it-
yourself World that has become the Music Industry.
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Part III: All About Writing -Samples, Topics, And Rubrics

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Chapter 9: Good Writing - Models And Samples

"However great...natural talent may be, the art of writing cannot be learned all at once." Jean - Jacques
Rousseau "Read, read, read...Just like a carpenter who works as an apprentice and studies the
master." William Faulkner "You only learn to be a better writer by actually writing."
Doris Lessing
9.1 Qualities of Good Writing
One common concern is to simply address the question, what is good writing? As we progress through our
study of written communication, we'll try to answer it. But recognize that while the question may be
simple, the answer is complex. Writer Edward P. Bailey1 [1] offers several key points to remember.
Good college writing:
• follows certain academic rules,
• is easy to read and is engaging,
• attracts the reader.
Let's examine these qualities in more depth.
Bailey's first point is one that generates a fair amount of debate. What are the rules? Do "the rules"
depend on audience expectations or industry standards, what your English teacher taught you, or are they
reflected in the amazing writing of authors you might point to as positive examples? The answer is "all of
the above," with a point of clarification. You may find it necessary to balance audience expectations with
particular standards for a certain kind of paper and may need to find a balance or compromise. Bailey
points to common sense as one basic criterion of good writing, but common sense is a product of
experience. When searching for balance, reader understanding is the deciding factor. The correct use of a
semicolon may not be what is needed to make a sentence work. Your reading audience should carry extra
attention in everything you write because, without them, you won't have many more writing assignments.
When we say that good writing follows the rules, we don't mean that a writer cannot be creative. Just as
an art student needs to know how to draw a scene in correct perspective before he can "break the rules" by
"bending" perspective, so a writer needs to know the
1
Bailey, E. (2008). Writing and speaking. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
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rules of language. Being well versed in how to use words correctly, form sentences with proper grammar,
and build logical paragraphs are skills the writer can use no matter what the assignment. Even though
some academic settings may call for conservative writing, there are other areas where creativity is not only
allowed but mandated. By following the rules of language and correct writing, a writer can express
creative ideas in a form that comes through clearly and promotes understanding.
Similarly, writing that is easy to read is not the same as "dumbed down" or simplistic writing. What is easy
to read? For a young audience, you may need to use straightforward, simple terms, but to ignore their use
of the language is to create an artificial and unnecessary barrier. An example referring to Miley Cyrus may
work with one reading audience and fall flat with another.
The truly excellent writer is one who can explain complex ideas in a way that the reader can understand.
Sometimes ease of reading can come from the writer's choice of a brilliant illustrative example to get a
point across. In other situations, it can be the writer's incorporation of definitions into the text so that the
meaning of unfamiliar words is clear. It may also be a matter of choosing dynamic, specific verbs that
make it clear what is happening and who is carrying out the action.
Bailey's third point concerns the interest of the reader. Will they want to read it? This question should
guide much of what you write. We increasingly gain information from our environment through visual,
auditory, and multimedia channels, from YouTube to streaming audio, and to watching the news online.
Some argue that this has led to a decreased attention span for reading, meaning that writers need to
appeal to readers with short, punchy sentences and catchy phrases. Your audience, --your college peers as
well as your college teachers, -- will be hoping to see more than just catchy phrases and short sentences!
Perhaps the most universally useful strategy in capturing your reader's attention is to state how your
writing can meet the reader's needs. If your paper provides information to answer a question, solve a
problem, argue a point, contrast two opposing views, you may want to state this in the beginning. By
opening with a "what's in it for me" strategy, you give your audience a reason to be interested in what
you've written.
More Qualities of Good Writing
To the above list from Bailey, let's add some additional qualities that define good writing.
Good writing:
• meets the reader's expectations,
• is clear and concise,
• is efficient and effective.
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To meet the reader's expectations, the writer needs to understand who the intended reader is. In some
situations, you are writing just to one person: a classmate or your English professor! If you know the
person well, it may be as easy for you to write to him or her as it is to write a note to your parent or
roommate. If you don't know the person, you can at least make some reasonable assumptions about his or
her expectations.
In other situations, you may be writing a paper to be read by the whole class. How can you anticipate their
expectations and tailor your writing accordingly? Naturally you want to learn as much as you can about
your likely audience. How much you can learn and what kinds of information will vary with the situation.
Beyond learning about your audience, your clear understanding of the writing assignment and its purpose
will help you to meet reader expectations.
Our addition of the fifth point concerning clear and concise writing reflects the increasing tendency in
all kinds of writing to eliminate error. Errors can include those associated with production, from writing
to editing, and reader response. Your twin goals of clear and concise writing point to central goals across
communication: honesty and authenticity. This involves our goal of accurately communicating all the
intended information with a minimum of signal or message breakdown or misinterpretation.
This leads our discussion to efficiency. There are only twenty-four hours in a day and we are
increasingly asked to do more with less, with shorter deadlines almost guaranteed. As a writer, how do
you meet ever-increasing expectations? Each writing assignment requires a clear understanding of the
goals and desired results, and when either of these two aspects is unclear, the efficiency of your writing
can be compromised. Rewrites require time, but that is part of the writing process.
Our sixth point reinforces this idea with an emphasis on effectiveness. What is effective writing? It is
writing that succeeds in accomplishing its purpose. Understanding the purpose, goals, and desired results
of your writing assignment will help you achieve this success. If you meet both goals, your writing is
approaching effectiveness. Here, effectiveness is qualified with the word "approaching" to point out that
writing is both a process and a product, and your writing will continually require effort and
attention to revision and improvement.

Key Takeaway
Good writing is characterized by correctness, ease of reading, and attractiveness; it also meets reader
expectations and is clear, concise, efficient, and effective.
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9.2 Samples of Good Paragraph Writing

You may find some minor errors in these sample paragraphs, but they were exactly as the student wrote
them.
Sample Introductory Paragraph
A happy family is a beautiful dream with everybody in the world. What is a happy family? In my opinion,
my family is a happy family because we usually spend a lot of time for together activities on special day
such as my mother birthday or Lunar New Years. There are two activities that are special in my family on
Lunar New Years such as cooking traditional cakes and decor my house. Credit: My Dinh (Vietnam)
Sample Concluding Paragraph
In conclusion, everyone has different way to remove stress. Everyone should find the best way, and the
way that make him/her more comfortable to remove stress and to be relax. Some people do not try to
remove stress, and they just keep it inside them. These people are more possible to have high blood
pressure, so everyone should find a way to remove stress and never keep it inside them. Credit: Faisal
Alduwaik (Palestine)
Sample Paragraph/Composition #1
I came to the United States when I was nice at that time everthing was new to me. One of the things that
surpised me was football. It took me a few weeks to learn it on that time I was ten years old. I do not
understand why they hit each other in football until my Uncle told me how they play. I was even more
surprised when I started playing for my high school and middle school. I remember my first game it was
hard for me because I started making mistakes a lot. After half-time, my offense coach told me if I make
one more mistake, he will put me out of the same. After that I start doing ok in ever game. Since 2011, I
started playing very good until my back and shoulder gotten an injured in my 11 th grade. I always
remember my football injured, and I ask myself what happened and what did I do wrong? Now I am
testing myself so I can start playing football. The one thing that surprised me in the United States was
football. Credit: Robel Aberra (Ethiopia)
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Sample Paragraph/Composition #2
I lived in Vietnam for 14 years with my family before I came to the United States. After five years, I still
remember my first feeling when I arrived in the U.S. A lot of things surprised me like cars and American's
lifestyle. First, the roads in the United States are bigger and cleaner than Vietnam. It was really weird to
me because trash is everywhere in Vietnam. It can be a bottle, plastic bag, or anything. All American are
obeying the rules while they drive; in addition, there are less car accidents on the roads. On the other
hand, especially in Vietnam, every minute will have at least one person die because of the car accident. As
a result, driving in the United States is safer than driving in Vietnam. Next, the second thing that
surprised me is American's greeting. They are doing handshakes, hugs, and kisses to others when they
meet, or they even just smile with a stranger. I felt happy, welcome, and I smile to them because I did not
know what to do. Finally, all of these things above suprised me when I arrived in the U.S.
Credit: Huong Dang (Vietnam)
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9.3 Samples of Good Essay Writing

You may find some minor errors in these sample essays, but they were exactly as the student wrote them.
Sample Essay #1
I have a small and happy family. Everyone in the house loves each other. But I know that inside the heart
of each family member, there are small broken pieces. About ten years ago, my mom and my dad
divorced. Everyone had a hard time especially my mom. It was a big change that my family has gone
through.
Before they divorced, I thought my family was the happiest in the world. Every day, my dad took me to
school. He gave me a big hug with his lovely eyes and a big smile. I loved him so much. My brother and my
sister were both older than me so they took care of everything of mine. They helped me wash my clothes,
dishes and cleaned up my room. I was the only one who just sat down with a cup cake in my hand and
enjoyed watching cartoons. My mom would do everything else in the house. She was not going to work,
but she was always busy with all the house work. I felt like twenty four hours a day is not enough for her to
do all that work. My house was not too big, but it was full of laughing and loving every day. I would never
have thought my parents decided to divorce.
After they divorced, my dad got married with a new girl and moved far away from us. He left my mom
who did not have any job and three children who were still in school. I could not believe my house was like
a hell. Every day, my mom moved from place to place to work. Her job was to clean up the house for old
people for a small amount of money. My brother and sister now had to find a part time job to help my
mom. They did not have time for me anymore, so I had to take care of myself and even the house too.
Many things left over my house when my dad left us were bills, tears and sadness.
My family lived like that for a few year. Finally, my mom found a job at a small company and has good
money. My brother and sister all graduated and have jobs. My small family now has come back with
laughter and love that I never thought it would be again. I am so proud of my mom who always stands by
her kids even when she was broke and lost. She never left us alone. (420 words)
Credit: Hanh Nguyen (Vietnam)
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Sample Essay #2

Credit: Jie Gao (China)

Page 290
Sample Essay #3
There are so many people in this world and we each have many different characteristics. Some people may
be negative. Others may be very energetic. A persons character is very important to become successful. In
my opinion, the most important characteristics to become successful are positivity, loving, and goal
oriented.
To begin with, having a positive character can help you in your road to success. For example, Most people
know that when a person is trying to become successful, there will be many challenges. During that time,
having a positive character is very important because if you decide to state negative statements towards
the challenge your bringing yourself down. One day I was in baseball practice, and I was getting ready for
a game. I accidently stepped on a ball, and hurt my ankle. Although I hurt my ankle, I remained positive,
wrapped my ankle, and continued to practice for the game. As a result, my team and I won the game.
Another characteristic that's important to becoming successful is loving. When I work, I show people love
by encouraging them and giving them a helping hand. Since I do these actions, people always want to
repay me back in some way. For example, I needed support for my mission trip to Thailand. When I asked
my co-workers for support, they supported me. This shows how when you love, you set yourself up for
success.
People who have a goal oriented characteristic become very successful. My friend is a track star, and he is
trying to prepare himself for the olympics. Therefore, he made it to the olympic trails and won one of the
races. Because my friend was so goal oriented, he won the race.
In conclusion, It is very important to have positive, loving, and goal oriented characteristics to become
successful. (303 words)
Credit: Gregory Hernandez (Dominican Republic)
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Sample Essay #4
Credit: Negar Dadgostar (Iran)
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Sample Essay #5
When in Rome
Every country has a unique culture. Each individual is proud of distinct beauties of his or her culture. We
want to preserve those features and introduce them to friends all over the world. However, behavior
norms differ from region to region. Behavior patterns that are standard in one country may not be
standard in another country. In certain instances, it can be unacceptable. As an international student, I
sometimes encounter this situation. To avoid awkward moments, I bear in my mind the useful expression:
"When in Rome, do as the Romans do." From my understanding, the saying means when in foreign
country, we should learn to adapt to coincide with the native population.
I was born and grew up in Vietnam. Like other children, I was taught several common codes of behaviors:
to greet older people respectfully by bowing, to believe that the elderly and teachers were always right,
and to eat with chopsticks. Nevertheless, things are different in the U.S. I don't need to bow to show
respect. I simply say "hello, how are you?" with a smile. One difference that I found to my liking is the
ability to freely ask questions and carry on a discussion with the elderly and professors. On the other
hand, a challenging task has been to replace the chopsticks with silverware and learn how to use forks and
spoons properly.
There are not only differences in behavior but also conflicts in body language. For example, the gesture to
call a friend over to you in Vietnam is the same as calling a dog over in the U.S and vice versa. A sign of
friendliness in Vietnamese is interpreted as insulting here. Another instance is, in my country, people do
not have the habit of holding the door open for others whereas it is considered basic courtesy here. I,
along with my international friends in ESL classes experienced cultural shock for the first few months
here because of adjusting to these cultural norms.
Listed above are a small list if examples of contrasting differences among cultures, but the tip of the
iceberg. Still, cultural shock is an issue that can be avoided if we are well prepared. Although we all want
to be sociable civilized, the standards of behavior and good manners vary country from country. It is
important for an individual to broaden their knowledge of diverse cultures and be willing to adjust to fall
into line with the native culture. The expression "When in Rome, do as the Romans do," or "nhap gia tuy
tuc" in Vietnamese is a reminder for to act accordingly. (436 words)
Credit: Tuyet Nguyen (Vietnam)
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Sample Essay #6
Everyone has a dream. Many people have dreams that they think one day it will come true. On the other
hand, some people think it will just stay dreams. In most cases our dreams one day it will come true if we
work hard and do our best to make it happen. In the United States many people work hard for the
American Dream. Everyone has his own American Dream. The American dream for some people is to
have your own home. However, the American dream for me is to finish my education, open my own
business and buy a home for my family.
First, finishing my education is the most important dream for me. Education is my American dream
because after finishing my education my life will become much easier. For example, I am in college and I
do not have a job that rains money on me. For that reason, I have to work hard to get my degree and find a
job that can make my life easier. However, finishing my education is not the only dream I have.
Second, opening my own business is my American dream too. By owning a business, I do not have to be
stress every few years to find a better job. Also, I do not have to take orders from anyone because I will be
the boss. Furthermore, I do not have to ask anyone for a day off. For example, If I want a vacation from
the job, I do not have to ask anyone for it. However, finishing my education and having my own business
are not my only American Dream.
Third, buying a home for my family is not my dream only, it is my family's dream too. My family face a
stress every month to pay our home morgage. Paying off the mortgage on my family's home will take off
the stress from them. Also, they will not have to be worried about the monthly payment. This is not my
family's dream only, it is the dream of most Americans.
In conclusion, finishing my education is my most important American dream. Also, opening my own
business will make my life easier. Furthermore, buying a home for my family will take off the stress from
their life. (380 words)
Credit: Rami Abusaada (Palestine)
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Sample Essay #7
"Pay attention! Smallest mistake could ruin your whole career." My grandfather said this in front of his
children on his 72nd birthday. I was there with my father, and I was only six years old at that time.
However, I still remember it because when words are spoken out from a person who has lived 72 years,
these words will be meaningful. Therefore, I'm still thinking about them everyday, and I not only just
think about my career, but I also think about my life, and about things that happened and changed my
whole life. The latest thing that changed my life in a positive way is about the house I am living in now and
about Mrs. Lee who is the owner of the house.
I'm an international student from Vietnam. The day I came here, I knew it would be hard for me because I
didn't have any relative or friend or person that I knew in this country. Therefore, nobody helped me to
find shelter, and I didn't know anyone to call for help. At that time, I was panicked, but I calmed myself
and asked anybody I saw at the airport when I arrived for help, and a nice lady gave me Mrs. Lee's phone
number. I was so happy, but I did not have a phone to call her. I was panicked again because a lot of
questions appeared in my head at that moment such as "What should I do now?" and How can I contact
her?" Then an idea flashed in my head and showed me how to solve that problem. Because of that idea, I
met Mrs. Lee, and she changed my life forever.
The idea that flashed in my head that day was borrowing the nice lady's phone to call Mrs. Lee, and I did
that. I still remember that moment when she picked up the phone because her voice sounded like my
grandma's voice, and she is Vietnamese too. She said, "I will let you stay in my house, but it's not free, and
if you don't be nice, I will kick you out!" I was so happy, and I did not care much about the cost. I only
needed a place to live, and she gave it to me. Now, I am still living at her house, but I don't have to pay
Mrs. Lee money anymore. I just need to pay my bills and food, and she treats me like her son, and I treat
her like the way I treat my mother. It's a long story. However, this story changed my life from a panicked
young boy without shelter to the person I have become.
In conclusion, good things happen to us all the time, and the good things that Mrs. Lee gave me changed
my life forever. I will never be able to thank her enough. (480 words)
Credit: Khoa Nguyen (Vietnam)
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Sample Essay #8
Arthur: That was his name. He was a light-skinned black African American man. He was so sweet, and a
kind hearted person. Arthur Scott was a perfect man whom I met when I came to America. Meeting him is
one of the good things that has happened to me because of the following reasons: he boosted my self-
confidence, and also he is a great source of inspiration to me.
To begin with, I was a shy and a nervous person when I first came to America in 2012. I was easily
intimidated by people before I met Arthur. He helped me build my self-confidence and my self-esteem. He
made me understand how indifferent humans are; that is, though we might come from different countries
with different cultures, at the end of the day, we are still all the same. Also, he made me understand that I
am smarter than most people born and raised in American, and being born an American is not so
extraordinary. I got to build my confidence in talking to Americans without having to feel that they would
laugh at me because of my accent, and that has had a positive impact on me. Now I have confidence
within myself and believe that nobody is totally different from me, and I should not get intimidated.
Moreover, when I started school, I did not know how to write essays, and I was scared to take a math class
because I felt it was too difficult. Arthur, the motivator and the inspiration, told me to believe in myself.
He told me I can do anything I set my mind to do, and he make me have "Yes, I can" as my motto in times
of difficulties. He always told me that I was a good writer and a storyteller. Anytime I am with him, he
makes me write anything I have on my mind on paper. Gradually, I found passion in writing, and now I
feel proud when I write, and my instructors give me positive comments. I successfully completed College
Algebra with an A when I thought I couldn't do it. He always makes me feel I am stronger than I believe I
am!
In brief, good things happen all the time, but meeting Arthur has positively impacted my life in many
ways. Now I have become a very optimistic person in all circumstances, and I value that. (401 words)
Credit: Adomako Cobbina (Ghana)
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Chapter 10: Suggested Writing Topics & Grading Rubrics

10.1 Suggested Writing Topics
These are possible topics that could be used in an academic writing course. This list contains topics that
were used throughout the years by the Authors, but they are not currently used.
1. Discuss some of the things that make people choose a big city as their home.
2. Which do you think has the greatest impact on college-age people: family or friends? Why?
3. In order for you to be happy in a future job, what will you need or expect from your job?
4. Discuss some aspects of your home culture that you always want to keep in your life.
5. What is your favorite form of entertainment or recreation? Explain why.
6. Explain what you look for in people whom you want to be your friends.
7. What do you think helps a marriage to be strong, healthy, and long-lasting?
8. What is one value or tradition of your own country or culture that some people
misunderstand? Explain.
9. What strategies can we use to make a good first impression? Explain.
10. In your opinion, does television tend to influence people positively or negatively? Explain the reasons
for your opinion.
11. As a manager, what characteristics or actions would cause you to fire an employee? Explain.
12. What are some good ways to deal with stress and minimize its negative impact on our lives?
13. What do you think are the main reasons why so many students never finish their first year in college?
Explain.
14. Do you think this is a good idea for teenagers to have jobs while they are still students? Explain why or
why not.
15. Is it a good or bad thing for a culture to encourage children to be very competitive? Explain why or why
not.
16. Discuss the biggest problems you have faced as a non-native student in an American college.
17. What do people gain and what do they lose by moving away from their parents' home after the age of
18 or 19?
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18. What impact has attending college had on your relationships with others (your family and or friends)
and on your life in general?
19. In choosing a place to live (an apartment or house) what are the characteristics you look
for?
20. What is the most important thing you hope to someday give your children?
21. If you could have a conversation with a famous person (living or dead), who would it be, and what
would you talk about?
22. Should all students, regardless of their major, be required to take courses in computers as part of their
college education? Explain why or why not.
23. Should teachers evaluate students according to their achievement (grades, or test scores) or according
to their effort (how much time and effort they spend on the work)? Explain.
24. Should schools have rules about clothes and appearance? Why or why not?
25. What are the advantages and the disadvantages of living in the United States?
26. Do you think college students should be required to attend class? Why or why not?
27. Explain some of the problems presented by cell phones.
28. What advice would you give someone considering entering college?
29. Why are many people afraid of growing old? Explain.
30. The 21st century has begun. What changes do you think this century will bring? Use specific reasons
and details to support your answer.
31. Should a college education be available to all students or just to good students? Explain why.
32. In the future, students may have the choice of studying at home by using technology such as
computers or of studying at traditional schools. Which would you prefer? Explain why.
33. Write about a person who has influenced your life in a significant way.
34. If someone discovered a formula that would allow us to live forever, do you think that would be a good
or bad thing? Explain.
35. Should a parent be a child's disciplinarian or a child's best friend? Explain.
36. Do you learn better by doing things, reading things, or listening to people talk about things? Use
specific examples to support your choice.
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37. Should students spend the whole school day on academic studies, or should physical exercise be a
required part of every school day? Use specific examples to support your choice.
38. Why are some people attracted to dangerous sports or other activities?
39. Is it better for children to begin formal schooling at an early age or to spend more time
playing?
40. How can college students improve their leadership skills?
41. What changes would make Georgia Perimeter College a better institution?
42. Computers are important in most people's lives, but they also have negative aspects. What are some?
43. Choose a profession whose members make a worthwhile contribution to society and discuss the
benefits that society receives from members of this profession.
44. If you were asked to make a fair evaluation of your teachers, what criteria would you use for the
evaluation? Discuss
45. Each year, many teenagers run away from home. What do you think are the main causes?
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10.2 Sample Grading Rubrics

The following pages show a variety of sample grading rubrics. We have also included a rubric from
Freshman Composition to give you an idea of what may be expected in your college-level writing course.
Sample Rubric #1 - High Intermediate/Advanced Academic Writing Courses
Name: _ Draft #1 - _/12 =_%
WRITING ASSIGNMENT:_ Final Draft -_/12 =_%

1= minimal 2=adequate 3= strong 4= excellent

Developmen The essay does The main idea is Addresses The main idea is
t not respond to addressed with a assignment with clearly addressed
the topic or may thesis but it may clear thesis. with a strong thesis.
not be be imprecisely
sufficiently worded or
focused. insufficiently
focused.
Organizatio There is minimal Essay is passably Essay is generally The essay is well
n organization. organized but the well organized and organized. It uses
There is no clear support details are uses effective appropriate and
introduction, thin at times. details to support effective details and
conclusion or There are some thesis. The analysis to support
topic sentences. topic sentences introduction the thesis. Both the
and a weak and/or conclusion conclusion and
introduction are good and the introduction are
and/or conclusion. topic sentences are excellent and the
appropriate. topic sentences are
strong.
Mechanics Many spelling, Some spelling, Few spelling, Hardly any spelling,
grammar, and grammar, and grammar, and grammar, and
punctuation punctuation punctuation errors. punctuation errors.
errors. These errors. These errors rarely
These errors
errors get in the get in the way of
At times, these occasionally get in
way of understanding the
errors get in the the way of
understanding paper.
way of understanding the
the paper.
understanding the paper.
paper.
Comments:
Credit: Beth Wallace, Assistant Professor, Georgia State University Perimeter College
Page 301
Sample Rubric #2 - High Intermediate/Advanced Academic Writing Courses
Advanced ESL Writing Name_

Essay Scoring Guidelines

Criteria Essays
Exceeds Expectations Meets Needs 1 2 34
Expectations Improvement
Content and (10 points) Well- (7 points) Adequate (4 points) (Max=7)
Organization developed with development
Minimum amount of
excellent thesis
Adequate Thesis development or off-
Well-organized topic.
Adequately organized
Inadequate or Missing
Thesis

Problems with
organization

Grammar/ (25 points) Very few (19 points) Average (15 points) Numerous (Max=18
Mechanics grammar and number of grammar and grammar and )
mechanical errors mechanical errors mechanical errors

Format Double spaced, Written in ink, Appropriate Indentation, Appropriate (Max=5)

capitalization Correct Length
(5 points)

Totals: (Essay #1=30 points, Essays #2,3,4=40 points)

Instructor Comments
Diagnostic Essay Essay #2 Essay #3 Essay #4
Credit: Lynne Bost, Associate Professor, Georgia State University Perimeter College
Page 302
Sample Rubric #3 - Freshman Composition Courses
English 1101 Guidelines for Writing Standards
Note: These guidelines for first-year English composition at Georgia Perimeter College reflect the writing standards currently followed by other major
institutions in the University System of Georgia. An individual instructor's criteria for a particular assignment may be more detailed or extensive.

COMPETENT ESSAY: All papers must meet these basic competency standards. A competent paper earns a C (70-79).

1. Clarity and Organization of Central Purpose

o The essay has a clear and controlling purpose—a well-considered thesis—around which the paper revolves, o The essay flows smoothly from the
introduction through the body paragraphs to the conclusion, transitioning from one supporting idea to the next without digressing from the central
purpose.

2. Developing Details, Analysis, and Explanation

o The essay presents appropriate and relevant details, examples, and evidence.

o Specific details and concrete evidence are used in support of claims rather than general opinions or vague

commentary. The essay avoids factual inaccuracies and major logical fallacies, o The writer clearly distinguishes his or her ideas from outside source
material, and correctly cites all outside

source material in MLA style (or assigned standard bibliographic form).

3. Presentation and Audience Reception

o The writer is aware of his or her audience and uses appropriate language and diction.

o The essay is relatively free of errors in Standard English grammar, punctuation, usage, and documentation.

o The essay meets the instructor's stated requirements for length and/or format.

BEYOND COMPETENT: A skillfully crafted paper exceeds all competency requirements by demonstrating insightful understanding of key concepts, a
strong and distinctive voice, and careful consideration of opposing viewpoints. An essay that goes beyond competency will earn a grade of B (80-89).
4. Fluency & Coherence

o The writer expresses clear understanding of the major premises of the thesis, o The writer varies sentence structure and length to hold readers'
interest and to create emphasis, o The essay examines the topic from a fresh perspective, and, when necessary, integrates direct quotes, summaries,
and paraphrases from outside source materials.
5. Forceful and Stimulating Writing

o The writer demonstrates audience awareness by addressing the rhetorical appeals to logos, ethos, and pathos, o The essay is forceful without being
dogmatic, provocative without being inflammatory, and stimulating without being glib, patronizing, or contrived.

EXCEPTIONAL: An exceptional paper distinguishes itself from a skillfully crafted paper by demonstrating mastery of several characteristics of superior
writing. An exceptional paper earns the grade of A (90-100).

6. Superior Writing: The essay exhibits more than one of the following characteristics:

o original and insightful analysis

o clear and refined discussion of complex ideas

o sophisticated rhetorical stance

o unique and compelling voice

o fresh, innovative, and textured style

UNSUCCESSFUL: An unsuccessful essay has several minor problems with Clarity and Organization of Central Purpose; Developing Details, Analysis, and
Explanation; and Presentation and Audience Reception; or it has major problems in one of these areas. The unsuccessful essay will earn a grade of D
(60-69) or F (<60). The writer should schedule a conference with his or her instructor immediately.

Georgia Perimeter College, Writing Rubric for English 1101 & 1102 Page 1