DISASTER READINESS AND RISK REDUCTION

Review Notes
Basic Concept of Disaster and Disaster Risk
A. Explore
Concept and Nature of Disaster
When talking about disaster, many Filipino (63%) blame climate change and the irresponsible people
as cause of disaster. However, 21% of Filipinos as surveyed by Paulse Asia in 2010, still believe that
disasters are manifested as God’s wrath (Jones, 2010).

Concept of Disaster Risk

Surrounding us is the vast environment of multiple characteristics accompanied by natural phenomena
such as typhoons and volcanic eruptions. Though natural phenomena are not automatically considered
disasters as they provide positive effects, it is only when human lives, health, property, livelihood and
other significant aspect are at risk. Considering the position of the Philippines an archipelago situated in
the line of the ring of fire, and facing the west side of the pacific.

Effects of Disaster
Depending on the kind of a hazardous event and its severity, effects can range from slight damages to
total devastation. So again, what do you think are the effects of disasters either natural or man-made?

B. Explain
Concept and Nature of Disaster
Disasters are often described as a result of the combination of the exposure to hazards; the conditions
of vulnerability that are present; and insufficient capacity or measures to reduce or cope with the
potential negative consequences.

Disaster impacts may include loss of life, injury, disease and other negative effects on human physical,
mental and social well-being, together with damage to property, destruction of assets, loss of services,
social and economic disruption and environmental degradation (SAMHSA, 2017).

Hazard – refers to the natural or human-made harmful and threatening event that can cause death and
destruction.
Exposure – Anything that is in contact to the impact of a hazard, direct or indirect exposure of people to
hazards can cause minor to severe injury or even death.
Vulnerability – People and communities are vulnerable if they are susceptible to the effects of
hazardous events. Susceptible means the weakness of people to resist the impact of hazard and
protect their life, property, and keep their normal way of living.
Capacity – Knowledge and skills of people to resist the effects of hazard and strengthen resilience
against hazardous events. To make wise decisions in the prevention and mitigation of negative effects
of hazards. Manifest in the readiness of individuals and communities.

Classification of Hazardous Events

1. Natural – Environmental events that happen without human intervention.
a. Geological – ground and land formations such as volcanic activities, earthquakes, and
landslides.
b. Hydrometeorological – related to water, wind, temperature, precipitation, and other climate
system such as typhoons, floods, and drought.
c. Astronomical – contact of heavenly bodies on earth such as meteor showers, fall of an asteroid,
and solar storm.
d. Biological – biohazards caused by a widespread disease or epidemic on humans and animals,
and agricultural pests.
2. Human-Made – Prevalence of a disaster due to deliberate or non-deliberate act of people.

Concept of Disaster Risk

Disaster risk is the potential disaster, losses of lives, health status, livelihood, assets and services. In
general, the Philippine archipelago is prone to several natural hazardous events which can be
disastrous. The Philippines is located within the Pacific Ring of Fire where tectonic plates move from
time to time. The country is also frequently visited by an average of twenty typhoons. Other man-made
factors are included in the list that pose a risk from war, terrorism to your everyday chemical and
biological leaks.
Risk Factors Underlying Disaster
1. Poverty – measured using the Philippine Poverty Threshold (PPT), those below the PPT are poor.
The lack of ability of a family to provide for their basic necessities.
2. Inequality – biased or unjust treatment to a certain group of people or sector in society.
3. Climate Change – product of global warming in which trapped greenhouses from excessive carbon
emission brought by industrial development affected the climate system.
4. Urbanization – increased industrialization and congestion due to high population.
5. Demographic Change – simple terms refer to the population of different characteristics.
6. Non-disaster Risk-informed Policies – rules, regulations, and standards issued by the government
as a form of law should consider disasters and disaster risk prior to implementation.
7. Lack of Regulation for Private Disaster Risk Reduction Investment – without government
regulations, private sectors will invest only to disaster risk reduction on the basis of initiative.
8. Limited Availability of Technology – tools, equipment, and machinery used for prevention, mitigation,
and adaptation to disasters.
9. Declining Ecosystem – ecological imbalance or total destruction as caused by natural or man-made
disasters.
10. Pandemics and Epidemics – widespread of disease when a large number of populations in a
community has been contracted by a disease caused by viruses, bacteria, fungi, and another
parasitic microorganism, epidemic is raised. When an epidemic cannot be contained in a locality
and spread out to other communities or countries infecting a larger number of populations, a
pandemic is raised.

Effects of Disasters
Effects of Disasters from Various Perspectives
1. Health
a. Loss of Life – people may lose their lives when exposed to hazardous events. People who
belong to the vulnerable group are more prone to lose their lives. Lacking the basic survival
knowledge and skills can lead to people’s death.
b. Physical Injury and Disability – depending on the degree or gravity of a hazardous event, people
can be injured.
c. Malnutrition – hazardous event that disables the normal flow of the economy. Shortage of food,
particularly nutritious food and clean water will be experienced. Prolonged conditions can lead
to malnutrition.
d. Spread of Disease – After a hazardous event has struck, people become more vulnerable to
infections and communicable diseases.
e. Psychological – disasters affect the emotional and mental stability of individuals.
2. Physical
a. Damage of Property – built and movable properties are destroyed due to hazardous events.
b. Loss of Livelihood – livelihood can be lost particularly to communities relying on agriculture and
fishing. Force a company to shut down operations which lead to retrenchment of employees.
c. Reduced Income – the economy of some individuals and groups are affected.
d. Economic Decline – damages to the economy of the community affects the income of
individuals and profit of business establishment.
3. Socio-cultural
a. Halted Religious and Traditional Practices – participation of the community in its religious rituals,
ceremonies, and other traditional practices are important for the nourishment of the soul and
fulfillment of a spiritual promise.
b. Cultural Damage – material culture (tangible object) and non-material (intangible object) are lost
or damaged.
c. Social Disorder – being unruly, conditions get worse as it prolongs. Instability of emotion, stress,
anxiety, and trauma are some observed psychological effects of disaster to people.
4. Political
a. Political Vacuum – when duly installed leaders of the community who has legitimate authority
and their lawful successor died, become incapacitated, missing or absent.
b. Incapability – a community that is unprepared becomes incapable in the midst of a hazardous
event.
5. Biological
a. Environmental Degradation – all hazardous events can damage the environment, both natural
and human-made.
b. Wildfire Crisis – natural cause but can be an effect of man-made activities indirectly, hectares of
forest/grassland/jungle/etc. area can be wiped out by wildfire along with wildlife.
 Exposure and Vulnerability
A. Explain
Vulnerability
Vulnerability is the susceptibility or proneness of a person, community, property or physical asset,
and systems when exposed to the impact of a hazard. Vulnerability may arise from various physical,
social, economic, and environmental factors such as poor design and construction of buildings,
inadequate protection of assets, lack of public information and awareness, limited official
recognition of risks and preparedness measures, and disregard for wise environmental
management.

Poor people are more vulnerable to disasters (Annan, 1999). Poverty stricken communities have
less capability to prepare and mitigate the effects of disaster. Lack of financial capability of families
can compromise the families' health, structural integrity of houses, and disregard investment for
disaster resilience such as availing first aid kit and emergency equipment such as smoke detectors
and fire extinguishers.

Vulnerability of people to a hazard can result in injury. health issues and death, while vulnerability of
physical assets or property can lead to structural damages and collapse to total wreckage when
exposed to a strong hazard. Community's systems and procedures can also be vulnerable when
established without taking into consideration impending hazards.

To prevent any casualty and damages, individuals and communities must act to increase their
resiliency in the face of a hazard through disaster prevention and disaster preparedness. Resilience
is the ability of a system, community or society exposed to hazards to resist, absorb, accommodate
and recover from the effects of a hazard in a timely and efficient manner, including through the
preservation and restoration of its essential basic structures and functions (UNIS, 2009).

Disaster Resilience
Disaster resiliency can be achieved through disaster prevention through undertakings that can
avoid the adverse or negative effects of the impact of a hazard such as increase the level of
knowledge on various hazards and their effects and also increase the level of awareness on
survival. When it comes to infrastructure, appropriate regulations shall apply to ensure its strength
to withstand any hazard such as typhoons, earthquakes, volcanic eruption and fire. Disaster
preparedness is the pre-disaster actions and measures being undertaken within the context of
disaster risk reduction and management and are based on sound risk analysis as well as pre-
disaster activities to avert or minimize loss of life and property such as, but not limited to,
community organizing, training, planning, equipping, stockpiling. hazard mapping, insuring of
assets, and public information and education initiatives. This also includes the
development/enhancement of an overall preparedness strategy, policy, institutional structure,
warning and forecasting capabilities, and plans that define measures geared to help at-risk
communities safeguard their lives and assets by being alert to hazards and taking appropriate
action in the face of an imminent threat or an actual disaster. A resilient community does not wait for
flood before it constructs dams, floodgates and drainage systems. Likewise, it does not wait for a
tsunami or storm surge before installing an early warning device. A resilient country is ready for any
type of emergency, hazard, crisis, epidemic or pandemic. A country, community, or a family that is
disaster resilient will reap the following benefits: save lives, protect livelihood, properties, social
systems, and the environment ((Combaz, 2014).

Types of Vulnerability
1. Human vulnerability – includes physiological and psychological.
a. Physiological vulnerability – susceptibility of the human body to injuries or sickness that a
disaster may bring.
b. Psychological vulnerability – susceptibility of a person to acquire mental health disorder.
2. Social vulnerability – susceptibility of the community to disruption of the normal processes and
way of life due to disaster.
3. Physical vulnerability – susceptibility of a geographical location, houses, buildings and other
infrastructures to disasters.
4. Economic vulnerability – susceptibility of individual, organizational and government’s financial
resources to disaster.
5. Environmental vulnerability – susceptibility of natural resources to disasters.
 Basic Concept of Hazard

A. Explain
Hazard is a natural or social phenomenon or occurrence that due to its strength may cause injury,
health-related effects and death. It can damage assets, degrade the environmental, and disturb the
social, political, and economic processes of the society. Hazard is categorized as natural,
anthropogenic, and socio-natural hazards

Categories
Natural hazards – cause by natural environmental phenomena beyond the control of people.
Anthropogenic hazards – human-made or induced through human decision, policies and activities.
Socio-natural hazards – combination of natural and anthropogenic elements such as climate changed.

Kind of Hazards
Kinds of Hazards Examples
Biological Bacterial infection
Viruses
Parasites
Venomous and poisonous wildlife
Wildlife predators
Poisonous plants, root crop, and fungi
Poisonous food and beverages

Environmental Soil degradation

Deforestation
Loss of biodiversity
Salinization
Sea-level rise
Water pollution
Air pollution
Non-endemic flora such as mahogany tree
Non-endemic fauna such as squirrel, piranha,
and iguana

Geological Earthquake
Volcanic activity and eruption
Landslide and rockslide
Landslide and rockslide
Surface collapse
Sinkhole
Debris or mudflow

Hydrometeorological Rain and Torrential Rain

Tropical cyclones or Bagyo (also known as
typhoons and hurricanes)
Tornado or buhawi/ipo-ipo
Flood and flash flood
Coastal storm surge
Drought
Heatwaves
Frost or Andap
Hail storm

Technological Information and communication technology

failure
Utility service outage
Industrial pollution
Nuclear radiation
Toxic waste
Dam failure
Mechanical failure
Toxic waste
Electricity
Transport/vehicular accident
Factory explosion
Fires and haze
 Chemical leaks
Petroleum or oil spills

Deliberate human-made Crimes

Terrorism
Armed Conflict
War
Bomb threat
Cyberattack
Work stoppage
Transport strike
Mass gathering such as demonstration, and
religious procession
Stampede

Impact of hazards
Hazards have various adverse impacts to peoples' well-being, assets and systems. Impact can be
defined as the forceful contact of hazard against exposed elements such as people, assets, systems,
and environment. Impact of hazard to exposed elements can be reduced through avoidance and
strengthening resilience

Hazards, whether natural or human-made can cause human suffering and death. People can
experience various psychological disorders such as post- traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety,
and depression. Culturally, society can be affected due to lost heritage, and culture change brought
about by necessary adaptation to hazards.

Adverse impact of a disaster is highlighted especially if the specific disaster claimed many lives, and
made more people suffer. There can be positive effects of disaster when it is viewed as a test of
resilience of people, communities and government systems. It can also be an opportunity to learn,
adapt, and upgrade not just to survive the impending hazards but to live with peace of mind:

1. 1987 MV Doña Paz Tragedy

In the early morning hours of 20 December 1987, the Philippines-flagged passenger ferry Doña Paz
departed from Tacloban, Leyte Island, for the Philippines capital of Manila, with a stopover at
Catbalogan, Samar. While at Dumali Point, along the Tablas Strait, at 22:30 and as most
passengers were sleeping, the ferry collided with the oil tanker MT Vector. The tanker was en route
from Bataan to Masbate, carrying 1,041 tonnes of gasoline and other petroleum products.

2. 1990 Luzon Earthquake

On July 16, 1990, a magnitude 7.8 earthquake struck the island of Luzon, causing widespread
devastation and loss of life.

This came to be called The Great Luzon Earthquake of 1990, also known as the Luzon earthquake
or Baguio earthquake and has been considered to be one of the most powerful earthquakes to hit
the Philippines in the 20th century.

3. 1991 Mount Pinatubo Eruption

The second-largest volcanic eruption of this century, and by far the largest eruption to affect a
densely populated area, occurred at Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines on June 15, 1991. The
eruption produced high-speed avalanches of hot ash and gas, giant mudflows, and a cloud of
volcanic ash hundreds of miles across. The impacts of the eruption continue to this day.

4. 1996 Ozone Disco Fire

Ozone Disco was an immensely popular spot for students in the mid-’90. In March of 1996, it was
the end of the school year and the bar was capitalizing on graduation season with a promo. On the
night of March 18, 1996, Ozone Disco held an estimated 350 guests who wanted to celebrate the
end of one chapter of their lives and start a new one. Nearly half of that crowd—162 at least—
however, had to end their story abruptly. The Ozone Disco tragedy is known as the worst fire in
Philippine history.

5. 2000 Love Bug Computer Virus Pandemic

The ILOVEYOU virus first appeared on May 4, 2000, when it was released by two Filipino college
students. It quickly spread across the world via email, taking advantage of people’s natural curiosity
 and duping them into opening an attachment included in the message. Once opened, it would
propagate itself to every contact found in the user’s email address book. The virus worked by
overwriting important system files, causing computers to crash and data to be lost. It also sent
copies of itself to every contact in the user’s address book, leading to its rapid proliferation. In total,
it is estimated that the ILOVEYOU virus caused $15 billion in damages worldwide.

6. 2006 ULTRA Stampede

The ULTRA tragedy occurred on February 4, 2006 when the ABS-CBN popular noontime
gameshow "Wowowee" was slated to hold its first anniversary presentation with large monetary
prizes, including houses and lots, jeepneys, taxicabs, and tricycles up for grabs. In a stampede
which occurred at the start of the show with an audience of 30,000, seventy-one people died and
800 were injured with trauma to the head, chest and the abdomen.

7. 2006 Guinsaugon Landslide

A mudslide triggered by heavy rains buried a whole village in the Philippine province of Southern
Leyte. Reportedly more than 200 people were killed in the slide with about 1,500 people missing.

8. 2010 Rizal Park Hostage-Taking Incident

The Manila hostage crisis, officially known as the Rizal Park hostage-taking incident, took place
when a disgruntled former Philippine National Police officer named Rolando Mendoza hijacked a
tourist bus in Rizal Park, Manila, Philippines, on August 23, 2010. The bus carried 25 people: 20
tourists, a tour guide from Hong Kong, and four local Filipinos. Mendoza claimed that he had been
unfairly dismissed from his job, and demanded a fair hearing to defend himself.

9. 2013 Typhoon Yolanda

Super Typhoon Haiyan (known locally as Yolanda) made landfall over the central Philippines at
04:40, local time, on 08 November 2013. The official death toll from the storm was 6,300, but a full
tally of the lives lost may never be achieved. Millions of people in 20 provinces were affected.

10. 2017 Battle of Marawi

The Marawi Siege was a five-month-long armed conflict that took place in Marawi, Lanao del Sur,
Philippines, starting on May 23, 2017. The siege was initiated by the Maute Group, an Islamist
militant group affiliated with ISIS, and was supported by other extremist groups. The Philippine
government responded by launching a military operation to retake control of the city.

11. 2019 Cordillera Wildfire

On March 8, local media reported that more than 140,000 hectares of forest in different provinces in
the Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR) have been burned by fire since the start of the new year.
The Bureau of Fire Prevention in the region was quoted as saying there had been an “alarming” 90
incidents of forest fire from January to March, an increase from last year’s number of 87. The dry
season, which runs from November to May, has been an extremely dry one especially since the first
of the year across much of northern Luzon, creating ripe conditions for fire.

12. 2020 Coronavirus Disease 2019 Pandemic

On March 11, 2020, the WHO declared COVID-19 a global pandemic, its first such designation
since declaring H1N1 influenza a pandemic in 2009. Illness caused by SARS-CoV-2 was termed
COVID-19 by the WHO, the acronym derived from "coronavirus disease 2019." The name was
chosen to avoid stigmatizing the virus's origins in terms of populations, geography, or animal
associations.
 Earthquake Hazards

A. Explain
The landmass under our feet shakes and moves. When it does, the earth trembles. This was observed
and felt prior to the advent of machines and devices that measure its strength. In ancient times, there
were many explanations as to why earthquakes happen. In ancient Japan, earthquakes were attributed
to movements of a giant catfish named Namazu living under Japan. Ancient Greeks believe that an
angry Poseidon (the Greek god of the Sea) banging his trident on the earth causes earthquakes to
occur. According to Hindu Mythology, the earth is held by eight elephants balanced on the back of a
turtle standing on a coiled snake and any movement by any of these animals caused the earth to shake
(BBC, 2020).

Earthquakes are weak to violent shaking of the ground produced by the sudden movement of material
below the earth's surface (PHIVOLCS, 2018).

The Tectonic earthquakes can be further explained by the Plate Tectonic Theory that states the earth's
solid crust or lithosphere is divided into plates moving over the upper portion of the mantle or
asthenosphere (Cowan, 2013).

Plate boundaries moving apart are called divergent boundaries and cause rifts.

Plate boundaries that move towards each other are called convergent plates.

When plate boundaries collide and one plate boundary goes under, it is called a subduction boundary.

When plates rub or slide against each other these are called transform plates boundary

Earthquakes induced by rising magma or lava over an active volcano are volcanic earthquakes.

Earthquake Anatomy
1. Focus/hypocenter – point where the rapture starts
2. Epicenter – point at the surface of the Earth’s surface above the focus
3. Seismic wave – waves that carry the energy of an earthquake or explosion
4. Active fault – fault/s that have moved one or more times in the last 10,000 years
5. Fault – break in the rock layers by which a block of crust moves relative to another block of crust
6. Aftershocks – smaller earthquakes that follow the largest shock of an earthquake sequence

The strength of an earthquake is measured by magnitude and intensity.

Magnitude – seismograph-calculated energy released from the focus.

Intensity – is the visible shaking on the Earth’s surface, measured by the Philippine Earthquake
Intensity Scale (PEIS)

Within the Philippine government, specifically the Department of Science and Technology (DOST) is the
Philippines Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) which mandated to mitigate disasters
that may arise from volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tsunami and other related geotectonic
phenomena.

Earthquake Hazards
1. Ground Shake – primary earthquake hazard, seismic waves carry energy released cause disruptive
up, down and sideways vibration of the ground.
2. Ground/Surface Rapture – deformation on the ground where two previously joined land separate,
causing land to fissure and land to displace.
3. Liquefaction – sediments, especially near bodies of water, begave like liquid similar to a quicksand.
4. Earthquake-Induced Ground Subsidence – sinking of the ground due to underground material
movement, land may subside to fill up offsets along fault lines.
5. Earthquake-Induced Landslide – ground shaking-induced down slope movement of ground, soil or
rocks from an elevated area.
6. Tsunami - series of giant waves crashing on shorelines due to underwater earthquakes

If you are near a shoreline, here are several telltale signs of a possible incoming tsunami:
1. An earthquake felt or reported in open waters exposes you to the threat of a tsunami
 2. Sudden shoreline water recession is a good sign of an incoming tsunami

Pre-earthquake preparation at home

1. Consult with DOST-PHIVOLCS and local government unit for those planning to build their dwelling
on hazard zones. Take note of the following:
a. Nearby fault lines and routes
b. Land use procedure and building codes
c. History of earthquakes
d. Presence of secondary hazards
2. Profile the site, for houses that are already built
a. Evacuation sites
b. Evacuation plan
3. Situational Action Plan (SAP) in case of earthquake occurrence
a. Identify home safety zones
b. Assign task and responsibilities before, during, and after the event of an earthquake
c. Agree on common evacuation area in case of separation
4. Go bag
a. Food and water
b. Clothing
c. Communication tools
d. Kits for personal hygiene, health, and medicine
e. Important document
f. Spare cash
g. Small containers
h. Other necessities
5. Fasten and secure heavy items, large furniture, and wall frames

Pre-earthquake preparation outside the home

1. Familiarize self with the surrounding
2. If with a group in travel discuss SAP

During earthquakes
Picture this. You are where you are right now and a Magnitude 6.1 earthquake happens. In a crowded
area earthquakes that have a magnitude of 6.1 to 6.9 happen one hundred times per year and may
cause a lot of damage (www.geo.mtu.edu, 2020). There are several scenarios for this, one is you could
be indoors, outdoors, or inside a moving vehicle. Your current situation determines the appropriate
response to do. This increases earthquake survival chances. Here location specific actions to be done
in an earthquake.

Experience earthquake inside a confined structure

1. Stay calm and don’t panic
2. Go under hard and sturdy objects like a table
3. If not perform the DROP, COVER, and HOLD
4. Stay away from windows and movable furniture
5. Walls are lifeline as rescuers often search near walls

Outside and open area

1. Stay low a assume a tripod position
2. Stay away from trees and buildings
3. Observe the surrounding while staying low

When driving
1. Stop the car and stay inside during the earthquake
2. Unless possibility of a heavy debris to fall, go out immediate, cover head and neck, seek open are

After an earthquake
1. Check if injured
2. Check others if with a group
3. If in a building, exit on a fast but not running pace
4. Don’t reenter building
5. Be alert for aftershocks
 Volcanic Hazards

A. Explain
Volcanoes are land formations that are like sleeping giants. Inactive for a long time before making its
destructive presence felt. This was very evident during the Mt Pinatubo eruption that happened on June
15, 1991. The said eruption was recorded as the second largest volcanic eruption in the 20th century
(USGS, 2005).

Volcano
A volcano is a land formation which is usually a vent in the earth's crust where lava, ash, rock and or
gases come out. Volcanic formations are attributed to movement of tectonic plates floating on magma.
When tectonic plates move pass, push under, or move away from each other, part of the crust melts
and rise up to the surface and explode or overflow from vents (Bagley, 2018).

A volcano can also be formed by removal of pre-existing material or by accumulation of ejected

materials (PHIVOLCS, 2018). An example of this is the Taal Volcano. The Taal volcano is a volcano
within a volcano. Prehistoric violent explosions of the volcano have formed a caldera from the ground
which collapsed into evacuated magma chambers below it (Achenbach, 2020).

Relative to plate tectonics, the geographic location of the Philippines makes it ideal for volcanic
formation. The country is located in the boundaries of the Philippine Sea Plate, Pacific Plate and the
Eurasian Plate which subducts beneath the east and west seaboard of the Philippine archipelago
(PHIVOLCS, 2018). This means that the country is atop the boundaries of the two aforementioned
plates.

Classification of Volcanoes
Volcanoes are classified as active, dormant or extinct.
1. Active volcanoes are those with a history of eruption/s in the last 10,000 years. A good example of
this is Taal Volcano that erupted last January 12, 2020. Prior to this eruption, it erupted in 1977. The
earliest recorded history of the Taal volcano eruption was in 1572.
2. Dormant volcanoes are "sleeping giants" or volcanoes that have not erupted in the last 10,000
years but are expected to erupt again. The Alligator Lake in Los Banos is considered to be a
dormant volcano (Wikipedia, 2020).
3. Extinct volcanoes are volcanoes that will not erupt again (OregonState.edu, 2020). An example of
this is Mt. Batulao in the province of Batangas.

Parts of a Volcano
1. External Parts
a. Base – the lowest part, bottom, or supporting layer of the volcano.
b. Summit – the highest point or the apex of a volcano that has an either a crater or a caldera.
c. Slope – are the sides or flanks of a volcano that radiate from the main or central vent.

2. Interior Parts
a. Magma chamber/reservoir – is a large underground pool of molten rock found beneath the
surface of the earth. The molten rock in the chamber, known as magma, acts like a filled bath - it
takes up space and puts pressure on anything around it. This pressure builds until it finally has
to escape somewhere
b. Conduit/pipe – which is an underground passage through which magma travels to the surface of
a volcano. The molten rock rises in the conduit, because it is less dense than surrounding solid
rock. When it reaches the open air, it starts to cool and turn into lava.
c. Vent – the opening through which lava, ash and gas explode out. Volcanoes are usually situated
on land or underneath the ocean floor - not in the sky. The gases become trapped inside until
they build up enough pressure to blast their way out. This accumulation of pressure can happen
when magma heats up rocks beneath it. The rocks then expand, but get squashed by the
weight of other layers above.
d. Crater – the mouth of a volcano, there is an opening to the magma chamber below. A circular or
elliptical depression. These craters are formed by explosions caused when hot molten rock and
ash escape from the magma chambers below ground.
e. Throat – magma escapes through the “super highway” of the volcano. This long, narrow
opening leads from the top of the magma chamber to the Earth's surface.
f. Ash cloud – are large clouds of gas and dust ejected from a volcano. They can travel 10,000s of
Miles! The ash can be extremely hot and cause wildfires, even far away from the eruption site.
Rainfall can wash out light volcanic ash, causing mudslides; heavier tephra deposits can cause
 roofs to collapse under the weight. Some volcanoes create significant weather changes when
they erupt because of the ash particles in the air blocking sunlight and reflecting heat.\
g. Lava – liquid rock which is formed when gas bubbles in molten rocks called magma force out
the ground around them. Magma contains a lot of dissolved gases and as it rises to the surface
pressure decreases. This allows bubbles to form and an eruption occurs.
h. Magma – found inside a volcano and consists of molten rock. It can be runny or viscous
depending on how much gas it contains. If magma reaches the surface, it becomes lava and
erupts from a volcano. Magma rises because of the pressure difference between the magma
and rocks around it: as more bubbles form in the magma, the pressure gets even higher.

Types of Volcanoes According to the Shape of the Cone

1. Stratovolcano/Composite – volcano types that are formed by layers of materials from eruptions that
happened over the years. They are tall and conical in shape. Lava flows from stratovolcano are
relatively fluid. Due to the nature of its lava, it flows slowly from its sides before it solidifies. They
erupt violently and have longer periods of time between eruptions (BBC, 2020). Mayon and Fuji are
examples of this volcano type.
2. Shield Volcano – are large, circular, fan shaped volcanoes that look like shields. Shield volcanoes
are formed by pressure from heat of gases causing the magma to rise upwards (Olsmtead, 2015).
Shield volcanoes have no layers and contain lava which is very runny. Eruptions from shield
volcanoes are less violent. Eruption intervals are shorter. Mauna Loa, which is the largest volcano
in the world is a shield type volcano. Olympus Mons in Mars, the largest identified volcano in the
solar system, is also a shield type volcano.
3. Cinder Cone Volcano – are steep, low, cone-shaped, volcano with a bowl- shaped summit. Due to
limited magma content of these volcanoes, they usually only erupt once and their eruption is weak.
Cinder cones develop quickly and have a short life span (Green, 2017). A cinder type volcano is
located in the Babuyan group of island, Mt. Smith
4. Spatter Cone Volcano – are irregularly shaped volcanoes formed by lava blobs that got stuck on
fissures or sides of an active volcano. Spatters form due to the viscous nature of lava blobs that
have not cooled. (National Geographic, 2014).
5. Complex Volcano – are formed when changes in the main vent area of a volcano occurs. This is
attributed to overlapping eruptions, formation of multiple vents or summits from overlapping
pyroclastic flows and lava flows. Taal volcano is a complex volcano type.
6. Caldera – is a large depression formed when a volcano erupts and collapses. During a volcanic
eruption, magma present in the magma chamber underneath the volcano is expelled, often
forcefully. When the magma chamber empties, the support that the magma had provided inside the
chamber disappears.
7. Lava Domes – a circular, mound-shaped protrusion resulting from the slow extrusion of viscous lava
from a volcano. Dome-building eruptions are common, particularly in convergent plate boundary
settings. Around 6% of eruptions on Earth are lava dome forming.
8. Fissure Vents – are elongate cracks in the Earth’s surface. Fissures are smaller than rifts. They
typically form where the crust is under tension and is pulled apart allowing molten rock to pour out.
 Basalt is the predominate rock type found and fountains or curtains of "fire" can spectacularly erupt.
Eruptions can pour out large volumes of basalt and eventually focus on one or two main vents.

Why do volcanoes erupt?

Active volcanoes erupt when the magma inside it rises to the surface. Magma, which is molten rock,
forms from tectonic plate interaction or hotspot material rising. As magma is in liquid form it is lighter
than rock. Magma rises and causes gas bubbles to form. If magma is thick, gas bubbles cannot easily
escape it and this builds pressure as magma rises. Too much pressure underneath magma layers
causes a volcano to erupt violently. Steam caused by interaction between magma and water
underneath the surface also causes volcanoes to erupt (BBC, 2020).

Types of Volcanoes According to their Eruption

1. General
a. Effusive – is associated with lava flows that are low in viscosity and gas content. Effusive
explosions are more of lava flows than expulsion of materials from a volcano.
b. Explosive – are more viscous and have a higher gas content. It is more pressurized and usually
loud in nature. Mt. Mayon usually manifests an explosive type of eruption.

2. Major Types

a. Icelandic – volcanic eruptions that flood the surface of the Earth with massive amounts of very
hot, very thin, runny lava. The lava comes out of the ground through long cracks in the surface
called fissures. Some of these fissures can be up to 15 miles long.

b. Hawaiian – are similar to Icelandic eruptions because both eruption types have many fissures
bringing the lava to the surface. Both types of eruptions are known for their beautiful fire
fountains like the one shown above. The lava that flows from both types of eruptions is very hot,
thin, and runny which allows for fast flowing lava flows.

The main difference lies in the fact that most Hawaiian eruptions have the greatest quantity of
lava pouring out of the main vent at the volcano's summit, not along side fissures. These summit
eruptions build the cone steeper and higher.
 c. Strombolian – eruptions are named for the volcanic island off of the coast of Italy. Stromboli has
erupted over many centuries almost constantly. Stromboli has been named the "Lighthouse of
the Mediterranean" because it erupts every 20 minutes or so.

Strombolian eruptions are short lived explosive eruptions that shoot very thick and pasty lava
into the air along with bursts of steam and gas.

Strombolian eruptions usually produce little or no lava. Because of this the cones that are
produced by this type of eruption is a very steep sided cone called a cinder cone.

d. Vulcanian – eruptions are more violent and explosive than strombolian eruptions. Vulcanian
eruptions are named after the island of Vulcano off the coast of Italy. This is the same island that
gave us the name "Volcano". Vulcanian eruptions contain high dark clouds of steam, ash, and
gas.

e. Pelean – are named for the catastophic eruption on the island of Martinique in the Carribean
Sea in 1902. The eruption and the pyroclastic flow that followed killed 29,000 people almost
instantly. "Glowing clouds" of gas and ash flew down the mountain at over 70 miles per hour.
The cloud was so full of ash that it was heavier than air and hugged the ground as it
approached the coast. The temperatures were probably around 700 degress F. which would
annihalate everything in its path.

f. Plinian – the most explosive of the eruption types. Mt. St. Helens eruption was a plinian
eruption. Plinian eruptions are characterized by a very high ash cloud that rise upwards to
50,000 feet (almost 10 miles) high. Very deadly pyroclastic flows are also part of plinian
eruptions.

Mt. Vesuvius, which erupted in 79 A.D. in Italy, was a classic Plinian eruption. Very hot ash falls
killed thousands of people in the city of Pompei. Ash falls as high as 17 feet buried the city.
Plinian eruptions were named for Pliny the Elder of Rome who died in one of the many
eruptions of Vesuvius.

Volcanic Hazards
Volcanic hazards are directly or indirectly caused by eruption/s. Ash fall, ballistic projectile, lava flow
and volcanic gasses and directly caused by volcanic eruption as these are within the volcano Lahar is
one of the indirect volcanic hazards.

1. Ash Fall – are volcanic particles less than 2 millimeters in diameter which are propelled in the
atmosphere though an eruption column which eventually falls down. Accumulated ash fall may lead
to structural damage like roof collapse, contamination of water sources, and possible death by
burial. It is also hazardous to transportation like airplanes as it could lead to engine failure. For road
vehicles like cars and trucks it may cause slippery roads leading to accidents.
2. Ballistic Projectile – are volcanic materials (usually rocks) forced out of volcanic vents in steep
angles like those fired from cannon (Rimando, 2016) These rock projectiles can travel up to five
kilometers from volcanic vents if the eruption is very explosive (UWI SEISMIC, 2011). Damage or
loss to life and property may be the result of a ballistic projectile hitting a person or property.
3. Lava Flow – are magma (now lava) that is moving away from the top of a volcano. Lava flows travel
very fast (x Kilometers per hour) if it has low viscosity (malabnaw) or very slow in viscous conditions
(x kilometers per day). Close contact with lava flow leads to burnt skin and charred hair. Those
directly in the path of lava flows will be burned and crushed. Rationale behind the five kilometer
permanent danger zone may be traced to the longest travelled distance by lava flows.
4. Pyroclastic Flow – If lava flow generally is slow, it's faster and more destructive version is the
pyroclastic flow. It is dense, fast moving flow which is composed of solidified lava, volcanic ash and
hot gases. It is extremely hot and fast and capable of moving up to 200 meters per second It is
caused by pressure build up in the magma chamber or immediate movement of volcanic material to
the sides of a volcano. Pyroclastic flow are characterized by thick cloud of ash over fast moving
flows (National Geographic 2019).
5. Volcanic Gases – primarily water vapor pressure build up underneath magma. The three main
gases present in a volcanic eruption are: water vapor, carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide.
Superheated water vapor accounts for 97% of gas emitted from volcanic eruption. Carbon dioxide
accounts for up to 50% of total gas emission in a volcanic eruption. Sulfur dioxide is the least
among the three major gases released during a volcanic eruption (Sarokin, 2017). Other volcanic
 gases are carbon monoxide, hydrochloric acid, ammonia, fluorine, hydrofluoric acid and
hydrockloric acid. All gases mentioned except for fluorine, which is pale yellow in color, are
colorless, Tolerable levels of exposure to these gases may cause shortness of breath, irritation and
burns (Rimando, 2016). On a larger scale, volcanic gases form aerosol which is a coolant to the
earth but depletes the ozone layer. Other volcanic gases are toxic and can endanger livestock who
may eat contaminated plants (PHIVOLCS, 2018).
6. Lahar – are volcanic material deposits, debris and water that have flowed and mixed into other
bodies of water. The existence of lahars are more prominent in tropical areas due to volcanic
deposits carried by rainwater. (PHIVOLCS, 2018). Lahars are wet-cement like in consistency, carry
debris and are fast moving. Lahars are dangerous because of their speed and the materials they
carry. Imagine a hot flood with debris Lahars can turn productive lands into virtual wastelands.

Signs of an Impending Volcanic Eruption

Volcanic eruptions usually have tell-tale indicators prior to actual eruption/s. In the Taal volcano eruption
on January 12, 2020, signs of an imminent eruption about to take place were noted as early as March
2019. These signs include high gas content in the crater lake, unusual high number of recorded
earthquakes and lifting of the ground in the crater island (Flores, 2020). In a magma-induced volcanic
eruption, these signs are indicative of an impending eruption including increase in earthquake intensity
and frequency, minor changes in heat flow within the area and evident signs of steaming or formation of
or enlargement of hot grounds. (USGS, 2020)

Locally, the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology or PHIVOLCS under the Department of
Science and Technology (DOST) is the lead agency that focuses on disaster mitigation from
earthquakes, volcanic eruption and other related geological hazards (PHIVOLCS, 2018). The institute
monitors 24 active volcanoes within the country. Alert levels ranging from 0 to 5 in the volcanic activity
are issued by the agency.

For public awareness, PHIVOLCS has listed down in the common signs that indicate the impending
eruption of a volcano. These are the following:

1. Increase in the frequency of volcanic quakes with rumbling sounds; occurrence of volcanic tremors
2. Increased steaming activity; change in color of steam emission from white to gray due to entrained
ash
3. Crater glow due to presence of magma at or near the crater
4. Ground swells (or inflation), ground tilt and ground fissuring due to magma intrusion
5. Localized landslides, rockfalls and landslides from the summit area not attributable to heavy rains
6. Noticeable increase in the extent of drying up of vegetation around the volcano's upper slopes
7. Increase in the temperature of hot springs, wells (e.g. Bulusan and Canlaon) and crater lake (e.g.
Taal) near the volcano
8. Noticeable variation in the chemical content of springs, crater lakes within the vicinity of the volcano
9. Drying up of springs/wells around the volcano
10. Development of new thermal areas and/or reactivation of old ones: appearance of solfataras or
vents with hot and sulfuric springs.

The occurrence of some or all of the above phenomena is enough warning for people near the volcano
to do appropriate actions to avoid unwanted effects of the impending eruption.

Before a Volcanic Eruption

1. Plan
2. Prepare
3. Practice
4. Participate

During a Volcanic Eruption

1. Listen to volcanic eruption
2. Evacuate, move away from hazard zones
3. Seek the safety of indoors/Stay indoors is far from the hazard zone
4. Secure home from any damage, as well as yourself (body)

After a Volcanic Eruption

1. Remain inside
2. Return only when given the signal
3. Reciprocate