VBE Note
VBE Note
VBE Note
Text Book:
1. Braithwaite.J.B., " Vehicle Body building and drawing ", Heinemann Educational Books Ltd., London,
2. Sydney F. Page, “Body Engineering”, Chapman & Hill Ltd., London,
3. Dieter Anselm, “The Passenger Car Body” SAE Store
4. Jason C Brown, “Motor Vehicle Structures”, SAE Store
5. J Fairbrother, “Fundamentals of Vehicle Body work”, Hutchinson, London.
6. John Fenton, “Handbook of Automotive Body and Systems Design”, Wiley.
7. J Powloski, “Vehicle Body Engineering”, Business Books Ltd., London.
8. Aerodynamics of Road vehicles by Hucho W H, Butterworths Co Ltd
9. Automotive Aerodynamics by Brian Peacock and W Karwowski, Taylor and Francis Ltd, London
10. Noise and vibration in road vehicles by Mathew Harrison, SAE store
11. Vehicle Noise and Vibration; Recent Engg developments, SAE store
29
CHAPTER – 1 CAR BODY DETAIL
CAR BODY –:
The main purpose of the body work is to provide comfortable accomodation for
the driver and passangers, with suitable protection against wind and weather. The
degree of comfort provided will naturally depend upon type of car and its cost.
Car body is very important part of the vehicle and it complete the vehicle .
SALOON -:
A fully enclosed body which is typicalyly able to carry four or more people. Saloon
cars gernally have either two or four passanger doors. The common shape of
body shell is based on three ‘boxes’; the front box forms the engine
compartment, the centre section for container for the occupants or passangers
and the rear box for a storage space and it is known as boot or trunk for the
luggage. The three box are blended together to give a pleasing appaerance and
are shaped to enable the car to move through the air with the minimum drag.
Saloon is the British name of Sedan it is also known as the three box car . In
a three-box configuration with A, B & C-pillars and principal volumes articulated in
separate compartments for engine, passenger and boot . A sedan seats four or
more people and has a fixed roof that is full-height up to the rear window.
Convertabiles -:
Also called a cabriolet or drop head coupe , this car can be changed into an oepn
car by either removimg a rigid roof or lowring a collaspsble fabric roof . Prior to
the intro duction of air conditioning this type of car is widely used in hot cuntries .
Many modern convertables have want is effectively a rigid roof that can be
collased and stored in a relativelly small compartment behind the seats. Such
2. Folding textile roof - The collapsible textile roof section (of cloth or vinyl)
over an articulated folding frame may include linings such as a sound-
deadening layer or interior cosmetic headliner (to hide the frame) – or both –
and may have electrical or electro-hydraulic mechanisms for raising the roof.
The erected top secures to the windshield frame header with manual latches,
semi-manual latches, or fully automatic latches. The folded convertible top is
called the stack.
3. Cons - Convertibles offer the flexibility of an open top in trade for:
The tonneau of a car is the rear part of an open car, usually passenger seats,
other times just a luggage well. A tonneau cover protects that area when not
in use. The tonneau cover may also extend over the folded roof and an unused
front passenger seat and further extend over the entire passenger
compartment particularly for an open car without side-weather-protection
(windows sliding down into the doors). It then provides complete weather
protection for the entire passenger compartment and some sense of security
to the owner.
The MKI (first generation) MGB (1963) roadster could be supplied with a
foldable vinyl tonneau cover, often supported by a light detachable tube
installed to span behind the seats, the cover being attached to the car with a
series of twenty press fit snaps. The standard cover was a permanent vinyl or
cloth roof or convertible top – fixed to a relatively complex manually erected
Convertibles such as the Chrysler LeBaron (c. 1988) used sleeve and groove
systems to anchor a foldable vinyl tonneau cover, again installed manually
from outside the car. Later textile convertibles used semi-rigid plastic tonneau
covers, e.g., the first generation Audi TT and Cadillac Allanté.
Convertibles such as the first Porsche Boxster,[4] Toyota MR2 and third-
generation Mazda MX5 (NC) featured Z-fold (aka zig-zag fold[4]) tops, whereby
the exterior of the neatly retracted fabric roof also protected the remaining
roof from sun exposure – eliminating the aesthetic or protective need for a
tonneau cover.
Peugeot 402 with retractable hardtop Volvo c70 with retractable hardtop
Limousine
Estate Van -:
The Estae body is also known as the a station wagon in some countries has the
roof line extended to the rear of the body to inlarge its internal capacity. Folding
the rear seats down gives a large floor area for a carriage of luggage or goods . A
tailgates rear doors inables bulky or long object to loaded easily . Stronger
suspension spring are fitted at the rear to support the extra load. Estate van is
multipurpose vehicle wich is used for the two different types of purpose for
passenger and also for loading a vehicle . example of the estate van is maruti
Suzuki Omani, Maruti Suzuki varsha, Nissan Evalia, Tempo travel etc
The hatchback design are gernally used on a saloon body but with boot or trunk
area are blended into the centre section of the body. The hatchback is there fore
halfway between a saloon and a estae car. This type of car is also known as the
two box car and this type of car is very popular due to its versatility and style.
Mainly the hatchback is that car in which the pasanger and the boot space are
joint that are known as hatchback car. Such example of hatchback car are- Maruti
suzuki 800, Maruti Alto , Hyundayi - i10,i20 .
Racing and sports car both are haaving different types of body . A race car is only
used for going round a track, and the sports car can be a turned up ordinary
saloon or a two seater car with the lots of performance. Such examples of racing
cars and sports cars are – formula1 is the example of racing cars and the Jaguar
XKR-SGT, Ferrari LaFerrari, Porsche 911 GT3 etc.
1. Chassis or frame
2. Chassis less or unitary construction
Body panels – A panel is a steel or plastic sheet stamped or molded into a body
parts. Various panels are used in a vehicle. Usually, the name of panel is self –
explanatory; hood panel, fender panel , trunk lid panel or roof panel.
MINIBUSES – :
A Minibus gernally define as a motor vehicle with more than 8 and not more than
16 passanger seats . They are often based on the van bodies and have been
adapted by specialist coach-bilding firms, although some manufacturers produce
builts vehicles . The controls are usually simillar to those on cars.
Mini buses is a small buses and it is mainly used for the carrrying the passangers
and mini buses also uses for ambulances also.
Mini bus
Hino Liesse
Isuzu Journey
MCW Metrorider (also termed a midibus)
Nissan Diesel RN
Nissan Civilian
Mitsubishi Fuso Rosa
Toyota Coaster
Hyundai County
Tata winger
These are the some examples of the minibuses and the minibuses is that type of
buses which are small in size as compare to other.
SINGLE DECKER -
A single-decker bus or single-decker is a bus that has a single deck for passengers.
Normally the use of the term single-decker refers to a standard two-axled rigid
bus, in direct contrast to the use of the term double-decker bus, which is
essentially a bus with two passengers decks and a staircase. These types of single-
deckers may feature one or more doors, and varying internal combustion
engine positions.
In regions where double-deckers are not common, the term single-decker may
lack common usage, as in one sense, all other main types of bus have a single
deck. Also, the term may become synonymous with the name transit bus or
related terms, which can correctly be applied to double-deckers too.
With the exception of regions of major double deck or articulated bus operation,
usually urban areas, the single decker is the standard mode ofpublic transport bus
travel, increasingly with low floor features.
With their origins in van chassis, minibuses are not usually considered single-
deckers, although modern minibus designs blur this distinction.Midibuses can also
Dennis Falcon
Dennis Lance
Leyland-MCW Olympic
Leyland-MCW Olympian
Leyland National
Leyland Lynx
Mercedes-Benz O305
Mercedes-Benz O405
Mercedes-Benz Citaro
Volvo B7R
Volvo B7L
Volvo B7RLE
Volvo B10R
Volvo B10B
Volvo B10L
Volvo B10BLE
Volvo B10M
Around the English-speaking world, articulated buses have acquired several different synonyms that
allude to their articulated design, such as bendy buses, bending buses, tandem buses, stretch
buses, double buses, banana buses, slinky buses, wiggle
[citation needed]
buses,caterpillar buses, accordion buses or vestibule buses . Due to their high
passenger capacity, articulated buses are often used as part of bus rapid transit schemes, and can
include mechanical guidance
Used almost exclusively on public transport bus services, articulated buses are approximately 18 metres
(59 ft) in length; standard rigid-construction buses are usually 11 to 14 metres (36 to 46 ft). The common
arrangement of an articulated bus is to have a forward section with two axles leading a rear section with a
single axle, with the driving axle mounted on either the front or the rear section. Some articulated bus
models have a steering arrangement on the rearmost axle which turns slightly in opposition to the front
steering axle, allowing the vehicle to negotiate turns in a crab-like fashion, similar to hook-and-ladder fire
[1]
trucks operating in city environments. A less common variant of the articulated bus is the bi-articulated
One disadvantage that is sometimes experienced with some articulated models is the insufficiency of the
effective motive power available to them. It is common for articulated buses to use the same engine type
as non-articulated buses (for example, the Hungarian Ikarus 260 solo and IK 280 bendy share a common
10,350cubic centimetres (631.6 cu in), 192 brake horsepower (143 kW; 195 PS) inline six diesel engine).
The extra weight of the bendy bus gives rise to a slower speed and acceleration. When used in cities built
on numerous inclines (e.g. Vancouver, B.C. or San Francisco, California) the vehicle is prone to
overheating. This may lead to stalling, or in the worst situations to a full-fledged fire if the bus is powered
[citation needed]
by a diesel engine. During late 2003 and early 2004, a series of onboard fires on newly
delivered Mercedes-Benz Citaros led to Londoners humorously nicknaming the vehicles chariots of fire.
Mercedes-Benz quickly addressed the problem, although the vehicles were out of service for a
[3]
period. However, no overheating or fire-related incidents have ever been recorded in Vancouver's
articulated electric trolley buses from a similar cause. Vancouver's articulated trolley buses were
specifically chosen for the higher torque output of their electric motors, which typically outperform diesel-
based low-floor buses.
Use:-
Articulated buses have been used in most European countries for many years. Until 1980, they were
illegal on the UK's roads. A 1979 experiment bySouth Yorkshire Passenger Transport Executive with
buses manufactured by MAN and Leyland-DAB led to a change in the law, but the experiment was
abandoned in 1981 because double-decker buses were generally considered less expensive both to
purchase and to operate. The cost and weight of the strengthened deck framing and staircase of a
double-decker was lower than the cost and weight of the additional axle(s) and coupling mechanism of an
articulated bus. Modern technology has reduced the weight disadvantage, and the benefits of a
continuous low floor allowing easier access plus additional entrance doors for smoother loading have led
to reconsideration of the use of articulated buses in the UK.
Articulated buses became popular in mainland Europe due to their increased capacity compared with
regular buses. In many cities, lower railway bridge clearances have precluded the use of double-deck
vehicles, which have never achieved great popularity there. Overhead wires for trams, trolleybuses etc.
Bi-articulated buses
Main article: Bi-articulated bus
Since the late 1980s, the concept of the articulated bus has been extended further with the addition of a
second trailer section that extends the bus almost to tram length and capacity, to create abi-articulated
bus. The Chinese manufacturer Zhejiang Youngman (Jinhua Neoplan) has developed the 25 metres
(82 ft) JNP6280G bi-articulated bus, deemed the "world's largest", which will be used in Beijing. Bi-
articulated buses are still rare, having been trialled and rejected in some places. Because of their length
they have a role on very high-capacity routes, or as a component of abus rapid transit scheme.
A few attempts have been made to design a double-decker articulated bus. NEOPLAN Bus GmbH built a
handful of Neoplan Jumbocruisers between 1975 and 1992. In these models, only the upper deck allows
movement between the two sections, so each section has its own doors and set of stairs.
In puller articulated buses, the engine is mounted under the floor between the front and middle A- and B-
axles, and only the B-axle is powered. Some consider this an outdated design, as it prohibits floor levels
lower than approximately 750 millimetres (30 in), and can produce passenger discomfort due to
high noiseand vibration levels. On the other hand, the puller bus is cheaper to manufacture, and can be
used in very narrow or severely potholed streets. This type of bus also performs better in snowy or icy
conditions, as the thrust from the driving wheels does not cause the vehicle to jacknife. Also, the
unpowered C-axle is much simpler and carries no engine weight, facilitating the installation of counter-
steering mechanisms to further decrease the turning radius
Most school buses have roughly 75 seats for students. As you know there is a
short bus, which has about 1/3 the capacity, and a medium bus.
Bus Manufacturing
Bus manufacturing had its earliest origins in carriage building. Other bus manufacturers had their origins
in truck manufacturing. Historically, bus chassis were shared between truck designs, but in later years
specific bus chassis have been developed, and the midibus saw the introduction of a lighter weight bus
chassis than normal trucks.
Bus manufacture historically developed as chassis and body builds. Often, large bus operators or
authorities would maintain separate stocks of bus bodies, and would routinely refurbish buses in a central
works, and refurbished chassis might receive a different body. One of the first integral type bus designs
combining the body and chassis was the Routemaster.
The splitting of body and chassis construction allows companies to specialise in two different fields. It also
allows differing offerings of product to customers, who might prefer different chassis/body combinations.
For the manufacturers, it lessens the exposure if one or the other goes out of business. Larger operators
may also split orders between different body/chassis combinations for shorter delivery schedules.
Sometimes, a chassis and body builder will offer an exclusive combination of one body on one chassis,
as a 'semi-integral'. This combines the expertise of the two companies, and saves the cost of making their
chassis/body usable on different products.
Often builders, such as Duple Metsec will assemble products into kits, for export and local assembly at a
partner site.
Large users of transit buses, such as public transport authorities, may specify specific features that a bus
design must feature. This practice was notable in the Transport for London bus specification, and
predecessors.
A Volvo B10M chassis, bodied worldwide as a single decker bus,articulated bus, double decker bus, and coach
A structural underframe
Engine and radiator
Gearbox and transmission
Wheels, axles and suspension
Dashboard and steering wheel and driver's seat
Chassis will often be built as complete units, up to the point of being drive-able around the factory, or on
the public highway to a nearby bodybuilder. The chassis can be front-engined, mid-engined, or rear-
engined. Most chassis will mount the radiator at the front, irrespective of engine position, for more
efficient cooling.
Chassis products will often be available in different standard lengths, even produced in articulated
variants, and often be used for both bus and coach bodywork, such as the Volvo B10M. The same
chassis may even be used for single- or double-decker bus bodywork. Chassis builders may also offer
different options for gearbox and engine suppliers. Chassis may also be built in multiple axle
configuration.
Interior of the Alexander ALX500bodywork as applied to the 3-axle Volvo Super Olympian
The bus body builder will build the body onto the chassis. This will involve major consideration of:
Usage
Seating capacity
Staircase position/design (double-decker buses)
Number and position of doors
Bodywork is built for three general uses:
Bus
Dual Purpose
Coach
Bus bodywork is usually geared to short trips, with many transit bus features. Coach bodywork is for
longer distance trips, with luggage racks and under-floor lockers. Other facilities may include toilets and
televisions.
A dual purpose design is usually a bus body with upgraded coach style seating, for longer distance travel.
Some exclusive coach body designs can also be available to a basic dual purpose fitment.
In past double-deck designs, buses were built to a low bridge design, due to overall height restrictions.
The delivery specifications for the hard top are similar to those for the soft
top without, of course, top cloth testing.
Cabin
We will refer to a semitrailer cabin as a unitized construction made of stamped
sheets; this clarification is needed because some manufacturers (for instance,
ASTRA) are used to construct the cabin with a tubular steel space frame com-
pleted by bonded fiberglass panels.
Moreover, it must be remembered that a cabin is pneumatically suspended
and can tilt forward thanks to two front fitted hinges and two rear lifters.
Cabin assembly (Fig. 4.103) includes 5 main sub-assemblies:
A) floor assy;
B) back panel assy;
C) windshield frame;
D) RH and LH side frame.
It can be observed that the cabin assembly does not include the roof panel,
because it is usually made in three sizes fiberglass, then bonded to the cabin
assembly.
The windshield frame (Fig. 4.104) is related to the front cabin style, by outer
windshield pillar RH and LH (1) and cowl top (2); windshield header (3), header
boxing (5) and reinforcement (4) are assembled as front roof cross member.
RH body side (Fig. 4.105) can be split in two sub-assemblies: a front door
opening frame and a rear frame (rear cabin pillar) that is connected to the floor
and back panel assembly; upper outer panel (6) boxes upper side frame and
defines side cabin style.
Fig. 4.106 shows the complete set of RH floor rail parts, where the main
member is the longitudinal floor rail. The RH side floor provides support for the
passengers feet, while the floor reinforcement carries four threaded plates for the
seat frame fittings. Some brackets shown in the figure stiffen the floor rail where
the front cabin support is connected.
Fig. 4.107 shows the 6 cabin versions designed for the reference truck, with
their basic dimensions (width and length); instead the height can be chosen
across a range of values. Modularity is achieved in the following way:
• The door opening assembly is standard, therefore body side assembly and
doors are the same for all versions (Fig. 4.105).
• The engine compartment cover (central floor panel, as in Fig. 4.103) is unique
as well as floor rails.
• The windshield frame has standard pillar outer panels, while cross members
relate to cabin width.
• Cross elements, back panel assy and front cabin assy, are related to width.
• Different cabin lengths are obtained by adding cross floor panels relating to
width and additional rail extension. Moreover, the rear side pillar is replaced
by side stiffened panels, and assembled to the door opening and back panel.
Chassis
The chassis configuration is nominally ladder shaped, with two main longitudinal
rails (usually constant cross section for small trucks and variable section for
heavy duty semitrailers) and a number of cross members (Fig. 4.108).
The chassis rails and cross member can be steel cold or hot rolled or aluminum
extruded profiles, welded in the case of tapered section. Rails and cross members
can be joined using arc or spot welding, fasteners, bolts, screws. The assembling
technology used is often not related just to engineering or design analysis but to
the available plant facilities and common practice of the manufacturer. It should
be borne in mind that arc welding seams, mainly those between aluminum pro-
files, must be certified with x-ray images and 100% process parameters control.
Trucks specifications
The following list summarizes the most common specifications for these vehicles,
according to commercial vehicles targets.
Fig. 4.106. Sheet stamped elements of a cabin RH floor: 1) RH side floor; 2) RH floor
reinforcement; 3) RH rail; 4) RH rail extension; 5) RH rail front end brace; 6) RH rail
rear end bracket.
• Fatigue strength of steering wheel (in torsion and bending), steering wheel
adjustment device, steering column and handbrake assy mounting devices.
• Performance and durability of door hinges, door brakes, door handle and roof
handle.
Of course, the body should also comply with all relevant regulations imposed
in the country of the customer (regarding safety, visibility, etc.).
4.10.2 Pick-Up
These vehicles result from the union of a cabin for 2÷5 passengers (usually a
derivation from a sedan or a SUV) with a rear bed for cargo (mostly open top
with additional textile cover but sometimes sold in version closed by a hard
cover).
A pick-up body relates principally to the reference vehicle frame: if based on
a automobile platform, the underbody is not sufficiently stiff and strong to allow
a complete separation of cabin and rear bed. Therefore an integral body side is
needed incorporating the rear bed; this type is also called coupe utility pickup.
If derived from a SUV or an off-road vehicle, usually the cabin and rear bed can
behave as independent self supporting assemblies mounted on a common chassis.
The cabin can have 2 or 4 doors and short or long bed matching different
chassis frame lengths.
The structural design of the cabin to bed union is the most critical detail of
such vehicles, both in the case of integral and split body sides. In the first, the
discontinuity of section and stiffness between the cabin and rear bed are the
• safety and stability of freight: for this purpose, the cabin back includes ad-
equate trusses and shielding frames (Fig. 4.109) whereas the bed includes a
number of hooks for goods clamping (Fig. 4.110);
• safety for other road users: side and rear protection bars are provided for this
purpose (Fig. 4.111);
• warping and bending resistance of bed side walls and tailgate;
• absence of road noise, squeaks and rattles;
• resistance to environment-induced corrosion;
Fig. 4.111. Examples of side (A) and rear (B) protection for other road users. CA)
pick-up bed; AU) chassis; BA) side protection bar; BP) rear protection bar; LB) un-
derbody rail; G) ground.
Of course, all existing safety regulations in the countries where the vehicles
are registered must be respected as well as ratings related to lock effraction and
insurance impact testing.
Figure 1.18 Car-derived light commercial vehicle (light van) Figure 1.20 Pick-up body mounted on a chassis
When six wheels are used, the two extra wheels may be
carried on an additional axle at the rear of the vehicle,
as shown in Figure 1.24. These extra wheels are usually, Figure 1.25 An articulated HGV
• 5th percentile stature is a value whereby 5% of the population are shorter and 95% are
taller;
• 50th percentile stature is the median stature;
• 95th percentile stature is a value whereby 95% of the population are shorter and 5% are
taller.
The reader is referred to Roebuck (1995) for a full description of the variety of methods used
to collect anthropometric data. The strategies for using the data in design are described below:
(a) Find the relevant data for the intended occupants with respect to their race, occupation,
age, sex, disability. The data should be task specific so that, for example, arm reach to a
lever that will be pushed is quite different to arm reach for operating a push button.
(b) Make any necessary allowances for secular growth and clothing (e.g. 10 mm per decade for
stature in USA and UK, ~45 mm for female shoes, ~25 mm for male shoes)
(c) Establish your design limits. Traditionally these have been stated as 5th percentile values
for females and 95th percentile values for males. The authors consider that these limits are
Anthropometric and biomechanical data are extremely useful to the designer at the early
stages of design or when a novel design is being considered. However, it is very important that
any new design or modification is studied using mock-ups and the evaluation of prototypes. The
data can tell you where a person can reach but it does not tell you how the design, location and
direction of travel of a variety of controls can affect driving performance, comfort and safety.
Limitations to the use of percentiles have already been discussed under Fallacies 7 and 8 above.
Sources of civilian anthropometric data include Bodyspace (Pheasant 1996) which presents
data for a variety of nationalities including the UK, US, Swedish, Dutch, French, Polish,
Brazilian, Sri Lankan, Indian, Hong Kong Chinese and the Japanese. Adultdata (Peebles and
Norris, 1998) and Childata (Norris and Wilson, 1995) can be obtained through the UK Department
of Trade and Industry and present data for a variety of nationalities. Some specialist surveys
have examined driver anthropometry in the UK (MIRA Survey, Haslegrave, 1980), France
(Rebiffe et al., 1984) and the US (Sanders, 1977). A source book on Indian anthropometry has
recently been produced (Chakrabarti 1997). Another very useful source is PeopleSize (Open
Ergonomics 1999), an interactive computer based package that can also provide information on
multivariate accommodation. Figure 9.1 shows one of the People Size screens, from which the
designer clicks on the desired dimension and the selected percentile values are displayed
underneath. Table 9.1 presents an example of People Size data for large US male and small UK
female values.
Anthropometric methods are currently changing with the introduction of body scanners.
Such systems allow the collection of thousands of data points for the human body and this type
of data is very appropriately starting to be used in human modelling systems (see Section 9.4.6
below).
2-dimensional (2D) plastic manikins are often found in design studios, whereas sets of
anthropometric data are rarely available unless the company employ an ergonomist. These
manikins are typically full size and are overlaid on engineering drawings in order to examine
Buttock-sole
Thigh
depth
Buttock to
back-of-knee
Back-of-knee ht
Figure 9.1 An example of a People Size interactive screen interface. Stature, their shoulder height
may differ by as much as 122 mm. Furthermore, this torso proportion was found to have virtually no
correlation with either stature or weight
occupant accommodation. In the authors’ experience, such manikins are often used without a
knowledge of what they represent in terms of age range, occupational group, nationality or
posture (e.g. sitting upright or slumped). For example, the authors have found that British
vehicle manufacturers who market their vehicles in the United States were unaware that the
sitting height (vertical distance from the compressed seat surface to the top of the head) of their
95th percentile adult male manikin was 50 mm shorter than the 95th percentile erect sitting
height recorded by the National Health Survey conducted in the United States some 30 years
ago (Stoudt, Damon, McFarland and Roberts, 1965). The manikin was designed to have a
slumped sitting height which, according to the US survey, was equivalent to only a 60th
percentile erect sitting height. Furthermore, if the manikins are based on old data then they need
to have allowances made for secular growth.
Another major problem with 2D manikins is that they can be used in a very simplistic way.
For example, designers may have 50th and 95th percentile adult male manikins and a 5th
percentile adult female manikin. The nature of these manikins gives support to the notion that
people come either tall and long limbed, short and short limbed or somewhere in between. It
has been repeatedly demonstrated that this is not true and that the inter-correlation between
Notes:
(1) Measurements are for sitting erect and without shoes or heavy clothing.
(2) Multiple accommodation – if you specify 95th percentile for Sitting Height, Grip Reach, AND Back
of Knee Height, only 89% of people are accommodated. In order to fit 95th percentile in all these three
dimensions, you must specify 98th percentile for each dimension.
body dimensions is rather poor. For example, Haslegrave (1986) reported that seated shoulder
height varies from 30.6 to 39.5 percent of stature, which means that among men of average
stature, their shoulder height may differ by as much as 122 mm. Furthermore, this torso
proportion was found to have virtually no correlation with either stature or weight. The manikin
designer can resort to other techniques to ensure that the manikins are statistically correct, for
example by calculating median values or using regression equations to describe component
body dimensions for groups of men or women of a given stature and weight. Whichever method
is chosen, to define a variety of statistically ‘correct’ manikins, there is still the problem of
estimating the percentage of people accommodated by a particular design. A common mistake
made by many designers is to use the 5th percentile female stature and 95th percentile male
stature manikins to assess a workstation, assuming that if both of these manikins can be
accommodated then so can 95% of the adult population (see Fallacy 8, above). This is an
incorrect assumption as it implies that those people ‘designed out’ due to their sitting height,
hip breadth or leg length, for example, are greater than 95th percentile male values are all the
same people. Similarly, all those with sitting eye height, arm length or leg length smaller than
5th percentile female values are assumed to be the same individuals. As these dimensions are
not strongly correlated then these assumptions are incorrect.
An anti-sway or anti-roll bar is intended to force each side of the vehicle to lower, or rise, to
similar heights, to reduce the sideways tilting (roll) of the vehicle on curves, sharp corners, or
large bumps. With the bar removed, a vehicle's wheels can tilt away by much larger distances
(as shown by theSUV image at right). Although there are many variations in design, a common
function is to force the opposite wheel's shock absorber, spring or suspension rod to lower, or
rise, to a similar level as the other wheel. In a fast turn, a vehicle tends to drop closer onto the
outer wheels, and the sway bar will soon force the opposite wheel to also get closer to the
vehicle. As a result, the vehicle tends to "hug" the road, closer in a fast turn, where all wheels
are closer to the body. After the fast turn, then the downward pressure is reduced, and the
paired wheels can return to their normal height against the vehicle, kept at similar levels by
the connecting sway bar.
Because each pair of wheels is cross-connected by a bar, then the combined operation causes
all wheels to generally offset the separate tilting of the others, and the vehicle tends to remain
level against the general slope of the terrain. A negative side-effect, of connecting pairs of
wheels, is that a jarring or bump to one wheel tends to also jar the opposite wheel, causing a
larger impact applied across the whole width of the vehicle. If there are several potholes
scattered in the road, then a vehicle will tend to rock, side-to-side, or waddle, due to the action
of the bar at each pair of wheels. Other suspension techniques can be used to delay, or
dampen, the effect of the connecting bar, as when hitting small holes which momentarily jolt
just a single wheel, whereas larger holes or longer tilting would then tug the bar with the
opposite wheel.
Principles
A sway bar is usually a torsion spring that resists body roll motions. It is usually constructed
out of a wide, U-shaped (in plan view) cylindrical steel bar that connects to the body at two
points, and at the left and right sides of the suspension. If the left and right wheels move
together, the bar rotates about its mounting points. If the wheels move relative to each other,
the bar is subjected to torsion and forced to twist. Each end of the bar is connected to an end
link through a flexible joint. The sway bar end link in turn connects to a spot near a wheel or
axle, permitting forces to be transferred from a heavily-loaded axle to the opposite side.
Forces are therefore transferred:
Dynamics
Vehicle rollovers are divided into two categories: tripped and untripped. Tripped rollovers are
caused by forces from an external object, such as a curb or a collision with another vehicle.
Untripped crashes are the result of steering input, speed, and friction with the ground. [1]
Untripped rollovers occur when cornering forces destabilize the vehicle. As a vehicle rounds
a corner, three forces act on it: tire forces (thecentripetal force), inertial effects (the centrifugal
force), and gravity. The cornering forces from the tire push the vehicle towards the center of
the curve. This force acts at ground level, below the center of mass. The force of inertia acts
horizontally through the vehicle's center of mass away from the center of the turn. These two
forces make the vehicle roll towards the outside of the curve. The force of the vehicle's weight
acts downward through the center of mass in the opposite direction. When the tire and inertial
forces are enough to overcome the force of gravity, the vehicle starts to turn over.
The most common type of tripped rollovers occur when a vehicle is sliding sideways, and the
tires strike a curb, dig into soft ground, or a similar event occurs that results in a sudden
increase lateral force. The physics are similar to cornering rollovers. In a 2003 report, this was
the most common mechanism, accounting for 71% of single-vehicle rollovers. [2]
Another type of tripped rollover occurs due to a collision with another vehicle or object. These
occur when the collision causes the vehicle to become unstable, such as when a narrow object
causes one side of the vehicle to accelerate upwards, but not the other. Turned down guard
rail end sections have been shown to do this. A side impact can accelerate a vehicle sideways.
The tires resist the change, and the coupled forces rotate the vehicle. In 1983, crash
tests showed that light trucks were prone to rolling over after colliding with certain early
designs of guide rail.
A rollover can also occur as a vehicle crosses a ditch or slope. Slopes steeper than 33 percent
(one vertical unit rise or fall per three horizontal units) are called 'critical slopes' because they
can cause most vehicles to overturn.
A vehicle may roll over for other reasons, such as when hitting a large obstacle with one of its
wheels or when maneuvering over uneven terrVehicles
All vehicles are susceptible to rollovers to various extents. Generally, the higher the center of
mass, the narrower the axle track, the more sensitive the steering, and the higher the speed,
the more likely a vehicle is to roll over.
The rollover threshold for passenger cars is over 1 g of lateral acceleration. Light trucks will
roll over at lateral accelerations of 0.8 to 1.2 g. Large commercial trucks will roll at lateral
accelerations as low as 0.2 g Civilian SUVs and full-sized vans are notorious for rolling over
because they usually have a higher center of gravity, caused by a higher ground clearance.
Manufacturers often post warnings on the driver's sun-visor. Among the vehicles which have
After a rollover, the vehicle may end up lying on its side or roof, often blocking the doors and
complicating the escape for the passengers. Large passenger vehicles such as buses, trams,
andtrolleybuses that have doors on one side only usually have one or more methods of using
windows for escape in case of a rollover. Some have special windows with handles to pull so
that windows can be used as an emergency exit. Some have tools fixed near the windows for
breaking the glass and making an improvised exit. Some have emergency exits in their roofs.
Some combine two or more of these escape methods
The crumple zone is a structural feature mainly used in automobiles and recently
incorporated into railcars.
Crumple zones are designed to absorb the energy from the impact during a traffic collision by
controlled deformation. This energy is much greater than is commonly realized. A 2000 kg car
travelling at 60 km/h (16.7 m/s), before crashing into a thick concrete wall, is subject to the
same impact force as a front-down drop from a height of 14.2m crashing on to a solid concrete
surface.[7] Increasing that speed by 50% to 90km/h (25m/s) compares to a fall from 32m - an
increase of 125%. [8] This is because the stored kinetic energy (E) is given by E = (1/2) mass
× speed squared. It increases as the square of the impact velocity.
Typically, crumple zones are located in the front part of the vehicle, in order to absorb the
impact of a head-on collision, though they may be found on other parts of the vehicle as well.
According to a British Motor Insurance Repair Research Centre study of where on the vehicle
impact damage occurs: 65% were front impacts, 25% rear impacts, 5% left side, and 5% right
side.[11] Some racing cars use aluminium or composite/carbon fibre honeycomb to form
an impact attenuator that dissipates crash energy using a much smaller volume and lower
weight than road car crumple zones.[12] Impact attenuators have also been introduced on
highway maintenance vehicles in some countries.
An early example of the crumple zone concept was used by the Mercedes-Benz engineer Béla
Barényi on the mid 1950's Mercedes-Benz "Ponton".[13]This innovation was first patented by
Mercedes-Benz in the early 1950s. The patent 854157, granted in 1952, describes the
decisive feature of passive safety. Barényi questioned the opinion prevailing till then, that a
safe car had to be rigid. He divided the car body into three sections: the rigid non-deforming
passenger compartment and the crumple zones in the front and the rear. They are designed
to absorb the energy of an impact (kinetic energy) by deformation during collision.[14]
On September 10, 2009, ABC News 'Good Morning America' and 'World News' showed a U.S.
Insurance Institute of Highway Safety crash test of a 2009 Chevrolet Malibu in an offset head-
on collision with a 1959 Chevrolet Bel Air sedan. It dramatically demonstrated the
effectiveness of modern car safety design over 1950s design, particularly of rigid passenger
safety cells and crumple zones
Function
Crumple zones work by managing crash energy, absorbing it within the outer parts of the
vehicle, rather than being directly transmitted to the occupants, while also preventing intrusion
A misconception about crumple zones sometimes voiced[citation needed] is that they reduce safety
for theoccupants of the vehicle by allowing the body to collapse, therefore risking crushing the
occupants. In fact, crumple zones are typically located in front of and behind the main body of
the car (which forms a rigid 'safety cell'), compacting within the space of the engine
compartment or boot/trunk. The marked improvement over the past two decades in high speed
crash test results and real-life accidents also belies any such fears. Modern vehicles using
what are commonly termed 'crumple zones' provide far superior protection for their occupants
in severe tests against other vehicles with crumple zones and solid static objects than older
models or SUVs that use a separate chassis frame and have no crumple zones.
They do tend to come off worse when involved in accidents with SUVs without crumple zones
because most of the energy of the impact is absorbed by the vehicle with the crumple zone —
however, even for the occupants of the 'worse off' car, this will still often be an improvement
— as the result of two vehicles without crumple zones colliding will usually be more hazardous
to both vehicle's occupants than a collision that is at least partly buffered.[citation needed]
Another problem is 'impact incompatibility' where the 'hard points' of the ends of chassis rails
of SUVs are higher than the 'hard points' of cars, causing the SUV to 'override' the engine
compartment of the car.[17] In order to tackle this problem, recent Volvo SUV/off-roaders
incorporate structures below the front bumper designed to engage lower-height car crumple
zones.
Seat belt
A seat belt, also known as a safety belt, is a safety protection in vehicles designed to secure
the occupant of a vehicle against harmful movement that may result during a collision or a
Types
Two-point
A 2-point belt attaches at its two endpoints.
Lap
A lap belt is a strap that goes over the waist. This was the most commonly installed type of
belt prior to legislation requiring 3-point belts, and is primarily found in older cars.
Some coaches are equipped with lap belts, as are passenger aircraft seats.
Until the 1980s, three-point belts were commonly available only in the front outboard seats of
cars; the back seats were only often fitted with lap belts. Evidence of the potential of lap belts
to cause separation of the lumbar vertebrae and the sometimes associated paralysis, or "seat
belt syndrome", led to progressive revision of passenger safety regulations in nearly all
developed countries to require 3-point belts first in all outboard seating positions and
eventually in all seating positions in passenger vehicles. Since September 1, 2007, all new
cars sold in the U.S. require a lap and shoulder belt in the center rear seat.[11] Besides
regulatory changes, "seat belt syndrome" has led to tremendous liability for vehicle
manufacturers. One Los Angeles case resulted in a $45 million jury verdict against the Ford
Motor Company; the resulting $30 million judgment (after deductions for another defendant
who settled prior to trial) was affirmed on appeal in 2006.[12]
Sash
A "sash" or shoulder harness is a strap that goes diagonally over the vehicle occupant's
outboard shoulder and is buckled inboard of his or her lap. The shoulder harness may attach
to the lap belt tongue, or it may have a tongue and buckle completely separate from those of
the lap belt. Shoulder harnesses of this separate or semi-separate type were installed in
conjunction with lap belts in the outboard front seating positions of many vehicles in the North
American market starting at the inception of the shoulder belt requirement of the U.S. National
A 3-point belt is a Y-shaped arrangement, similar to the separate lap and sash belts, but
unitized. Like the separate lap-and-sash belt, in a collision the 3-point belt spreads out the
energy of the moving body over the chest, pelvis, and shoulders. Volvo introduced the first
production three-point belt in 1959.[13] The first car with three point belt was a Volvo PV 544 that
was delivered to a dealer in Kristianstad on August 13, 1959. However, the first car model to
feature the three point seat belt as a standard item was the 1959 Volvo 122, first outfitted with
a two-point belt at initial delivery in 1958, replaced with the three point seat belt the following
year.[14] The three point belt was developed by Nils Bohlin who had earlier also worked
on ejection seats at Saab.[15] Volvo then made the new seat belt design patent open in the
interest of safety and made it available to other car manufacturers for free.[16][17]
Belt-in-Seat (BIS)
The BIS is a three-point harness with the shoulder belt attached to the seat itself, rather than
to the vehicle structure.[18] The first car using this system in the United States was the 1990
Mercedes-Benz SL.[19] Some cars like the Renault Vel Satis use this system for the front seats.
A General Motors assessment concluded seat-mounted 3-point belts offer better protection
especially to smaller vehicle occupants,[20][dead link] though GM did not find a safety performance
improvement in vehicles with seat-mounted belts versus body-mounted belts.[21]
Airbag
An airbag is a vehicle safety device. It is an occupant restraint system consisting of a flexible
fabric envelope or cushion designed to inflate rapidly during an automobile collision. Its
purpose is to cushion occupants during a crash and provide protection to their bodies when
they strike interior objects such as the steering wheel or a window. Modern vehicles may
contain multiple airbag modules in various side and frontal locations of the passenger seating
positions, and sensors may deploy one or more airbags in an impact zone at variable rates
based on the type, angle and severity of impact; the airbag is designed to only inflate in
moderate to severe frontal crashes. Airbags are normally designed with the intention of
supplementing the protection of an occupant who is correctly restrained with a seatbelt. Most
designs are inflated through pyrotechnic means and can only be operated once. Newer side-
impact airbag modules consist of compressed air cylinders that are triggered in the event of a
side impact vehicle impact.
The first commercial designs were introduced in passenger automobiles during the 1970s with
limited success. Broad commercial adoption of airbags occurred in many markets during the
late 1980s and early 1990s with a driver airbag, and a front passenger airbag as well on some
cars; and many modern vehicles now include four or more units.
Side airbag
There are essentially two types of side airbags commonly used today, the side torso airbag
and the side curtain airbag.
Most vehicles equipped with side curtain airbags also include side torso airbags. However
some exceptions such as the Chevrolet Cobalt,[22] 2007-09 model Chevrolet Silverado/GMC
Sierra, and 2009-12 Dodge Ram[23] do not feature the side torso airbag.
Side torso airbag
Side-impact airbags or side torso airbags (side thorax/abdomen airbags) are a category of
airbag usually located in the seat, and inflate between the seat occupant and the door. These
airbags are designed to reduce the risk of injury to the pelvic and lower abdomen regions.
The design is conceptually simple; a central "Airbag control unit"[38] (ACU) (a specific type
of ECU) monitors a number of related sensors within the vehicle, including accelerometers,
impact sensors, side (door) pressure sensors,[39][40] wheel speed sensors, gyroscopes, brake
pressure sensors, and seat occupancy sensors. When the requisite 'threshold' has been
reached or exceeded, the airbag control unit will trigger the ignition of a gas
generatorpropellant to rapidly inflate a fabric bag. As the vehicle occupant collides with and
squeezes the bag, the gas escapes in a controlled manner through small vent holes. The
airbag's volume and the size of the vents in the bag are tailored to each vehicle type, to spread
out the deceleration of (and thus force experienced by) the occupant over time and over the
occupant's body, compared to a seat belt alone.
The signals from the various sensors are fed into the Airbag control unit, which determines
from them the angle of impact, the severity, or force of the crash, along with other variables.
Depending on the result of these calculations, the ACU may also deploy various additional
restraint devices, such asseat belt pre-tensioners, and/or airbags (including frontal bags for
driver and front passenger, along with seat-mounted side bags, and "curtain" airbags which
cover the side glass). Each restraint device is typically activated with one or
more pyrotechnic devices, commonly called an initiator or electric match. The electric match,
which consists of an electrical conductor wrapped in a combustible material, activates with a
current pulse between 1 to 3 amperes in less than 2 milliseconds. When the conductor
becomes hot enough, it ignites the combustible material, which initiates the gas generator. In
a seat belt pre-tensioner, this hot gas is used to drive a piston that pulls the slack out of the
Laminated Glasses
Laminated glass is a type of safety glass that holds together when shattered. In the event of
breaking, it is held in place by an interlayer, typically ofpolyvinyl butyral (PVB), between its two
or more layers of glass. The interlayer keeps the layers of glass bonded even when broken,
and its high strength prevents the glass from breaking up into large sharp pieces. This
produces a characteristic "spider web" cracking pattern when the impact is not enough to
completely pierce the glass.
Laminated glass is normally used when there is a possibility of human impact or where the
glass could fall if shattered. Skylight glazing and automobilewindshields typically use
laminated glass. In geographical areas requiring hurricane-resistant construction, laminated
glass is often used in exterior storefronts, curtain walls and windows. The PVB interlayer also
gives the glass a much higher sound isolation rating, due to the damping effect, and also
blocks 99% of incoming UV radiation
Top Layer:..Glass
Bottom layer:..Glass
Laminated glass is also sometimes used in glass sculptures.
Manufacture
1. using two or more pieces of glass bonded between one or more pieces of plasticized
polyvinyl butyric resin using heat and pressure.
2. using two or more pieces of glass and polycarbonate, bonded together with aliphatic
urethane interlayers under heat and pressure.
3. interlaid with a cured resin.
Each manufacturing process may include glass lites of equal or unequal thickness.
absorbed energy
element full overlap 50% offset
(≈US-NCAP) (≈AMUS)
main front rails (5) 60% 40%
upper front rails (2) 6% 10%
mechanics frame (6) 20% 30%
crash box (3) 10% 5%
bumper crossmember (4) 4% 15%
Fig. 13.62 shows the deformation subjected to by the front structure in the
case of insurance impact made on the left side of vehicle.
The crash box that is subjected to the impact is almost completely deformed
axially, while the two front rails do not exhibit relevant deformation. In this way,
the repair of damage consists only on the substitution of the front crossmember
group, through the dismounting of the two flanges that connect it to rails. In
addition, if the mechanical groups are appropriately mounted behind the flanges
that support the crash box, they should not be damaged by the impact.
• repeatability: the same dummy, subject to the same stresses many times,
must have equal responses;
4 3
7
5 6
Fig. 13.63. Front structure configuration. 1) Undeformable cockpit; 2) upper front
rails; 3) crash box ; 4) bumper crossmember; 5) rails; 6) mechanics frame.
as the adjustment of the same dummies, derive from studies on cadavers (or
PMHS, Post Mortem Human Subjects) conducted in a limited number of spe-
cialized centres in this kind of tests (eg: Wayne State University – USA, INRETS
– F, Heidelberg – D).
As shown on table in Fig. 13.2, the characteristics of dummies depend on the
type of impact they are used for and the occupants they represent:
• age, if children;
• standard regulation.
The pelvis and the rib-damper units implement mechanisms to reduce the
friction caused by the compression movement of the ribs. The two iliac crests are
made with a special plyurethane plastic and are removable. The lumbar spine is
erect, while a ”jacket” of elastomeric material covers the chest, the two upper
parts of arms and the lower region of the pelvis.
Fig. 13.66 shows the type and the number of the measurement devices installed
on a dummy.
The WorldSID program for the research and the development of a single
dummy to replaces, as a global standard, the different types of side impact dummy
currently used is now nearing conclusion.
Virtual dummies
Bearing in mind the quality of a vehicle with respect to a crash is evaluated
principally through the biomechanical response of dummies during experimental
crash tests, the similar importance that virtual dummies models have in the CAE
approach is also evident.
These virtual dummies are used in the structuring stage of vehicle when the
impact absorption characteristics of the system need to attain the objective
relative to the safety level of the occupants.
Although physical crash test dummies have provided highly valuable data
on how human body reacts during impacts and have contributed to improve the
design of the structure, a vehicle can be used once for a physical crash test which
cannot be repeated exactly in the same way.
A second problem with physical dummies is that they only approximately
represent humans; furthermore the sensors installed in a Hybrid III, for example,
still only reproduce remotely the number of sensitive elements on a living human,
and the simulation of internal organs is still at an extremely rudimentary level.
Today virtual models of dummies used during the experimental test can be
ceated and refined to accurately reproduce the physical crash. In addition to sim-
ulating the complete occupant, studies of injuries to single parts can be made
with a high level of detail; results have demonstrated reliability and are encour-
aging.
The potentially significant advantages of virtual impact simulation with re-
spect to physical testing are evident: A virtual vehicle crashed once can be suc-
cessively modified, eg. in terms of the configuration of the belts, and the crash
repeated. Since each variable is under control and each event is repeatable, the
need and cost of physical tests would be significantly reduced.
The modern mass-produced passenger car is almost exclusively produced with sheet steel
pressings spot welded together to form an integral structure. This is a structure where the
component parts provide both structural and other functions. The depth of a structure such as
a space frame, can improve the stiffness and in the integral structure the whole side frame with
its depth and the roof are made to contribute to the vehicle bending and torsional stiffness. A
typical passenger car integral structure is shown in Figure 6.18.
There are many ways of modelling a vehicle structure for the purpose of determining loads and
stresses within the structure. The most elementary form described as a beam has already been
considered in Figure 6.2. Complex models are considered in section 6.4. Before these complex
models are examined, it is useful to have intermediate models that help understanding of the
main load paths within the structure.
One most useful method was developed by Pawlowski (1964) is called Simple Structural
Surfaces. It is possible with this method to determine the loads on the main structural members
of an integral structure. Although this type of structure is highly redundant it is possible by
careful representation of the main elements in the structure to determine loads and hence stress
by the simple equations of statics.
For example, a simple van structure can be represented as shown in Figure 6.19. This shows
that the body structure is represented by 10 structural components or Simple Structural Surfaces.
These are the roof, floor, 2 side-frames, front panel and windscreen frame, rear frame plus three
floor cross-beams. Figure 6.19 shows the torsion load case previously described in Section
6.1.2 and the forces acting on each Simple Structural Surface. If the geometry of the vehicle
and the axle loads are known, all the edge loads P1 . . . Pn and Q1 . . . Qn, acting can be evaluated
between the Simple Structural Surfaces. From these loads the sections for the window pillars,
floor cross-beams, etc. can be evaluated to give acceptable levels of stress and deflection.
A Simple Structural Surface is ‘rigid’ in its own plane but ‘flexible’ out of plane. That is, it can
carry loads in its plane (tension, compression, shear, bending) but loads normal to the plane and
bending out of the plane are not possible. Figure 6.20 illustrates diagrammatically the principle
of the Simple Structural Surface.
Using the same basic model of Figure 6.19 the torsion load case can be considered in detail.
10
Q4
Q6 Q4
Q5 7 Q3
Q6
h
P2 P3 Q3
5
Q1 Q2
w Q3
3
Q6 P3
Q5 2 Q2 Q6
9 Q6
Q5
Q6 P2 8 Q4
α R r′ /2
Q6 P3
Q2 6
Q1 4 Q6 P2 Q3 Q3
tr tr
Rf / 2 Rf / 2 R r′ /2
Q1 h2 P3
Q6 SF
A P2
Q1
Q2
I4
BM
(I2 + I3)
I1
My
Fx
x y
Fz
3 3 3
I x = at I y = tb I z = bt
12 12 12
Iy >> Iz Iy >> Ix
Fy = 0 Mx = 0 Mz = 0
Taking the axle with the lightest load as explained in 6.1.2 equal and opposite loads (up and
down) are applied to the front and rear cross beams (SSS-2 and SSS-3). In this example when
Rf
fully laden a van front axle is most probably the lightest loaded axle so is taken as acting
2
up and down on SSS-2.
P3 w – R ′ t r = 0 (6.13)
2
P2 and P3 will in fact be equal in magnitude because they both act at the width of the vehicle
and the torque at front and rear must be equal.
Now consider the loads from the cross-beams acting on the left-hand sideframe (SSS-6).
Edge loads Q1 to Q5 will occur around the periphery of the sideframe applying an opposing
moment to the moment applied by P2 and P3. The moment equation can be developed for SSS-
6 by taking moments about A, the base of the windscreen pillar, see Figure 6.19.
P3(l1 + l2 + l3 ) – Q3(l1 + l2 + l3 + ) – Q4(h1 – h2) – Q2h2 – P2l1 = 0
l4 (6.14)
Consider the equilibrium of SSS-4, 5, 8, 9, 10. These surfaces must all be held in equilibrium
by complementary shear forces which balance the moments applied from the side-frames. The
right-hand side-frame must of course be loaded exactly opposite to the left-hand side-frame.
As previously explained in Sections 6.1.2 and 6.1.3 the torsion case always is combined with
bending so using the principle of superposition the load conditions from the two cases can be
added to obtain the loads on individual members of the structure.
A passenger car structure such as for a saloon car is constructed with a more geometrically
complex structure than a box van (Figure 6.22). However, it is still possible to model with
Simple Structural Surfaces as shown in Figure 6.21. Detail models will vary according to
mechanical components, especially the suspensions, see Figure 6.23. In this model the front
suspension loads will be applied at the top of the front wing, as for a strut suspension, while the
rear suspension loads are applied to the inner longitudinal member under the boot floor. This
1 2
η=6 η=7 η = 14
arrangement would apply for a twist beam/trailing arm suspension. Other suspension types and
body types (i.e. Hatchback) will require different SSSs to represent the structure.
The diagram, Figure 6.23, shows a half model for simplicity; the distribution of loads, again
for simplicity, are limited to five loads plus the uniformly distributed load representing the body
weight. The main loads are, F1z = (radiator, bumper, battery)/2, F2z = (engine)/2, F3z = one front
passenger and seat, F4z = one rear passenger, seat, and half fuel tank, F5z = (luggage)/2.
l8
SSS-9
β l7
SSS-8
lg l3 α K10
h h3
SSS-4 K10
SSS-2 M h1 K8
A
K3 K6 w3
K6 K7 K11 K11 K9
Kf h2
K1 K2 K5 F4z F5z
K2z K4 K7 F3z
SSS-1 F1a K2 K5 w K8
R zf 2
2 K9
K4 SSS-6
SSS-7 l10
SSS-3 l2 l3
l4 SSS-5
l1 R rz
w1 L l5 l6
w2 2
The reactions at the front and rear axles are determined first. Take moments about the rear
axle and obtain Rzf/2 (a half-model is being considered). Take moments about the front axle and
obtain Rrz/2 and check by resolving vertically that vertical forces are in equilibrium. Then
working through the Simple Structural Surfaces the edge forces can be obtained.
s3 b3 s3
Jx = a , Jy = s , Jz = b . (7.14)
12 12 12
Because of our assumption, Jx and Jz are much smaller than Jy and the
structural surface so defined will be able to withstand only bending moments
along the y axis and forces parallel to the sides.
For example, the application of a force Fz to one side of this panel can be
balanced by two shear forces Q1 and Q2 applied to the two sides, so as to satisfy
the equation:
Q1 b − Q2 a = 0 ,
(7.15)
Fz − Q2 = 0 .
But in consideration of the limited thickness, these shear forces can be ap-
plied only if there are other constraints, able to limit the shape instability of
this thin surface on the compressed side (the lower one in our example). This
constraint can be another panel, laying on a perpendicular plane, welded to the
first, or a beam probably shaped by a closed section with the near panel.
The entire body shell can be modelled with a set of plane structural surfaces,
which approximate its curved surface. The contribution of the beams can be
neglected, retaining only their role in avoiding wall instability.
Panels can be made in different shapes, but are always characterized by
their ability to react to forces contained solely in their plane
Figure 7.14 shows some useful examples for the following applications.
Figure 7.15 shows an example of a schematic model of a three volume sedan.
A car body structure can be modelled for a simplified structural analysis
as a combination of structural surfaces; now we can look at the consequences of
these assumptions.
Let us consider a roll moment applied to the body shell of Fig. 7.15 at the
front axle position; this moment can be balanced by two shear forces acting on
panels simulating the interior walls of the front wheel wells.
FIGURE 7.15. The many kinds of panel, needed for building a model of a hatchback
four doors sedan.
For example, the panel AA’BB’ receives a force contained in its mean plane
and directed upwards; as for the panel in Fig. 7.13, it is possible to calculate the
shear forces that must be applied to its sides by the adjoining panels.
The shear reaction on the side of this panel will load the near CC’D’D panel
and, from this, the panels near it. It should be noticed that the neighboring
triangular panel BB’C cannot offer any contribution, because it is perpendicular
to the direction of force, as are roof and floor panels.
A similar logical process can be applied to all forces that the front suspen-
sions apply to the body structure through the front panel AA’B’B.
If we consider a lateral force applied to the suspension, because of a bend or
the inclination of their arms, we must conclude that the panel AA’B’B is unable
to react properly; in this case, the triangular panel BB’C will do the job.
Similar considerations can be applied to a concentrated load applied to the
car floor, such as a seat mount or a rear suspension arm. The structure will be
able to react only if at the application point of the load a panel with its mean
plane directed parallel to the force is applied.
The first step consists in defining loads on the sides of the structural sur-
faces. These loads can be kept constant, as a first approximation, even if their
surface will be modified; this can speed up evaluations when a design is changed
frequently.
The second step consists in determining the shear stress on each surface,
where the previously defined loads act.
The many subassemblies such as vehicle sides, door frames, roof and floor
can be studied separately as plane problems.
Occupants
Fuel tank
• Due to loading in Engine
vertical (X‐Z) plane.
• Due to weight of
components along
the vehicle frame.
• Static condition vehicle Wheels/
Suspension
b ki
braking
structure can be treated
as 2‐D beam.
– Vehicle is approximately
pp y symmetric
y in x‐yy plane.
p
• Unsprung mass
– Components lie below chassis
– Do not impose loads in static condition
condition.
– Static loads
• Vehicle at rest .
• Moving at a constant velocity on a even road.
• Can be solved using static equilibrium balance.
• Results in set of algebraic equations. F
– Dynamic loads
• V
Vehicle
hi l moving
i on a bumpy
b roadd even att constant
t t velocity.
l it m m
g
• Can be solved using dynamic equilibrium balance. a
• Generally results in differential equations.
Front axle
• Deceleration – Weight
transferred from back to front.
– Reaction force on front wheel is
given by
Table 2.1
Instantaneous Low: <10 High: 104 Limited permanent Large pot-holes, kerb
overload deformation, maintenance bumps, large bumps, panic
of function braking, high g cornering,
high power-train torque,
overland transport, service
Fatigue High: 102 Moderate: 103 Cycles or distance to crack Cobblestone track, medium
initiation, limited crack size pot-holes, Belgium
propagation, maintenance block road, twist course,
of function transport, service
and method of lashing have a strong influence on the reaction loads into the body
structure.
Service loads are those which occur when the vehicle must be serviced either by the
customer or a technician. Examples are jacking to change a tyre, towing, hoisting, or
retrieval of a disabled vehicle from a ditch. There are usually location points designated
to help ensure that the structure is not damaged from improper use.
Figures 2.3 and 2.4 describe different loading types. Instantaneous overloads are
characterized by short duration transient events with high amplitudes.
800
Force (N) − Positive sense: outward
600
400
200
0
Legend
TEST DATA
−200
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Time (sec)
Fatigue loads are characterized by complex time histories with lower amplitudes but
a greater number of occurrences. These time histories, when multiplied by the number
of occurrences or block repetitions of the event, constitute a number of cycles on the
order of 104 to 105 .
Raw time histories are usually condensed and processed by rainflow cycle counting
or other techniques to derive the number of cycles at each stress level. This data is
then used to perform structural life estimations.
The next sections of this chapter represent gross simplifications of the dynamic load
spectra into static load estimates which are used for first order structural synthesis and
analysis.
i.e. equivalent load ≡ (static load) × (dynamic load factor) × (safety factor)
In order to apply this approach, certain load cases are considered. For early design
consideration, these will be ‘global’ road load cases, i.e. affecting the structure as a
whole. As the design develops, local load cases (e.g. door slam, hinge loads, bracket
forces, etc.) will be used.
Crash cases are often the most difficult and critical to design for. They are outside
the scope of this book, since the structure moves out of the elastic regime into deep
collapse. However, the support forces for an energy absorbing part of the vehicle could
form a static load case.
X
Y
Different vehicles will experience different torsional loads, for a given bump height,
depending on their mechanical and geometric characteristics. In order to relate the
torsion loading of any vehicle to operating conditions, Erz (1957) suggested that the
asymmetric loading should be specified by the maximum height H of a bump upon
which one wheel of one axle rests, with all other wheels on level ground.
The torque so generated will depend on the roll stiffnesses of the front and rear
suspensions and on the torsion stiffness of the vehicle body. These act as three torsion
springs in series, thus the overall torsional stiffness KTOTAL is given by:
1 1 1 1
= + +
KTOTAL KFRONT KBODY KREAR
where KFRONT and KREAR are the roll stiffnesses of the front and rear suspensions and
KBODY is the torsional stiffness of the body (i.e. about a longitudinal axis).
The vehicle body is usually much stiffer about the longitudinal axis than the front
and rear suspensions. Thus its contribution to the overall twist θ is often negli-
gible. In such cases the term 1/KBODY is small and can be omitted from the above
equation.
Thus, using the notation from Figure 2.8, the torque T generated by bump height
H (all wheels in contact) is given by:
T = KTOTAL θ
Body
Axle 1
Bump
T (torque)
height H
B
(track) q ∼ H /B
(twist)
Restoring PAXLE
torque from
body and
suspension B /2
T
Bump height
H q
Track B
PL PR
Wheel loads
PL + PR = PAXLE
i.e. PL = PAXLE − PR (2.2)
where PAXLE is the total axle load, and PL and PR are the left- and right-hand wheel
reactions.
B
For moment equilibrium: T = (PL − PR )
2
B
substituting from (2.2): T = (PAXLE − 2PR ) (2.3a)
2
PR = PAXLE /2 − (T /B) (2.3b)
similarly: PL = PAXLE /2 + (T /B) (2.3c)
PAXLE
2
PR
PR
0 Bump height H
H MAX.
(wheel lifts off)
Figure 2.10 Static wheel reactions for bump under left wheel.
The torque will reach a limit when wheel R lifts off, i.e. when PR = 0 (and hence PL =
PAXLE ). From (2.3b)/(c), the wheel loads are seen to behave as shown in Figure 2.10.
Note it is always a wheel on the lightest loaded axle which lifts off:
B
i.e. TMAX. = PAXLE (2.4)
2
where PAXLE = load on lightest loaded axle.
Thus the maximum torque TMAX . in this limiting case may be obtained from (2.1)
and (2.4)
HMAX. B
TMAX. = KTOTAL = PAXLE (2.5)
B 2
where HMAX is the bump height to cause wheel R to lift off.
PAXLE B 2
Thus: HMAX. = (2.6)
2KTOTAL
Often, for modern passenger cars with soft springs, the suspension will strike the
‘bump stops’ for asymmetric bumps smaller than HMAX . The torsion load would then
be applied to the vehicle through the bump stop (much stiffer than the suspension
spring).
Different workers have suggested different values of H for the torsion case. Some
of these values are given in Table 2.3. Pawlowski (1969) suggested that an extra
dynamic factor be applied if the vehicle will frequently encounter rough conditions
(e.g. pot-holed ice).
P RL
P FR
Front
T
P FL
(b) Braking
Table 2.4 shows overall braking load factors suggested by various workers.
Since the braking forces at the ground contact patches are offset by a vertical distance
h from the vehicle centre of gravity, there will be weight transfer from the rear to the
front wheels.
Table 2.4 Load factors for braking
Cranfield tests
Pawlowski (1969) (Tidbury 1966) Garrett (1953)
Mg
mF F mF R
FF FR
LR
Direction
of travel
q P
2R
PV
Step PH Just
lifting
where Pv = static vertical wheel load and PH is the horizontal force developed, and
For a given bump height H and vertical wheel force PV , the horizontal force PH
depends on wheel radius (smaller wheels developing larger forces) as illustrated in
Figure 2.14. At large step sizes approaching the magnitude of the wheel radius, the
longitudinal force becomes very large, because the term tan θ approaches zero. In
reality, the longitudinal force could not reach infinity, as shown in the table, because
the strength of the suspension would set a limit on the forces experienced by the
vehicle.
Pawlowski (1969) suggested the step height H should be the same as for the torsion
(vertical asymmetric) case.
0.1 0.48
0.25 0.88
0.293 1.00
0.5 1.73
0.75 3.87
1.0 ∞
PH /PV
0 H /R = 1 H /R
Figure 2.14 Longitudinal load plotted against height of step (no dynamic factor).
B
F LAT F LAT
h
Mg B /2
mMg (Max.) Mg A C R
Kerb
force
(a) (b)
PF
L1
FLAT
CG
L2
PR
As with the longitudinal cases, in the lateral cases there will be weight transfer onto the
outer wheels due to the offset h between the ground and the vehicle centre of gravity.
"Fire Engines" redirects here. For the Scottish post-punk band, see The Fire Engines.
"Fire Truck" redirects here. For the 1978 arcade game, see Fire Truck (video game).
A fire apparatus, fire engine, fire truck, or fire appliance is a vehicle designed to assist in
fighting fires by transporting firefighters to the scene and providing them with access to the fire, along with
water or other equipment. In some areas, the terms fire engine and fire truckrepresent different types
of firefighting apparatus.
A modern fire engine is usually a multi-purpose vehicle carrying paid firefighters or volunteers and
equipment for a wide range of firefighting and rescue tasks. Therefore, most fire engines carry equipment
such as ladders, pike poles, axes and cutting equipment, halligan bars, fire extinguishers, ventilating
equipment, floodlights, hose ramps, self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA), and general tools. Many
fire appliances are based on standard truck or lorry models with heavy duty suspensions, brakes, tires,
alternator, transmission and cooling systems; audible and visual warnings such as sirens, horns, and
flashing lights; and a two-way radio.
The fire engine may have several methods of pumping water onto the fire, such as passing water
obtained from a fire hydrant throughhoses or using a pumping "cannon" (also known as a monitor or deck
gun); some trucks have an onboard water reservoir. Some fire engines may carry ladders to gain access
to fires occurring in high-rise buildings and remove casualties, or hooks used to pull walls away to expose
hidden fire or break windows. In some regions, a rescue unit is an EMS truck with tools to carry
out technical rescuesof people from traffic collisions or structural collapses.
Fire departments covering large metropolitan areas may have specialist appliances for dealing
with hazardous material incidents. Some fire departments may utilise fire trains, fireboats or airplanes,
depending on the local geography.
Contents
1 Types
1.2.1.3 Quint/quad
Types
Conventional fire apparatus
A conventional pumper of the Fire and Rescue NSW in Wagga Wagga, Australia
The conventional fire apparatus (also called a fire appliance, fire tender, fire engine, water ladder,
pumper and pump-ladder) may have several methods of pumping water on to the fire. The most
common method is to pass water from a pump through hoses to the fire, from an array of valves. It may
also have a fixed pumping "cannon" (also called a fire monitor or deck gun), which can direct the water as
pointed by the operator. The horizontal and vertical range of the monitor arrangement usually is limited
and appropriate only for specific tasks, such as airport fires. Monitors can also be used as water
cannons for crowd control. A fire engine may have an onboard water reservoir allowing firefighters to
begin tackling the fire immediately or it may be completely reliant on external sources, such as fire
hydrants, water tenders, natural sources such as rivers, or reservoirs by using draft water suction. A
development is the use of an impulse fire-extinguishing system (IFEX), in which the water is highly
pressurized into a vaporous mist, creating a cooling effect that is more efficient than that of water
alone.[1] Some fire engines have been equipped with injectors for mixing foam into the pumped water
stream creating a foam solution that is more effective than water alone. Some modern apparatus have
included an air pump alongside foam injection to produce a compressed air foam product that further
increases the efficiency of the water stream, cutting down dramatically on extinguishing time and water
damage. This is referred to as a CAFS (compressed air foam system).
A turntable ladder (TL) is perhaps the best-known form of specialised aerial apparatus, and is used to
gain access to fires occurring at height using a large telescopic ladder, where conventional ladders
carried on conventional appliances might not reach.
The name is derived from the fact that the large ladder is mounted on a turntable on the back of
a truck chassis, allowing it to pivot around a stable base, which in turn allows a much greater ladder
length to be achieved. To increase its length, the ladder is telescopic. Modern TLs are
either hydraulic or pneumatic in operation.
A ladder can also be mounted behind the cab. This is sometimes called "mid-ship" and the arrangement
allows a shorter wheelbase for the truck, and also can be more stable in some conditions. Rear-mount
ladders are built on wheelbases as short as 8ft 10in. Examples are 60ft units manufactured by Gimaex.
Tower ladder
Some turntable ladders may have a basket (sometimes known as a bucket) mounted at the top of the
ladder, as on a hydraulic platform; these are called tower ladders. These appliances can provide a
secure place for a firefighter to operate equipment from, and allow multiple people, including rescued
persons, to be carried.
Tiller ladder
The hook-and-ladder concept originated when taller buildings and narrow city streets became a problem
for fire departments. Larger ladders were needed to get to the upper stories of buildings, and the only way
to move these large ladders was with a large vehicle. However, the only way to position these ladders
properly was with a highly maneuverable vehicle. The independent steering for the rear wheels improves
maneuverability and allows the truck to quickly position itself for fighting fires.
Quint/quad
In some areas of the United States, the turntable ladder may be known as a quint or quad, as it is capable
of performing multiple tasks (pump, water tank, fire hose, aerial device, and ground ladders) with each of
these functions making up one of its four (Quad) or five (Quint) capabilities. The National Fire Protection
Association (NFPA) has certain specification that a turntable ladder has to meet to be officially considered
a quint or quad (such as fire pump capacity, minimum amounts of equipment, etc.).
Hydraulic platform
A hydraulic platform, also known as articulating booms, Snorkels, platform trucks,Bronto (used in
Australia) or sometimes shortened to just HP, is a specialized aerial work platform designed for
firefighting use. They have a number of functions, which follow the same principles as the turntable
ladder, providing high level access and elevated water pump positions.
Some hydraulic platforms are articulated, which allows the arm to bend in one or more places, giving it
the ability to go "up and over" an obstacle (such as a building roof). There are non-articulated platforms,
based on standard aerial work platforms, although the most common type is the tower ladder (mentioned
Most HPs are designed to reach a height of around 33 metres (100 feet), although larger models are
capable of reaching heights of over 100 metres (328 feet).[2]
Many HPs are fitted with additional equipment in the platform itself, which can include a control panel,
lighting equipment, a fixed water outlet or monitor, power outlets or compressed air outlets (allowing the
fixing of rescue equipment, such as hydraulic rescue tools). Many are also adapted or capable of carrying
a stretcher. Some units have video systems and remote control in case of dangerous chemical fires.
In an emergency, liquid-concrete pumping boom trucks can be temporarily repurposed for delivery of
water for firefighting, as in the case of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in 2011.[3]
Rescue apparatus
Heavy rescue vehicle
Main article: Heavy rescue vehicle
A heavy rescue vehicle, sometimes referred to as a Rescue Company, Rescue Squador Technical
Rescue, is a type of specialty firefighting or EMS apparatus. Essentially gianttoolboxes on wheels, they
are primarily designed for technical rescue situations such asvehicle extrications following traffic
collisions, confined space rescues, rope rescues,swiftwater rescues, or building collapses.
In the U.S., NFPA regulations 1006 and 1670 provide guidelines and regulations for the operation of
heavy rescue vehicles and also state that all "rescuers" must have medical training to perform any
technical rescue operation, including cutting the vehicle itself.[4][5] In most rescue environments, fire
department personnel conduct rescue operations working hand-in-hand with medical personnel, such as
EMTs or paramedics.
In addition to fire and rescue departments, tram or railway companies may have their own dedicated
heavy rescue squads.[6][7] For example, railway rescue squads may carry very specialized equipment for
railway accidents like hydraulic jacks with capacity for lifting locomotives or even moving them
horizontally, and equipment for tank car accidents.[8]
This first design did not include all the supply hose that is usually carried on a typical engine, but had the
tool-carrying capacity of a heavy squad, including extrication equipment and the specialized rescue tools
not carried on ladder trucks or engine companies.
The current design is more like a typical fire engine than a true rescue pumper. Today's rescue engine
differs from the original unit concept Rescue Pumper, designed by Fire Chief S. E. Politano, which was
simply to add more initial firefighting capabilities (onboard water and pumping capacity) to a heavy rescue
squad, not bring heavy rescue squad capabilities to an engine company.
Concrete mixer
A concrete mixer (also commonly called a cement mixer) is a device that homogeneously
combines cement, aggregate such as sand or gravel, and water to form concrete. A typical concrete mixer uses
a revolving drum to mix the components. For smaller volume works portable concrete mixers are often used so
that the concrete can be made at the construction site, giving the workers ample time to use the concrete
before it hardens. An alternative to a machine is mixing concrete or cement by hand. This is usually done in a
wheelbarrow; however, several companies have recently begun to sell modified tarps for this purpose.
Terex Advance front discharge truck with three lift axles including one tag axle
"Rear discharge" trucks require both a driver and a "chuteman" to guide the truck and chute back and
forth to place concrete in the manner suitable to the contractor. Newer "front discharge" trucks have
controls inside the cab of the truck to allow the driver to move the chute in all directions. The first front
discharge mixer was designed and built by Royal W. Sims of Holladay, Utah.
Concrete mixers are equipped with anywhere from two axles and up. Four, five and six axle trucks are the
most common with the number being determined by the load and local legislation governing allowable
loads on the road. These are necessary to distribute the load evenly and allow operation on weight
restricted roads and to reduce wear and tear on normal roads. A two or three axle truck during the winter
when road weight limits are reduced has no usable payload in many jurisdictions. Other areas may
require expensive permits to operate. Additional axles other than those used for steering ("steers") or
drivetrain ("drives") may be installed between the steers and drives or behind the drives. Mixers
commonly will have multiple steering axles as well, which generally result in very large turning radii. To
facilitate maneuvering the additional axles may be "lift axles" which allows them to be raised off the
ground so that they do not scrub (get dragged sideways across the ground) on tight turns, or increase the
vehicle's turning radius. Axles installed behind the drives are known as "tag axles" or "booster axles", and
are often equipped to turn opposite to the steering axle to reduce scrubbing and automatically lift when
the truck is put into a reverse gear.
Tractor trailer combination mixers where the mixer is installed on a trailer instead of a truck chassis are
used in some jurisdictions, such as the province of Quebec where even 6 axle trucks would have trouble
carrying a useful load.
Concrete mixers generally do not travel far from their plant, as the concrete begins to set as soon as it is
in the truck. Many contractors require that the concrete be in place within 90 minutes after loading. If the
truck breaks down or for some other reason the concrete hardens in the truck, workers may need to enter
Stephen Stepanian filed a patent application for the first truck mixer in 1916.[2] Trucks weigh 20,000 to
30,000 pounds (9,070 to 13,600 kg), and can carry roughly 40,000 pounds (18,100 kg) of concrete
although many varying sizes of Mixer Truck are currently in use. The most common truck capacity is 8
cubic yards (6.1 m3).
Most concrete mixers in the UK are limited to a speed of 56 miles per hour (90 km/h).
Ambulance
An ambulance is a vehicle for transportation of sick or injured people to, from or between places of treatment
for an illness or injury,[1]and in some instances will also provide out of hospital medical care to the patient. The
word is often associated with road goingemergency ambulances which form part of an emergency medical
service, administering emergency care to those with acute medical problems.
The term ambulance does, however, extend to a wider range of vehicles other than those with flashing warning
lights and sirens. The term also includes a large number of non-urgent ambulances which are for transport of
patients without an urgent acute condition (seefunctional types, below) and a wide range of urgent and non-
urgent vehicles including trucks, vans, bicycles, motorbikes, station wagons, buses, helicopters, fixed-wing
aircraft, boats, and even hospital ships (see vehicle types, also below).
The term ambulance comes from the Latin word ambulare, meaning to walk or move about[2] which is a
reference to early medical care where patients were moved by lifting or wheeling. The word originally meant a
moving hospital, which follows an army in its movements. [3]During the American Civil War vehicles for
conveying the wounded off the field of battle were called ambulance wagons. [4] Field hospitalswere still called
ambulances during the Franco-Prussian War[5] of 1870 and in the Serbo-Turkish war of 1876[6] even though the
wagons were first referred to as ambulances about 1854 during the Crimean War.[7]
There are other types of ambulance, with the most common being the patient transport ambulance (sometimes
called an ambulette). These vehicles are not usually (although there are exceptions) equipped with life-support
equipment, and are usually crewed by staff with fewer qualifications than the crew of emergency ambulances.
Their purpose is simply to transport patients to, from or between places of treatment. In most countries, these
are not equipped with flashing lights or sirens. In some jurisdictions there is a modified form of the ambulance
used, that only carries one member of ambulance crew to the scene to provide care, but is not used to
transport the patient.[8] Such vehicles are called fly-cars. In these cases a patient who requires transportation to
hospital will require a patient-carrying ambulance to attend in addition to the fast responder
Emergency ambulance – The most common type of ambulance, which provide care to patients with
an acute illness or injury. These can be road-going vans, boats, helicopters, fixed-wing aircraft
(known as air ambulances) or even converted vehicles such as golf carts.
Patient transport ambulance – A vehicle, which has the job of transporting patients to, from or
between places of medical treatment, such as hospital or dialysis center, for non-urgent care. These
can be vans, buses or other vehicles.
Response unit – Also known as a fly-car or a [Quick Response Vehicle], which is a vehicle which
is used to reach an acutely ill patient quickly, and provide on scene care, but lacks the capacity to
transport the patient from the scene. Response units may be backed up by an emergency ambulance
which can transport the patient, or may deal with the problem on scene, with no requirement for a
transport ambulance. These can be a wide variety of vehicles, from standard cars, to modified vans,
motorcycles, pedal cycles,quad bikes or horses. These units can function as a vehicle for officers or
supervisors (similar to a fire chief's vehicle, but for ambulance services).
Charity ambulance – A special type of patient transport ambulance is provided by a charity for the
purpose of taking sick children or adults on trips or vacations away from hospitals, hospices or care
homes where they are in long term care. Examples include the United Kingdom's 'Jumbulance'
project.[10] These are usually based on a bus.
Bariatric ambulance – A special type of patient transport ambulance designed for extremely obese
patients equipped with the appropriate tools to move and manage these patients.
Vehicle types
Ambulances can be based on many types of vehicle, although emergency and disaster conditions may
lead to other vehicles serving as makeshift ambulances:
Van or pickup truck – A typical ambulance is based on either the chassis of a van (vanbulance) or
pickup truck. This chassis is then modified to the designs and specifications of the purchaser.
Car/SUV – Used either as a fly-car for rapid response[8] or for patients who can sit, these are
standard car models adapted to the requirements of the service using them. Some cars are capable
of taking a stretcher with a recumbent patient, but this often requires the removal of the front
passenger seat, or the use of a particularly long car. This was often the case with early ambulances,
which were converted (or even serving) hearses, as these were some of the few vehicles able to
accept a human body in a supine position.
Motorcycle – In developed areas, these are used for rapid response in an emergency[11] as they can
travel through heavy traffic much faster than a car or van. Trailers or sidecars can make these patient
transporting units.[12][13] See also motorcycle ambulance.
Bicycle – Used for response, but usually in pedestrian-only areas where large vehicles find access
difficult.[14][15] Like the motorcycle ambulance, a bicycle may be connected to a trailer for patient
transport, most often in the developing world.[16] See also cycle responder.
All-terrain vehicle (ATV) – for example quad bikes; these are used for response off
road,[17] especially at events. ATVs can be modified to carry a stretcher, and are used for tasks such
as mountain rescue in inaccessible areas.
Golf cart or Neighborhood Electric Vehicle – Used for rapid response at events[18] or on
campuses. These function similarly to ATVs, with less rough terrain capability, but with less noise.
Helicopter – Usually used for emergency care, either in places inaccessible by road, or in areas
where speed is of the essence, as they are able to travel significantly faster than a road
ambulance.[19] Helicopter and fixed-wing ambulances are discussed in greater detail at air
ambulance.
Fixed-wing aircraft – These can be used for either acute emergency care in remote areas (such as
in Australia, with the 'Flying Doctors'[20]), for patient transport over long distances (e.g. a re-patriation
following an illness or injury in a foreign country[21]), or transportation between distant hospitals.
Helicopter and fixed-wing ambulances are discussed in greater detail at air ambulance.
Boat – Boats can be used to serve as ambulances, especially in island areas[22] or in areas with a
large number of canals, such as the Venetian water ambulances. Some lifeboats orlifeguard vessels
may fit the description of an ambulance as they are used to transport a casualty.
Ship – Ships can be used as hospital ships, mostly operated by national military
services,[23] although some ships are operated by charities.[24] They can meet the definition of
ambulances as they provide transport to the sick and wounded (along with treatment). They are
often sent to disaster or war zones to provide care for the casualties of these events.
Bus – In some cases, buses can be used for multiple casualty transport, either for the purposes of
taking patients on journeys,[10] in the context of major incidents, or to deal with specific problems such
as drunken patients in town centres.[25][26] Ambulance busses are discussed at greater length in their
own article.
Towing
Towing is the process of pulling or drawing behind a chain, line, bar or some other form of couplings. Towing is
most visibly performed by vehicles, but anything from waterborne vessels to tractors to people can tow cargo.
Troop carrying and cargo carrying gliders were towed behind powered aircraft during WWII and remains a
popular means for modern leisure gliders to take off. In the maritime industry in particular, towing is a refined
science.
Types of trailers
Flat bed or open trailers are platforms with no sides or stakes. This type of trailer works well for
hauling large or unconventional shaped objects.
Enclosed trailers are fully covered by four sides and a roof. These types of trailers are generally used
for carrying livestock since they protect the contents from weather. People also rent these types of
trailers for moving boxes, furniture and other materials.
Boat trailers are used specifically for pulling boats. These types of trailers are designed for easy
loading in and out of the water and are purchased based on the specific type and style of boat they
will be hauling.
Recreational vehicles (RV) are utility vehicles or vans that are often equipped with living facilities.
These types of trailers can be attached to the back of almost any road vehicle and are commonly
used for camping outings or road trips. Living trailers in the United Kingdom are commonly known as
caravans.
Tank trailers, which are trailers designed to contain liquids such as milk, water or motor fuel.
Towing safety
There are many safety considerations to properly towing a caravan or trailer / travel trailer starting with
vehicle towing capacity and ranging through equalizer hitches to properly and legally connecting the
safety chains.
According to the United States National Highway Traffic Safety Association, more than 65,000 crashes
involving passenger vehicles towing trailers occurred in 2004 in the US, jumping nearly 20 percent from
the previous year.
In 2006, Master Lock did their annual study on towing safety to see how many Americans tow their
cargo correctly. The study, Towing Troublesincluded responses from trailer owners across the country
and found that while the majority of trailer owners believe they know what they’re doing when it comes to
towing, most were lacking the proper education. Master Lock reported that 70 percent of trailer owners
did not fully know the correct way to tow their cargo.
An important factor in towing safety is tongue weight, the weight with which the trailer presses down on
the tow vehicle's hitch. Insufficient tongue weight can cause the trailer to sway back and forth when
towed. Too much tongue weight can cause problems with the tow vehicle.[1]
Caravan loading: The way in which you load your caravan will affect the way that it drives. Wrongly
loaded caravans are far more likely to swerve or snake and so will be much more difficult to control.
Follow these loading guidelines to achieve the maximum amount of stability for your caravan. - Always
store heavy smaller items low down, ideally over the axles or just in front of them. - Try and maintain even
weight distribution. If you have heavy items to place in front of the axle balance them by placing an
equally weighted item just behind the axle. - Lighter, larger items can be carried in the towing vehicle. -
Only place lighter items in the overhead lockers. - Place heavy and medium weighted items towards the
front of the vehicle. - Safely secure all items in the caravan. Tying them down if necessary. - Gas
canisters must be turned off at the cylinder when moving.
Towbar Wiring
Some of the advanced systems being introduced in certain vehicles, that may make use of detecting the
presence of a trailer are: lane change assistant, brake electronics, adaptive cruise control, suspension
system (ASS), engine electronics, engine cooling system, parking aids, and reversing camera.
TSP or Trailer Stability Program is one feature which has been added to some vehicles, to help
correct the ‘snaking’ action of a trailer. With such advanced technology, some braking systems have even
evolved further by being operated electronically, without the need for hydraulics. Braking can become
more controlled with faster braking efficiency when towing. Some suspension systems can now detect a
trailer and allow for a more level towing adjustment when the load is applied on the towing hitch. ACC
(Adaptive Cruise Control) systems are meant to ‘detect’ a trailer in order to create a greater braking
distance between vehicles. It might be considered unwise to bypass such vehicles' trailer detection
systems as these vehicles may be designed to behave in a different way when a trailer is attached.
Some manufacturers either put a prepared connector in the vehicle which is a preparation on the network
(Ford, Volvo) to accept a specially designed towing module, or have designed the trailer to be ‘detected’
through connections directly onto the databus (VAG, BMW). With such connections the vehicle will know
when a trailer plug is connected to the socket.
On vehicles that do not have safety features that depend on the vehicle sensing the presence of a trailer,
bypass systems, properly installed by expert fitters, are very efficient and cost effective alternatives to
expensive OEM and other dedicated kits. All bypass kits will be type approved for use on vehicles (check
for the (e) mark). They have the built-in advantage of completely isolating the trailer from the vehicle's
lighting system, thus protecting against damage to the car caused by any failure within the trailer's wiring.
However, a number of manufacturers do not recommend connections to be made on the lighting harne
12S is an additional 7-pin socket mainly used when towing caravans. It consists of a permanent 12v
power supply, and usually a switched 12v power supply for the fridge (UK). It also contains a feed for the
reverse lights on the caravan.
13 Pin is the new ISO standard (ISO 11446) socket being fitted to all new U.K. caravans sold in 2009. It
can be wired with the same functions as both the 12N and 12S sockets, or with just the lighting functions
including reverse (required on all trailers and caravans from October 2012). The socket has been
designed to be waterproof, easy to fit/remove (twist operation), the same size as one 12N socket (ideal
for detachable towbars as unobtrusive), and with good fitting quality terminals that avoid any pin burnout
or voltage failure.
See also
A tow hitch, tow bar or recovery point is a device attached to the chassis of a vehicle for towing.
It can take the form of a tow-ball to allow swivelling and articulation of a trailer, or a tow pin and jaw with
a trailer loop - often used for large or agricultural vehicles where slack in the pivot pin allows the same
movements. A further category is the towing pintle used for military vehicles around the world with a hook
and locking catch.
Road train
This article is about connected heavy goods vehicles. For lighter recreational road trains, see Trackless train.
For electronic road trains, see Platoon (automobile). For the film, see Road Kill (2010 film).
A road train or roadtrain is a trucking concept used in remote areas of Argentina, Australia, Mexico,
the United States, and Canada to move freight efficiently. The term "road train" is most often used in Australia.
In the United States and Canada the terms "triples", "turnpike doubles", and "Rocky Mountain doubles" are
commonly used for longer combination vehicles (LCVs). [1] A road train consists of a relatively
conventional tractor unit, but instead of pulling one trailer or semi-trailer, a road train pulls two or more of them.
B-triple
Same as a B-double but with an additional lead trailer behind the prime mover.[13] These are run in most
states of Australia where double road trains are allowed. There is one exception to that rule: B-Triples are
operated in Victoria, but by one operator, under a strict permit and on a dedicated route, between the
Ford plants at Geelong and Campbellfield.[14][15][16] Australia's National Transport Commission proposed a
national framework for B-triple operations that includes basic vehicle specifications and operating
conditions that the commission anticipates will replace the current state-by-state approach, which largely
discourages the use of B-triples for interstate operation.[17]
AB Triple
An AB triple consists of a prime mover, a semi-trailer, a converter dolly, then a B-double.
BAB Quad
A BAB Quad consists of two B-double units linked with a converter dolly.
C-train
A C-train is a semi-trailer attached to a fifth-wheel on a C-dolly. The C-dolly is connected to the tractor or
another trailer in front of it with two drawbars, thus eliminating the drawbar connection as an articulation
point. One of the axles on a C-dolly is self-steerable to prevent tire scrubbing. C-dollies are not permit in
Australia, due to the lack of articulation.
A dog-trailer (also called a pup) is any trailer that is hooked to a converter dolly, with a single A-frame
drawbar that fits into the Ringfeder or pintle hook on the rear of the trailer in front, giving the whole unit
three to five articulation points and very little roll stiffness.
A is a B-double.
B is a B-triple.
D is an AB-triple.
E is a BAB Quad.
F is an ABB Quad.
H is a 2AB Quad.
K represents the largest road trains operating in Australia and the world. Called a "Powertrain" or a "Body
and six", these machines operate at the Granites gold mine in the western Northern Territory, and are
used in place of 200t dump trucks, because of the distances involved on the haul run. A 600 hp (450 kW)
19 L (1,200 cu in) Cummins engine powers the prime mover, whilst a 400 hp (300 kW) Cummins engine
is installed in the rear trailer of the B-double, driving through an automatic transmission, giving a total of
1,000 hp (750 kW). Weights of 460 t (453 long tons; 507 short tons) are achieved with ore loading in side-
tipper bodies on a 100 km (62 mi) round trip. As these trucks operate on private property, they are not
subject to governed weight and length rulings, but instead are used in the most efficient way possible.
This registration scheme is known as the Federal Interstate Registration Scheme. The requirements of
the scheme were as follows: If the vehicle was purchased to be used for interstate trade, no stamp duty
was payable on the purchase price of the vehicle. The vehicle had to be subjected to an annual
inspection for roadworthy standards, which had to be passed before registration could be renewed. With
the registration identification, the first letter of the 6 digit identified the home state: W = Western Australia,
S = South Australia, V = Victoria, N = New South Wales, Q = Queensland, T = Tasmania, A = Australian
Capital Territory and C = Northern Territory. Due to the 'eastern' and 'western' mass limits in Australia,
two different categories of registration were enacted. The second digit of the registration plate showed
what mass limit was allowed for that vehicle. If a vehicle had a 'V' as the second letter, its mass limits
were in line with the eastern states mass limits, which were:
Steer axle, 1 axle, 2 tyres: 5.40 t (5.31 long tons; 5.95 short tons)
Steer axle, 2 axles, 2 tyres per axle: Non load sharing suspension 9.00 t (8.86 long tons; 9.92 short
tons)
Load sharing suspension 10.00 t (9.84 long tons; 11.02 short tons)
Single axle, dual tyres: 8.50 t (8.37 long tons; 9.37 short tons)
Tandem axle, dual tyres: 15.00 t (14.76 long tons; 16.53 short tons)
Tri axle, dual tyres or 'super single' tyres: 18.00 t (17.72 long tons; 19.84 short tons)
Gross combination mass on a 6-axle vehicle not to exceed 38 t (37 long tons; 42 short tons)
If a vehicle had a X as the second letter, its mass limits were in line with the western states mass limits,
which were:
Signage
Australian road trains have horizontal signs front and back with 180 mm (7.1 in) high black uppercase
letters on a reflective yellow background reading "ROAD TRAIN". The sign(s) must have a black border
and be at least 1.02 m (3.3 ft) long and 220 mm (8.7 in) high and be placed between 500 mm (19.7 in)
and 1.8 m (5.9 ft) above the ground on the fore or rearmost surface of the unit.
In the case of B-Triples in Western Australia they are signed front and rear with "Road-Train" until they
cross the WA/SA border where they are then signed with "Long Vehicle" in the front and rear.
Converter dollys must have a sign affixed horizontally to the rearmost point, complying to the same
conditions, reading "LONG VEHICLE". This is required for when a dolly is towed behind a trailer.
Combination lengths
Single axle (Steer tyre)- 6.0 t (5.9 long tons; 6.6 short tons)
Single axle (Steer axle with 'super single' tyres) 6.7 t (6.6 long tons; 7.4 short tons)
Single axle (dual tyres) - 9.0 t (8.9 long tons; 9.9 short tons)
Tandem axle grouping- 16.5 t (16.2 long tons; 18.2 short tons)
Tri axle grouping- 20.0 t (19.7 long tons; 22.0 short tons)
Therefore, a B-Double would weigh 62.5 t (61.5 long tons; 68.9 short tons) (6 t/5.9 long tons; 6.6 short
tons + 16.5 t/16.2 long tons; 18.2 short tons + 20 t/20 long tons; 22 short tons + 20 t/20 long tons;
22 short tons). A double road train would have an operational weight (without concessions) of 79 t
Speed limits
The Australian national heavy vehicle speed limit is 100 km/h (62 mph), excepting:
NSW, Queensland and South Australia, where the speed limit for any road train is 90 km/h (56 mph).
In western Canada, LCVs are restricted to 100 km/h (62 mph), or the posted speed limit. Trucks of legal
length (<25 metres / 82 feet) may travel at 110 km/h (68 mph), or the posted speed limit.
Off-road vehicle
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"ORV" redirects here. For the Austrian cycling governing body, see Österreichischer Radsport-Verband.
Mercedes-Benz Unimog in the Dunes ofErg Chebbi in Morocco. Note the high ground clearance due to Portal gear axles
An off-road vehicle is considered to be any type of vehicle which is capable of driving on and
off paved or gravel surface.[1] It is generally characterized by having large tires with deep, open treads, a
flexible suspension, or even caterpillar tracks.[citation needed] Other vehicles that do not travel public streets or
highways are generally termed off-highway vehicles, including tractors, forklifts, cranes, backhoes, bulldozers,
and golf carts.[citation needed]
The military market for off-road vehicles used to be large, but, since the fall of the Iron Curtain in the
1990s, it has dried up to some extent. The U.S. Jeep, developed during World War II, coined the word
many people use for any type of light off-road vehicle. In the U.S., the Jeep's successor from the 1980s
on was the AM General HMMWV. The Eastern Bloc used the GAZ-69 and UAZ-469 in similar roles
2007 Defender
Also called Land Rover Ninety, One Ten & 127 (1983-90)
Production 1983-present
The Land Rover Defender (initially called the Land Rover Ninety and Land Rover One Ten) is a British four-
wheel-drive off-road utility vehicle developed from the original Land Rover Series launched in 1948. The Land
Rover Defender is also recognized by many as one of the best off-road 4 wheel drives in the world, as it is easy
to work on and easy to repair if damaged.
Produced 1971–present
Specifications
(4x4/6x6)
designedpetrol/gasoline engine,
engine
65 kW (88 PS; 87 bhp)
Operational
range 400 km (249 mi)
(62 mph)
The Pinzgauer is a family of high-mobility all-terrain 4WD (4x4) and 6WD (6x6) military utility vehicles. They
were manufactured inGuildford, Surrey, United Kingdom, by BAE Systems Land & Armaments. The vehicle
was originally developed in the late 1960s by Steyr-Daimler-Puch[2][3] of Graz, Austria, and was named after
the Pinzgauer, an Austrian breed of horse. It was popular amongst military buyers, [3] and continued in
production throughout the rest of the century. In 2000 the rights were sold to Automotive Technik Ltd (ATL) in
First generation
The original prototype was developed around 1969 and production began in 1971,[2] as successor of the
Steyr-Daimler-Puch Haflinger 700 AP 4x4 light military multi purpose offroad vehicle.[2] The Pinzgauer
first generation model (710, 712) was produced until 2000 by Steyr-Daimler-Puch in the city of Graz,
Austria. It was, and is in use in many armies around the world like Austria,[3] Switzerland,[3] United
Kingdom,[3] Saudi Arabia, Thailand, Albania, and Bolivia. When Austrian millionaire Mr. Stronach took
over the shareholder majority of Steyr-Daimler-Puch offroad vehicles; he gave the right to build the Steyr
Pinzgauer to Automotive Technik Ltd (now BAE). As of 2009, in the Graz plant, the Mercedes-Benz G
Wagon / Puch G offroad vehicles were being built.
The Pinzgauer is one of the most capable all-terrain vehicles ever made.[citation needed] While not as fast
(110 kilometres per hour (68 mph)) as the American Humvee, it can carry more troops. Even the smaller
710M can carry 10 people or two NATO pallets. Both the 4x4 and 6x6 models can tow
5,000 kilograms (11,023 lb) on road; and 1,500 kilograms (3,307 lb) or 1,800 kilograms (3,968 lb),
respectively, off-road. It has a range of over 400 kilometres (249 mi) on one tank of fuel, or nearly 700
kilometres (435 mi) with the optional 125 litre tank. The first generation Pinzgauer is available in
both four-wheel drive (4x4) (model 710) and six-wheel drive (6x6) (model 712) versions.
The Pinzgauer was designed to be reliable and easy to fix; it is shipped with an air-cooled petrol
engine with dual- Zenith 36 mm NDIX carburetors. The engine in the Pinzgauer was specifically designed
for the vehicle; it has more than one oil pump so that the engine will not get starved of oil no matter how
the vehicle is orientated.
The Pinzgauer has a chassis design which contributes to its high mobility. It has a central
tube chassis[2] with a transaxle which distributes the weight more evenly, and keeps the centre of
gravity as low as possible. The differentials are all sealed units and require minimal additional lubrication.
The Pinzgauer also has portal axles like the Unimog to provide extra clearance over obstacles. The 710
4x4 was the more popular variant, but the Pinzgauer was designed to have a very capable 6x6
configuration from the start. The rear suspension on the back of the 6x6 712 is designed to provide
maximum traction in the most demanding circumstances along with increasing its towing, load carrying,
and off-road abilities.
During production from 1971 until 1985, 18,349 first-generation 710s and 712s were produced and sold to
both civilian and military customers.
Fx
Fy 0
x y
Fz
t
a
Q1 Q1 Q1
A
Q2
Q2 Q2 Q2 Q2 Section
b ‘A−A’
Q2
a Q1 Q1 Q1
Q1 Q1
Corner Gussets
Q2 Q2 Q2
Q2
Q1 Q1
(a) Boom and panel assembly (b) Floor panel with auxiliary beam
Large Large
deflection deflection
Shear force
Large Large
deflection deflection
Figure 4.4 Examples of planar systems that are not simple structural surfaces.
Bus sideframe
Figure 4.5 Examples of vehicle structural assemblies that can be represented as simple structural surfaces.
Bending moment
diagram
3
Shear force
4 diagram
K3 6
K3
K2 K1 K3
Rr
h r R
r
L
K2 5 K2
w K3
2
K2 K1
Rf R Fzs = Fi +Fpl
Shear f f
force K1
diagram 1 Shear force
K1 b diagram
Bending Cross-beam a
moment floor structure
diagram Shear force Bending
diagram moment
Bending moment diagram
diagram
K3 = K1 a/L (4.12)
where K3 is the edge force between the sidewall and the rear panel.
Resolving forces vertically for the sidewall gives the equation:
K2 + K3 − K1 = 0 (4.13)
where K2 is the force between the sidewall and the front panel.
The front and rear panels are supported by the suspension systems and as the structure
is loaded symmetrically resolving forces for the front panel:
Figure 4.6 also shows the shear force and bending moment diagrams for the floor cross-
beam, the sidewall and the front and rear panels. Each of these members is subject to
shear and bending loads which are functions of their lengths. The floor and roof panels
have no loads acting in their planes.
The same simple box van structure is shown in Figure 4.7 when it is subject to
torsion. In section 2.4.2, Chapter 2, it was explained that by taking the lighter loaded
axle and applying the suspension load upwards on one side and downwards on the other
side the maximum static torsion condition is obtained. In this example of Figure 4.7 if
b > a then the rear end loads are the lighter and so the lighter reactions Rr are applied
as shown. Rr is the reaction from one rear suspension under static bending conditions
Q6 Q4
3
Q6
4 Q4
Q5 Q Q6 6
4 Q5
Mx = Rr∗r
Q5 Q5
Q4
Q6 Rr
h r Rr
Q4
L
Q5 5 Q Q6
5
Mx = R ′f ∗f w Q5
2
Q4 Q5
R ′f R ′
f Q6
f Q6 Q4
1
Q6 b
Q4 a
Rf ∗ f = Rr ∗ r (4.14)
As the lateral spacing of the front and rear suspension mountings ‘f ’ and ‘r’ respec-
tively may not be equal, the reaction Rf will not necessarily be equal to Rr nor equal
to Rf obtained for the bending case.
At the front panel the moment applied through the suspension mountings is balanced
by the edge loads from the sides, floor and roof. Taking moments for the front panel:
Rf f − Q5 w − Q4 h = 0 (4.15)
It should be noted that the front panel has the clockwise ‘external’ couple Mx equal to
Rf f (as viewed from the front) applied through the suspension mounting points. The
edge loads Q4 and Q5 all act in an anticlockwise sense. The direction of the arrows
is such that the head of each arrow points to the tail of the next arrow.
The equilibrium of the floor is now considered. An equal and opposite force to the
front panel force Q4 acts on the front edge of the floor. To prevent the floor moving
laterally there must be an equal and opposite force Q4 acting at the rear edge. These two
forces are separated by the length L producing a moment Q4 L that must be balanced.
Therefore edge loads Q6 must be applied at each side separated by the distance ‘w’.
Taking moments about one corner, the moment equation is:
Q4 L − Q6 w = 0 (4.16)
This floor panel is therefore loaded in complementary shear and the directions of the
arrows representing the edge loads at the front and right side are such that the heads
of the arrows point towards the same corner. Similarly the arrows representing the
forces at the rear and left side point at the same corner. Panels that are subject to
complementary shear do not have ‘externally’ applied moments.
The left-hand sidewall has an equal and opposite force Q6 to that on the floor acting
at its lower edge. Similarly it has force Q5 acting at the front vertical edge that is
equal and opposite to the force on the front panel. By resolving forces longitudinally
and vertically for equilibrium there must be a force Q6 acting on the top edge in the
opposite direction to that on the lower edge and a force Q5 acting on the rear edge of
the sidewall in the opposite direction to that on the front edge.
The moments generated by the spacing of these forces must be balanced and therefore
the moment equation for the left-hand sidewall (moments about one corner) is:
Q6 h − Q5 L = 0 (4.17)
• 5th percentile stature is a value whereby 5% of the population are shorter and 95% are
taller;
• 50th percentile stature is the median stature;
• 95th percentile stature is a value whereby 95% of the population are shorter and 5% are
taller.
The reader is referred to Roebuck (1995) for a full description of the variety of methods used
to collect anthropometric data. The strategies for using the data in design are described below:
(a) Find the relevant data for the intended occupants with respect to their race, occupation,
age, sex, disability. The data should be task specific so that, for example, arm reach to a
lever that will be pushed is quite different to arm reach for operating a push button.
(b) Make any necessary allowances for secular growth and clothing (e.g. 10 mm per decade for
stature in USA and UK, ~45 mm for female shoes, ~25 mm for male shoes)
(c) Establish your design limits. Traditionally these have been stated as 5th percentile values
for females and 95th percentile values for males. The authors consider that these limits are
Anthropometric and biomechanical data are extremely useful to the designer at the early
stages of design or when a novel design is being considered. However, it is very important that
any new design or modification is studied using mock-ups and the evaluation of prototypes. The
data can tell you where a person can reach but it does not tell you how the design, location and
direction of travel of a variety of controls can affect driving performance, comfort and safety.
Limitations to the use of percentiles have already been discussed under Fallacies 7 and 8 above.
Sources of civilian anthropometric data include Bodyspace (Pheasant 1996) which presents
data for a variety of nationalities including the UK, US, Swedish, Dutch, French, Polish,
Brazilian, Sri Lankan, Indian, Hong Kong Chinese and the Japanese. Adultdata (Peebles and
Norris, 1998) and Childata (Norris and Wilson, 1995) can be obtained through the UK Department
of Trade and Industry and present data for a variety of nationalities. Some specialist surveys
have examined driver anthropometry in the UK (MIRA Survey, Haslegrave, 1980), France
(Rebiffe et al., 1984) and the US (Sanders, 1977). A source book on Indian anthropometry has
recently been produced (Chakrabarti 1997). Another very useful source is PeopleSize (Open
Ergonomics 1999), an interactive computer based package that can also provide information on
multivariate accommodation. Figure 9.1 shows one of the People Size screens, from which the
designer clicks on the desired dimension and the selected percentile values are displayed
underneath. Table 9.1 presents an example of People Size data for large US male and small UK
female values.
Anthropometric methods are currently changing with the introduction of body scanners.
Such systems allow the collection of thousands of data points for the human body and this type
of data is very appropriately starting to be used in human modelling systems (see Section 9.4.6
below).