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Module 1: Orientation Towards Technical Education and
Curriculum Aspects
Unit 1: Orientation Towards Technical Education
L -1 STRUCTURE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION
Contributors
Dr. P. MALLIGA
Associate Professor & Head In-charge
Centre for Educational Media and Technology, NITTTR, Chennai.
Orientation Towards Technical Education Structure of Technical Education
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE NO.
1 STRUCTURE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION 1

1.0 ROLE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN THE SOCIETY 1
2.0 STRUCTURE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN INDIA 2
3.0 TYPES OF TECHNICAL INSTITUTES 4
4.0 NATIONAL AGENCIES 14
5.0 ACTIVITIES 23
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Module 1- Orientation towards Technical Education and Curriculum aspects NITTTR, Chennai
UNIT – 1
ORIENTATION TOWARDS TECHNICAL EDUCATION
L1: Structure of Technical Education
LEARNING OBJECTIVES :
1.0 Explain the role of higher education in the society.
2.0 Describe the structure of Technical Education.
3.0 Recognize the different types of Technical Institutes.
4.0 Interpret the roles of National Agencies – MHRD, AICTE, UGC, NITTTR, DTE, ISTE.
1.0 ROLE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN THE SOCIETY
Technical education contributes a major share to the overall education system and plays a
vital role in the social and economic development of the nation. Today the advancements
made in the field of science and engineering has made life sophisticated and moreover, has
improved the quality of life. Hence the Technical education, which plays a vital role in human
resource development of the country has the need
• to create skilled manpower
• to enhance industrial productivity and
• to further improve the quality of life.
The bridge from human resource development to economic growth must be built by well
trained teachers. The most important ‘agent of change’ in ‘Knowledge Society’ is the teacher.
The twenty first century presents a radically different economy and society, which is likely to
have profound implications on Technical Education and Training (TET). The Technical
education system must adapt to the key features which include Globalization & Sustainability,
ICT Revolution, Emergence of Knowledge Society Rapid Knowledge Obsolesces.
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There is at least one generation gap between the Learners and the Teachers. ICT provides
powerful tools to support the shift from teacher-centered to learner-centered paradigm and
new roles of teacher, learner, curricula and new media.
A teacher requires many educational and didactical skills to deal with new situations. These
are
• Knowing subject matter deeply
• Learning to learn Skills
• A large knowledge of digital educational tools.
• How to be a facilitator and motivator of learning environment.
Teachers must be curriculum leaders. Ensuring that teachers are central to the reformation
of curriculum will enable the development of pedagogy that provides the most favorable
condition of learning and the highest quality learning outcomes for all students.
The new role of teachers demands a new way of thinking and understanding of the new vision
of the learning process. There is enough evidence in different fields of educational practice to
understand that learning does not happen in the absence of teacher expertise in what to
teach and how to teach it. Strong formal teaching and learning, aided by various educational
technologies and premised on an up-to date understanding of the vocational, technical and
professional field of practice is what is ‘good enough’ for Technical education.
This module delivers necessary foundations for shaping teacher education and refining the
role of teachers and learners in the new, independent and engaging environment that has
been created for them.
2.0 STRUCTURE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN INDIA
India is witnessing the age of science and technology. There is a huge demand of Technical
Education in modern age. Technical Education offers good opportunity for employment and
successful career.
We all know that technical education system in our country has grown into a fairly large-sized
system, offering opportunities for education and training in a wide variety of trades and
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disciplines. In India, technical education is imparted at various levels such as craftsmanship,

certificate, diploma, degrees at undergraduate, postgraduate and doctoral levels through
institutions located throughout the country.
Technical Education covers programs in engineering, technology, management, architecture,

town planning, pharmacy, applied arts and crafts, hotel management and catering
technology.
The educational structure in India is generally referred to as the Ten + Two + Three (10+2+3)
pattern. The first ten years provide undifferentiated general education for all students. The
+2 stage, also known as the higher secondary or senior secondary, provides for differentiation
into academic and vocational streams and marks the end of school education. In some states,
the plus two stage is located in intermediate, junior or degree colleges but is not regarded as
a part of the tertiary stage of education.
The technician educational program in Polytechnics has been shown to exist after the ten
years of general education. The location of one year or two-year programs of the Industrial
Training Institutes exist at VIII+ and X+ levels followed by the apprenticeship training.
Students completing higher secondary education enter professional courses like engineering,
medicine, law, applied science and craft, architecture, agriculture, other technology courses
like leather technology, chemical technology, fashion technology, etc., Some enter into art,
literature and science streams. Students entering Engineering Institutions graduate as
Engineers usually after four years of study. Some of them enroll into Post graduate studies
for specialization followed by Research programs like Ph.D.
For acquiring technical education, there are two structural streams in India – formal and non-
formal.
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Figure 1: Structure of Technical Education system in India
Technical Institutes, Engineering Colleges, Polytechnics, Industrial training centers, Vocational

Secondary Education are the formal sources of technical education in India. Self-learning and
small private institutes providing short term technical course are covered under informal one.
The non-formal systems operating at elementary stage, secondary stage (open school) and
tertiary stage (open university) also exist.
3.0 TYPES OF TECHNICAL INSTITUTES

A. INDUSTRIAL TRAINING INSTITUTES (ITIs)
There are two notable training programs for primarily skilled workers for the organized
industrial sector.
They are
I. CRAFTSMEN TRAINING SCHEME
II. APPRENTICESHIP TRAINING SCHEME
I. CRAFTSMEN TRAINING SCHEME
The Directorate General of Employment & Training (DGE&T) in the Ministry of Skill
Development and Entrepreneurship, Government of India initiated Craftsmen Training
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Scheme (CTS) in 1950 by establishing about 50 Industrial Training Institutes (ITIs) for imparting
skills in various vocational trades to meet the skilled manpower requirements for technology
and industrial growth of the country.
Several new private ITIs were established in 1980’s in southern states mostly in Kerala,
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, etc. from where trained craftsmen found placement mainly
in Gulf countries.
According to the Ministry, there are 14312 Industrial Training Institutes (ITIs) functioning in
the country. Out of them, 2204 are Government and 12108 are Private ITIs. All of them,
however, are affiliated to the National Council of Vocational Training.
Under the constitution of India, Vocational training is the concurrent subject of both Central
and State Governments. The development of training schemes at National level, evolution of
policy, laying of training standards, norms, conducting of examinations, certification, etc. are
the responsibilities of the Central Government, whereas the implementation of the training
schemes largely rests with the State Governments /UT Administrators.
Let us see the Salient Features of the Scheme
• Training is imparted in 70 engineering and 63 non-engineering trades.

• ITIs are functioning under the administrative control of the respective State Govts.
/UTs / Private Organizations.
• The period of training for various trades varies from six months to two years and the
entry qualification varies from 8th to 12th class pass, depending on the requirements
of training in different trades.
• The institutes are required to conduct training courses as per the curriculum
prescribed by National Council for Vocational Training (NCVT). The admission to the
new courses are made in the month of August every year.
• The trainees after completion of the training period are required to appear in the All
India Trade Test conducted under the aegis of National Council for Vocational Training.
The successful trainees are awarded National Trade Certificate which has been
recognized by Govt. of India for the purpose of recruitment to subordinate posts and
services under the Central Govt.
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• About 70% of the training period is allotted to practical training and the rest to
theoretical training relating to Trade theory, Workshop Calculation & Science,
Engineering Drawing, Social Studies including environmental science & family welfare.
• Training in Govt. ITIs is provided at nominal fee. They are also provided with library,
sports and medical facilities etc.
• Syllabi of various trades are periodically revised to keep pace in tune with changes in
technology.
• Seats are reserved for SC/ST, OBC, differently abled and women candidates as per
norms There is a provision of re-affiliation for existing affiliated ITIs for more than 5
years old to ensure standards/norms prescribed by NCVT.
• Work of inspection & accreditation of ITIs has been entrusted to the Quality Council
of India with effect from 1.9.2012 and applications are submitted online for opening
of new ITIs as well as addition of trades in existing ITIs.
APPRENTICESHIP TRAINING SCHEME
The Apprentices Act, 1961 was enacted with the objective of regulating the programs of
training of apprentices in the industry by utilizing the facilities available therein for imparting
on-the-job training. The Act makes it obligatory for employers in specified industries to
engage apprentices in designated trades to impart apprenticeship training on the job in
industry. The apprenticeship training is for youth and person having National Trade certificate
issued by National Council for Vocational Training (NCVT) to develop skilled manpower for
the industry.
Apprenticeship training refers to a course of training in any industry or establishment.

Apprenticeship training consists of basic training (theoretical instructions) and practical on
the job training at actual work place.
Any individual, who has completed 14 years of age, is physically fit and having minimum
educational qualification prescribed for a trade can undergo apprenticeship training.
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Benefits of apprenticeship training
Apprentices get an opportunity of undergoing 'on the job' training and are exposed to real
working conditions. They get a chance to work on advanced machines and equipment,
industry specific best practices and learn more about their field. Apprentices become skilled
workers once they have acquired the knowledge and skills in a trade or occupation, which
help them in getting wage or self - employment. In addition, apprentices get stipend at the
prescribed rates during the training.
One can undergo apprenticeship training in any industry/ establishments in the Central/State
Public Sector or Private Sector, where apprenticeship seats are available.
Categories of apprentices
There are four categories of apprentices namely
a. Trade apprentice
b. Graduate apprentice
c. Technician apprentice
d. Technician (vocational) apprentice
a. Trade apprentice
A person undergoing apprenticeship training in any designated trade. Designated trade is

any trade / occupation / any subject field in engineering / non - engineering / technology /
any vocational course as notified by the Government.
8th, 10th, 12th standard and ITI pass - outs are eligible to undergo apprenticeship in
designated trades for trade apprentices. In certain trades, B.Sc. pass is also a prescribed
qualification.
b. Graduate apprentice
A person who holds a degree in engineering /non - engineering and undergoing

apprenticeship training in designated trade.
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c. Technician apprentice
A person who holds a diploma in engineering / non - engineering and undergoing

apprenticeship training in designated trade.
d. Technician (vocational) apprentice
A person who holds certificate in vocational course after the completion of the secondary
stage of school education recognized by the All - India Council.
Figure 2: Types of Apprentice
Ministry of Skill Development & Entrepreneurship is responsible for monitoring the

implementation of the Act with respect to trade apprentices. Graduate, Technician and
Technician (Vocational) apprentices are covered by the Ministry of Human Resource
Development.
B. POLYTECHNICS
The Diploma in Engineering or Diploma in Technology is a program focused on practical and

skills-oriented training. Many countries in the world recognize it, as equivalent to pre-
engineering or bridging course when considered for continuing studies in engineering
related bachelors or associate degree programs. In India, Diploma in Engineering is a
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3-year course awarded in specific branch of engineering. It is usually offered in polytechnic

institutes recognized by the respective State Boards of Technical Education.
Candidates seeking admission into Full-Time and Part-Time Diploma Courses shall be required
to have passed X standard examination of the State Board of Education, or any other
equivalent examination already recognized by the Directorate of School Education Board. The
age of the candidate must be 15 +
Candidates seeking admission to the Second Year (III Semester) of Regular Diploma Courses
under Lateral Entry shall be required to have passed the Higher Secondary Certificate
Examination (HSC) in Physics, Chemistry and Mathematics (PCM) combination, (Vocational)
or 2-year Industrial Training Institute (ITI) Certificate Examination after passing X Std.
examination of State Board of Education. Admission criteria is prescribed by the State
Directorate of Technical Education.
Diploma in Engineering is a technical course that only covers the essentials when ranked with
an undergraduate engineering degree. It aims to provide students with industry or job related
engineering knowledge, scientific skills, computing and analysis, mathematical techniques, a
sound knowledge of English to communicate in the field and ability to apply problem solving
techniques.
Diploma in Engineering is a specific academic award usually awarded in technical courses e.g.
Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Electrical Engineering, etc.
A few institutions also offer programs in areas like Chemical Technology, Leather Technology,
Textile Technology, Catering Technology, Architecture and Pharmacy. Some institutions also
offer programs in non-engineering subjects like Commercial Practice, and Library Science.
90% of the Polytechnics follow the curriculum prescribed by the respective State Boards of
Technical Education. Only 10% of them have Academic Autonomy. In Tamil Nadu, the
government is revolutionizing its technical education by upgrading its diploma courses with
newer schemes (L Scheme, M scheme and forward) to make it equivalent with UK's Higher
National Diploma (HND) programs.
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The ratio of weightage between theory (knowledge) and skill is approximately 50:50.
Sandwich type of programs (in collaboration with industries) are offered by about 10% of the
Polytechnics. Public examination is conducted by State Directorate of Technical Education.
• Based on the funding agency, they are classified into three types
• Government Polytechnics
• Government Aided Polytechnics
• Un-aided Polytechnics / (Self-financing) Polytechnics
After successful completion of Diploma in Engineering course, students can either continue
further Engineering studies in undergraduate level or get employment as Junior Engineers,
technicians, technologists, supervisors, superintendents, foremen, machinist, workshop
technicians, draftsman, station technicians in the field of energy, thermal, aeronautics,
automobile technicians, maintenance and service technicians, equipment mechanics and
technicians, CAD/CAM programs, agricultural overseers, instrument technicians, junior
instructors, manufacturing, tool and die designers, electricians...etc. Some become
entrepreneurs or join colleges for higher studies. Diploma Holders can sit for the examination
of Associate Member of the Institution of Engineers (A.M.I.E) membership, from Member of
Indian Institution of Industrial Engineering, Navy Mumbai which is equivalent to the Associate
engineering bachelor's degree.
Diploma holders can enroll for advanced diploma programs in concentrated job sectors within
their area of study. Diploma holders are also eligible for lateral entry to the third semester
Engineering Courses in various Technical Universities.
C. ENGINEERING COLLEGES
In India, there are numerous engineering colleges imparting undergraduate and graduate
courses in engineering, applied engineering and sciences. The Indian Institutes of
Technology (IITs), National Institutes of Technology (NITs) and all State & Central government
owned Engineering & Technology College & Universities are considered the best in the
country. The graduates from IITs and NITs earn higher as compared to the graduates of other
engineering institutes. Many public sector companies prefer to recruit graduates form IITs
and NITs as they very technically skilled and curriculum in those institutes are extremely
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competitive. Number of seats available in IITS is around 11,000 and in NITs are around 18000
and in IIIT (Indian Institutes of Information Technology) is around 3500. It may vary year wise.
Around 1.5 million engineers pass out every year from our country.
Engineering Colleges admit students who have passed 12th grade (who have completed
higher secondary education) and provide education leading to the award of Bachelor’s
degree. Duration of the Degree program is usually four years. The Engineering Programs are
offered in Civil, Mechanical, Electrical, ECE (Electronics and Communication Engineering), CSE
(Computer Science Engineering), Production, Manufacturing, Bio chemistry, Aerospace, etc.,
and Technology programs in Chemical, Leather Textile, Biotechnology etc. There are
Architecture programs like Bachelor of Architecture (B.Arch.).
Curriculum is prescribed by the University to which the college is affiliated. Less than 10% of
institutions have academic autonomy. The ratio of weightage between theory (knowledge)
and skill is approximately 70:30. Sandwich types of programs are offered by very few
institutions. Public Examinations are conducted by the University to which the college is
affiliated.
After completing, the graduates most of them go for
• Employment in Industries
• Entrepreneurs
• Joining PG Programs
• Employment as Teachers of Technical Education Institutions

• R & D Engineers
Engineering Colleges may be classified based on the nature of governance:
• Engineering Colleges affiliated to a Central / State University
• Engineering Education programs conducted by Deemed Universities
• Engineering Departments which are constituent parts of a general or Technical

University.
• National Institutes of Technology (Formerly known as Regional Engineering Colleges)
• Institutes of National importance like Indian Institutes of Technology

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Classification of Engineering Colleges based on the funding agency:
• Government Engineering Colleges
• Government Aided Engineering Colleges
• Un-aided (Self-financing) Engineering Colleges
The world is changing, and engineers are the ones behind country’s development. The
majority of today’s services and products had some element of engineering involved in their
conception at least, paving the way to long, fulfilling and healthy lives for the people
influenced by them. Engineers must be critical yet creative; curious yet capable; as well as
ready to handle the constantly changing world.
In an advanced technological world, we need engineers to bring ideas into reality. By applying
the principles of mathematics and science, engineers develop solutions to the world’s biggest
technical issues. As quoted by N.R. Narayana Murthy “Engineering or technology is all about
using the power of science to make life better for people, to reduce cost, to improve comfort,
to improve productivity, etc.”.
D. UNIVERSITIES
Central universities
Central universities, or Union universities are established by Act of Parliament and are under
the purview of the Department of Higher Education in the Union Human Resource
Development Ministry. There are 49 Central universities in the country like University of Delhi,
University of Allahabad and Indira Gandhi National Open University.
State Universities
State Universities are set up or recognized by an act of the state legislature. There are 281
state universities in the country. Three of the country's oldest institutions of higher learning,
University of Calcutta, University of Madras and University of Bombay are state universities.
Higher Learning Institutes that are not universities but are often in recognition of their high
caliber of education that are granted the status of a university are called Deemed Universities.
As in other universities, students are conferred degrees upon completion of their programs.
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There are 131 deemed universities in the country. For example, NIT (National Institutes of
Technology), IISC, Bengaluru, etc.
Private university
A private university is an institution of higher learning established through a state or central

act by a sponsoring body, such as a society registered under the Societies Registration Act,
1860, or any other corresponding law for the time being in force in a state or a public trust or
a company registered under Section 25 of the Companies Act, 1956. They need to be
recognized by UGC to provide a valid degree. There are 87 private universities in India. For
example, BITS Pilani.
Open University (OU)
An Open University (OU) that is open to people without formal academic qualifications and
where teaching is by correspondence or broadcasting or summer school. It is notable for
having an open entry policy, i.e. a student's previous academic achievements are not taken
into account for entry to most undergraduate/post-graduate courses.
The OU uses a variety of methods for distance learning, including written and audio materials,
the Internet, disc-based software and television programs on DVD, Course-based television
broadcasts. Materials are composed of originally-authored work by in-house and external
academic contributors and from third-party materials licensed for use by OU Students.
E. INSTITUTE OF NATIONAL IMPORTANCE (INI)
Institute of National Importance (INI) is a status that may be conferred to a higher education
institution in India by an act of parliament, an institution that "serves as a pivotal player in
developing highly skilled personnel within the specified region of the country/state". There
are 59 such institutions in the country. The common examples are IITs, ISI (Indian Statistical
Institute), and IIITs.
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Institutes Under State Legislatures Acts
These are institutes established under the act of the State legislation. Examples include
Nizam's Institute of Medical Sciences, Hyderabad and Sri Venkateshwara Institute of Medical
Sciences, Andhra Pradesh. There are 5 such institutes in India.
4.0 NATIONAL AGENCIES

A. MINISTRY OF HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT (MHRD)
The 42nd Amendment of the Indian Constitution in 1976 brought about drastic changes in the
Indian Constitution. As far as education was concerned, it may be taken to be a historic step.
Before 1976, education was a state subject, while the Central Government used to play an
advisory role. However, the persons related to educational Administration felt that education
should be the joint responsibility of the Central and the State Governments. The idea was put
into practice by a Constitutional amendment in 1976. As a result, education was put on the
Concurrent List with the implication that both the Centre and the States can legislate on any
aspect of education from the Primary to the University level. With education in the
Concurrent List, the Centre can directly implement any policy decision in the States.
As a result of education being brought under the Concurrent List,
− Union Government lays down the norms and standards for education to be followed
and maintained by the States. The Centre has set up institutions like the University
Grants Commission (UGC) for such purposes.
− Moreover, running of some special institutions is the responsibility of the Union
Government. The special institutions are the Banaras Hindu University, the Aligarh
Muslim University, the Delhi University, the Jawaharlal Nehru University, the other
Central Universities, the National Library, the National Museum, NCERT, IITs, UGC,
NITs, NITTTRs, etc.
− Further, one of the functions of the Central government is co-ordination and
determination of standards in institutions for higher education or research and
scientific and technical institutions.
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Hence, The Department of Higher Education, MHRD, is responsible for the overall
development of the basic infrastructure of Higher Education sector, both in terms of policy
and planning. Under a planned development process, the Department looks after expansion
of access and qualitative improvement in the Higher Education, through world class
Universities, Colleges and other Institutions.
Objectives
• To expand the Higher Education sector in all is modes of delivery to increase the Gross
Enrolment Ratio (GER) in Higher Education to 30% by the year 2020.
• To expand institutional base of Higher Education (including technical, professional and

vocational education) by creating additional capacity in existing institutions,
establishing new institutions and incentivizing State Governments and Non-
Governmental Organizations/civil society.
• To provide opportunities of Higher Education to socially-deprived communities and

remove disparities by promoting the inclusion of women, minorities and differently-
abled persons.
• To remove regional imbalances in access to Higher Education by setting up of

institutions in unnerved and underserved areas.
• To enhance plan support for infrastructure and faculty development in the institutions
of higher learning and to attract talent towards careers in teaching and research.
• To create conditions for knowledge generation through improved research facilities in

universities and colleges.
• To promote collaboration with International community, foreign governments,

universities/institutions and regional and international institutions, for the
advancement of universal knowledge and intellectual property rights.
• To promote development of Indian languages.
• To promote autonomy, innovations, academic reforms in institutions of higher

learning
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• To undertake institutional restructuring for improving efficiency, relevance and

creativity in Higher Education.
Initially, the Engineering and Polytechnic Colleges were under the control of the Directorate
of Public Instruction and Directorate of Industries and Commerce respectively. The Industrial
schools were under the overall control of Department of Labor, Employment and Co-
operation.
B. ALL INDIA COUNCIL FOR TECHNICAL EDUCATION (AICTE)
The All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) was setup on 30th November, 1945 by a
resolution of the Government of India on the recommendation made by Central Advisory
Board of Education (CABE).
Abbot Wood Report, 1936-37
Two expert advisors, Messrs. A. Abbot, formerly chief Inspector of Technical Schools Board of
Education, England and S.H. Wood Director of Intelligence Board of Education, England, were
invited to advise the government on certain problems of educational reorganization and
particularly on problems of vocational and technical education. The report of Messer’s Abbot
and Wood recommended major reforms in educational system by suggesting a complete
hierarchy of vocational and technical institutions parallel to that of institutions imparting
general education.
The Government of India realized that it was necessary for the Centre to support, coordinate
and promote research in technical education. The most vital was creation of Board of
Scientific and Industrial Research in 1940 to promote Industrial Research. Second was the
establishment of Delhi Polytechnic in 1941. Based on their recommendations, a new type of
technical Institutions called “Polytechnics” came into existence for training of middle level
technical personnel. In 1943, Constitution of the Technical Education Committee of the
Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE) was formed.
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Sargent Report (1944)
Sir John Sargent, the Educational Adviser to the Government of India was asked to prepare a
comprehensive report on education. For the purpose, the government formed a Committee
of Enquiry with 22 members. The report of the committee was submitted to the Central
Advisory Board of Education (CABE) in 1944. The Board accepted it in ‘Toto’ and
recommended its enforcement. The scheme was known as ‘Sargent Scheme of Education’ as
it was prepared by John Sargent. It is also known as ‘Report by the Central Advisory Board of
Education’ and as the plan for post-war educational reconstruction in India.
Thirdly in 1945, an ad hoc committee popularly known as Sarkar Committee was appointed
for advising on the lines of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.Fourthly, on 30th
November,1945, the All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) was setup by a
resolution of the Government of India on the recommendation made by Central Advisory
Board of Education (CABE) as a national-level apex advisory body to conduct a survey on the
facilities available for technical education and to promote development in the country in a
coordinated and integrated manner.
Lastly in March 1947, Scientific Man Power Committee was appointed to assess the country’s
requirements for different grades of the scientific and technical personnel during the next ten
years and to recommend the measures to meet them. That was the genesis of AICTE.
Let us investigate the responsibilities of AICTE.
AICTE was vested with number of responsibilities as stipulated in the National Policy of
Education (1986). They are
• Statutory authority for planning, formulation, and maintenance of norms & standards
• Quality assurance through accreditation
• Funding in priority areas, monitoring, and evaluation
• Maintaining parity of certification & awards
• The management of technical education in the country
• Role of National Working Group
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The Government of India (the Ministry of Human Resource Development) also constituted a
National Working Group to investigate the role of AICTE in the context of proliferation of
technical institutions, maintenance of standards, and other related matters. The Working
Group recommended that AICTE be vested with the necessary statutory authority for making
it more effective, which would consequently require restructuring and strengthening with the
necessary infrastructure and operating mechanisms.
The All India Council for Technical Education Act 1987 (No 52 of 1987 as passed by both the
Houses of Parliament). The AICTE Act was constituted to provide for the establishment of an
All India Council for Technical Education with a view to proper planning and coordinated
development of a technical education system throughout the country, the promotion of
qualitative improvements of such education in relation to planned quantitative growth, and
regulation & proper maintenance of norms and standards in the technical education system
and for the matters connected therewith.
The purview of AICTE (the Council) covers programs of technical education including training
and research in Engineering, Technology, Architecture, Town Planning, Management,
Pharmacy, Applied Arts and Crafts, Hotel Management and Catering Technology etc. at
different levels.
C. UNIVERSITY GRANTS COMMISSION (UGC)
The University Grants Commission (UGC) of India is a statutory organization set up by the
Union government in 1956, charged with coordination, determination and maintenance of
standards of university education. It provides recognition to universities in India, and
disburses funds to such recognized universities and colleges. Its headquarters are in New
Delhi, and six regional centers in Pune, Bhopal, Kolkata, Hyderabad, Guwahati and Bangalore.
If we look into the history of UGC, UGC was recommended in 1945 and formed in 1946 to
oversee the work of the three Central Universities of Aligarh, Banaras and, Delhi. In 1947, the
Committee was charged with the responsibility of handling all the then existing Universities.
After independence, the University Education Commission was set up in 1948 with Dr. S.
Radhakrishnan as the Chairman and it is recommended that the UGC to be reconstituted on
the general model of the University Grants Commission of Britain. UGC was formally
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inaugurated by Abdul Kalam Azad, the then Minister of Education, Natural Resources and
Scientific Research on 28 December 1953. The UGC was however, formally established in
November 1956, by an Act of Parliament as a statutory body of the GOI.
UGC Role and Functions
The prime functions of the University Grants Commission are as follows:
• It provides funds to the various higher educational institutes.

• It carries out the function of coordination, determination and maintenance of
standards in institutions of higher education.
In addition to these the University Grants Commission also performs the following functions
as well:
• Promoting and coordinating university education.
• Determining and maintaining standards of teaching, examination and research in

universities.
• Framing regulations on minimum standards of education.
• Monitoring developments in the field of collegiate and university education;

disbursing grants to the universities and colleges.
• Serving as a vital link between the Union and state governments and institutions of
higher learning.
• Advising the Central and State governments on the measures necessary for
improvement of university education.
D. NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNICAL TEACHERS TRAINING AND RESEARCH (NITTTR)
To remove the deficiencies of the Polytechnic institutions and to train better teachers for
polytechnics, on the recommendation of the AICTE, the Central Government started four
Technical Teachers’ Training Institutes.
They are four in number and they were established in the years between 1964 and 1967,
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− Chennai for Southern Region (1964)

− Kolkata for Eastern Region (1965)
− Bhopal for Western Region (1966)
− Chandigarh for Northern Region. (1967)
After the formation of Technical Teachers’ Training Institutes (TTTIs), within a short span of
25 years, several review committees were constituted by the Government to review the
scheme of the TTTIs such as, Kelkar Committee (1976), Jha Committee (1978), Bhattacharya
Committee (1991) and Indiresan Committee (2000).
The following recommendations were made for optimal utilization of the facilities, expertise
and experience available in the four TTTIs.
• Extension of reach of the Institute over the entire gamut of the Technical Education.
• Training of teachers in other sectors apart from the polytechnic education should be
undertaken
• Efforts must be made to get the degrees like M.Tech. Ed. / M.E.E. courses recognized
for career advancement.
• Emphasis on Educational Technology including Distance Education & web based
learning.
• Training for overseas teachers particularly from SAARC and ASEAN countries.
• Helping the polytechnics by aiding in laboratory development, improvement of
instruction, testing and evaluation.
• Integration of IT in Teacher Training.
TTTIs were upgraded and renamed as National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training &
Research (NITTTR) vide Government of India order dated 20th October, 2003 with an
objective to play larger role for the improvement of Technical Education in the country.
These institutes strive to cater to needs of Technical Education system particularly in training
of faculty both in pedagogy and in domain areas and thus promoting Excellence in Technical
Education. They offer in-service training and development programs for the staff of
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polytechnics and Engineering Colleges, need based Human Resource Development programs
through appropriate modes and develop curricula and instructional resources.
They also foster research in the inter disciplinary area of Technical / Engineering Education
and offer consultancy and extension services for the total development of Engineering
Colleges, Polytechnic Colleges, Vocational institutions, Industry, Service sector and the
Community at large.
E. DIRECTORATE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION (DTE)
There was no machinery responsible for the coordinated development of Technical Education
in its different branches and at different levels. As a result, the Directorate of Technical
Education was established with the objective of bringing about coordinated development of
Technical Education in the State with effect from 14th October 1957 consequent to the
suggestion made by the State Standing Advisory Board of Technical Education.
DTE, is in charge of academic and administrative management of the technical education

system. Expansion of technical education depends upon the State’s needs as realized by the
respective State Governments. However, AICTE’s approval is needed for
− Starting of new institutions

− Starting of New programs in the existing institutions
− For increasing the student intake in existing programs
The mandate of the DTEs include the following
• Select and admit students into engineering colleges and polytechnics as per prescribed
norms.
• Develop suitable curricula, conduct examinations and award diplomas / certificates.
• Recognize institutions that offer diploma and certificate programs and evaluate the
performance of students
• Ensure adequate human resources and infrastructural facilities in all the technical
education institutions to impart education and training as per the respective norms of
the universities / State Board of Technical Education / AICTE
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• Provide finance to and supervise its utilization by the technical education institutions
(Govt. and Govt. Aided) for development of facilities / resources.
• Implement the Programs and Policies of the State Government with respect to the
development of technical education.
F. INDIAN SOCIETY OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION (ISTE)
 Indian Society of Technical Education (ISTE) is a professional society of technical

teachers, administrators and students.
 About 70% of the teachers in technical institutions are members of the ISTE. Major
Activities of ISTE
o Summer / Winter schools for teachers
o Development of instructional resources
o Publication of Newsletter, Journal, Handbook and Instructional materials
o National and State awards to individuals and institutions
o Advocacy for formulation of Policies by Central and State Governments
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5.0 ACTIVITIES AND REFLECTION QUESTIONS
Activity 1
1. What is meant by formal, informal and non-formal education. Give examples. Each has
its own merits and demerits. List at least one advantage and one disadvantage for each
Activit 2
Activity 2
2. Look for Industrial Training Institute (ITIs) in your geographical area. Mention the areas
of trades offered with duration. Also explore the curriculum for any one trade.
Activity 3
1. Find out the number of Polytechnics available in your State.
.. • Government Polytechnics
• Government Aided Polytechnics
• Self- Financing / Private Polytechnics
2. Out of these Polytechnics, which Polytechnics have Academic autonomy.
3. How do Sandwich diploma coursed differ from Regular Diploma Courses
Activity 4
4. Visit AICTE website
https://www.aicte-india.org/
Learn more about the various student and staff development Schemes by AICTE.
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Module 1: Orientation towards Technical Education and
Curriculum Aspects
L-2 QUALITY ASSURANCE IN HIGHER EDUCATION
Contributors
Dr. P. MALLIGA
Orientation Towards Technical Education Quality Assurance in Higher Education
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE NO.
1 QUALITY ASSURANCE IN HIGHER EDUCATION 1

1.0 QUALITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION 2
2.0 CONCEPT OF QUALITY 5
3.0 QUALITY MOVEMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION 7
4.0 MODELS OF QUALITY ASSURANCE 9
5.0 NEED FOR QUALITY TEACHING IN TECHNICAL EDUCATION 21
6.0 ACTIVITIES 22
REFFERENCES
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UNIT – 1
ORIENTATION TOWARDS TECHNICAL EDUCATION
L-2 QUALITY ASSURANCE IN HIGHER EDUCATION
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1.0 Comprehend quality in higher education from different perspectives
2.0 Explain the concept of quality in higher education
3.0 Explore different quality movements in higher education
4.0 Explain different models of quality assurance in education
5.0 Explain the role of teachers in improving the quality of higher education.
1.0 QUALITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION
It is better to understand what is higher in higher education? You, as a teacher or

stakeholder of higher education, will agree that it is not just about the higher level of
educational structure in the country. There is more to it.
In terms of the level, higher education includes college and university teaching and learning
towards which students’ progress to attain higher educational qualification. Higher
education imparts in-depth knowledge and understanding so as to advance the students to
new frontiers of knowledge in different walks of life that is in their subject domains. It
develops the student’s ability to question and seek truth and makes him/her competent to
critique on contemporary issues. It broadens the intellectual powers of the individual within
a narrow specialization, but also gives him/her a wider perspective of the world around.
According to Ronald Barnett (1992) there are four predominant concepts of higher
education:
I. Higher education as the production of qualified human resources. In this view,

higher education is seen as a process in which the students are counted as
“products” absorbed in the labor market. Thus, higher education becomes input to
the growth and development of business and industry.
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II. Higher education as training for a research career. In this view, higher education is
preparation for qualified scientists and researchers who would continuously develop
the frontiers of knowledge. Quality within this viewpoint is more about research
publications and transmission of the academic rigor to do quality research.
III. Higher education as the efficient management of teaching provision. Many strongly
believe that teaching is the core of educational institutions. Thus, higher education
institutions focus on efficient management of teaching-learning provisions by
improving the quality of teaching, enabling a higher completion rate among the
students.
IV. Higher education as a matter of extending life chances. In this view, higher
education is seen as an opportunity to participate in the development process of the
individual through a flexible, continuing education mode.
Integrating all four views, it gives an overall picture of what higher is in higher education.
If you look at the activities of colleges and universities, you will realize that teaching,
research and extension form the three main functions of higher education. The report of the
UNESCO International Commission on Education in the 21st Century titled “Learning: The
Treasure Within” (popularly known as Delores Commission) emphasized four pillars of
education: learning to know, learning to do, learning to live together and learning to be.
While, higher education intends to inculcate all these four in individuals and the society, the
report highlighted the following specific functions of higher education:
 To prepare students for research and teaching;

 To provide highly specialized training courses adapted to the needs of economic and
social life;
 To be open to all, so as to cater to the many aspects of lifelong education in the
widest sense; and
 To promote international cooperation through internationalization of research,
technology, networking, and free movement of persons and scientific ideas
(UNESCO, 1996).
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The Indian higher education system is in a constant state of change and flux due to the
increasing needs of expanding access to higher education, impact of technology on the
delivery of education, increasing private participation and the impact of globalization.
Taking cognizance of these developments and the role of higher education in society, NAAC
has developed five core values:
 contributing to national development,

 fostering global competencies among students,
 inculcating a value system in students,
 promoting the use of technology and
 quest for excellence.
Excellence in all that they do will contribute to the overall development of the system of
higher education. The seven criteria developed by NAAC to measure excellence are in fact
the main processes for developing the capabilities of an institution. Establishment of an
Internal Quality Assurance Cell (IQAC) in each of the HEIs would help develop and raise their
capabilities as institutions. The seven criteria are: curricular aspects; teaching, learning and
evaluation; research, consultancy and extension; infrastructure and learning resources;
student support and progression; organization and management; and healthy practices.
One of the major outcomes of the IQAC establishment would be the internalization and
institutionalization of quality so that the institution strives to excel in serving its students
and other stakeholders. The quest to become a quality institution is a core value that HEIs
must imbibe and demonstrate in their functioning.
In order to illustrate the value framework, Prasad (2005) has identified some parameters
that are given in Table 1.
Values / Goals Suggested Parameters / Activities
1. Contribution to  More access with equity

national development  Developmental thrust in identification of research
areas and academic programs
 Community engagement
2. Fostering global  Development of generic skill
competencies  Development of application skills
 Development of life skills
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amongst students
3. Inculcating value system  Value integration in academic programs

in students  Value integration in management practices
 Value inculcation through co-curricular and extra-
curricular activities
4. Promoting the use of  Enrichment of learning
technology  Increasing access – online programs
5. Quest for excellence  Development of benchmarks of excellence

 Best practices application
 Institutionalization of continuous improvement
systems
Table 1: Indicative parameters of the value framework
Higher education is the backbone of any society. It is the quality of higher education that
decides the quality of human resources in a country. Higher education, as we see today, is a
complex system facilitating teaching, research, extension and international cooperation and
understanding.
2.0 CONCEPT OF QUALITY
Quality has a few central ideas around which the whole concept revolves: Quality as
absolute, Quality as relative, Quality as a process, and Quality as culture. When we
consider quality as absolute, it is given and considered as the highest possible standard. For
example, the picture of “Mona Lisa” by Da Vinci, the Egyptian Pyramids, the Taj Mahal,
Tanjore Brihadeeswara Temple are works of high standards and quality.
In product terms, they are attached with high ‘brand’ values, status and positional
advantages. Educational institutions such as Oxford, Cambridge and Stanford in the west
have this absolute quality standard, though in the case of education it might still be
perceptual. Quality as relative suggests that the quality of a product or service can be
described in relative terms. Quality here can be measured in terms of certain specifications.
‘Quality as a process’ suggests that in order to achieve quality of a product or service, it
must undergo certain processes and conform to the procedural requirements. Thus, quality
is the outcome of systems and procedures laid down for the purpose. The fourth one,
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quality as a culture recognizes the importance of organizational view of quality as a process

of transformation, where each entity is concerned and acknowledges the importance of
quality.
In educational institutions we are particularly concerned with the latter, though all other
ideas of quality too have their respective places. In the book published by NAAC on Quality
assurance in Higher Education, the author Dr. Sanjaya Mishra has quoted a ‘suggestive’
definition by Barrow (1991) to define ‘quality’ in higher education:
“…a high evaluation accorded to an educative process, where it has been

demonstrated that, through the process, the students’ educational development has
been enhanced ... not only have they achieved the particular objectives set for the
course but, in doing so, they have also fulfilled the general educational aims of
autonomy of the ability to participate in reasoned discourse, of critical self-
evaluation, and of coming to a proper awareness of the ultimate contingency of all
thought and action”
As teachers, principals, heads of departments and planners and policy makers in education,
you may be having this question in your mind – why worry about quality? It is not just
because of AICTE or UGC directive that you should think of quality, rather quality should be
a bottom-up approach and every one should be conscious of why we should worry about
quality of our teaching, programs and institutions.
Some of the reasons are:
1. Competition: We are entering a new regime, where competition among educational

institutions for students and funds will be highly significant. With globalization and
the GATS (Global Agreement on Trade in Services), the educational environment will
be seized by increased competition. In order to survive in such a situation,
educational institutions need to worry about their quality.
2. Customer satisfaction: Students, parents or sponsoring agencies as customers of the

educational institutions are now highly conscious of their rights or getting value for
their money and time spent. They are now demanding good quality teaching and
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receiving employable skill sets, and thus we should constantly worry about the
relevance of our courses and programs to the needs of the labor market.
3. Maintaining standards: As educational institutions, we are always concerned about

setting our own standard and maintaining it continuously year after year. In order to
maintain the standard, we should consciously make efforts to improve quality of the
educational transactions as well as the educational provisions and facilities.
4. Accountability: Every institution is accountable to its stakeholders in terms of the

funds (public or private) used on it. Concern for quality will ensure accountability of
the funds utilized and inform the stakeholders about taking appropriate decisions.
Thus, quality can be considered as a monitoring mechanism.
5. Improve employee morale and motivation: Your concern for quality as an

institution will improve the morale and motivation of the staff in performing their
duties and responsibilities. If a quality system is in place, the internal processes
would be systematic making every department complementing each other’s service
domain and helping in developing internal customer satisfaction leading to high
morale and motivation.
6. Credibility, prestige and status: If you are concerned about quality, continuously
and not once in a while, it will bring in credibility to individuals and your institution
because of consistency leading to prestige, status and brand value.
7. Image and visibility: Quality institutions have the capacity to attract better
stakeholder support, like getting merited students from far and near, increased
donations/ grants from philanthropist / funding agencies and higher employer
interest for easy placement of graduates.
Quality has been defined differently in different contexts. It is a much used and least
understood term. But, quality in higher education means the educational process is such
that it ensures students achieve their goals and thereby satisfies the needs of the society
and help in national development.
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3.0 QUALITY MOVEMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION
The University Grants Commission (UGC) with its statutory powers is expected to maintain
quality in Indian higher education institutions. Section 12 of the UGC Act of 1956 requires
UGC to be responsible for “the determination and maintenance of standards of teaching,
examinations and research in universities”. To fulfill this mandate, the UGC has been
continuously developing mechanisms to monitor quality in colleges and universities directly
or indirectly. In order to improve quality, it has established national research facilities, and
Academic Staff Colleges to re-orient teachers and provide refresher courses in subject areas.
The UGC also conducts the National Eligibility Test (NET) for setting high standards of
teaching.
Various committees and commissions on education over the years have emphasized directly
or indirectly the need for improvement and recognition of quality in Indian higher education
system. The concept of autonomous colleges as recommended by Kothari Commission
(1964-66) has its roots in the concept of quality improvement. Since the adoption of the
National Policy on Education (1968), there has been a tremendous expansion of educational
opportunities at all levels, particularly in higher education. With the expansion of
educational institutions, came the concern for quality. The constitutional amendment in
1976 brought education to the concurrent list making the central government more
responsible for quality improvement. The New Education Policy (1986) emphasized on the
recognition and reward of excellence in performance of institutions and checking of sub-
standard institutions. Consequently, the Programs of Action (PoA) in 1986 stated, “As a part
of its responsibility for the maintenance and promotion of standards of education, the UGC
will, to begin with, take the initiative to establish an Accreditation and Assessment Council
as an autonomous body”. After eight years of continuous and serious deliberations, the
UGC established NAAC at Bangalore as a registered autonomous body on 16th September
1994 under the Societies Registration Act of 1860.
The main objectives of NAAC as envisaged in the Memorandum of Association (MoA) are to:
 grade institutions of higher education and their programs;

 stimulate the academic environment and quality of teaching and research in these
institutions;
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 help institutions realize their academic objectives;

 promote necessary changes, innovations and reforms in all aspects of the
institutions working for the above purpose; and
 encourage innovations, self-evaluation and accountability in higher education.
Like NAAC (which is responsible for colleges and universities), there are other statutory
bodies in India to assure quality in professional education. Some of these are:
 All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE)

 National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE)
 Medical Council of India (MCI)
 Indian Nursing Council (INC)
 Bar Council of India (BCI)
 Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI)
 Distance Education Council (DEC)
 Indian Council for Agricultural Research (ICAR)
The AICTE established the National Board of Accreditation (NBA) in 1994 to accredit
programs offered by technical institutions. The NBA accredits programs and it is a voluntary
process like that of NAAC. Other professional statutory bodies mostly undertake review
exercises to recognize or de-recognize the institutions on the basis of their quality audit.
Thus, quality issue is on the top of the agenda of Indian higher education.
4.0 MODELS OF QUALITY ASSURANCE
As there are different meanings and interpretations of quality, there are different models of
quality assurance as well. Across the world, institutions follow different models of quality
assurance, particularly country specific and institution specific models.
Quality has been interpreted in different ways in different domains of knowledge. There are
five generic models of quality assurance used in education, business and software
development. These are:
 Baldrige model,
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 ISO 9000:2000,
 Capability Maturity Model,
 Six Sigma,
 Total Quality Management.
Each one of these is based on a philosophy of its own, and can be applied to education and
training situations with minor adjustments.
The specific application models of ABET, NBA, NAAC, ICAR and DEC are variants derived
from these models to serve specialized needs in specific contexts. The underlying
philosophies of all these models are self-study and external quality monitoring or
assessment.
Accreditation is a process of quality assurance and improvement, whereby a programs in an

approved Institution is critically appraised to verify that the Institution or the programs
continues to meet and/or exceed the Norms and Standards prescribed by regulator from
time to time. It is a kind of recognition which indicates that a programs or Institution fulfills
certain standards.
The purpose of the accreditation by NBA is to promote and recognize excellence in technical
education in colleges and universities - at both the undergraduate and post graduate levels.
Institutions, students, employers, and the public at large all benefit from the external
verification of quality provided through the NBA accreditation process. They also benefit
from the process of continuous quality improvement that is encouraged by the NBA's
developmental approach to promote excellence in technical education.
Through accreditation, the following main purposes are served:
 Support and advice to technical institutions in the maintenance and enhancement of

their quality of provision;
 confidence and assurance on quality to various stakeholders including students;
 assurance of the good standing of an Institution to government departments and

other interested bodies;
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 enabling an Institution to state publicly that it has voluntarily accepted independent

inspection and has satisfied all the requirements for satisfactory operation and
maintenance of quality in education.
The purpose and impact of accreditation goes far beyond quality assurance of an Institution
and its programs. Major impacts of accreditation system are summarized below:
 Encourages quality improvement initiatives by Institutions.
 Improves student enrollment both in terms of quality and quantity.
 Helps the Institution in securing necessary funds.
 Enhances employability of graduates.
 Facilitates transnational recognition of degrees and mobility of graduates and

professionals.
 Motivates faculty to participate actively in academic and related Institutional /

departmental activities.
 Helps create sound and challenging academic environment in the Institution, and
Contributes to social and economic development of the country by producing high
quality technical manpower.
Accreditation is a tool that stakeholders use to monitor, assess and evaluate the standards
and quality of the education a student receives at a college, university or other institution of
higher learning. Some of the major benefits enrolled students receive by attending an
accredited institution / program are as follows:
 Accredited institution / program offers the highest quality education available;
 Accredited institution / program strengthens consumer's confidence, employers

value degrees of an accredited program the most;
 Accreditation helps institutions to know their strengths, weaknesses and

opportunities, pushes them to continuously improve their programs and give them a
new sense of direction, identity and targets; and
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 Accredited institution / program demonstrates accountability to the public,

commitment to excellence and continuous quality improvement.
Let us explore accreditation models of ABET, NBA and NAAC, ICAR and DEC.
A. ABET (ACCREDITATION BOARD FOR ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY)
ABET (Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology) is recognized by Council of

higher education Accreditation, USA for accreditation of college and university level
programs in applied sciences, computing, engineering and technology. ABET was established
in 1932 as Engineer’s Council for Professional Development (ECPD). Following the tradition
of accreditation in the USA, the ABET model follows a voluntary participation by institutions
to offer themselves to assess the quality of their programs.
An internal self-study evaluation forms the basis of the beginning of the accreditation
process. Based on the self-study report, the appropriate ABET Commission forms an
evaluation team for the site visit. Following the visit, the peer-team provides the institution
with a written report to allow for correction of errors or misrepresentation of facts. The
peer team examines the following in a comprehensive manner and recommend
accreditation and relevant action.
 Organization and management of the institution

 Educational programs offered
 Maturity and stability of the institution
 Admission process and number of students enrolled
 Teaching staff and teaching load
 Physical facilities, finances, etc.
 Curricular contents
 Sample student work
 Record of employment of graduates
 Support services to the students
 Clearly stated academic policies
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Accreditation is usually granted for a period ranging from 2-6 years. Depending on the
weakness of the program, the peer team recommends specific action to be taken by the
commission such as: Next General Review (six year); Interim Report and Interim Visit (both 2
years); Report Extended and Visit Extended (2 or 4 years); Show Cause (2 years); Show
Cause Extended (2 or 4 years); and Not accredited.
For details of these see ABET Accreditation Policy and Procedures Manual 2006-2007 (ABET,
2006).
B. NATIONAL BOARD OF ACCREDITATION (NBA)
The National Board of Accreditation (NBA), India was initially established by AICTE in the
year 1994, for periodic evaluations of technical institutions & programs basis according to
specified norms and standards as recommended by AICTE council.
 NBA in its present form came into existence as an autonomous body with effect from
7th January 2010, with the objective of Assurance of Quality and Relevance of
Education, especially of the programs in professional and technical disciplines, i.e.,
Engineering and Technology, Management, Architecture, Pharmacy and Hospitality,
through the mechanism of accreditation of programs offered by technical
institutions.
 Outcome based education is targeted at achieving desirable outcomes (in terms of

knowledge, skills, attitudes and behavior) at the end of a program. Teaching with this
awareness and making the associated effort constitutes outcome-based education.
This entails a regular methodology for ascertaining the attainment of outcomes, and
benchmarking these against the program outcomes consistent with the objectives of
the program.
 Initially, NBA accreditation used to be based on ‘input – process – output’ model

with major emphasis on availability of resources / facilities and the outputs thereof.
In the year 2009, NBA aligned its methodology with international benchmarks and
started accreditation on the basis of outcomes. It believes that educational quality
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must be measured by outcomes rather than inputs, because inputs do not

necessarily correlate with quality outcomes. Outcomes are dependent not only on
inputs but also on the processes followed by an institution to convert inputs into
defined outcomes.
Washington Accord
The Washington Accord, originally signed among six countries in 1989, is an International
Agreement among bodies responsible for accrediting undergraduate engineering degree
programs. It recognizes the substantial equivalency of programs accredited by those bodies
and recommends that graduates of programs accredited by any of the signatory bodies be
recognized by the other bodies as having met the academic requirements for entry to the
practice of engineering in the area of their jurisdiction.
The membership of Washington Accord is an international recognition of the quality of

undergraduate engineering education offered by the member country and is an avenue to
bring it into the world class category. It encourages and facilitates the mobility of
engineering graduates and professionals at international level.
 National Board of Accreditation, India has become the permanent signatory member
of the Washington Accord on 13th June 2014.
 The NBA accredited programs offered by the Tier -1 Institutions are eligible for the
recognition of the programs by other signatories of the Washington Accord.
Based on deliberations and consensus among experts, the NBA has accepted accreditation
at the program level as the unit of assessment (post-graduate, graduate and diploma)
instead of institution. The accreditation by NBA is categorical: Accredited or Not Accredited.
The AICTE recognition is accorded to institutions based on their institutional management,
compliance to AICTE Norms and Standards, prior approval by state government and
university and market sensitivity of programs output to avoid imbalance in supply of
qualified manpower.
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However, the accreditation by NBA is at the specific program level and ensures that the
students admitted to the program undergo an acceptable level of teaching-learning process
and are transformed into capable technical professionals, having sound knowledge and
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personal competence for employment in responsible technical assignments.
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The process of accreditation by NBA goes through the following stages:
 Institutions acquire the manual of accreditation and application forms;

 Institution respond to the two-part application form (self-study);
 NBA secretariat scrutinizes the request and constitutes the accreditation team;
 Accreditation team visits the institution and makes recommendations (peer team
visit);
 The sectoral committee considers the recommendations and the results are placed
before the Executive Committee of the AICTE for approval.
These eight criteria are divided differently in a 1000-points scale for different levels of
programs. The accreditation is of ‘yes’ and ‘no’ type, but the duration of accreditation is of
two types – for three years (650-750 score) and for five years (more than 750 score). Thus,
in an institution, there could be a programs with 5 years accreditation, another with 3 years
accreditation and yet another without accreditation (AICTE, 2004).
The criteria of assessment followed by NBA consist of eight major groups as shown in the
figure
C. NAAC MODEL
In India, the National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC) has identified seven
criteria to serve as the basis for the assessment of higher education institutions in the
country. Assessment is a voluntary process. However, some State Governments have made
it mandatory for their colleges. It follows a four-phase process of assessment of a unit
(Institution or Programs / Department) covering:
 Nationally evolved criteria for assessment

 Self-study by the institution
 Peer team visit
 Final decision by Executive Committee of NAAC.
Criteria for Assessment: NAAC has identified through national consultations and consensus
the following seven criteria to serve as the basis for its assessment procedure.
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They are
1. Curricular Aspects
2. Teaching-Learning and Evaluation
3. Research, Consultancy and Evaluation
4. Infrastructure and Learning Resources
5. Student Support and Progression
6. Organization and Management
7. Healthy Practices
The self-study report is expected to highlight the functioning of the institution with
reference to these criteria.
Self-Study: The Institution seeking assessment prepares a self-study report as per the
guidelines formulated by NAAC. The report consists of two parts – data about the
organization on various parameters; and a critical self-analysis based on the available data.
The self-study is supposed to be a tool for critical reflection on institutional practices and
facilities to identify its own strengths and weaknesses. The self-study report enables the
NAAC and the peer team to understand the institution better.
Peer Team Visit: Based on the self-study report, NAAC constitutes a team of peers in
consultation with the institution. The peer team visits the institution and looks for “pattern
of evidences” to validate the claims in the self-study report through interaction with the
senior management, heads of the departments, teachers, staff and students of the
institution. The institution is provided an opportunity for withdrawal at the end by the peer
team, before finalizing the draft report. The draft assessment report of the peer team is
shared with the institution at the end of the visit. The peer team makes the assessment of
the institution based on a suggested scoring pattern. This is submitted to NAAC as a
confidential score.
NAAC Decision: The Executive Committee of NAAC after reviewing the report takes a
decision on the grade of the institution based on the nine-point grading system. Institutions
receiving equal or more than 55 %. 55% receive “Accredited Status” and institutions which
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do not attain the minimum 55% point for accreditation are intimated that the institution is
“Assessed and Found Not Qualified for Accreditation”. NAAC grading is valid for a period of
5 years. Institutions that complete five-year accredited period may volunteer for re-
accreditation.
D. ICAR MODEL
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) established an Accreditation Board (AB) in
1996 to accredit higher education institutions and programs in different branches of
agriculture and allied sciences, including Agricultural Engineering and Veterinary Sciences.
For the ICAR-AB, “accreditation is a process of assuring acceptable quality and a tool for
improving educational standards” (ICAR, 2002). Accreditation is a three-tier system at ICAR
covering university, college and individual programs and departments. The accreditation
process follows a four-step process:
 Institutions submit a detailed self-study report mentioning how the institution meets
the criteria of accreditation;
 Peer team visits the institution to examine and validate the self-study report;
 Peer team submits a detailed report with recommendation to the AB; and
 Final decision on the accreditation is taken by the AB.
The peer team recommendations and the outcomes of the accreditation process are in the
form of categorical information: full and unconditional accreditation; provisional
accreditation with conditions and advice; and denial of accreditation.
Re-accreditation is done after an interval of 5-10 years, and the initial accreditation is done
only after completion of one batch of students. Though accreditation is criteria-based, no
specific score is given, and the AB takes a final view on the status of accreditation based on
the peer team report, response of the institution, and review by AB secretariat.
The criteria used by ICAR-AB are as follows (ICAR, 2002):
Criterion 1: The institution has clear and publicly stated objectives consistent with its
mission and goals
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Criterion 2: The institution has organized effectively human, financial and physical
resources, necessary to accomplish its objectives.
Criterion 3: The institution is accomplishing its educational objectives.
Criterion 4: The institution can continue to accomplish its objectives and improve its
quality of educational programs and effectiveness.
E. DEC Model
The Distance Education Council (DEC) was established in 1991 under Section 5 (2) of the
IGNOU Act (1985), passed by the Parliament of India. It has the mandate to serve as an
apex body of Open and Distance Learning (ODL) in India to promote, coordinate and
maintain its standards. In pursuance of the function mentioned at (18) of Clause 4 (a) of
Statute 28 of IGNOU, an Open and Distance Education.
Assessment and Accreditation Board (ODE-AAB) has been constituted to help students,
parents, ODL institutions, government agencies and employers to identify institutions that
meet the norms and standards prescribed by the DEC. The ODE-AAB develops norms,
standards and formats for assessment and accreditation; assesses programs in-depth and
recognizes institutions and programs as outcomes of assessment. It is mandatory for
institutions offering programs through ODL to seek for DEC recognition and apply for
assessment. The process of assessment follows five steps:
 Institutions apply for approval in the prescribed format giving details of the
institution and programs. This is some sort of self-study by the institution.
 Review of learning materials by experts.
 Visit of the expert team to examine the claims made in the application and validate
them (peer team visit).
 Report of the expert team to the ODE-AAB of DEC.
 Decision of the Council on recognition.
As outcomes of the assessment process, either an institution is recognized or not

recognized. However, provisional recognition may also be given if the Board is convinced
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that there is enough potential for improvement. As an agency with responsibility also to
promote ODL, the DEC takes efforts to improve the quality of the institutions and programs
through developmental grants and conduct of capacity building programs at the
institutional level.
5.0 NEED FOR QUALITY TEACHERS IN TECHNICAL EDUCATION
“We shape our institution and our institution shapes us” - Winston Churchill.
The general scenario of higher education in India is not equivalent with the global quality
standards. The technical education in India is plagued with many inadequacies. It has
rendered the engineers coming out of most of the Institutes are almost unemployable.
If we want to really improve the engineering education in India and make our engineers
really contributing to the growth and prosperity of the nation, the whole domain needs
complete rethinking.
i. PROGRAMMES AND CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT:
To meet the requirements of rapid changes and developments in technology, the

undergraduate courses are being diversified with an emphasis on specialization.
Continuous monitoring of technological advancements that are taking place in the world in
the emerging areas need to be observed and the respective courses and the faculty need to
be updated regularly and continuously from time to time.
There is need in the technical education system to generate the trained faculty for meeting
this rapidly changing requirements.
ii. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT:
In India, engineering research and development programs exist, but the focus on
fundamental research and applied research activities are rather on a low key.
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Polytechnics and Engineering Colleges should encourage research and development. Active
involvement through publication of articles in journals, presentation of papers in seminars
and conferences should be made mandatory.
There must be a strong interaction of engineering educational institutions with the industry
in the role of consultancy. It will enable and offers an opportunity to the faculty to
contribute to the real-world problems and to solve the problems too.
There is a tremendous scope for technical education institution to play their vital role in
promoting entrepreneurship. In our country, there are very few initiatives taken to support
and nurture the entrepreneurship.
iii. IMPROVING QUALITY OF TEACHING AND LEARNING:
If we want our engineers to be of world –class quality, we need to make our institutions
world-class. In order to make our institutions world-class, in addition to infrastructure,
human resources particularly faculty plays a crucial role. The quality of students coming out
of the universities and colleges largely depends upon the quality of the teaching staff
employed.
Staff appraisal and assessment on a continuous basis in respect of the potential for
teaching, research, interaction with students, etc., should be incorporated as a regular
feature.
Hence, the faculty should understand their role and their contribution in building world class
institutions. There is a huge need for faculty development both in terms of pedagogical
development and engineering domain training.
6.0 ACTIVITIES
Activity 1
a. Consider an Engineering College / Institute. It may be the college / Institute you

have studied or studying / worked or working.
b. Check whether that Institute or department in the institute / programs has been
accredited. If so what type and how much is their score.
22
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c. Find out one of the best practices in that Institute that have contributed to the
quality of Institute.
REFERENCES
1. Quality Assurance in Higher Education - An Introduction,
http://naac.gov.in/index.php/resources#books
2. https://mhrd.gov.in/
3. https://www.aicte-india.org/
4. https://www.ugc.ac.in/
5. https://labour.gov.in/organizationsofmole/directorate-general-employment-training-dget
6. http://www.tndte.gov.in/site/
7. http://www.isteonline.in/
8. http://www.naac.gov.in/
9. http://www.nbaind.org/
10. https://dgt.gov.in/
11. http://nitttrbpl.ac.in/hindi_final/index.php
12. http://www.nitttrchd.ac.in/sitenew1/index11.php
13. http://www.nitttrkol.ac.in/
14. http://www.nitttrc.ac.i
23
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24
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UNIT 2: THREE DOMAINS OF LEARNING
Lesson 3: Three domains of Learning
Contributor
Dr. P. MALLIGA
Three Domains of Learning
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE NO.
3.0 THREE DOMAINS OF LEARNING 1

3.1 INTRODUCTION TO THREE DOMAINS OF LEARNING 1
3.2 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY OF COGNITIVE DOMAIN 3
3.3 REVISED BLOOM’S TAXONOMY OF COGNITIVE DOMAIN 4
3.4 KRATHWOHL’S TAXONOMY FOR AFFECTIVE DOMAIN 12
3.5 DAVE TAXONOMY FOR PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN 13
REFERENCES 18
Module 1- Orientation Towards Technical Education and Curriculum Aspects NITTTR, Chennai
3.0 THREE DOMAINS OF LEARNING
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
➢ Explain three domains of Learning
➢ Describe Bloom’s Taxonomy of Cognitive Domain
➢ Explain Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of Cognitive Domain
➢ Explain Krathwohl’s Taxonomy of Affective Domain
➢ Explore Dave’s, Simpson’s and Harrow’s Taxonomy for Psychomotor
Domain
3.1 INTRODUCTION TO THREE DOMAINS OF LEARNING
Every person is involved in learning something all the time. To a lay man, learning may
mean reading a passage, memorizing a formula, understanding a process or even listening
to a teacher. To educators and teachers, Learning is relatively permanent change in
behavior resulting from reinforced practice. When a student can do something after
instruction which he could not do before, he is said to have learnt.
According to Berelson and Steiner, learning refers to changes in behavior that result from
previous successful behaviour in similar situations. If one is really learning, one's behavior
becomes more effective and more adaptive than what it used to be before. Learning can
occur in three domains:
• Cognitive
• Affective
• Psychomotor.
Teaching is a catalytic process for bringing about desirable changes in learners. The relation
between teaching and learning related to each domain is shown in the following diagram.
The basic idea behind the cognitive domain involves the knowledge and intellectual skills
that a student will develop. The affective domain includes the feelings, emotions and
attitudes that learners will develop. The psychomotor domain (physical and Kinesthetic)
includes utilizing motor skills and the ability to coordinate them.
1
Figure 1: Relationship between teaching and learning
All teachers should know about these domains and use them to construct lessons. Each
domain has a taxonomy associated with it. Taxonomy is simply a word for a
classification. Domains may be thought of as categories.
Instructional designers, trainers and educators often refer to these three categories as KSA
knowledge (cognitive), Skills (psychomotor), and attitudes (affective).
2
Figure 2: Three Domains of Learning
3.2 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY OF COGNITIVE DOMAIN
In 1956, Benjamin Bloom with collaborators Max Englehart, Edward Furst, Walter Hill, and
David Krathwohl published a framework for categorizing educational goals: Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives. It is familiarly known as Bloom’s Taxonomy. This framework has
been applied by generations of school and college teachers in their teaching. It is most often
used when designing educational, training and learning processes.
The basic idea behind the cognitive domain involves the knowledge and intellectual skills
that a student will develop. There are six categories involved within the cognitive domain,
and they are usually considered to be stages of difficulty. Usually, the first category must
be mastered before a student can move on to the next one. These categories are
knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.
3
Figure 3: Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Traditional)
Skill Definition Key Words

Knowledge Recall information Identify, describe, name, label,
recognize, reproduce, follow
Comprehension Understand the meaning, paraphrase Summarize, convert, defend,
a concept paraphrase, interpret, give
examples
Application Use the information or concept in a Build, make, construct, model,
new situation predict, prepare
Analysis Break information or concepts into Compare/contrast, break down,
parts to understand it more fully distinguish, select, separate
Synthesis Put ideas together to form something Categorize, generalize,

new reconstruct
Evaluation Make judgments about value Appraise, critique, judge, justify,
argue, support
Like any theoretical model, Bloom’s Taxonomy has its strengths and weaknesses. Its greatest
strength is that it has taken the very important topic of thinking and placed a structure
around it that is usable by practitioners. Those teachers who keep a list of question prompts
relating to the various levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy undoubtedly do a better job of
encouraging higher order thinking in their students than those who have no such tool. On
the other hand, as anyone who has worked with a group of educators to classify a group of
questions and learning activities according to the Taxonomy can attest, there is little
consensus about what seemingly self-evident, terms like “analysis,” or “evaluation” mean. In
addition, so many worthwhile activities, such as authentic problems and projects, cannot be
mapped to the Taxonomy, and trying to do that would diminish their potential as learning
opportunities.
3.3 REVISED BLOOM’S TAXONOMY OF COGNITIVE DOMAIN
Lorin Anderson, a former student of Bloom, and David Krathwohl revisited the cognitive
domain in the mid-nineties and made some changes, with perhaps the three most
prominent ones being (Anderson, Krathwohl, Airasian, Cruikshank, Mayer, Pintrich, Raths,
Wittrock, 2000):
• changing the names in the six categories from noun to verb forms
4
• rearranging them as shown in figure. Making evaluate as the fifth level and taking
create to the top level
• creating a processes and levels of knowledge matrix
Figure 4: Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy
The Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy Action Verbs are given in the Table: 1
Table 1: REVISED Bloom’s Taxonomy Action Verbs
I. Remembering II. Understanding III. Applying IV. Analyzing V. Evaluating VI. Creating
Demonstrate Examine and break

Present and defend Compile information
Exhibit memory of understanding of Solve problems to information into
opinions by making together in a
previously learned facts and ideas by new situations by parts by identifying
judgments about different way by
material by recalling organizing, applying acquired motives or causes.
information, validity combining elements
facts, terms, basic comparing, knowledge, facts, Make inferences and
of ideas, or quality in a new pattern or
concepts, and interpreting, giving techniques and rules find evidence to
of work based on a proposing new
answers. descriptions, and in a different way. support
set of criteria. solutions.
stating main ideas. generalizations.
5
define ask act advertise appraise adapt

describe associate administer analyze argue anticipate
duplicate cite apply appraise assess assemble
enumerate classify articulate calculate choose collaborate
examine compare calculate categorize compare combine
identify contrast change classify conclude compile
label convert chart compare consider compose
list describe choose conclude convince construct
locate differentiate collect connect criticize create
match discover complete contrast critique design
memorize discuss compute correlate debate develop
name distinguish construct criticize decide devise
observe estimate determine deduce defend express
omit explain develop devise discriminate facilitate
quote express discover diagram distinguish formulate
read extend dramatize differentiate editorialize generalize
recall generalize employ discriminate estimate hypothesize
recite give examples establish dissect evaluate infer
recognize group examine distinguish find errors integrate
record identify experiment divide grade intervene
repeat illustrate explain estimate judge invent
reproduce indicate illustrate evaluate justify justify
retell infer interpret experiment measure manage
select interpret judge explain order modify
state judge manipulate focus persuade negotiate
tabulate observe modify illustrate predict originate
tell order operate infer rank plan
visualize paraphrase practice order rate prepare
predict predict organize recommen produce
relate prepare plan d reframe propose
report produce prioritize score rearrange
represent record select select reorganize
research relate separate summarize report
restate report subdivide support revise
review schedule survey test rewrite
rewrite simulate test weigh role-play
select sketch simulate
show solve solve
summarize teach speculate
trace transfer structure
transform write test
translate validate
write
Adapted from Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing,
Abridged Edition. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
This revised taxonomy attempts to correct some of the problems with the original taxonomy.
Unlike the 1956 version, the revised taxonomy differentiates between “knowing what,” the
6
content of thinking, and “knowing how,” the procedures used in solving problems.
The Knowledge Dimension is the “knowing what.” It has four categories: factual, conceptual,
procedural, and metacognitive. Factual knowledge includes isolated bits of information, such
as vocabulary definitions and knowledge about specific details. Conceptual knowledge
consists of systems of information, such as classifications and categories. Procedural
knowledge includes algorithms, heuristics or rules of thumb, techniques, and methods as
well as knowledge about when to use these procedures. Metacognitive knowledge refers to
knowledge of thinking processes and information about how to manipulate these processes
effectively.
3.3.1 The Knowledge Dimension
Dimension Definition
Factual Knowledge The basic elements students must know to be
acquainted with a discipline or solve problems in it
Conceptual Knowledge The interrelationships among the basic elements within
a larger structure that enable them to function
together
Procedural Knowledge How to do something, methods of inquiry, and criteria
for using skills, algorithms, techniques, and methods
Metacognitive Knowledge Knowledge of cognition in general as well as awareness
and knowledge of one’s own cognition
There are four major knowledge types in Knowledge Dimension and the subtypes with
Examples are given in the following table.
Major Types and Subtypes of Knowledge Dimension with Examples
A. Factual Knowledge - The basic elements students must know to be acquainted with a
discipline or solve problems in it
A1. Knowledge of terminology Technical vocabulary, music symbols
A2. Knowledge of specific details and Major natural resources, reliable sources of
elements information
B. Conceptual knowledge – The interrelationships among the basic elements within the
7
larger structure that enable them to function together

B1. Knowledge of classifications and Periods of geological time, forms of
categories business ownership
B2. Knowledge of principles and Pythagorean theorem, law of supply and

generalizations demand
B3. Knowledge of theories, models and Theory of evolution, structure of Congress

structures
C. Procedural Knowledge-How to do something, methods of inquiry, and criteria for using
skills, algorithms, techniques, and methods
C1. Knowledge of subject-specific skills Skills used in painting with water colors,
and algorithm whole-number division algorithms
C2. Knowledge of subject-specific Interviewing techniques, scientific method

techniques and Methods
C3. Knowledge of criteria for determining Criteria used to determine when to apply a
when to use appropriate procedures procedures involving Newton's second law,
Criteria used to judge the feasibility of using
a particular method to estimate business
costs
D. Metacognitive Knowledge - Knowledge of cognition in general as well as awareness

and knowledge of one's own cognition
D1. Strategic knowledge Knowledge of outlining as a means of

capturing the structure of a unit of subject
matter in a text book, knowledge of the use
of heuristics
D2. Knowledge about cognitive tasks Knowledge of the types of tests particular
including appropriate contextual and teachers administer, knowledge of the
conditional knowledge cognitive demands of different tasks
D3. Self Knowledge Knowledge that critiquing essays is a

personal strength, whereas writing essay is
a personal weakness; awareness of one's
own knowledge level
.3.3.2 The Cognitive Process Dimension
The Cognitive Process Dimension of the revised Bloom’s Taxonomy like the original version
8
has six skills. They are, from simplest to most complex: remember, understand, apply,
analyze, evaluate, and create
1. Remember
Categories & Alternative

Definition
Cognitive Processes Names
Remember Retrieve knowledge from long- term
memory
1.1 Recognizing Identifying Locating knowledge in long-term
memory that is consistent with
presented material
1.2 Recalling Retrieving Retrieving relevant knowledge from
long-term memory
2. Understand
Categories & Cognitive

Alternative Names Definition
Processes
Understand Construct meaning from
instructional messages,
including oral, written, and
graphic communication
2.1 Interpreting Clarifying Paraphrasing Changing from one form of
Representing Translating representation to another
2.2 Exemplifying Illustrating Instantiating Finding a specific example or
illustration of a concept or
principle
2.3 Classifying Categorizing Subsuming Determining that something
belongs to a category
2.4 Summarizing Abstracting Generalizing Abstracting a general theme or
major point(s)
2.5 Inferring Concluding Extrapolating Drawing a logical conclusion
Interpolating Predicting from presented information
2.6 Comparing Contrasting Mapping Detecting correspondences
Matching between two ideas, objects,
and the like
2.7 Explaining Constructing models Constructing a cause and
effect model of a system
9
3. Apply
Categories & Cognitive Alternative Definition

Processes Names
Apply Applying a procedure to a familiar task
3.1 Executing Carrying out Applying a procedure to a familiar task
3.2 Implementing Using Applying a procedure to an unfamiliar task
4. Analyze
Analyze Alternative Break material into its

Names constituent parts and determine
how the parts relate to one
another and to an overall
structure or purpose
4.1 Differentiating Discriminating Distinguishing relevant from
Distinguishing Focusing irrelevant parts or important from
Selecting unimportant parts of presented
material
4.2 Organizing Finding coherence Determining how elements fit or
Integrating Outlining function within a structure
Parsing Structuring
4.3 Attributing Deconstructing Determine a point of view, bias,
values, or intent underlying
presented material
5. Evaluate
Evaluate Alternative Make judgments based on

Names criteria and standards
5.1 Checking Coordinating Detecting Detecting inconsistencies or
Monitoring Testing fallacies within a process or
product; determining whether a
process or product has internal
consistency; detecting the
effectiveness of a procedure as
it is being implemented
5.2 Critiquing Judging Detecting inconsistencies
between a product and external
criteria; determining whether a
10
product has external

consistency; detecting the
appropriateness of a procedure
for a given problem
6. Create
Categories & Cognitive Alternative

Definition
Processes Names
Create Put elements together to form a
coherent or functional whole;
reorganize elements into a new
pattern or structure
6.1 Generating Hypothesizing Coming up with alternative
hypotheses based on criteria
6.2 Planning Designing Devising a procedure for
accomplishing some task
6.3 Producing Constructing Inventing a product
According to Revised Bloom’s taxonomy, each level of knowledge can correspond to each
level of cognitive process, so a student can remember factual or procedural knowledge,
understand conceptual or metacognitive knowledge, or analyze metacognitive or factual
knowledge. According to Anderson and his colleagues, “Meaningful learning provides
students with the knowledge and cognitive processes they need for successful problem
solving”.
11
3.4 KRATHWOHL TAXONOMY FOR AFFECTIVE DOMAIN
Bloom's Taxonomy second domain, the Affective Domain, was detailed by Bloom, Krathwohl
and Masia in 1964 (Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Volume II, The Affective Domain.
Bloom, Krathwohl and Masia.) Bloom's theory advocates this structure and sequence for
developing attitude - also now commonly expressed in the modern field of personal
development as ‘beliefs’
Figure 5: Krathwohl’s Taxonomy for Affective Domain
Affective learning is demonstrated by behaviours indicating attitudes of awareness, interest,

attention, concern, and responsibility, ability to listen and respond in interactions with
others, and ability to demonstrate those attitudinal characteristics or values which are
appropriate to the test situation and the field of study.
12
Receiving Receiving refers to the student's willingness to attend to particular

phenomena of stimuli (classroom activities, textbook, music, etc.).
Learning outcomes in this area range from the simple awareness that a
thing exists to selective attention on the part of the learner.
Being aware of or attending to something in the environment
Responding Responding refers to active participation on the part of the student. At

this level he or she not only attends to a particular phenomenon but also
reacts to it in some way. Learning outcomes in this area may emphasize
acquiescence in responding (reads assigned material), willingness to
respond (voluntarily reads beyond assignment), or satisfaction in
responding (reads for pleasure or enjoyment).
Showing some new behaviours as a result of experience
Valuing Valuing is concerned with the worth or value a student attaches to a

particular object, phenomenon, or behaviour. Showing some definite
involvement or commitment
Showing some definite involvement or commitment
Organization Organization is concerned with bringing together different values,

resolving conflicts between them, and beginning the building of an
internally consistent value system.
Integrating a new value into one's general set of values, giving it some
ranking among one's general priorities
Characterization The individual has a value system that has controlled his or her behaviour
by Value for a sufficiently long time for him or her to develop a characteristic “life-
style.” Thus the behaviour is pervasive, consistent, and predictable.
Learning outcomes at this level cover a broad range of activities, but the
major emphasis is on the fact that the behaviour is typical or
characteristic of the student. Acting consistently with the new value
3.5 DAVE TAXONOMY FOR PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN
The Psychomotor Domain was ostensibly established to address skills development relating
to manual tasks and physical movement, however it also concerns and covers modern day
business and social skills such as communications and operation IT equipment, for example
telephone and keyboard skills, or public speaking. Dave's Psychomotor Domain is probably
the most commonly referenced and used psychomotor domain interpretation. There are
other two namely - Simpson's, and Harrow's.
13
Figure 6: Dave Taxonomy for Psychomotor Domain
Examples of activity or demonstration

Category or Behaviour
and evidence
'level' descriptions
to be measured
Imitation copy action of another; watch teacher or trainer and repeat
observe and replicate action, process or activity
Manipulation reproduce activity from carry out task from written or verbal
instruction or memory instruction
Precision execute skill reliably, perform a task or activity with
independent of help expertise and to high quality without
assistance or instruction; able to
demonstrate an activity to other
learners
Articulation adapt and integrate expertise relate and combine associated
to satisfy a non-standard activities to develop methods to meet
objective varying, novel requirements
Naturalization automated, unconscious define aim, approach and strategy for
mastery of activity and use of activities to meet strategic need
related skills at strategic level
Simpson’s Taxonomy for Psychomotor Domain
The psychomotor domain (Simpson, 1972) includes physical movement, coordination, and
use of the motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured
in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution. Thus,
14
psychomotor skills range from manual tasks, such as digging a ditch or washing a car, to
more complex tasks, such as operating a complex piece of machinery or dancing.
Figure 7: Simpson’s Taxonomy for Psychomotor Domain
15
The seven major categories are listed from the simplest behavior to the most complex:
Category Example and Key Words (verbs)

Perception (awareness): The ability to use Examples: Detects non-verbal
sensory cues to guide motor activity. This communication cues. Estimate where a ball
ranges from sensory stimulation, through cue will land after it is thrown and then moving to
selection, to translation. the correct location to catch the ball. Adjusts
heat of stove to correct temperature by smell
and taste of food. Adjusts the height of the
forks on a forklift by comparing where the
forks are in relation to the pallet. Key Words:
chooses, describes, detects, differentiates,
distinguishes, identifies, isolates, relates,
selects.
Set: Readiness to act. It includes mental, Examples: Knows and acts upon a sequence
physical, and emotional sets. These three sets of steps in a manufacturing process.
are dispositions that predetermine a person's Recognize one's abilities and limitations.
response to different situations (sometimes Shows desire to learn a new process
called mindsets). (motivation). NOTE: This subdivision of
Psychomotor is closely related with the
“Responding to phenomena” subdivision of
the Affective domain.
Key Words: begins, displays, explains, moves,
proceeds, reacts, shows, states, volunteers.
Guided Response: The early stages in learning Examples: Performs a mathematical
a complex skill that includes imitation and equation as demonstrated. Follows
trial and error. Adequacy of performance is instructions to build a model. Responds hand-
achieved by practicing. signals of instructor while learning to operate
a forklift.
Key Words: copies, traces, follows, react,
reproduce, responds
Mechanism (basic proficiency): This is the Examples: Use a personal computer. Repair a
intermediate stage in learning a complex leaking faucet. Drive a car.
skill. Learned responses have become Key Words: assembles, calibrates, constructs,
habitual and the movements can be dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds,
performed with some confidence and heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes,
proficiency. organizes, sketches.
Complex Overt Response (Expert): The skillful Examples: Maneuvers a car into a tight
performance of motor acts that involve parallel parking spot. Operates a computer
complex movement patterns. Proficiency is quickly and accurately. Displays competence
indicated by a quick, accurate, and highly while playing the piano. Key Words:
coordinated performance, requiring a assembles, builds, calibrates, constructs,
minimum of energy. This category includes dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds,
performing without hesitation, and heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes,
automatic performance. For example, players organizes, sketches. NOTE: The Key Words
are often utter sounds of satisfaction or are the same as Mechanism, but will have
expletives as soon as they hit a tennis ball or adverbs or adjectives that indicate that the
throw a football, because they can tell by the performance is quicker, better, more
feel of the act what the result will produce. accurate, etc.
16
Adaptation: Skills are well developed, and Examples: Responds effectively to

the individual can modify movement patterns unexpected experiences. Modifies
to fit special requirements. instruction to meet the needs of the learners.
Perform a task with a machine that it was not
originally intended to do (machine is not
damaged and there is no danger in
performing the new task).
Key Words: adapts, alters, changes,
rearranges, reorganizes, revises, varies.
Origination: Creating new movement Examples: Constructs a new theory.
patterns to fit a situation or specific problem. Develops a new and comprehensive training
Learning outcomes emphasize creativity programming. Creates a new gymnastic
based upon highly developed skills. routine. Key Words: arranges, builds,
combines, composes, constructs, creates,
designs, initiate, makes, originates.
Harrow’s Taxonomy for Psychomotor Domain
Figure 8: Harrow’s Taxonomy for Psychomotor Domain
17
Category Example and Key Words (verbs)

Reflex Movements — Reactions that are not Examples: instinctive response
learned, such as an involuntary reaction Key Words: react, respond
Fundamental Movements — Basic Examples: perform a simple task
movements such as walking or grasping. Key Words: grasp an object, throw a ball,
walk
Perceptual Abilities — Response to stimuli Examples: track a moving object, recognize
such as visual, auditory, kinesthetic, or a pattern
tactile discrimination. Key Words: catch a ball, draw or write
Physical Abilities (fitness) — Stamina that Examples: gain strength, run a marathon
must be developed for further development Key Words: agility, endurance, strength
such as strength and agility.
Skilled movements — Advanced learned Examples: Using an advanced series of
movements as one would find in sports or integrated movements, perform a role in a
acting. stage play or play in a set of series in a sports
game.
Key Words: adapt, constructs, creates,
modifies
Non discursive communication — Use Examples: Express one's self by using
effective body language, such as gestures movements and gestures
and facial expressions. Key Words: arrange, compose,
interpretation
Summary:
✓ Developing and delivering lessons by teachers are integral in the teaching process. It is
important for teachers to ensure that the three domains of learning which include cognitive
(thinking), affecting (emotions or feelings) and Psychomotor (Physical or Kinesthetic) to be
achieved.
✓ Bloom’s Taxonomy is a hierarchical ordering of cognitive skills helps teachers teach and
student learn. It can be used to create assessment, plan lessons, evaluate the complexity of
assignments, design curriculum maps, develop online courses, plan project based learning
and also for self-assessment.
✓ According to the two main dimension of Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy, there are four types of
knowledge – factual, conceptual, procedural and metacognitive and the six major cognitive
process categories – Remember, Understand, Apply, Analyze, Evaluate and Create.
References:
1. Anderson, L.W. & Krathwohl, D.R. (2001). A taxonomy for teaching, learning, and assessing:
A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. New York, NY: Longman.
2. Bloom, B.S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational
goals. New York, NY: Longmans, Green.
18
UNIT 3: INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES AND
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Lesson - 4 Instructional Objectives and Learning Outcomes
Contributor
Dr. P. MALLIGA
Centre for Educational Media and Technology, NITTTR, Chennai
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE NO.
4.0 INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES AND LEARNING OUTCOMES 1

4.1 CURRICULUM AIMS, GOALS and OBJECTIVES 1
4.2 DEFINITION OF INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES 5
4.3 REASONS FOR STATING INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES 6
4.4 WRITING INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES 11
4.5 INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES AND REVISED BLOOM’S TAXONOMY 13
4.6 LEARNING OUTCOMES 17
REFERENCES 20
APPENDIX 21
Unit 3: Instructional Objectives and Learning Outcomes
4.0 INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES AND LEARNING OUTCOMES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
On completion of this unit the participants will be able

• To explain Aims, Goals and Objectives in the context of curriculum development
• To explain the need of stating Instructional Objectives
• To formulate Instructional Objectives for a lesson/topic
• To map a given instructional objective in appropriate knowledge dimension and

cognitive process dimension of Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy
• To write learning outcomes for a course, lesson, or any learning event.
4.1 CURRICULUM AIMS, GOALS AND OBJECTIVES
Aims, goals and objectives are sequentially related; they occur in hierarchical order. The limit
or the height of society aspiration is encapsulated in its aim. Ritz (2014) considers aim as “a
general statement that suggests direction”. It provides a guide for the educational and
training processes by which a terminal point of live outcome is focused. Anderson, Krathwohl
et al (2000) see goal as statement of academic intention which are more specific than aim (it
is a subset of aim). The statement of goals denominates the amorphous terms of the aim
which are not directly measurable. Nodding (2007) believes that aims and goals are “brushed
aside in favour of objectives because the last can be cast in language conducive to
measurement”. Curriculum development is concerned with putting activities in place in order
to effect desirable change in learners’ behaviour (Nilcholls, 1973). Therefore, objectives
designed for classroom activities bring into fore the kind of knowledge and skills needed in
the society. Lawton(1975) explains that the structures and elements of curriculum must be
designed in such a way as to promote social utility, social responsibility, common culture and
personal satisfaction.
Module 1- Orientation towards Technical Education and Curriculum aspects NITTTR, Chennai 1
General and broad statement
Broad and narrow statement

as compared to aim
Specific statements
Figure 1 Aims, Goals and Objectives
AIMS and GOALS: Aims are general statements that provide direction or intent to educational
action. Aims are usually written in amorphous terms using words like: learn, know,
understand, appreciate, and these are not directly measurable. An aim is the product of a
long term endevour measured over a program or a course of one or more years
Goals are statements of educational intention which are more specific than aims. Goals too
may encompass an entire program, subject area, or multiple grade levels. They may be in
either amorphous language or in more specific behavioral terms.
Broad descriptions of purposes or ends stated in general terms without criteria of

achievement or mastery. Curriculum aims or goals relate to educational aims and philosophy.
They are programmatic and normally do not delineate the specific courses or specific items
of content. Typically, they refer to the accomplishment of groups (e.g. all learners, learners in
general, most learners) rather than the achievement of individual learners. They are broad
enough to lead to specific curriculum objectives. Examples include: ‘students will learn to
respect and get along with people of different cultures’; ‘students will develop a sense of civic
responsibility’; ‘students will attain an appreciation for literature, art, music’.
OBJECTIVES: Specific statements setting measurable expectations for what learners should
know and be able to do, described either in terms of learning outcomes (what the learners
are expected to learn), products or performance (what learners will produce as a result of a
learning activity) or processes (describing the focus of learning activities). They can be seen
as refinements of curriculum aims/goals that, for example, specify: performance standards or
those skills and knowledge the learners are expected to be able to demonstrate; inferred or
precise degree of mastery; and the conditions under which the performance will take place.
In terms of effectiveness, curriculum objectives should: be concise and understandable to
teachers, learners and parents; be feasible for the teachers and learners to accomplish;
encompass previous learning and require the learner to integrate and then apply certain
knowledge, skills, and attitudes in order to demonstrate achievement; and be measurable on
a cumulative basis and at different stages of the learner’s educational career.
4.2 INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
Curriculum, syllabus, text book, teaching methods, modes of evaluation - all these are based
on certain theories of learning or teaching models. In order to implement the educational
plan or improve the practice of teaching and learning, the necessary knowledge of various
theories of learning and its outcomes is required. The concept of instructional objectives is
based on those theories. In this unit you will understand the concept of instructional
objectives based on learning theories and their relationship with instructional objectives for
evaluating the teaching-learning process.
Educational research has established the fact that achievement is enhanced in a classroom,
where students can perceive a sense of direction for learning. Classroom management and
teaching blend together as a unified process when instructional objectives provide goal clarity
for teachers and students.
Instructional Objectives is one of the most important components of the teaching learning
process.
Figure 2: Block Diagram of Instructional System
Instructional objectives form the basis for the choice of the following:
 Instructional Planning
 Instructional Methods,
 Instructional Resources (Materials and Media)
 Evaluation Procedure.
DEFINITION OF INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
Learning objectives, also called behavioural objectives or instructional objectives, are

requirements for high-quality development of instruction.
A learning objective is a statement that specifies in behavioural (measurable) terms what a

learner will be able to do as a result of instruction. It describes the intended outcome of your
instruction rather than a description or summary of your content.
The purpose of objectives is not to restrict spontaneity or constrain the vision of education in
the discipline; but to ensure that learning is focused clearly enough that both students and
teacher know what is going on, and so learning can be objectively measured.
An instructional objective is a statement that will describe what the learner will be able to do
after completing the instruction. According to Dick and Carey (1990), a performance objective
is a detailed description of what students will be able to do when they complete a unit of
instruction. It is also referred to as a behavioral objective or an instructional objective. Robert
Mager(1984), in his book Preparing Instructional Objectives, describes an objective as "a
collection of words and/or pictures and diagrams intended to let others know what you
intend for your students to achieve"
4.3 REASONS FOR STATING INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
Question Paper setter
INSTRUCTIONAL
OBJECTIVES
TEACHER STUDENT
Figure 3: Instructional Objectives for teacher, learner and question paper setter
Instructional objectives form a basis to assess the learners and the teaching learning
process by providing information to the following persons.
 Give direction to teachers in the selection of methods and instructional resources.
 Assist students in organizing and studying the content material and guide them
what is expected from them.
 Provides scope for the Question paper setter.
The purpose of a behavioral objective is to communicate. Therefore, a well-constructed

behavioral objective should leave little room for doubt about what is intended.
 Objectives communicate and guide development content materials, instructional

methods and assessment.
 Objectives communicate the focus of learning that enables instructors and students
to work toward a common goal.
o The teacher can use objectives to make sure goals are reached.
o Students will understand expectations. Any skill is learned more effectively if
the learner understands the reason for learning and practicing it.
 Objectives communicate the assessment and grading. Objectives provide a means of

measuring whether the students have succeeded in acquiring skills and knowledge.
 Objectives communicate and allow students the opportunity for self-evaluation.
4.4 WRITING INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
When to write objectives?
Objectives should be developed:
 Before a lesson or course is developed (by designer).

 Before a lesson or course is taught (by instructor).
 Objectives should be reviewed with students at the beginning of the
course/module/lesson.
How to write Instructional objectives?
When writing instructional objectives, focus on the learner, not the teacher!
Instructional objectives must be written to communicate realistic, measurable, and learner

centered outcomes.
 Realistic objectives can be achieved by the learners within your time frame and in
your given environment.
 Measurable objectives enable you to observe and determine how well learners have
acquired skills and knowledge.
 Learner centered objectives state what the learner can do at the end of training.
They always start with action verbs.
 Specify intended results or outcomes, and not the process. Teaching and lecturing is
part of the process of instruction, but it isn't the purpose of the instruction. The
purpose is to facilitate learning.
 Different types of learning require different learning experiences and hence different
types of objectives.
Objectives can be written for three domains of learning ie
1. Cognitive
2. Psychomotor
3. Attitudes
 Cognitive objectives emphasize THINKING,

 Affective objectives emphasize FEELING and
 Psychomotor objectives emphasize ACTING.
I. The ABCD method of writing Objectives:
Heinich and his colleagues (2002) suggest that well written objectives have four parts. They
call these parts the ABCD's of instructional objectives.
A. Audience
The audience is the group of learners that the objective is written for. Objectives are not
written for the teacher.
This is often written "the learner" or "the student"; however, it could be written as specific
as "The third year mechanical engineering student".
B. Behavior
The behavior is the verb or observable action/behavior that describes what the learner
(audience) will be able to demonstrate, perform, or exhibit after the instruction.
This is the heart of the objective and MUST be
 measurable
 observable (visible or audible)
 specific
Examples:
 Be able to write C programming
 Be able to perform the experiment to find the efficiency of a machine.

 Be able to draw the block diagram of a computer system
 Be able to participate in group discussion.
In each of these examples you can observe behavior. If a statement does not include an
observable, visible, or auditory behavior or performance, then it isn't yet an objective.
Therefore, you should modify your objectives until it answers the question, "What will the
learner be DOING when demonstrating achievement of the objective?"
Here are a couple of poor examples:
 Be able to understand mathematics.

 Develop an appreciation of music.
If you apply the question above, what would somebody be doing if they were "understanding"
mathematics or "appreciating" music? There's really no way to observe "understanding" or
"appreciating" since both of those statements describe abstract states that are not directly
observable.
C. Conditions
Conditions are the circumstances (under commands, materials, directions, etc.) which the
objective must be completed. All behavior relevant to intended student learning outcomes
can best be understood within a context of the conditions under which the behavior is to be
performed or demonstrated. The location of the condition component in an objective may
be at the beginning of the sentence or after the behavior component.
 What will the learners be expected to use when performing (e.g., equipment, tools,
forms, calculator, charts, etc.)?
 What will the learner be allowed to use (or not use) while performing (e.g.,
checklists, notes, textbook, or other study aids)?
 What will be the real-world conditions under which the performance will be
expected to occur (e.g., on top of a flagpole, under water, in front of a large
audience, in a manufacturing plant)?
Examples:
 Given a case study, diagram, clinical problem....

 After completing the reading....
Order and Tense
There is a preferred order when writing objectives. The condition is usually placed first,
followed by the behaviour or verb and then the criteria. Objectives are written in the future
tense
Rules for Writing Objectives
Rule 1 : State the objectives in terms of the learner i.e. what the learner does after
instruction and not in terms of what the teacher does.
Rule 2 : Instructional objectives should not be stated in terms of either the process of
instruction or process of learning, but in terms of observable behaviour described
by an action verb.
Rule 3 : An objective should consist of only one learning outcome, not many.
Rule 4 : Begin every objective with an action verb which precisely indicates the learning
outcome in definite terms.
Rule 5 : Objective should not be mentioned as a mere topic / sub topic / subject matter.
Rule 6 : Objective should specify the standards of minimum acceptable performance.
4.5 INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES and REVISED BLOOM’S TAXONOMY
A statement of a learning objective contains a verb (an action) and an object (usually a noun).
 The verb generally refers to actions associated with, ie, the intended cognitive process
 The object generally describes the knowledge students are expected to acquire or
construct.
Figure 4: IO = Action Verb + Object (Noun)
The cognitive process dimensions represent a continuum of increasing cognitive complexity

from remember to create. Anderson & Krathwohl identified 19 specific cognitive process that
further clarify the bounds of six categories
The knowledge dimension represents a range from concrete (factual) to abstract

(metacognitive) i.e. factual , conceptual, procedural and metacognitive. Representations of
the knowledge dimension as a number of discrete steps can be it misleading.
For example, all procedural knowledge may not be more abstract than all conceptual
knowledge. And metacognitive is a special case as. in this model, metacognitive knowledge
Is knowledge of one’s own cognitive and about oneself in relation to various subject matters.
Factual – the basic elements a student must know to be acquainted with a discipline or solve
problem in it .
Conceptual -The inter relationship among the basic elements within a larger structure that
enable them to function together.
Procedural -How to do something, methods of inquiry and criteria for using skills, algorithm
techniques and methods.
Metacognitive -Knowledge of cognitive in general as well as awareness and knowledge of

one’s own cognition.
Example: The student will learn to apply the reduce-reuse-recycle approach to conservation
Figure 5: Instructional objective mappingusing Revised Blooms Taxonomy
Let us take few more examples:
1) Summarize the features of a new product

Cognitive Process Dimension: Understand
Knowledge Dimension: Factual
2) Recognize symptoms of exhaustion
Cognitive Process Dimension: Remember
Knowledge Dimension: Conceptual
3) Carry out pH tests of water samples
Cognitive Process Dimension: Apply
Knowledge Dimension: Procedural
4) Use techniques that match one’s strengths
Cognitive Process Dimension: Apply
Knowledge Dimension: Metacognitive

5) Select the most complete list of activities
6) Cognitive Process Dimension: Evaluate
Knowledge Dimension: Factual
7) Design efficient project workflow
Cognitive Process Dimension: Create
Knowledge Dimension: Procedural
The objectives reflect different levels of learning. They are:
1. Mastery objectives
2. Developmental objectives
Mastery objectives are typically concerned with the minimum performance essentials ---
learning tasks/ skills that must be mastered before moving on to next level of instruction.
Next is developmental objectives. It is concerned with more complex learning outcomes-

those learning tasks on which students can be expected to demonstrate varying degrees of
progress.
Rules for Writing Objectives
Rule 1 : State the objectives in terms of the learner i.e. what the learner does after
instruction and not in terms of what the teacher does.
Rule 2 : Instructional objectives should not be stated in terms of either the process of
instruction or process of learning, but in terms of observable behaviour described
by an action verb.
Rule 3 : An objective should consist of only one learning outcome, not many.
Rule 4 : Begin every objective with an action verb which precisely indicates the learning
outcome in definite terms.
Rule 5 : Objective should not be mentioned as a mere topic / sub topic / subject matter.
Rule 6 : Objective should specify the standards of minimum acceptable performance.
Imprecisely stated objectives related to classroom instruction can be vague and open to many
interpretations. Badly written objectives are of little use to the instructor concerned.
Objectives prefaced with ambiguous statements such as, at the end of the session, “the
participant will have a sound knowledge of ….” should be avoided because the words “sound
knowledge of” could be interpreted in many ways.
 Action verbs for Cognitive Domain, Affective Domain and Psychomotor Domain are
given in Appendix-I
4.6 LEARNING OUTCOMES
In Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy, the Remember, Understand and Apply are considered as lower
level abilities or cognitive skills. Higher-order thinking skills are reflected by the top three
levels in Bloom’s Taxonomy: Analyze, Evaluate, and Create.
Figure 6: Higher Order Thinking Skills
How do you incorporate High order thinking skills into your syllabus?
The most obvious space to embed critical thinking in a Syllabus is in the Student-Learning
Outcomes section. Learning objectives contain an action (verb) and an object (noun), and
often start with, “Student’s will be able to…” Bloom’s taxonomy can help you to choose
appropriate verbs to clearly state what you want the students to do at the end of the course,
and at what level.
Higher-order thinking, known as higher order thinking skills (HOTS), is a concept

of education reform based on learning taxonomies (such as Bloom's taxonomy). The idea is
that some types of learning require more cognitive processing than others. In Bloom's
taxonomy, for example, skills involving analysis, evaluation and synthesis (creation of new
knowledge) are thought to be of a higher order than the learning of facts and concepts which
requires different learning and teaching methods.
Higher-order thinking involves the learning of complex judgmental skills such as critical
thinking and problem solving. Higher-order thinking is more difficult to learn or teach but also
more valuable because such skills are more likely to be usable in novel situations.
Course outcomes are broad statements of what is achieved and assessed at the end of a
course of study. The concept of learning outcomes and outcome-based education is high on
today's education agenda. The idea has features in common with the move to instructional
objectives which became fashionable in the 1960s, but which never had the impact on
education practice that it merited. The distinction between learning outcomes and learning
objectives is not universally recognized, and many instructors may find that the term ‘learning
outcomes’ describes what they have already understood by the term ‘learning objectives’.
Some scholars make no distinction between the two terms; those who do usually suggest that
learning outcomes are a subset or type of learning objective. Learning objectives, for example,
may outline the material the instructor intends to cover or the disciplinary questions the class
will address. By contrast, learning outcomes should focus on what the student should know
and realistically be able to do by the end of an assignment, activity, class, or course. The same
goals addressed by learning objectives can be equally addressed by learning outcomes, but
by focusing on the application and integration of the course content from the perspective of
the student, learning outcomes can more explicitly and directly address expectations for
student learning.
Many instructors may find that the reflective process of developing learning outcomes is
something that they have already incorporated into their course planning processes. The
phrase ‘learning outcomes’ thus simply offers a more precise term for discussing the creation
of learning aims and expectations that centre on application and integration of course
content.
4.6.1 Why Learning Outcomes?

An outcomes-based approach presents a range of advantages for those who teach and design courses
in higher education. For example, they bring clarity, precision and transparency to curriculum design,
teaching practice and assessment. The shift to learning outcomes opens course design to better
curriculum alignment and accountability in teaching and learning. Well-designed learning outcomes
bring clarity of expectations for student performance, and open up new possibilities for increased
student satisfaction. Learning outcomes and taxonomies of learning are now central for teaching and
learning in higher education. They provide possibilities to achieve what is commonly called ‘curriculum
alignment’. Curriculum alignment involves organizing curriculum in a coherent structure with aims,
learning outcomes, teaching strategies, content and assessment all aligning in order to improve both
the coherence of curriculum and student learning.
Figure 7: Curriculum Alignment
4.6.2 Importance of Learning Outcomes

Learning outcomes are statements of desired results of learning that are expressed in words that make
it clear how measurement can be achieved. Therefore, learning outcomes provide a basis for
measuring and reporting on student achievement. It can be stated as ‘personal changes or benefits
that follow as a result of learning’, and these changes or benefits can be measured in terms of abilities
or achievements.
Learning outcomes can be precisely defined as statements of what a learner is expected to know,
understand, and/or be able to demonstrate after completion of a process of learning.
The learning outcomes are constructed as a taxonomy of what graduates are expected to know,
understand and be able to do as a result of learning. They are expressed in terms of the dimensions
of knowledge, skills and the application of knowledge and skills.
The focus in recent years on learning outcomes represents a shift from the traditional ‘teacher
centred’ approach, where the common practice was to design courses starting from the content or
what the teacher was to deliver in a certain amount of time, to a ‘student-centred approach’. In the
student centred approach the focus is shifted towards what students are expected ‘to know,
understand, and/or be able to demonstrate after completion of a process of learning’.
Learning outcomes have the potential to improve course design and quality in higher education. The
writing and use of learning outcomes shifts the focus to effective learning and teaching and can lead
to greater transparency for students and all stakeholders involved in higher education. Learning
outcomes can serve as a general organising principle for practice in learning and teaching and
encourages a shift to student-centred pedagogies. They open possibilities for diverse assessment
practices that are able to connect curricula to new contexts created by the fast pace of change in
technology and workforce demands.
The advantages of learning outcomes for a clear and transparent curriculum design and assessment
and prescriptive nature of learning outcomes have been disputed by some scholars. It is important to
take into consideration the risks and critical points when we design and write learning outcomes.
Teaching and learning should stay flexible and consistent with a pedagogic ethos that encourages
scholarship, creativity and the unrestricted pursuit of ideas. No one approach has the ability to solve
the complexity that is good curriculum, teaching and learning. Nevertheless, the shift towards learning
outcomes aims to improve learning and in this sense, students, academics, course designers and policy
makers can use learning outcomes as a starting framework for teaching, learning and assessment.
4.6.2 How to write Learning outcomes
A learning outcome is a statement that indicates what students should represent,

demonstrate or produce as a result of what they learn. It describes an intended result of
instruction, rather than the process of instruction itself (Mager, p.5)
Figure 8: Different Outcomes
Programme Educational
Objectives (PEOs)
Programme Outcomes
(POs)
Course Outcomes (COs)

& Learning Outcomes (LOs)
Figure 8: Different Outcomes
Course Learning Outcomes (CLOs) are central to your course’s curriculum. They articulate to
students, faculty, and other stakeholders what students will achieve in each course and how
their learning will be measured. A Learning Outcome (LO) is a measurable, observable, and
specific statement that clearly indicates what a student should know and be able to do as a
result of learning.
Well-written learning outcomes involve the following parts:
 Action verb
 Subject content
 Level of achievement
 Condition of performance (if applicable)
A learning Outcome (LO) is a measurable observable and specific statement that clearly
indicates what a student should know and be able to do as a result of learning.
Figure 9: Format for Learning Outcomes
Steps to Writing Course Learning Outcomes for Your Course
Step 1
Select an action verb using Bloom’s Taxonomy; Make sure that you select a verb that you can
observe and measure. There are many verbs that, can’t be directly observed and therefore
are difficult to assess in the classroom. Do not use the following verbs:
Step 2
Next, select the subject content students are performing that task for. For example,
 To define the structure and components of a Python program
 to use lists, tuples, and dictionaries in Python programs
 to write loops and decision statements in Python.
 To write Python functions to facilitate code reuse,
 to use exception handling in Python applications for error handling.
 to design object‐oriented programs with Python classes.
Step 3: Levels of Achievement
Next, decide if your LO requires either a level of achievement or a condition of performance.

A level of achievement identifies how proficient students need to be in a task. For example,
in an English Language course, you might say “Write a literature critique with no grammatical
errors”. This tells students the level of achievement that’s expected of them. Importantly, you
don’t need a level of achievement for every LO. It is not necessary to say “effectively”,
“accurately”, or “correctly” on a LO, these are all implied. We expect students to achieve all
outcomes in all courses correctly and accurately. Levels of achievement are for specific cases.
Step 4: Conditions of Performance
A condition of performance identifies if students are only performing the outcome in a

specific context. For example, in a Welding course with a field placement, you might say
“Demonstrate oxy-fuel-gas cutting techniques with limited supervision”. This tells students
that they will be performing this task, but that they will be supervised while they do so.
Let us see the difference between aims or goals, learning objectives and learning outcomes?
The structural distinction between learning objectives and learning outcomes is that learning
objectives relate to learning from a teachers’ point of view and are closer to a teacher-centred
approach, while learning outcomes refer to what a student will be able to do as a result of learning,
hence are sources of evidence in the student-centred approach.
Aims or goals in teaching and learning are broad sentences reflecting general intentions and desired
outcomes of an institution, program or course. These important statements stay clearly distinct from
learning outcomes. Aims serve the important function to indicate and promote the main values and
general directions that guide the process of teaching and learning. Aims reflect vision and general
intentions, and the overall desirable results. Example: Curriculum and teaching practices aim to link
students’ learning experiences to the world graduates will confront.
Figure 10: Objectives vs Outcomes
• Learning outcomes are statements of what a student will be able to do or demonstrate at the
completion of a certain sequence of learning (course, program). Learning outcomes are mainly
concerned with the achievements of the learner and less with the intentions of the teacher.
Learning outcomes inform students of what is expected of them in terms of performance, to
achieve desired grades and credits. Example: At the end of the course students will be able
 To demonstrate the ability to use mathematical and statistical techniques.
 To design Entity Relationship Model for a database system.
Learning Objectives tend to describe specific discrete units of knowledge and skill can be
accomplished within a short time frame
SUMMARY
 The objectives are important to the teacher because they make goals more realistic.
Having specific instructional objectives allows you to look at the overall lesson in a more
analytical way and break it down into parts.
 Instructional objectives state what specifically is to be learned. They state the expected
learning outcome. They may be phrased similar to this, “Upon completion of the lesson,
the student will be able to…”
 Clearly articulated learning objectives can provide a roadmap for the instructor and the
student so that both share the same perspective of where their instructional journey is
taking them.
 Instructional objectives serve as central unifying elements for instructional strategy,

instructional media, and assessment.
 Learning Outcomes are statements that describe or list measurable and essential
mastered content-knowledge—reflecting skills, competencies, and knowledge that
students have achieved and can demonstrate upon successfully completing a course.
REFERENCES
1. Anderson, L. W. and Krathwohl, D. R., et al (Eds..) (2001) A Taxonomy for Learning,

Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives.
Allyn & Bacon. Boston, MA (Pearson Education Group)
2. Eugene E. Haddan, (1970) Evolving Instruction, London: The Macmillan Co.
3. Gagne R.M (1970) The Condition of Learning, (Revised Edition). New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston Inc.
4. Robert M. Gagne & Leslie L. Briggs (1974) Principles of Instructional Design, New York:
Holt, Rinehart and Winston Inc.
5. Walkin. L (1982), Instructional Techniques and Practice, (ELBS Edition). Avon, Great
Britain: Stanley Thornes ( Publishers) Ltd.
6. Learning outcomes resources from DePaul’s Office for Teaching, Learning and
Assessment.
Appendix -1
Elaboration of the six levels of thinking in Bloom’s taxonomy
1 2 3 4 5 6
Remembering Can the Understanding Applying Can the Analysing Can the student Evaluating Can the Creating Can the student
student RECALL Can the student EXPLAIN ideas student USE the new DIFFERENTIATE between and student JUSTIFY an GENERATE new
information? or concepts? knowledge in another RELATE constituent parts? opinion, decision or products, ideas or ways
familiar situation? course of action? of viewing things?
Recognising Interpreting Summarising Executing Differentiating Checking Generating
Locating knowledge Changing from one Drawing a logical Applying knowledge Distinguishing relevant from Detecting Coming up with
in memory that is form of conclusion from (often procedural) to a irrelevant parts or important inconsistencies or alternatives or
consistent with representation presented routine task. from unimportant parts of fallacies within a hypotheses based on
presented material. to another information. Synonyms presented material. process criteria
Synonyms Synonyms: Synonyms  Carry Synonyms or product. Synonyms
 Identifying  Paraphrasing  Abstracting  ing out  Discriminating Determining whether a  Hypothesizing
 Finding  Translating  Generalising  Selecting process or product has  Proposing
 Measuring internal consistency.
 Selecting  Representing  Outlining  Constructing  Focusing Synonyms  Developing
 Indicating  Clarifying  Précising  Demonstrating  Distinguishing between  Testing  Engendering
 Converting  Computing  Separating  Detecting  Synthesising
Recalling  Rewriting Inferring  (Sub)dividing  Providing options
Retrieving relevant Abstracting a  Calculating  Monitoring
knowledge from  Restating general theme or  Manipulating  Examining  Concluding
Planning
 Expressing  Relating Devising a procedure for
long-term memory. major point  Operating  Assessing accomplishing some task.
Synonyms Exemplifying Synonyms  Preparing Organising
Finding a specific Determining how elements fit  Appraising Synonyms
 Retrieving  Extrapolating  Producing  Discriminating  Designing
example or or function within a structure.
 Naming illustration of a  Interpolating  Drawing up Synonyms  Determining  Formulating
 Reproducing concept or  Predicting  Practising  Outlining Critiquing Detecting  Combining
 Recounting principle  Concluding Implementing
 Structuring the appropriateness of  Compiling
Synonyms  Extending Applying knowledge
 Integrating
a procedure for a given
 Devising
 Instantiating  Generalising (often procedural) to a task or problem.
non-routine task.  (Re)arranging Synonyms  Revising
 Illustrating... Comparing
Synonyms  Categorising  Judging  Putting together
 Representing Detecting
correspondences  Using  Ordering  Questioning  Suggesting
 Giving
examples between two  Estimating  Deriving  Justifying Producing Inventing a
ideas, objects, etc  Predicting product Synonyms
of Showing Attributing  Defending
Synonyms  Solving Determining the point of view,  (Re)constructing
Classifying  Discussing
Determining that  Contrasting  Changing bias, values, or intent  Composing
 Criticising
something belongs  Matching  Discovering
underlying  Modifying
presented material.  Arguing
to a category (e.g.,  Mapping  Explaining how  Altering
concept or Synonyms  Including
Explaining
 Verifying  Building
principle). Constructing a  Deconstructing  Rating
Synonyms cause-
 Categorising
Appendix -1
Elaboration of the six levels of thinking in Bloom’s taxonomy
1 2 3 4 5 6
Remembering Can the Understanding Applying Can the Analysing Can the student Evaluating Can the Creating Can the student
student RECALL Can the student EXPLAIN student USE the new DIFFERENTIATE student JUSTIFY an GENERATE new products,
information? ideas or concepts? knowledge in another between and RELATE opinion, decision or ideas or ways of viewing
familiar situation? constituent parts? course of action? things?
 Subsuming and-effect model  Finding  Comparing  Ranking  Enlarging
 Organising of a  Contrasting  Valuing
system.
Synonyms
 Diagnosing
 Elucidating
 Constructing
models
Appendix -1
Appendix -1
Psychomotor Domain – Simpson’s Model

Psychomotor Domain (Simpson)
Action verbs which describe
Level category or Description Examples of activity or demonstration and the activity to be trained or
'level' evidence to be measured measured at each level)
use and/or selection of senses to absorb
data for guiding movement Examples:
Detects non-verbal communication cues. chooses, describes, detects,
Estimate where a ball will land after it is differentiates, distinguishes,
Awareness, the ability to use sensory cues thrown and then moving to the correct feels, hears, identifies,
to guide physical activity. The ability to use location to catch the ball. Adjusts heat of isolates, notices, recognizes,
sensory cues to guide motor activity. This stove to correct temperature by smell and relates, selects, separates,
ranges from sensory stimulation, through taste of food. Adjusts the height of the forks touches,
cue selection, to translation. on a forklift by comparing where the forks
1 Perception are in relation to the pallet.
“By the end of the music theatre program,

students will be able to relate types of music
to particular dance steps.”
mental, physical or emotional preparation
before experience or task
Examples: Knows and acts upon a sequence of arranges, begins, displays,
Readiness, a learner's readiness to act. steps in a manufacturing process. Recognize explains, gets set, moves,
Readiness to act. It includes mental, one’s abilities and limitations. Shows desire to prepares, proceeds, reacts,
physical, and emotional sets. These three learn a new process (motivation). NOTE: This shows, states, volunteers,
sets are dispositions that predetermine a subdivision of Psychomotor is closely related responds, starts,
person’s response to different situations with the "Responding to phenomena"
(sometimes called mindsets). subdivision of the Affective domain.
2 Set “By the end of the physical education program,
students will be able to demonstrate the
proper stance for batting a ball.”
Appendix -1
category or Action verbs which describe the

Level 'level' Description Examples of activity or demonstration and activity to be trained or
evidence to be measured measured at each level)
3 Guided Attempt. The early stages in learning a imitate or follow instruction, trial and error. assembles, builds, calibrates,
Response complex skill that includes imitation and Examples: Performs a mathematical constructs, copies, dismantles,
trial and error. Adequacy of performance is equation as demonstrated. Follows displays, dissects, fastens, fixes,
achieved by practicing. instructions to build a model. Responds hand- follows, grinds, heats, imitates,
signals of instructor while learning to operate manipulates, measures, mends,
a forklift. mixes, reacts, reproduces,
“By the end of the physical education responds sketches, traces, tries.
program, students will be able to perform a
golf swing as demonstrated by the
instructor.”
basic proficiency, the ability to perform a Competently respond to stimulus for action assembles, builds, calibrates,
complex motor skill. This is the intermediate Examples: Use a personal computer. Repair a completes, constructs, dismantles,
stage in learning a complex skill. Learned leaking faucet. Drive a car. displays, fastens, fixes, grinds,
responses have become habitual and the “By the end of the biology program, students heats, makes, manipulates,
4 Mechanism movements can be performed with some will be able to assemble laboratory measures, mends, mixes, organizes,
confidence and proficiency. equipment appropriate for experiments.” performs, shapes, sketches.
expert proficiency, the intermediate stage of Execute a complex process with expertise assembles, builds, calibrates,
learning a complex skill. Examples: Maneuvers a car into a tight constructs, coordinates,
The skillful performance of motor acts that parallel parking spot. Operates a demonstrates, dismantles, displays,
involve complex movement patterns. computer quickly and accurately. Displays dissects, fastens, fixes, grinds,
Proficiency is indicated by a quick, accurate, competence while playing the piano. heats, manipulates, measures,
and highly coordinated performance, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches.
5 requiring a minimum of energy. This “By the end of the industrial education
NOTE: The key words are the same
Complex category includes performing without program, students will be able to
as Mechanism, but will have
Overt hesitation, and automatic performance. For demonstrate proper use of woodworking
adverbs or adjectives that indicate
Response example, players are often utter sounds of tools to high school students.”
that the performance is quicker,
satisfaction or expletives as soon as they hit
better, more accurate,
a tennis ball or throw a football,
Appendix -1

Action verbs which describe
Level category or Description Examples of activity or demonstration the activity to be trained or
'level' and evidence to be measured measured at each level)
because they can tell by the feel of the etc.
act what the result will produce.
alter response to reliably meet varying
challenges
6 Adaptation adaptable proficiency, a learner's ability Examples: Responds effectively to adapts, adjusts, alters,
to modify motor skills to fit a new unexpected experiences. Modifies changes, integrates,
situation. Skills are well developed instruction to meet the needs of the rearranges, reorganizes,
and the individual can modify movement learners. Perform a task with a machine revises, solves, varies.
patterns to fit special requirements. that it was not originally intended to do
(machine is not damaged and there is no
danger in performing the new task).
“By the end of the industrial education

program, students will be able to adapt
their lessons on woodworking skills for
disabled students.”
develop and execute new integrated
creative proficiency, a learner's ability responses and activities arranges, builds, combines,
to create new movement patterns. composes, constructs,
Creating new movement patterns to fit Examples: Constructs a new theory. creates, designs,
a particular situation or specific Develops a new and comprehensive formulates, initiate, makes,
7 Origination problem. Learning outcomes emphasize training programming. Creates a new modifies, originates, re-
creativity based gymnastic routine. designs, trouble-shoots.
upon highly developed skills.
Appendix -1
Adapted and simplified representation of Simpson's Psychomotor Domain ('The classification

of educational objectives in the psychomotor domain', 1972). Elizabeth Simpson seems
actually to have first presented her Psychomotor Domain interpretation in 1966 in the Illinois
Journal of Home Economics. Hence you may see the theory attributed to either 1966 or 1972.
The Affective Domain
http://www.humboldt.edu/~tha1/bloomtax.html &
http://academic.udayton.edu/health/syllabi/health/lesson01b.htm
The Affective Domain addresses interests, attitudes, opinions, appreciations, values, and
emotional sets. This domain includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally,
such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. The Taxonomy
is hierarchical (levels increase in difficulty/sophistication) and cumulative (each level builds
on and subsumes the ones below). The levels, in addition to clarifying instructional objectives,
may be used to provide a basis for questioning that ensures that students progress to the
highest level of understanding. If the teaching purpose is to change attitudes/behavior rather
than to transmit/process information, then the instruction should be structured to progress
through the levels of the Affective Domain.
Appendix -1
Level Category Description Examples Action Verbs

1 Receiving The student Listens attentively, Attends,
passively attends to shows sensitivity accepts, asks,
particular to social problems. chooses,
phenomena or Listens to others with describes,
stimuli [classroom respect. Listens for and follows, gives,
activities, textbook, remembers the name holds,
music, etc.] The of newly identifies,
teacher's concern is listens,
“By the end of the
that the student's locates,
women's studies
attention is focused. names, points
program, students will
Intended outcomes to, selects,
listen attentively to
include the pupil's selectively
alternative views on
awareness that a attends to,
select issues.”
thing exists. replies, uses.
Emphasis is on
awareness,
willingness to hear,
selected attention.
2 Responding The student actively Completes homework, Acclaims, aids,
participates. obeys rules, answers,
The pupil not only participates in class applauds,
attends to the discussion, shows approves,
stimulus but reacts interest in subject, assists,
in some way. enjoys helping others. complies,
Gives a presentation. conforms,
Emphasis is on Questions new ideals, discusses,
active participation concepts, models, in greets, helps,
on the part of the order to fully labels,
learners. Learning understand them. performs,
outcomes may Knows safety rules and practices,
emphasize practices them. “By the presents,
compliance in end of the elementary reads, recites,
responding, education program, reports,
willingness to students will able to selects, tells,
respond, or comply with PL 94- writes,
satisfaction in 142.” Volunteers.
responding
(motivation).
3 Valuing The worth a student Demonstrates belief in Assists,
attaches to a democratic processes, completes,
particular object, appreciates the role of debates,
phenomenon, or science in daily life, demonstrates,
behavior. Ranges shows concern for denies,
from acceptance to others' welfare, differentiates,
commitment (e.g., demonstrates a explains,
assumes problem-solving follows, forms,
responsibility for the approach. Is sensitive increases
functioning of a towards individual and proficiency in,
group). Attitudes and cultural differences initiates,
appreciation. (value diversity). Shows invites, joins,
Appendix -1
the ability to solve justifies,

Valuing is based on problems. Proposes a proposes,
the internalization of plan to bring about protests, reads,
a set of specified social improvement and relinquishes,
values, while clues follows through with reports, selects,
to these values are commitment. Informs shares,
expressed in the management on studies,
learner‟s overt strongly felt matters. supports,
behavior and are “By the end of the works.
often identifiable. political science
be able to debate
numerous sides to an
argument.”
4 Organization Brings together Recognizes the need for Accommodates,
different values, balance between adheres, alters,
resolving conflicts freedom and arranges,
among them, and responsible behavior, balances,
starting to build an understands the role of combines,
internally consistent systematic planning in compares,
value system-- solving problems; completes,
comparing, relating accepts responsibility defends,
and for own behavior. explains,
synthesizing values Explains the role of formulates,
and developing a systematic generalizes,
philosophy of life. planning in solving identifies,
problems. Accepts integrates,
Organizes values into professional ethical modifies,
priorities by standards. Creates a life orders,
contrasting different plan in harmony with organizes,
systems. The abilities, interests, and prepares,
emphasis is on beliefs. Prioritizes time relates,
comparing, relating, effectively to meet the synthesizes.
and synthesizing needs of the
values. organization, family, and
self. “By the end of the
environmental studies
be able to organize the
conservation efforts of
urban, suburban and
rural communities.”
5 Internalizing At this level, the Concerned with
values: person has held a personal, social,
Characterization value system for a and emotional
by a Value or sufficiently long adjustment: displays Acts,
Value Complex time to control self reliance in working discriminates,
his/her behavior, has independently, displays,
developed a cooperates in group influences,
characteristic "life activities (displays interprets,
style." Behavior is teamwork), maintains listens,
Appendix -1
pervasive, good health habits. maintains

consistent, Uses an objective objectivity
predictable, and approach in problem modifies,
most importantly, solving. Displays a performs,
characteristic of the professional practices,
learner. commitment to ethical proposes,
Instructional practice on a daily basis. qualifies,
objectives are Revises judgments and questions,
concerned changes behavior in respects,
with the student's light of new evidence. revises, serves,
general patterns of Values people for what solves, uses
adjustment they are, not how they evidence,
(personal, social, appear. “By the end of verifies.
emotional). the counseling program,
students will be able to
objectively interpret
evidence presented by
clients during a therapy
session.”
UNIT 4: LEARNING AND INSTRUCTION
Contributor
Dr. S. RENUKA DEVI
Professor & Head
Dept. of Engineering Education, NITTTR, Chennai.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE NO.
1.4 LEARNING AND INSTRUCTION 1

1.4.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.4.2 TEACHING LEARNING PROCESS 4
1.4.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING LEARNING 5
1.4.4 PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING AND LEARNING 7
REFERENCES 9
Unit 4 Learning and Instruction
1.4 LEARNING AND INSTRUCTION

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 State various terms in Psychologies of Learning and Instruction
 Explain the Teaching-Learning Process
 List the Factors Influencing Learning
 State the Principles of Learning
1.4.1 INTRODUCTION
Psychology of Learning and Instruction comes under the branch of Educational Psychology. A
great deal of research has gone into understanding the psychology behind human learning
and instruction. The knowledge of psychology of Learning and Instruction is very useful in
making the teaching learning process, interesting, inspirational and effective (Aggarwal,
2010).
The following are the basics a teacher needs to be aware, before embarking on psychology of
learning:
1. Pedagogy
2. Andragogy
3. Teaching
4. Training
5. Learning
PEDAGOGY
Pedagogy is the method and practice of teaching especially as an academic subject or

theoretical concept. Pedagogy is the discipline that deals with the theory and practice
of education; it thus concerns the study of how best to teach.
Johann Friedrich Herbart is the founding father of the conceptualization of pedagogy, or,
the Theory of education. Herbart's educational philosophy and pedagogy highlighted the
correlation between personal development and the resulting benefits to society
Module 1- Orientation towards Technical Education and Curriculum aspects NITTR, Chennai 1
Herbart suggested 5 steps as crucial components. Specifically, these 5 steps include:
 Preparation,
 Presentation,
 Association,
 Generalization, and
 Application.
ANDRAGOGY
Andragogy is the method and practice of teaching adult learners; Adult Learning. The term
was originally coined by German educator Alexander Kapp in 1833. It was Popularised in US
by the American Educator Malcolm Knowles.
It is the science of understanding (theory) and supporting (practice) lifelong education of

adults. According to Malcolm Knowles, it is a specific theoretical and practical approach. It is
based on a humanistic conception of self-directed and autonomous learners as well as
teachers as facilitators of learning.
TEACHING
Teaching is defined as an interactive process, primarily involving classroom talk which takes
place between teacher and student and occurs during definable activities, thereby resulting
in Learning.
Who is a Teacher?
Teaching is an art, science and Skill
Teacher should have
 the Creative proficiency of an artist,
 the Precise attitude of a Scientist and
 the Perfected Skill of a Craftsman.
Teacher Activities
General Perception is that teacher has work only in the classroom and that too teaches the
subject content to the students. Teachers engage in lot of activities such as
 explaining activities
 guidance activities
 demonstration activities
 order maintaining activities
 mental hygiene activities
 record keeping activities
 assignment making activities
 curriculum planning activities
 testing and evaluation activities
TRAINING
Training is an organized activity aimed at imparting information and/or instructions to

improve the recipient's performance or to help him or her attain a required level of
knowledge or skill. It is basically of a shorter duration. It is expected to give immediate results.
The term training evolved during world war
LEARNING
Learning is relatively permanent change in behaviour resulting from reinforced practice
 Learning is process as well as product
 It is the nature or tendency of human beings
 It is the process of mental development- cognitive, affective and psychomotor
 It is both positive and negative
 It is individual in nature
 Learning is creative: Critical thinking
1.4.2 TEACHING LEARNING PROCESS

“A thousand teachers, a thousand methods.”
-Chinese Proverb
INTRODUCTION
The basics of Psychology of Learning and Instruction were detailed in the previous topic. In
this module, the Basic teaching model, developed by Robert Glaser (Dececco,1968) is
explained. This is one of the most successful teaching models widely in use. Many of the
teacher training programmes are based on this model.
BASIC TEACHING MODEL
The Basic Teaching Model consists of four components namely:
 Instructional Objectives
 Entering Behaviour
 Instructional Procedure
 Performance Assessment
Each one of the components is explained below:
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
Instructional Objectives are those the student should attain upon completion of a segment of
instruction. It implies in simple terms what the student will be able to do at the end of the
instruction
ENTERING BEHAVIOUR
Entering Behaviour describes the student’s level before the instruction begins. It refers to
what the student has previously learned, his intellectual ability and development, his
motivational state and certain social and cultural determinants of his learning ability. To be
precise, they are human ability, individual differences and readiness.
INSTRUCTIONAL PROCEDURES
Instructional procedures describe the teaching process; Most decisions a teacher makes are
on these procedures. Proper management of this component results in those changes in
student behaviour which we call Learning or achievement.
PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT
Performance Assessment consists of the tests and observations used to determine how well
the student has achieved the objectives.
If there is an indication that the student has fallen short of mastery or some lesser standard
of achievement, one or all of the preceding components of the basic teaching model may
require adjustment.
1.4.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING LEARNING

Personal Factors
 Sensation & Perception
 Fatigue & Boredom
 Age & Maturation
 Emotional conditions
 Needs
 Interests
 Motivation
 Intelligence
 Aptitude
 Attitude
Environmental Factors
 Surroundings : Natural, social, Cultural

 Relationship with teachers, parents and Peers
 Media Influence on learning
MODES OF LEARNING
The following are the different modes of Learning :
 Learning By Observation
 Learning By Imitation
 Learning By Trial & Error
 Learning By Insight
TRANSFER OF LEARNING1
There are three types of transfer of Learning :
 Positive
 Negative
 Zero
A positive transfer takes place when the learning of a particular task facilitates the learning of
another task. But on the other hand if learning a particular task interferes with the learning
of a subsequent task, it is called negative transfer. If learning of a task makes no difference, it
is said to be zero transfer. (Aggarwal, 2010).
DOMAINS OF LEARNING
Learning happens in 3 domains, namely cognitive, affective and Psychomotor.
 COGNITIVE (Theoretical knowledge)
 AFFECTIVE (Feelings)
 PSYCHOMOTOR (Practical Knowledge)
LAWS OF LEARNING
Based on his experiment with cats, E.Thorndike (1898) proposed three laws :
 LAW OF READYNESS
 LAW OF PRACTICE
 LAW OF EFFECT
Law of Readyness: According to this, the teacher should prepare the learner ready for
learning the knowledge, skills and Aptitudes. This can be done through motivation, arousing
curiosity and moving from simple to complex.
Law of Practice: According to this, the teacher should ensure repetitive practice of what has
been taught. Drill strengthens the bond of stimulus response.
Law of Effect: According to this, a good environment has to be provided by the teacher.
Students should have satisfying and meaningful experiences inside the classroom. The
teacher should provide motivation and praise for work done.
1.4.4 PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING AND LEARNING
1. ACTIVE PARTICIPATION – Active Participation of the learner should be ensured by

the teacher
2. KNOWN TO UNKNOWN – Whenever a new topic is taught, always teach from what
they know to what they do not know. The teacher should provide real life examples
before teaching a principle or concept.
3. CLARITY OF OBJECTIVES – The teacher should have clarity of objectives as objectives

determine what, when and how to teach
4. KNOWLEDGE OF RESULTS ABOUT PERFORMANCE – The student should be provided

information about his performance from time to time so that he/she will be able to
know where they stand.
5. MOTIVATED LEARNER LEARNS MOST – The teacher should provide enough

motivation about why they have to learn.
6. TRANSFER OF LEARNING – The teacher should ensure whatever is taught in the class
is useful to them in the laboratory and also in the workplace.
7. APPEALING TO MANY SENSES – The teacher should avoid monotony in teaching. The
student should be allowed to use all his senses, listening, speaking, reading and
writing.
8. CONGENIAL ATMOSPHERE – The teacher should provide a congenial atmosphere to

the students. Not only the facilities but the teacher should be pleasant. Student
should be interested in coming to the class of the pleasant teacher.
9. REPETITIVE PRACTICE – The teacher should provide enough repetitive practice for
lessons taught. It can be in terms of oral repetition, class test, lab demos and home
tasks.
10. LEARNING UNDER CONTROL OF REWARD – Teacher should provide good feedback
to students on their success. Learners need praise and appreciation.
11. RELEVANT KNOWLEDGE – The teacher should always provide relevant knowledge.
REFERENCES
1. Aggarwal, J.C. (2014). Essentials of Educational Psychology. New Delhi : Vikas

Publishing House
2. Sharma, R.A. (2007). Psychology of Teaching-Learning Process. Meerut : Surya

Publications
3. Mukhopadhyay, B. (1994). Motivation in Educational Management: Issues and

Strategies. New Delhi: Sterling publishers
4. De Cecco(1973). Psychology of Learning and Instruction. Englewood Cliffs, NJ :

Prentice-Hall
UNIT 5: LEARNER CHARACTERISTICS AND MOTIVATION
Contributor
Dr. S. RENUKADEVI
Professor & Head In-charge
Engineering Education, NITTTR, Chennai.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE NO.
1.5 LEARNER CHARACTERISTICS 1

1.5.2 STUDENT TYPES 3
1.5.3 STUDENT DIFFICULTIES 4
1.5.4 STUDENT MOTIVATION 4
1.5.5 CAUSES OF DEMOTIVATION IN STUDENTS 5
1.5.6 STRATEGIES OF MOTIVATION 6
REFERENCES 8
Unit 5 Learner Characteristics and Motivation
1.5 LEARNER CHARACTERISTICS
LEARNER CHARACTERISTICS
1.5.1 INTRODUCTION
In this segment, we are going to learn about the psychological characteristics of Students. In
the teaching model, emphasis was given on Knowing about the Entering behavior of Learners.
Knowledge of the characteristics of learners is very important for teachers in the teaching
learning process. And most importantly we are dealing with technology savvy people who are
referred to as Digital natives.
Before we list the characteristics, it is important for us to understand the term ‘Personality”.
PERSONALITY
Personality is the brand image of the Individual. Personality is Qualities of a person which
differentiates himself from another person. Personality is Qualities present in a person which
is responsible for his success/failure.
Personality is the sum of the physical, Cognitive, Emotional and Social Characteristics of an
Individual.
ADOLESCENT PERSONALITY
In this segment we are focusing on the learners, who are in the middle and late adolescent
period (17-21 years). The adolescent also has a personality.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ADOLESCENCE
 Crucial and critical period
 A period of Stress and Storm
 A period of difficult adjustments
 Often characterized by outburst of energy
 A movement from adolescence to Adulthood.
LEARNER CHARACTERISTICS
The four characteristics are
 Physical Characteristics
 Cognitive Characteristics
 Emotional Characteristics
 Social Characteristics
Let us examine each of these characteristics in detail.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Rapid Intense growth
 Height and Weight
 Internal Organs
 Bone and Muscles
 Nutrition
 Personal calendar
 Inconsistent and Variable growth
COGNITIVE CHARACTERISTICS
 Increased ability of understanding
 Increased ability to generalize the facts
 Increased ability to deal with abstraction
 Development of Memory and Imagination
 Ability of Problem solving
 Increased ability to communicate with others
 Ability to make decisions
 Intellectual development reaches its peak
EMOTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Complexity
 Development of Abstract Emotions
 Emotional Feelings are Widened
 Capacity to Bear Tension
 Capacity of Sharing Emotions
 Loyality Expands
 Realism in Emotional Experiences
 Ability to Review Hopes and Aspirations
 Tolerance of Loneliness
 Increased Compassion
SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Explore their personal identity
 Peer relationship takes over
 Possibility of negative peer pressure
 Often test teacher’s and parent’s rules and boundaries
 Self centered attitudes
 Personal / Recreational Interests
 Vocational Interests
1.5.2 STUDENT TYPES

 Compliant
 Anxious Dependents
 Independent
 Heroes
 Snipers
 Attention Seekers
 Discouraged workers
 Silent Students
1.5.3 STUDENT DIFFICULTIES
 Poor concentration
 Easy distractibility
 Excessive sleepiness
 Lack of Motivation & Direction
 Fall in academic standards
 Skipping classes
 Rebelliousness
 Mood changes
 Sensitivity to criticism & Correction
 Bullying
 Social Media Addiction
 Inferiority and Superiority
1.5.4 STUDENT MOTIVATION
Motivation is the process by which individuals are impelled to seek a goal. Motivation
originated from the Latin word “Moveer” which means to move.
There are Many definitions in many perspectives
Some of them are as follows
DEFINITIONS OF MOTIVATION
According to Behaviouristic school , “ It is the why of behaviour”
Freud defines it as “Unconscious Impulse”
Maslow defines it as the “Process of need – drive satisfaction”
Hull says “it is the Process of Tension Reduction”
“The Impetus to do well” is by Mc Clelland
CLASSIFICATION OF MOTIVATION
There are several classifications of Motivation, one of them being External and Internal
Motivation.
External
Money, Societal approval, fame or fear
Internal
Pride, Sense of Achievement, responsibility and belief
INTRINSIC VS. EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
A Student who is intrinsically motivated undertakes an activity “For its own sake, for the
enjoyment it provides, the learning it permits, or the feelings of accomplishment it evokes”
An extrinsically motivated student performs “In Order to obtain some reward or avoid some
punishment external to the activity itself”
Students with an intrinsic orientation tend to prefer tasks that are moderately challenging,
whereas “extrinsically oriented” students gravitate toward tasks that are low in degree of
difficulty. extrinsically oriented students are inclined to put forth the minimal amount of
effort necessary to get the maximal reward.
1.5.5 CAUSES OF DEMOTIVATION IN STUDENTS
The various causes of Demotivation in students are :
 Change in Institutional Environment
 Incompatible Goals
 Unaware About Objectives
 Polluted Home/Social Environment
 Absent from the Class
 Difficulty in following classroom communication
 Scarcity of facilities and resources
 Difficulty with Instructors
 Impractical expectations
 Preoccupied with insecurity
 Excessive control
 Improper use of leisure time
1.5.6 STRATEGIES OF MOTIVATION
The various strategies that May be used by teachers inside and outside the classroom are:
 Encourage students to set personal goal
 Be a role model and mentor to your students
 Discuss employment prospects to eradicate insecurity
 Create friendly environment in the classroom
 Discuss future scope of the subject in professional careers
 Clarify objective of the lesson
 Follow Learner centered approach than teacher centered approach
 Give appropriate feedback and reward
 Award test marks and grades according to merit
 Conduct seminar for the students by the students
 Acknowledge the contribution and participation of students
 Create competition in the academic work for students in areas such as project
work, assignments etc.
 Clarify doubts raised by students
 Deliver instructions and materials to suit the level of students (individual

differences)
 Use audio-visual aids including multimedia
 Encourage students in group discussion
 Organise industrial visits/educational visits
 Encourage students to participate in co-curricular activities
 Organise individual counseling and group counseling sessions
 Make provisions for reward (both material and social) in order to satisfy students’
need for recognition. Punishment must be avoided to the extent possible.
 Create competition in the academic work for students in areas such as project
work, assignments etc.
 Nurture their growth needs.
Cognitive Theory of Learning
MULTIMEDIA PRINCIPLES
P. Malliga | E-Content Development | November 2018

3. Cognitive Theory of Learning
3.0 INTRODUCTION
Most of the organizations are probably experiencing a demand for digitally

delivered training. To save travel costs and instructional time, e-learning in both
synchronous and asynchronous formats is increasingly supplementing or even replacing
face-to-face classrooms.
However, all too often e-learning fails to live up to its potential, and as a result,
learning suffers. Technologists ignore the unique instructional capabilities of e-learning by
importing legacy materials from books or classroom manuals without employing engaging
multimedia features. At the other end of the spectrum, technophiles who are enamored with
technological features use all of them at once. Extraneous auditory and visual effects were
added to the basic content to make it more interesting. The result is too much stimulus at
once.
After hundreds of media comparison studies, it is learnt that it’s not the delivery
media that enables learning; it’s how any given delivery technology supports human
learning processes. If two lessons include all of the elements needed for learning, learning
will occur whether the lesson is offered digitally or in a classroom. Alternatively, if a face-
to-face classroom lesson is interactive, while a comparison digital lesson is not interactive,
learning will be more easily achieved in the face-to-face version. And vice versa. No matter
what mix of delivery media you use, it’s imperative to accommodate the strengths and
weaknesses of the human brain. In this unit you would learn in detail how the humans learn
especially from e-lessons.
Learning Objectives:
The Learning objectives of this chapter are
• State the three metaphors of learning

• Explain the three important cognitive processes in learning
• State the four principles of learning in cognitive science
• Elaborate on the processes of how instructional methods in e-
learning can support and inhibit them.
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9.1 THREE METAPHORS FOR LEARNING
The learning psychologists have developed the three major metaphors during the
past one hundred years as summarized in Table 9.1. In response – strengthening view of
learning: the learner is a passive recipient of rewards or punishments and the teacher is a
dispenser of rewards (which serve to strengthen a response) and punishments (which serve
to weaken a response). This metaphor is not that it is incorrect but rather it is incomplete –
it tells only part of the story because it does not explain meaningful learning.
Table 9.1: Three Metaphors of Learning
Metaphor of Learning is Learner is Instructor is

Learning
Response Strengthening or Passive recipient of Dispenser of
Strengthening weakening of rewards and rewards and
associations punishments punishments
Information Adding information to Passive recipient of Dispenser of
Acquisition memory information information
Knowledge Building a mental Active sense maker Cognitive guide

Construction representation
In information- acquisition view of learning, the learner’s job is to receive

information and the instructor’s job is to present it. A typical instructional method is a
textbook or power point presentation in which the instructor conveys information to the
learner. This approach sometimes called the empty vessel or sponge view of learning
because the learner’s mind is an empty vessel into which the instruction pours information.
The third metaphor can be called knowledge acquisition. According to the
knowledge construction view, people are not passive recipients of information, but rather
are active sense makers. They engage in active cognitive processing during learning
including attending to the relevant information, mentally organizing it into a coherent
structure and integrating it with what they already know.
Although there are some merits in each of the metaphors of learning we focus most
strongly on the third one. In short, the goal of effective instruction is not only to present
information but also to encourage the learner to engage in appropriate cognition processing
during learning.

9.2 PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES OF LEARNING
Figure 9.2 presents model of how people learn from multimedia lessons. In the left
column, a lesson may contain graphics and words (in printed or spoken form). In the second
column, the graphics and printed works enter the learner’s cognitive processing system
through the eyes, and spoken words enter through the ears. If the learner pays attention,
some of the material is selected for further processing in the learners working memory -
where you can hold and manipulate just a few pieces of information at time one time in
each channel. In working memory, the learner can mentally organize some of the selected
images into a pictorial model and some of the selected words into a verbal model. Final, as
indicated by the “integrating arrow”, the learner can connect the incoming material with
existing knowledge from long – term memory - the learners’ storehouse of knowledge.
There are three important cognitive processes indicated by the arrows in the arrows in
the figure 9.2:
Fig 9.2: Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning
1. Selecting words and images – the first step is to pay attention to relevant words and
images in the presented material;
2. Organizing words and images – the second step is to mentally organize the selected
material in coherent verbal and pictorial representations; and
3. Integrating – the final step is to integrate incoming verbal and pictorial
representations with each other and with existing knowledge.

9.3 FOUR PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING IN COGNITIVE SCIENCE
Meaningful learning occurs when the learner appropriately engages in all of these
processes. Thus learning model reflects four principles from research in cognitive
science:
1. Dual channels – people have separate channels for processing visual/pictorial
material and auditory /verbal material;
2. Limited capacity – people can actively process only a few pieces of information
in each channel at one time;
3. Active processing – learning occurs when people engage in appropriate cognitive
processing during learning, such as attending to relevant material, organizing the
material into a coherent structure, and integrating it with what they already know;
and
4. Transfer – new knowledge and skills must be retrieved from long – term memory
during performance
9.4 HOW DO LESSONS AFFECT HUMAN LEARNING?

Cognitive learning theory explains how mental processes transform information
received by the eyes and ears into knowledge and skills in human memory (Refer Figure
9.3)
Instructional methods in the e-lessons must guide the learners’ transformation of

words and pictures in the lesson through working memory so that they are incorporated
into the existing knowledge in long-term memory. These events rely on the following
process:
1. Selection of the important information in the lesion;
2. Management of the limited capacity in working memory to allow the rehearsal
needed for learning;
3. Integration of auditory and visual sensory information in working memory with
existing knowledge in long-term memory by way of rehearsal in working
memory; and
4. Retrieval of new knowledge and skills from long –term memory into working
memory when needed later.

Figure 9.3: Cognitive processing of learning
In the following sections, we elaborate on these processes and provide examples
of how instructional methods in e-learning can support or inhibit them.
9.4.1 Methods for Directing Selection of Important Information
Our cognitive systems have limited capacity. Since there are too many sources of
information competing for this limited capacity, the learner must select those that best
match his or her goals. We know this selection process can be guided by instructional
methods that direct the learner’s attention. For example, multimedia designers may use an
arrow or color to draw the eye to important text or visual information.
9.4.2 Methods for managing Limited Capacity in Working Memory

Working memory must be free to rehearse the new information provided in the
lesson. When the limited capacity of working memory becomes filled processing becomes
inefficient. Learning slows, and frustration grows. For example, most of us find
multiplying numbers like 968 by 89 in our heads to be a challenging task This is because
we need to hold the intermediate products of our calculations in working memory storage
and continue to multiply the next set of numbers in the working memory processor. It is
very difficult for working memory to hold even limited amounts of information and process
effectively at the same time.
Therefore, instructional methods that overload working memory make learning
more difficult. The burden imposed on working memory in the form of information that
must be held plus information that must be processed is referred to as cognitive load.

Methods that reduce cognitive load foster learning by freeing working memory capacity
for learning. In the past ten years, research was carried out to reduce cognitive load in
instructional materials. Many of the guidelines you see in next chapter are effective because
they reduce or manage load. For example, the coherence principle described in next chapter
states that better learning results when e-lessons minimize irrelevant visuals, omit
background music and environmental sounds, and use succinct text. In other words, less is
more. This is because by using a minimalist approach that avoids overloading working
memory, greater capacity can be devoted to rehearsal processes, leading to learning.
9.4.3 Methods for integration
Working memory integrates the words and pictures in a lesson into a unified
structure and further integrates these ideas with existing knowledge in long-term memory.
The integration of words and pictures is made easier by lessons that present the verbal and
visual information together rather than separated. Once the words and pictures are
consolidated into a coherent structure in working memory, they must be further integrated
into existing knowledge structures in long term memory. This requires active processing
in working memory. E-Lessons that include practice exercises and worked examples
stimulate the integration of new knowledge into prior knowledge. For example, a practice
assignment asks sales representations to review new product features and describe ways
that their current clients might best take advantage of a product upgrade. This assignment
requires active processing of new product feature information in a way that links it with
prior knowledge about their clients.
9.4.4 Methods for Retrieval and Transfer

It is not sufficient to simply add new knowledge to long-term memory. For success
in training, those new knowledge structures must be encoded into long-term memory in a
way that allows them to be easily retrieved when needed on the job. Retrieval of new skills
is essential for transfer of training. Without retrieval, all the other psychological processes
are meaningless, since it does us little good to have knowledge stored in long-term memory
that cannot be applied later.
For successful transfer, e-lessons must incorporate the content of the job in the
example and practice exercises, so the new knowledge stored in long-term memory
contains good retrieval hooks. For example, one multimedia exercise asks technicians to
play a Jeopardy game in which they recall facts about a new software system. A better
alternative exercise gives an equipment failure scenario and asks technicians to select a
trouble shooting action based on facts about a new software system. The Jeopardy game
exercise might be perceived as fun, but it risks storing facts in memory without a job
context. These facts, lacking the contextual hooks needed for retrieval, often fail to transfer.
In contrast, the troubleshooting exercise asks technicians to apply the new facts to a job-
realistic situation.

9.5 SUMMARY OF LEARNING PROCESSES
In summary, learning from e-lessons relies on four key processes:
• First, the learner must focus on key graphics and words in the lesson to select what
will be processed.
• Second, the learner must rehearse this information in working memory to organize
and integrate it with existing knowledge in long-term memory.
• Third, in order to do the integration work, limited working memory capacity must
be overloaded. Lessons should apply cognitive load reduction techniques,
especially when learners are novices to the new knowledge and skills.
• Fourth, new knowledge stored in long-term memory must be retrieved back on the
job. We call this process as transfer of learning. To support transfer, e-lessons must
provide a job context during learning that will create new memories containing job-
relevant retrieval hooks.
All these processes require an active learner – one who selects and processes new
information effectively to achieve the learning goals. The design of the e-lesson can
support active processing or it can inhibit it, depending on what kinds of instructional
methods are used.
References:
Ruth Colvin Clark and Richard E. Mayer: “E-learning and the Science of
Instruction”, Second Edition, Pfeffier Wiley, 2008
Compiled by
Dr. P. Malliga, NITTTR, Chennai

1. Introduction to E - Learning
Objectives:
After studying this chapter, you will be able to
1.0 Understand the importance of e-learning and its future scope
1.1 Define e-learning

1.2 List the need for e-learning
1.3 Explore other definitions of e-learning
1.4 Know different terminology used synonymous to e-learning
1.5 List the features unique to e-learning
1.6 List the reasons for preferring e-learning
1.7 List the advantages and disadvantages of e-learning
1.8 Explore the different instructional modes in e-learning
1.0 Introduction
For more than thousands of years, human beings have come together to learn and share
knowledge. Until now, it was necessary for us to come together at the same time and place. But
today, the technologies of the Internet have eliminated that requirement. The advent of Internet
in the business and social spectrum the world over has transformed the whole process of
learning. Soon anybody will be able to learn anything anywhere at any time, thanks to a new
development called e-learning. Although classroom –based education faces no direct threat from
the new ways of acquiring and imparting learning, the e-learning space is becoming wider and
increasingly vital with every passing day.
1.1 What is e-learning?
1. Learning, which uses electronic media by utilizing all the facilities of information
technology, is referred to as e-learning
2. e-learning is the use of information and computer technologies to create learning
experiences.
3. e-learning delivers instruction anytime, at any place and in any combination desired
by the learner.
1.2 Need for e-learning
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The world has undergone a transition from the Industrial Age to the Information Age to
the present Knowledge Age. In the Knowledge Age, wherein the economy is knowledge-based,
continuous learning will decide the success or failure of every organization and individual. E-
learning marks the zenith of the evolution of learning. Socio-economic changes in the world
have been causing drastic changes in the way people look at education and training as we have
progressed from agriculturist mode of economy to the information age, education and training
have transformed themselves to answer the needs of the day. Today people want to learn just in
time. Gone are the days when after the stipulated years of education an individual was consider
to be fit for the job. The process of formal learning stopped after one started working. Today,
people have a lifelong learning cycle. One has to keep learning to cope with changes in
technology and in the way business is transacted. Organization is finding it difficult to retain
skilled employees, as the movement of people has become a reality in every business. People
have to learn quickly, at their own business, without having to assemble at the venue of the
training and remain competitive. In the walk of all these changes, the Internet has played the role
of a bridge between learners and learning. e-learning seems to be the panacea for all the learning
issues faced by individuals as well as organization.
E-learning shifts the focus from the “brick and mortal” paradigm to the “brick and
portal” paradigm. The change in paradigm has also shifted the focus from teaching to learning.
The growth in e-learning has been fueled by growth in importance of lifelong learning.
Relevant features of these movements are;
• the need to update knowledge and skills

• the need to retrain, as jobs-for-life
• the need to maintain currency in the face of excluding information on the internet.
1.3 Definitions
Definition of e-learning abounding on the web each has a different emphasis some focus
on the content, some on the communication, some on the technology. One of the early definitions
for e-learning is ASTD’s (American Society for Training & Development), who define it as
covering a wide set of application and processes, such as web based learning, computer-based
learning, virtual classrooms and digital collaboration. ASTD even includes the delivery of
content via audio and videotape, satellite broadcast interactive TV and CD-ROM.
Other definitions confine e-learning to the use of the Internet; for example:
“e-learning refers to the use of internet technologies to deliver a board array of

solutions that enhance knowledge and performance. It is based on three fundamental
criteria
1. It is a networked.
2. It is delivered to the end–user via a computer using standard internet technology.
3. It focuses on the broadcast view of learning.”
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Many definitions highlight the ‘location’ of the learning: e.g. the use of network
technologies to create, foster, deliver and facilitate learning, anytime and anywhere.
“The delivery of a learning, training or education program by electronic mean”. E-

learning involves the use of a computer or electronic device (e.g. a mobile phone) in some way to
provide training, educational or learning material. (Derek Stockley 2003)
A simple yet comprehensive definition has been produced by the Open and Distance
Learning Quality Council of the UK. It recognizes the distinction between the content of learning
and the process:
“E-learning is the effective learning process created by combining digitally delivered

content with (learning) support and services.”
1.4 Terminology
E-Learning can be a confusing topic in part because of the alphabet soup of acronyms,
technology related buzzwords, overlapping definitions, variety of delivery options, and the
converging histories of the two disciplines of technology and training. In the current
marketplace, what most people really mean when they use the term e-learning (and its multiple
synonyms) is Web-based training.
E-Learning is really nothing more than using some form of technology to deliver training
and other educational materials.
Many terms have been used to define e-learning in the past. For example web-based
training, computer-based training or web-based learning, and online learning are a few
synonymous terms that have over the last few years been labeled as e-learning. Each of this
implies a "just-in-time" instructional and learning approach.
E-Learning is the latest, in vogue, all-inclusive term for training delivered by a number of
means. In the past, these have included the use of mainframe computers, floppy diskettes,
multimedia CD-ROMs, and interactive videodisks. Most recently, Web technology (both Internet
and Intranet delivery) has become preferred delivery options. In the near future, e-learning will
also include training delivered on PDA's (e.g., Palm Pilots) and even via wireless devices like
your cell phone. This new, mobile form of education is called, predictably enough, m-learning.
Other Terms Associated with e-Learning
Understanding what is and what isn't e-learning can be confusing due to the wealth of
different terms that exist to define the same thing. Most people prefer the word learning to
training ("dogs are trained, people learn") and use technology-based learning (TBL) or "e-
learning" instead of technology-based training (TBT).
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Other commonly used terms include computer-based training (CBT), computer-based
learning (CBL), computer-based instruction (CBI), computer-based education (CBE), Web-
based training (WBT), Internet-based training (IBT), Intranet-based training (also IBT),
and any number of others. Some of these, like Web-based training, can be seen as specific
subsections of e-learning while others, notably computer-based training, are less specific. Other
confusion arises from technical definitions that differ from their popular use. For example, the
terms CBT, CBI, and CBL are sometimes used generically to refer to all types of e-learning, but
are commonly used to describe older disk-based training.
A term beginning with the word computer frequently, but not always, refers to interactive
tutorials that are distributed on floppy diskettes. The term multimedia training is usually used to
describe training delivered via CD-ROM. This rule of thumb is complicated by the fact that
advances in Internet technology make it possible for network-based training to now deliver audio
and video elements as well.
Browser-based training is the term used to describe courseware that requires a Web
browser to access, but may in fact be running from the Internet or CD-ROM. In fact, some
training programs will pull content from both a Web site as well as a CD-ROM. These courses
are sometimes called hybrids, or hybrid-CD-ROMs.
Distance learning, or distance education, are other commonly used terms. They
accurately describe most types of e-learning, but are most often used to describe instructor-led,
web-based education -- for either corporate training or college classes.
To further complicate matters, some theorists divide e-learning into three distinct
branches: Computer-aided instruction (CAI), computer-managed instruction (CMI), and
computer-supported learning resources (CSLR). The first term, CAI, encompasses the portion
of a given e-learning product that provides the instruction, such as the tutorials, simulations, and
exercises. The second term, CMI, refers to the testing, record keeping, and study guidance
functions of an e-learning product. The last term, CSLR, encompasses the communication,
database, and performance support aspects of e-learning. Although these distinctions can prove
useful in academic research and discussion, it is enough for most of us to know that they exist
and that they all refer to parts of the greater whole, e-learning.
Finally, when it comes to course and student management, the newest descriptor is
Learning Mangement System (LMS). LMS are typically web-based programs that are used to
enroll students, assign and launch courses, and track student progress and test scores. A close
cousin to the LMS is the LCMS which stands for Learning Content Managemet System. An
LCMS manages chunks of Reusable Learning Objects, known as RLO's.
1.5 Features unique to e-learning:
E--learning promises to provide a single experience that accommodates the three distinct
learning styles of auditory learners, visual learners, and kinesthetic learners. Other unique
opportunities created by the advent and development of e-learning are more efficient training of
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a globally dispersed audience; and reduced publishing and distribution costs as Web-based
training becomes a standard.
E-learning has the greatest advantage of offering the latest, particularly in fast-developing
fields such as computer software. Unlike the textbooks, the online material can be updated
frequently. The learner has the choice as to what information he wants to look at.
E-learning also offers individualized instruction, which print media cannot provide, and
instructor-led courses allow clumsily and at great cost. In conjunction with assessing needs, e-
learning can target specific needs. And by using learning style tests, e-learning can locate and
target individual learning preferences.
The internet is the first mass medium that is interactive. As the concept catches on, e-
learning is bound to offer courses other than computer and management as well.
It allows you to meet different people through email, discussion board, chat room and the
like. This compensates for the physical classroom interaction to a large extent.
Additionally, asynchronous e-learning is self-paced. Advanced learners are allowed to

speed through or bypass instruction that is redundant while novices slow their own progress
through content, eliminating frustration with themselves, their fellow learners, and the course.
Anyone with knowledge on a particular subject can offer a course to a global audience;
this means, the standard of the teacher is difficult to assess. Sometimes the course may be
substandard. So the leaner should exercise his/her discretion before enrolling in a course.
In these ways, e-learning is inclusive of a maximum number of participants with a

maximum range of learning styles, preferences, and needs.
Collaborative Learning
All collaborative learning theory contends that human interaction is a vital ingredient to
learning. Consideration of this is particularly crucial when designing e-learning, realizing the
potential for the medium to isolate learners. With well-delivered synchronous distance education,
and technology like message boards, chats, e-mail, and tele-conferencing, this potential
drawback is reduced. However, e-learning detractors still argue that the magical classroom bond
between teacher and student, and among the students themselves, cannot be replicated through
communications technology.
1.6 Reasons for preferring e-learning:
1. Availability: e-learning can be available 24 hours a day, 365 days a year.
2. Affinity: People desire to use new technology as it becomes available.
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3. Efficiency: People can often-complete tasks more efficiently if aided by technology.
4. Reinforcement: When people use technology to complete a task correctly on a regular

basis, they will probably use the same technology again in a similar situation.
5. Immediate feedback: When technology is used to complete a task, there is usually

immediate feedback (instantaneous response).
6. Involvement: The learning must require the learner to do more than just read page after
page; requesting frequent responses and interaction keeps learners engaged. A picture or
short video can say a lot more than words and also hold learner’s attention. Being
allowed to pick the module you want and in what sequence is a nice and needed options.
7. Appeal: Technology can be more appealing if it is robust and has color, graphics (even
3D), animations, hyperlinks, voice recognition etc.
8. Reduced cost: Technology enabled transactions are generally cheaper than people
enabled transactions.
9. Easy to find: People are becoming more familiar with Internet technologies. Courses or
leaning objects can be made readily accessible. Many applications are building robust
help functions, which provide the need for formal instructions.
10. Less training time: Effective e-learning solutions can reduce classroom instruction time
by as much as two-thirds.
11. Greater & faster impact: if we have to train 1000 trainees through normal class room
based training and if each trainee has to be trained for 30 hours every year, this will be an
enormous task. If we had equivalent web-based learning solutions the entire population
of trainees could complete the training in as little as four weeks or even in a lesser time.
1.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of E-learning
Advantages of e-Learning to the Trainer or Organization
Some of the most outstanding advantages to the trainer or organization are:
• Reduced overall cost is the single most influential factor in adopting e-learning. The
elimination of costs associated with instructor's salaries, meeting room rentals, and
student travel, lodging, and meals are directly quantifiable. The reduction of time spent
away from the job by employees may be the most positive offshoot.
• Learning times reduced, an average of 40 to 60 percent, as found by Brandon Hall
(Web-based Training Cookbook, 1997, p. 108).
• Increased retention and application to the job averages an increase of 25 percent over
traditional methods, according to an independent study by J.D. Fletcher (Multimedia
Review, Spring 1991, pp.33-42).
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• Consistent delivery of content is possible with asynchronous, self-paced e-learning.
• Expert knowledge is communicated, but more importantly captured, with good e-
learning and knowledge management systems.
• Proof of completion and certification, essential elements of training initiatives, can be
automated.
Advantages to the Learner
Along with the increased retention, reduced learning time, and other aforementioned
benefits to students, particular advantages of e-learning include:
• On-demand availability enables students to complete training conveniently at off-hours

or from home.
• Self-pacing for slow or quick learners reduces stress and increases satisfaction.
• Interactivity engages users, pushing them rather than pulling them through training.
• Confidence that refresher or quick reference materials are available reduces burden of
responsibility of mastery.
Disadvantages to the Trainer or Organization
E-learning is not, however, the be all and end all to every training need. It does have
limitations, among them:
• Up-front investment required of an e-learning solution is larger due to development

costs. Budgets and cash flows will need to be negotiated.
• Technology issues that play a factor include whether the existing technology
infrastructure can accomplish the training goals, whether additional tech expenditures can
be justified, and whether compatibility of all software and hardware can be achieved.
• Inappropriate content for e-learning may exist according to some experts, though are
limited in number. Even the acquisition of skills that involve complex physical/motor or
emotional components (for example, juggling or mediation) can be augmented with e-
learning.
• Cultural acceptance is an issue in organizations where student demographics and
psychographics may predispose them against using computers at all, let alone for e-
learning.
Disadvantages to the Learner
The ways in which e-learning may not excel over other training include:
• Technology issues of the learners are most commonly technophobia and unavailability of
required technologies.
• Portability of training has become strength of e-learning with the proliferation of
network linking points, notebook computers, PDAs, and mobile phones, but still does not
rival that of printed workbooks or reference material.
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• Reduced social and cultural interaction can be a drawback. The impersonality,
suppression of communication mechanisms such as body language, and elimination of
peer-to-peer learning that are part of this potential disadvantage are lessening with
advances in communications technologies.
Do the Benefits Outweigh the Drawbacks?
The pro's and con's of e-learning vary depending on program goals, target audience and
organizational infrastructure and culture. But it is unarguable that e-learning is rapidly growing
as form of training delivery and most are finding that the clear benefits to e-learning will
guarantee it a role in their overall learning strategy.
1.8 E-learning Modes
Just as there are many names for e-learning itself (e.g., online learning, web-based
training, technology-based learning, etc.), there are many names for types of e-learning. For an
analogy, consider how you might categorize a movie. Is it a blockbuster or an independent film,
a psychological thriller or a comedy, a family film or an adult film, a short film or a long film, a
good film or a bad film? It may be all, some, or none of these things. In this way, e-learning
products are often segmented dependent on some sampling of their characteristics.
A number of fundamental modes of training or instructional models make up the

backbone of valid and valuable training. While these can be used as guides no matter what type
of technology is chosen, the specific strengths and weaknesses of a particular training mode
should be considered in order to maximize learner benefits.
Tutorials
Tutorials are one of the most ancient and commonly used modes of education. A good
tutorial presents information and guidance, makes sure the learner has an opportunity to
understand the instruction, and only then continues on to new information. Many tutorials
basically consist of a linear presentation of content. When implemented poorly, a tutorial can
become what is derisively referred to as "an electronic page-turner," or if web-based, a "scroller."
This type of program presents content directly without giving the learner any more opportunity
to interact other than to call for the next screen. When implemented properly, using the classic
principles of instructional systems design, guided tutorials can be engaging and effective. The
key to useful tutorials in e-learning are interactions that establish pace, clarify content, provide
for practice and instill confidence.
Branching can greatly enhance the effectiveness of a tutorial, allowing it to operate in the
way that a skilled teacher does. A question posed following an instructional moment can
determine if the student has mastered the content. If mastery is not achieved, one branch is
followed and another approach is provided to eliminate confusion. Only after mastery is
achieved is the branch containing the next piece of information followed.
Simulations
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Simulations are often used to recreate lifelike job situations. Realism is the key to
successful simulations but not every element of a simulation has to be realistic in order for it to
be instructionally valid. While hearing a telephone ring in the background of an office simulation
adds to the depth of the user experience, being able to answer that phone and talk with a
customer adds value to the user's learning experience.
The best example of a simulation is the complex flight simulator employed by pilots.
More commonly encountered simulations are the scenarios deployed in training classrooms as
role-playing exercises within the group.
Current technology enables students to interact with on-screen participants in non-linear,

discovery-learning scenarios. Sales calls, customer service scenarios, computer repairs, surgery,
and the full responsibility of running a business can all be simulated. Simulations of software
functionality are particularly prolific and have well documented learner benefits. Cutting-edge
programs now exist using virtual reality that enable students wearing goggles and sensor gloves
to actually be immersed in a digitally created environment. The challenge to the trainer is to
isolate the elements of a situation that can be controlled and must be mastered by the learner in
reality and put the learner in control of these elements in the simulation. All the realism in the
world cannot make a simulation a valuable learning tool without the elements of guidance,
remediation, or feedback.
True simulations and simulation-based drill and practice exercises have in common the
ability to reveal a learner's actions and reactions in a realistic, protected environment where time
and distance are collapsed. In sales call simulations learners can try out various sales approaches
without the jeopardy of awkward social situations.
Electronic Performance Support Systems
Electronic performance support systems (EPSSs) are created to give an individual the
tool they need to perform a required task at the time they need it. A performance support system
is in a way the opposite of a tutorial. Where a tutorial instructs the learner and then requires that
the learner perform, a performance support system requires the learner to determine when they
need assistance and then ask for the required guidance. The most ubiquitous example of a
performance support system is the "Help" feature built into Microsoft's Office applications. A
simple example of a non-e-learning performance support tool is an inventory checklist created
for a grocery clerk.
A growing consensus in the industry is that e-learning should include imbedded support
systems that provide instant guidance at the time and place of need. With the advent of Web-
based training and the emergence of the hyperlink paradigm, the convergence of e-learning and
electronic performance support systems is almost complete. Web-based tutorials can be
completed independently as learning exercises for new users and yet be delivered as just-in-time
chunks of information and interactive tools at the desktop.
The challenge of creating useful performance support systems obviously consists of

determining what tools are needed by a population and providing those tools. In the context of e-
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learning, the further challenge is creating systems that allow an individual needing a tool to
recognize that such a tool exists and then be able to use that tool.
Instructional Games
The inclusion of games has often been a hitch in getting management to agree to e-
learning initiatives. Many learning theories contend, though, that games are essential to the
learning exhibited by children and can be usefully extended into the realm of adult learning.
Games can have great value, possibly greater value than any other mode of instruction, in
reducing learner tension and increasing learner engagement. The reluctance toward employing
games to teach is becoming less apparent as supervisors are educated in learning theory and
many who have experience in gaming for educational purpose move into management roles.
Games in the style of TV game shows have long been used in the classroom to provide a
fun and effective method for reinforcement and self-assessment. Instructional games are equally
effective using the latest computer technologies. Games can run the gamut from simple speed
and accuracy typing exercises to complex business simulators where a student might run an
entire factory. Instructional games can also replicate classic, arcade, and game show styles such
as tic-tac-toe, auto racing, and Jeopardy(TM).
The defining characteristic of instructional games is a set of goals or a competitor to

provide motivation in addition to the learning. For maximum success, the motivational element
of the game should run parallel to the overall motivation for the training. The game should have
has instructional value aligned with the objectives of the overall course. There is little merit to
using games as a reward for completing learning objectives exterior to the games themselves.
Tests, Record Keeping, and Guidance
Automated assessments are another commonly used facet of e-learning. When companies
first adopt e-learning initiatives, testing and record-keeping systems are often accepted earlier
than programs that integrate multiple training modes, due to their ease of implementation and
their quickly recognizable returns.
Online tests can be used for self-assessment purposes, or can be computer graded and
reported back to central administration. The explosion of enterprise wide networks now provides
the power to assess thousands of individuals and track their progress against specific job
competencies throughout their life within an organization. The latest and most sophisticated
technology-based tests are tightly linked to learning objectives, which in turn can help create a
completely personalized curriculum.
Combining the Modes
Maximum learner benefit can be typically achieved by combining several training modes
in one project. The merit of each mode varies with training goals and some modes are ill suited
to meet some needs. A solid and frequent model is to use tutorials to teach basic knowledge and
concepts, use simulations for reinforcement and application of the knowledge (leading to skills),
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test or certify the comprehension, and finally provide an on-the-job performance support tool to
aid in recall and application.
SUMMARY
In this Chapter you have learnt the definitions of e-learning, different terminologies,
need and the unique features of e-learning.
• Regardless of the definition you chose to use, designers, developers, and

implementers make or break the instructional courses and tools. E-learning is simply
a medium for delivering learning and like any other medium, it has its advantages
and disadvantages.
• E-learning covers a wide array of activities from supported learning, to blended or
hybrid learning (the combination of traditional and e-learning practices), to learning
that occurs 100% online.
• E-learning can offer different modes of education – tutorials, simulations,
Instructional games, electronic performance support systems, collaborative learning
and combination of these modes.
References
1. htttp://www. learning circuits.org/glossary.html
2. Kevin Kruse : Articles from www.elearninguru.com
3. “E Learning: The Key concepts” – Robin Mason and Frank

Rennie; Routledge, 2007
Compiled by
Dr. P. Malliga, Associate Professor, CEMT, NITTTR, Chennai
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2. TYPES OF E-LEARNING
2.0 OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to comprehend the types of e-learning
2.1 Differentiate Synchronous and asynchronous learning
2.2 Explain the three tiers of e-learning
2.3 Know the varieties of e-learning
2.4 Discuss the degree of Interactivity
2.5 List the different delivery methods
2.6 Define Learning Portal
2.7 State the characteristics of LMS and LCMS
2.1 Synchronous and asynchronous learning
Synchronous e-learning requires the learner to be online with the instructor at the time
they are learning. Other learners may be online at the same time.
Asynchronous e-learning still enables the learner to interact with other learners and the
trainer, but does not necessarily require the learner to be in contact with any other learner or
instructor at the time they are learning. It should be noted that restraints can be put on
asynchronous learning: for example, learners may be required to complete a course within a
given time.
Some e-learning combines both synchronous and asynchronous forms.
Some characteristics and examples of each of these are provided in the following Table
Synchronous learning Mixed mode Asynchronous learning

The learner is online at same time For at least some of the time, the The learner is not online at
as an instructor or other learners. learner is online at same time as an same time as an instructor or
instructor or other learners. other learners.
An instructor usually is required. An instructor is required for at least An instructor is not
some of the time. necessarily required.
The study is not self-paced, but Only some of the study is self-paced. This is truly self-paced study,
when delivered in a blended although time restraints may
mode can be self-directed. be set for completion.
The learner gains immediate The learner can gain both immediate The learner gains feedback
feedback from the instructor and and delayed feedback. from the instructor either not
other learners. at all, or after a delay.
Examples: chat groups, virtual Examples: uses any of the examples Examples: email
classrooms, videoconferences, from both synchronous and communications, online
teleconferences. asynchronous modes. forums, discussion lists.
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2.2 TIERS OF E-LEARNING
Good e-learning involves and engages the learner by allowing them to experience a range of
media during the learning process: sound, video, photographs, and text. In addition, it provides
feedback to the learner about their progress, and generally allows them a degree of
independence in when and where they study, and interaction with other learners and the
instructor.
Broadly speaking, e-learning can be thought of as having three tiers, depending of the degree of
interactivity involved.
• Tier 1 e-learning is the most basic, and may amount to little more than electronic
delivery of content to the learner. There may be some online assessment and use of
media to support the learning, but overall there is a low degree of online interaction.
Examples include placing Microsoft PowerPoint presentations online, e-books, and
online manuals.
• Tier 2 e-learning allows the learner to have a degree of interaction with the content
being delivered on screen, and makes use of a range of media to reinforce the learning.
However, it does not build in interactions between learners, or between learners and
their instructor. Examples include online quizzes and tests, computer games,
demonstrations and simulations.
• Tier 3 is the top tier of e-learning. It encourages self-directed learning, may be rich with
media, and as with traditional classroom training it engages the learner in a learning
community. Examples are virtual classroom or MOOC courses.
In Tier 3 many businesses today are including quite a bit of synchronous learning involving
online interaction of learners and trainers. This is equivalent to an electronic form of classroom
training (the virtual classroom) and has the constraint of requiring all participants to be available
at a particular session time. However, the benefits of asynchronous interaction, where both
organisations and individuals are free to participate at times that suite them, ensure that
asynchronous learning communities are still very prevalent. Often businesses use a
combination of both synchronous interactions supported by asynchronous discussion
environments and learning activities.
Another Tier 3 characteristic that is beginning to emerge are businesses using the
Internet to explore, publish and connect with others with like interests, using social software like
blogs and wikis.
2.3 VARIETIES OF E-LEARNING
e-Learning comes in many variations and often is a combination of the following:
• Purely online - no face-to-face meetings

• Blended Learning - combination of online and face-to-face
• Synchronous
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• Asynchronous
• Instructor-led group
• Self-study
• Self-study with subject matter expert
• Web-based
• Computer-based (CD-ROM)
• Video/audio tape
Standalone courses
Stand-alone Courses are taken by a sole learner. The learning is self-paced without
interaction with an instructor or classmates
Virtual classroom courses

Teaching in a virtual classroom is conducted live. The virtual classroom provides a live,
interactive, Web-based event for communicating with geographically dispersed learners. The
presenters can poll the audience, receive questions, and leverage other network contents.
Among the audience members can chat or break into workgroups. On the other hand the
instructors too can pull elements form other e-learning technologies into the virtual classroom by
simply using a browser.
Virtual classrooms can leverage existing infrastructure to create an online learning

environment. Attendees receive a ‘virtual space’ in a classroom to access live, interactive
desktop training. The environment features full-duplex multicast audio, group polling, and HTML
content viewing. Virtual classrooms provide the benefit of anyone attending or presenting
course material from anywhere as long as they have a network connection and browser. A
central server can handle all interactions, so that an expert in Singapore can make a
presentation to audience in India. It is two-way full-duplex and multicast audio for clarity, so
users can communicate verbally within the same group or classroom.
• Content on demand:
Through this technology the Internet delivers multimedia based learning situation to a global
audience reliably, cost effectively and faster as compared to CD-ROMs, multicasts or satellite
broadcasting. On-demand delivery is a flexible alternative, providing e-learners with any time,
anywhere access to training. It is a cost-effective solution and is viewable via dial-in lines at
14.4, 28.8, and 56 kbps.
This method of learning is useful in keeping everyone in a global organization informed

about latest products, announcements, or product training. The greatest convenience is that it
lets people decide which information they want and when they want
Computer-based Training (CBT)
Computer-based courses are presented most often on CD-ROM, accessible any time for
use at the desired pace of the user.
Benefits of computer-based training:
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• Users can approach the material in a way that best suits them, skipping familiar
sections or spending additional time on the difficult ones.
• Courses are portable and accessible without need for a network.
• Generally high quality of graphics and presentation
Web-based Training (WBT)
Web-based courses permit the learners to access at any time to the training they
require. Learners log into an online training system with a user name and password to begin an
interactive course. Costs are similar to computer-based training, but many web-based programs
go further, permitting interaction with an instructor and an online community of fellow students.
Benefits of web-based training:
• Just-in-time training
• Suits all learning styles
• Higher retention of information/skills
• Continuous updating of materials and access to further resources
Embedded e-learning
E- learning included in another system, such as computer program, a diagnostic procedure or

online help
Mobile learning
Learning from the world while moving about in the world. aided by mobile devices such as PDAs
and smart phones
Knowledge management
Broad uses of e-learning, online documents, and conventional media to educate the entire
population and organizations rather than just individuals.
Blended Learning
Blended or hybrid courses mix online and face-to-face (f2f) components. In fact, courses
in which there is even a minor online component (e.g. a supporting website, email access to the
instructor, an online reading list) are sometimes referred to as e-learning courses. Furthermore,
all courses blend a range of learning media or learning opportunities; at the most basic level,
they involve thinking, reading and blending new information with existing knowledge.
The term-blended learning was originally used to describe courses, which tried to
combine the best of face-to-face and online learning. As the term became popular, more and
more combinations were referred to as blended learning: for example, combining a range of
technologies, a range of teaching methods, a range of learn tug experiences, or a range of
locations of the learning event
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One example where the term leads to useful research results is a study which examines
the relationship of a sense of community across three modes of learning: the traditional
classroom, blended, and fully online higher education learning environments. The research
provides evidence, which suggests that blended courses produce a stronger sense of com-
munity among students than either traditional or fully online courses (Rovai and Jordan, 2004).
In a study of the workplace over two years, Barbian (2002) concludes that blended learning
boost employee productivity over single-delivery options.
The blended solutions commonly used are: 50/50 models of face-to-face and
online learning which combine the best of both worlds; even 75 per cent online with one face-to-
face or residential meeting is successful in overcoming the limitations of online learning while
benefiting from its overall cost-effectiveness and flexibility,
2.4 DEGREE OF INTERACTIVITY
E-learning can be presented and delivered to the learner in many different ways and for a range
of purposes.
Important in any e-learning is the degree of interactivity for the learner, and whether the learner
is able to study at any time, or whether there is a need for the learner to be online or in a
classroom with other learners at the same time (synchronous learning). Other things to consider
are whether an instructor is required, whether the learning is blended or not, how the course is
delivered, whether the course is accessed through a learning portal, and whether a
management system is required to look after the administrative aspects of the course, or
updates to the course content.
Ideally, e-learning should engage the learner, allowing them to interact with the course
materials, obtaining feedback on their progress and assistance whenever it is required.
However, the degree of interactivity in e-learning depends on how the course has been
developed, and generally is dependent on the software used for its development, and the way
the material is delivered to the learner. For example, a learner who accesses their material from
the Internet usually has a lower level of interactivity than one who is accessing material from a
CD-ROM.
The following table summarises different types of e-learning based on the degree of interactivity
required of each. The learning could be delivered on a computer or a mobile learning device,
such as a personal digital assistant (PDA).
Tier 1 learning (low Tier 2 learning (moderate to Tier 3 learning (high

interactivity–mainly text, high interactivity–has some interactivity–includes learner
multimedia or graphic one- degree of learner to to learner and learner to
way communication) computer interaction) trainer interaction)
PowerPoint presentation, Interactive resources, quizzes, Virtual classrooms, streaming
learning on a personal digital tests, reflective learning, media, group games,
assistant, e-books, podcasting, games, simulations, videoconferences, audio
videotape, audiotape. demonstrations. conferences, chat groups,
emails, discussion lists,
blogging, wikis, moblogging,
MOOCs
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Each tier of e-learning has implications for the method of delivery of the learning.
2.5 DELIVERY METHOD
The delivery of e-learning can range from an HTML-based online tutorial, which relies on
web pages accessed through a browser, to text and graphics on a mobile device like a personal
digital assistant, to screens rich in interactive video, text, images and audio delivered from a
CD-ROM.
At the high end, enterprise level systems can provide for the establishment of entire
corporate learning programs, based on detailed competency specifications that allow individuals
to follow customised learning pathways for a multitude of learning outcomes. These enterprise
systems exploit the capacity for online delivery to present multi-media content (text, sound,
video) and complex interactivity (such as real-time feedback and assessment). They provide
also for authoring of learning content and delivery of content authored to interoperable
standards.
Smaller scale technologies include the following:
• HTML pages
• Slide presentations
• webcasts
• podcasts delivered on an iPod or similar technologies
• blogging
• Internet telephony (Voice over IP)
• e-books on PDAs or mobile devices
• wikis.
Larger scale technologies include the following:
• streaming audio -used to deliver the instructors comments over any network
• streaming video - can deliver video over any network
• web pages - very common form of delivering content
• interactive content - often delivered on a CD-ROM, but also deliverable through the
Internet and local area networks
• online tests
• interactive tools - these could include web forums (asynchronous), discussion lists
(synchronous), chat rooms, teleconferencing and videoconferencing
• MUDs (Multi-User Domain, or Multi-User Dimension) – these are computer programs,
usually running over the Internet, that allow multiple learners to participate in virtual-
reality role-playing games
• learning management systems (LMS) and learning content management systems
(LCMS) – these are high-end e-learning applications that allow for online content
development, learning management and learning delivery, and provide additional
technological benefits that can take the concept of organisational learning into the area
of knowledge management.
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2.6 LEARNING PORTAL
A learning portal is a website that contains links not only to learning material, but also to a range
of resources and useful information, making that site a gateway (portal) to this information.
Usually such a portal is a part of the intranet of the organisation. It generally is successful only if
it is kept up to date, and the content is changed regularly to encourage learners to make repeat
visits to the portal.
The following items could appear on a learning portal:
• news about any issues related to the education and training program of the organisation
• a listing of available courses (including those not classified as e-learning, with links to
and information about each
• an overview of the support that is available to learners
• links to resources available to learners
• information about the team of instructors
• contact details for anyone involved with the support of the courses, including support
with the technology
• access to learning communities (such as chat rooms and discussion lists), and a log-in
area to allow learners to access information about the courses they have completed and
their course results. This may depend on a learning management system tracking this
information.
2.7 MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
There are two types of management systems commonly used in e-learning.
LMS. A learning management system (LMS) is a computer program for tracking

learners doing an e-learning course. An administrator can track the progress of
individual learners, their scores on assessments, and have an overview of the
progress of any cohort of learners. Learning management systems can assist
with scheduling, distribution of materials to learners, and provide a great deal of
understanding of how well learners are coping with the course.
LCMS. A learning content management system (LCMS) is software that allows

an administrator to update content on an e-learning website without needing
specialist web page editing skills. An LCMS ensures that the styles of the site are
retained, and that the course content remains current for learners.
Some software incorporates the features of both an LMS and an LCMS.
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Learning Management System (LMS)
When considering a learning management system, take these things into account:
• will it be hosted on your organisation's computers, or do you need to outsource this?

• what information do you want the LMS to track?
• will you be able to customise it to your needs?
• will you easily be able to add or delete learners and courses, and use the other features
of the software?
• does it need to connect to other information in your organisation, such as human
resources records?
• what will it cost, and how are the charges applied?
• should it also have a content management capability?
There are three ways to obtain a learning management system:
• use one of the existing free learning management systems. This has the advantage that
it is free, but it also means that it may have significant limitations for you. Examples
include Moodle (http://moodle.org), ATutor (www.atutor.ca), and The Manhattan Virtual
Classroom (http://manhattan.sourceforge.net), although many others are available
• pay for one of the systems available online (often the charge is based on the number of
learners and the amount of customisation required). These usually can be tailored more
for your specific requirements, but still may not do everything you require. Examples
include Ecampus (www.ecampus.com.au), Blackboard (www.blackboard.com) and
Janison LMS (http://www.janison.com.au/janison/default.asp), but many more are
available. Further information about choosing an LMS can be found on the Australian
Flexible Learning Network website at the page on How to choose a learning
management system
(http://community.flexiblelearning.net.au/ManagingFlexibleDelivery/content/article_6944.
htm)
• pay for the development of an LMS that is tailored to your specific needs. While more
costly initially, this option often proves cost effective in the longer term, and will provide
everything you would require of your LMS.
Learning Content Management System (LCMS)
A learning content management system has a number of characteristics:
• it allows the creation of content, including incorporation of text, graphic and movie files
into the content
• it allows content to be checked for consistency, and old content to be archived
• it allows for creation of online assessments, and for their marking
• it permits content to be searched for by the content producer
• it may allow collaboration between several content producers
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• it allows links to be forged between e-learning and other learning strategies that have
been adopted by the organisation.
The decisions about obtaining an LCMS are similar to those for obtaining an LMS: use freely
available software, purchase software, or pay to have the LCMS developed for your specific
needs. The consequences for each decision are as described above for the LMS software
choices.
Examples of free LCMS software include OLAT (http://www.olat.org/public/index.html), eXe

(http://exelearning.org/), Dokeos (http://www.dokeos.com), Dokebo
(http://www.docebo.org/doceboCms) and Interact
(http://www.interactlms.org/spaces/space.php?space_key=1), and Moodle (http://moodle.org)
that has limited content creation.
Examples of LCMS software you can purchase are ATutor

(http://www.atutor.ca/atutor/links.php) and LearnSwitch Enterprise
(http://www.catalystinteractive.com.au).
2.8 TRENDS IN E-LEARNING
Until recently, many discussions of elearning were about the technology

aspects. For example, a very common opening gambit to explain e-learning would focus on
learning anything, anyplace, at anytime. The discussion would highlight the flexibility of e-
learning and move into the technologies which support learners accessing a course outside the
classroom context. While e-learning is undoubtedly more flexible than face-to-face (f2f),
campus-based Learning, there have always been pedagogical and social limits to totally flexible
learning. There arc three technologies which are just beginning to see a major uptake and
hence might have a major impact on e-learning
Broadband
Cheap, unlimited bandwidth is not yet a reality, however, if and. when it does arrive, it
should give an extremely big boost to e-learning. Real-time events for students at a distance
would add a new dimension to e-learning. For example, tutorials and small group meetings
could be held over software such as Netmeeting or Skype, which provide video, audio and
shared desktop facilities. Group messaging offers near-instant communication as well as
confidentiality and shared tiles, and other software provides buddy systems that allow students
to be in close contact with their peers. Activities could be based around these facilities whereby
students engage in peer commenting, team projects and self-help groups. Web casting using
guest lectures, offers immediacy and the opportunity to engage in discussion with experts and
special advisers. The fact that the lecture can be stored and accessed after the event provides
flexibility as well as immediacy.
Most of these real-rime activities are difficult, costly or actually impossible over dial-up
lines, Broadband offers course designers the opportunity to design courses using the optimal
mix of synchronous and asynchronous modalities, without concern about disadvantaging
remote users.
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Mobile technologies
The 'anyplace' aspect used to promote e-learning is becoming somewhat more realistic
with the advent of wireless, mobile learning (m-learning] e.g. from a mobile telephone, wireless
laptop, PDA or tablet PC. Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs), also known as palmtops and
handheld PCs, fit into the hand and are generally very portable, capable of being carried in a
jacket pocket, for example. They were first developed as electronic Organisers, or personal
information managers. These contain information Such as diaries, address books and task lists.
They eventually evolved into mini PCs. able to carry out limited PC tasks such as word and
spreadsheet processing, and nowadays most are capable of web browsing and email functions
via cables connected to networks. PDAs also offer infrared commutation, allowing data to he
transferred across short distances between units without the need for networks. Many PDAs
come with docking stations in order for them, to be connected to desktop computers, allowing
data to be synchronized between the two devices. The tablet PC is an adaptation of the laptop.
It is available in two styles: cither with a keyboard (known as a 'convertible' tablet) or without a
keyboard (known as a 'slate' tablet, and generally slimmer and more lightweight than the
convertible). Convertible tablets normally have detachable or foldable keyboards, and all tablet
PCs have touch-sensitive screens, usually A4 in size, which require stylus pens for input. They
are generally much quicker to boot up yhann desktop PCs. The tablet can be used either in
portrait or landscape mode, and uses wireless technology for connection to the internet or other
networks
For the moment, these technologies arc used not for accessing the content of courses,
but for communication, administration and other peripheral aspects of studying e.g. ordering
books from the library. One area of potential use is for taking photos or notes when on field
trips. Another advantage is the stylus pen used with tablet PCs which is more convenient for
web browsing than a mouse. However, these devices currently have limited storage capacity
and their batteries require regular charging or data can be lost.
Wireless and WiFi networking need to become more popular before learning will boost
the feasibility of learning anyplace and anytime. The trend, however, is for these devices to
converge, so that mobile phones will adopt PDA functions and tablets will adopt more of the
functionality of desktop PCs.
Podcasting
Podcasting is a form of broadcasting over the internet. With podcasting, learners can
download, lectures and pictures to their PC or portable digital device to access at their
convenience. This is a very different learning scenario from reading text on a computer screen,
or from sitting in a lecture hall using an iPod or similar device, the learner listens to the content,
which could talk them through diagrams, graphics, photos or paintings, or could be a
discussion between two experts with opposing views. Language learning, music studies and
other subjects with a strong oral component have obvious applications. This approach to
learning will appeal to learners who prefer to take in information aurally rather titan through text
and circumvents the problems of a mini screen, which limits the use of mobile phones for
learning. Pod casts can provide students with a means of reviewing material, Especially non-
native speakers. Pod casts can be used more informally by teachers to provide feedback on
group assignments or presentations, or to provide supplementary material for a blended course.
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The supporting technologies of podcasting ire relatively inexpensive and easy to use.
Like blogging, students can be producers of content, rather than passive receivers, The portable
and on-demand nature of podcasting makes it a technology with potential for e-learning
SUMMARY
E-Learning uses computer and network technologies to create learning experiences.

Varieties of e-learning include standalone courses, virtual –classroom courses, mobile learning,
embedded e-learning, blended e-learning, simulations and learning games.
E-learning is not the answer to all educational problems or suitable in all contexts. It is
rather limited for teaching some practical or physical skills; it requires more up-front preparation
time than lecturing; it does not provide the range of interaction, support and socialization that
face-to-face teaching can offer. Despite these shortcomings, e-learning whether as an adjunct
to campus-based learning or as a totally online offering, is gaining in acceptance and growing in
use.
References
1. htttp://www. learning circuits.org/glossary.html

2. Kevin Kruse : Articles from https://www.elearninglearning.com/blog/elearning-
guru/
3. “E Learning: The Key concepts” – Robin Mason and Frank Rennie;
Routledge,2007
4. Compiled by Dr.P. Malliga, Associate Professor, CEMT, NITTTR, Chennai, 2012
NITTTR/PM/EL/2 11
`
P21 Framework Definitions
To help practitioners integrate skills into the teaching of key academic subjects, the
Partnership has developed a unified, collective vision for learning known as the
Framework for 21st Century Learning. This Framework describes the skills, knowledge
and expertise students must master to succeed in work and life; it is a blend of content
knowledge, specific skills, expertise and literacies.
Every 21st century skills implementation requires the development of key academic
subject knowledge and understanding among all students. Those who can think critically
and communicate effectively must build on a base of key academic subject knowledge.
Within the context of key knowledge instruction, students must also learn the
essential skills for success in today’s world, such as critical thinking, problem
solving, communication and collaboration.
When a school or district builds on this foundation, combining the entire Framework with
the necessary support systems—standards, assessments, curriculum and instruction,
professional development and learning environments—students are more engaged in the
learning process and graduate better prepared to thrive in today’s global economy.
While the graphic represents each element distinctly for descriptive purposes,
the Partnership views all the components as fully interconnected in the process
of 21st century teaching and learning.
P21 Framework Definitions Page 1 of 9

Publication date: 5/15
21st CENTURY STUDENT OUTCOMES
The elements described in this section as “21st century student outcomes” (represented
by the rainbow) are the knowledge, skills and expertise students should master to
succeed in work and life in the 21st century.
Key SUBJECTS AND 21st CENTURY THEMES
Mastery of key subjects and 21st century themes is essential for all students in
the 21st century. Key subjects include:
 English, reading or language arts
 World languages
 Arts
 Mathematics
 Economics
 Science
 Geography
 History
 Government and Civics
In addition to these subjects, we believe schools must move to include not only a
focus on mastery of key subjects, but also promote understanding of academic
content at much higher levels by weaving 21st century interdisciplinary themes
into key subjects:
Global Awareness
 Using 21st century skills to understand and address global issues
 Learning from and working collaboratively with individuals representing
diverse cultures, religions and lifestyles in a spirit of mutual respect and
open dialogue in personal, work and community contexts
 Understanding other nations and cultures, including the use of non-English
languages
Financial, Economic, Business and Entrepreneurial Literacy

 Knowing how to make appropriate personal economic choices
 Understanding the role of the economy in society
 Using entrepreneurial skills to enhance workplace productivity and career
options
Civic Literacy
 Participating effectively in civic life through knowing how to stay informed
and understanding governmental processes
 Exercising the rights and obligations of citizenship at local, state, national
and global levels
 Understanding the local and global implications of civic decisions

Health Literacy
 Obtaining, interpreting and understanding basic health information and
services and using such information and services in ways that enhance
health
 Understanding preventive physical and mental health measures, including
proper diet, nutrition, exercise, risk avoidance and stress reduction
 Using available information to make appropriate health-related decisions
 Establishing and monitoring personal and family health goals
 Understanding national and international public health and safety issues
Environmental Literacy
 Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the environment and the
circumstances and conditions affecting it, particularly as relates to air,
climate, land, food, energy, water and ecosystems
 Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of society’s impact on the
natural world (e.g., population growth, population development, resource
consumption rate, etc.)
 Investigate and analyze environmental issues, and make accurate
conclusions about effective solutions
 Take individual and collective action towards addressing environmental
challenges (e.g., participating in global actions, designing solutions that
inspire action on environmental issues)
LEARNING AND INNOVATION SKILLS
Learning and innovation skills increasingly are being recognized as those that separate
students who are prepared for a more and more complex life and work environments in
the 21st century, and those who are not. A focus on creativity, critical thinking,
communication and collaboration is essential to prepare students for the future.
CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION
Think Creatively
 Use a wide range of idea creation techniques (such as brainstorming)
 Create new and worthwhile ideas (both incremental and radical concepts)
 Elaborate, refine, analyze and evaluate their own ideas in order to improve and
maximize creative efforts
Work Creatively with Others

• Develop, implement and communicate new ideas to others effectively
• Be open and responsive to new and diverse perspectives; incorporate group
input and feedback into the work
• Demonstrate originality and inventiveness in work and understand the real
world limits to adopting new ideas

 View failure as an opportunity to learn; understand that creativity and
innovation is a long-term, cyclical process of small successes and frequent
mistakes
Implement Innovations
 Act on creative ideas to make a tangible and useful contribution to the field in
which the innovation will occur
CRITICAL THINKING AND PROBLEM SOLVING
Reason Effectively
 Use various types of reasoning (inductive, deductive, etc.) as appropriate to
the situation
Use Systems Thinking

 Analyze how parts of a whole interact with each other to produce overall
outcomes in complex systems
Make Judgments and Decisions

 Effectively analyze and evaluate evidence, arguments, claims and beliefs
 Analyze and evaluate major alternative points of view
 Synthesize and make connections between information and arguments
 Interpret information and draw conclusions based on the best analysis
 Reflect critically on learning experiences and processes
Solve Problems
 Solve different kinds of non-familiar problems in both conventional and
innovative ways
 Identify and ask significant questions that clarify various points of view and
lead to better solutions
COMMUNICATION AND COLLABORATION
Communicate Clearly
 Articulate thoughts and ideas effectively using oral, written and nonverbal
communication skills in a variety of forms and contexts
 Listen effectively to decipher meaning, including knowledge, values, attitudes
and intentions
 Use communication for a range of purposes (e.g. to inform, instruct, motivate
and persuade)
 Utilize multiple media and technologies, and know how to judge their
effectiveness a priori as well as assess their impact
 Communicate effectively in diverse environments (including multi-lingual)
Collaborate with Others

 Demonstrate ability to work effectively and respectfully with diverse teams
 Exercise flexibility and willingness to be helpful in making necessary
compromises to accomplish a common goal
 Assume shared responsibility for collaborative work, and value the individual
contributions made by each team member
INFORMATION, MEDIA AND TECHNOLOGY SKILLS
People in the 21st century live in a technology and media-driven environment, marked
by various characteristics, including: 1) access to an abundance of information, 2) rapid
changes in technology tools, and 3) the ability to collaborate and make individual
contributions on an unprecedented scale. Effective citizens and workers of the 21st
century must be able to exhibit a range of functional and critical thinking skills related to
information, media and technology.
INFORMATION LITERACY
Access and Evaluate Information

 Access information efficiently (time) and effectively (sources)
 Evaluate information critically and competently
Use and Manage Information

 Use information accurately and creatively for the issue or problem at hand
 Manage the flow of information from a wide variety of sources
 Apply a fundamental understanding of the ethical/legal issues surrounding the
access and use of information
MEDIA LITERACY
Analyze Media
 Understand both how and why media messages are constructed, and for what
purposes
 Examine how individuals interpret messages differently, how values and points
of view are included or excluded, and how media can influence beliefs and
behaviors
access and use of media
Create Media Products

 Understand and utilize the most appropriate media creation tools,
characteristics and conventions
 Understand and effectively utilize the most appropriate expressions and
interpretations in diverse, multi-cultural environments
ICT (Information, Communications and Technology) LITERACY
Apply Technology Effectively

 Use technology as a tool to research, organize, evaluate and communicate
information

 Use digital technologies (computers, PDAs, media players, GPS, etc.),
communication/networking tools and social networks appropriately to access,
manage, integrate, evaluate and create information to successfully function in
a knowledge economy
access and use of information technologies
LIFE AND CAREER SKILLS
Today’s life and work environments require far more than thinking skills and content
knowledge. The ability to navigate the complex life and work environments in the
globally competitive information age requires students to pay rigorous attention to
developing adequate life and career skills.
FLEXIBILITY AND ADAPTABILITY
Adapt to Change
 Adapt to varied roles, jobs responsibilities, schedules and contexts
 Work effectively in a climate of ambiguity and changing priorities
Be Flexible
 Incorporate feedback effectively
 Deal positively with praise, setbacks and criticism
 Understand, negotiate and balance diverse views and beliefs to reach workable
solutions, particularly in multi-cultural environments
INITIATIVE AND SELF-DIRECTION
Manage Goals and Time

 Set goals with tangible and intangible success criteria
 Balance tactical (short-term) and strategic (long-term) goals
 Utilize time and manage workload efficiently
Work Independently
 Monitor, define, prioritize and complete tasks without direct oversight
Be Self-directed Learners
 Go beyond basic mastery of skills and/or curriculum to explore and expand
one’s own learning and opportunities to gain expertise
 Demonstrate initiative to advance skill levels towards a professional level
 Demonstrate commitment to learning as a lifelong process
 Reflect critically on past experiences in order to inform future progress
SOCIAL AND CROSS-CULTURAL SKILLS
Interact Effectively with Others

 Know when it is appropriate to listen and when to speak
 Conduct themselves in a respectable, professional manner
Work Effectively in Diverse Teams

 Respect cultural differences and work effectively with people from a range of
social and cultural backgrounds
 Respond open-mindedly to different ideas and values
 Leverage social and cultural differences to create new ideas and increase both
innovation and quality of work
PRODUCTIVITY AND ACCOUNTABILITY
Manage Projects
 Set and meet goals, even in the face of obstacles and competing pressures
 Prioritize, plan and manage work to achieve the intended result
Produce Results
 Demonstrate additional attributes associated with producing high quality
products including the abilities to:
- Work positively and ethically
- Manage time and projects effectively
- Multi-task
- Participate actively, as well as be reliable and punctual
- Present oneself professionally and with proper etiquette
- Collaborate and cooperate effectively with teams
- Respect and appreciate team diversity
- Be accountable for results
LEADERSHIP AND RESPONSIBILITY
Guide and Lead Others

 Use interpersonal and problem-solving skills to influence and guide others
toward a goal
 Leverage strengths of others to accomplish a common goal
 Inspire others to reach their very best via example and selflessness
 Demonstrate integrity and ethical behavior in using influence and power
Be Responsible to Others
 Act responsibly with the interests of the larger community in mind
21st CENTURY SUPPORT SYSTEMS
The elements described below are the critical systems necessary to ensure student
mastery of 21st century skills. 21st century standards, assessments, curriculum,
instruction, professional development and learning environments must be aligned to
produce a support system that produces 21st century outcomes for today’s students.
21st Century Standards
 Focus on 21st century skills, content knowledge and expertise
 Build understanding across and among key subjects as well as 21st century
interdisciplinary themes
 Emphasize deep understanding rather than shallow knowledge
 Engage students with the real world data, tools and experts they will encounter
in college, on the job, and in life; students learn best when actively engaged in
solving meaningful problems
 Allow for multiple measures of mastery
Assessment of 21st Century Skills

 Supports a balance of assessments, including high-quality standardized testing
along with effective formative and summative classroom assessments
 Emphasizes useful feedback on student performance that is embedded into
everyday learning
 Requires a balance of technology-enhanced, formative and summative
assessments that measure student mastery of 21st century skills
 Enables development of portfolios of student work that demonstrate mastery of
21st century skills to educators and prospective employers
 Enables a balanced portfolio of measures to assess the educational system’s
effectiveness in reaching high levels of student competency in 21st century
skills
21st Century Curriculum and Instruction

 Teaches 21st century skills discretely in the context of key subjects and 21st
century interdisciplinary themes
 Focuses on providing opportunities for applying 21st century skills across
content areas and for a competency-based approach to learning
 Enables innovative learning methods that integrate the use of supportive
technologies, inquiry- and problem-based approaches and higher order
thinking skills
 Encourages the integration of community resources beyond school walls
21st Century Professional Development

 Highlights ways teachers can seize opportunities for integrating 21st century
skills, tools and teaching strategies into their classroom practice — and help
them identify what activities they can replace/de-emphasize
 Balances direct instruction with project-oriented teaching methods
 Illustrates how a deeper understanding of subject matter can actually enhance
problem-solving, critical thinking, and other 21st century skills
 Enables 21st century professional learning communities for teachers that
model the kinds of classroom learning that best promotes 21st century skills
for students
 Cultivates teachers’ ability to identify students’ particular learning styles,
intelligences, strengths and weaknesses

 Helps teachers develop their abilities to use various strategies (such as
formative assessments) to reach diverse students and create environments
that support differentiated teaching and learning
 Supports the continuous evaluation of students’ 21st century skills
development
 Encourages knowledge sharing among communities of practitioners, using
face-to-face, virtual and blended communications
 Uses a scalable and sustainable model of professional development
21st Century Learning Environments

 Create learning practices, human support and physical environments that will
support the teaching and learning of 21st century skill outcomes
 Support professional learning communities that enable educators to
collaborate, share best practices and integrate 21st century skills into
classroom practice
 Enable students to learn in relevant, real world 21st century contexts (e.g.,
through project-based or other applied work)
 Allow equitable access to quality learning tools, technologies and resources
 Provide 21st century architectural and interior designs for group, team and
individual learning
 Support expanded community and international involvement in learning, both
face-to-face and online
About the Partnership for 21st Century Learning
The Partnership for 21st Century Learning recognizes that all learners need educational
experiences in school and beyond, from cradle to career, to build knowledge and skills
for success in a globally and digitally interconnected world. Representing over 5 million
members of the global workforce, P21 unites business, government and education
leaders from the U.S. and abroad to advance evidence-based education policy and
practice and to make innovative teaching and learning a reality for all.
P21 and member organizations provide tools and resources that help facilitate and drive
this necessary change.
Learn more and get involved at www.p21.org.
Copyright © 2015, The Partnership for 21st Century Learning. All rights reserved.

UNIT 7: ASPECTS OF CURRICULUM
Contributor
Dr. G.A. RATHY
Associate Professor
Electrical & Electronics and Communication Engineering, NITTTR, Chennai.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE NO.
1.7 ASPECTS CURRICULUM 1
1.7.2 DEFINITION OF CURRICULUM 1
1.7.3 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A CURRICULUM AND SYLLABUS 2
1.7.4 COMPONENTS OF A CURRICULUM 3
1.7.5 ATTRIBUTES OF A CURRICULUM 5
1.7.6 TYPES OF CURRICULUM 7
REFERENCES 10
Unit 7 Aspects of Curriculum
1.7 ASPECTS CURRICULUM

1.7.1 INTRODUCTION
Curriculum is the heart of any educational system. The curriculum consists of both the plans
for learning and the actual delivery of those plans. Curriculum includes series of planned
instruction that is coordinated and articulated in a manner designed to result in the
achievement by students of specific knowledge and skills and application of this knowledge.
The word curriculum comes from a Latin root meaning “racecourse” or the ground to be
covered to reach a goal.
Traditionally curriculum was regarded as the relatively standardized ground covered by the
student in their race towards the finish line i.e. a degree or diploma.
1.7.2 DEFINITION OF CURRICULUM

Curriculum from different points of view:
There are many definitions of curriculum. The definitions are influenced by modes of
thoughts, pedagogies, political as well as cultural experiences.
This definition is anchored on John Dewey’s definition of experience and education. He

believed that reflective thinking is a means that unifies curricular elements. Thought is not
derived from action but tested by application. Caswell and Campbell viewed curriculum as “all
experiences children have under the guidance of teachers”. This definition is shared by Smith,
Stanley and Shores when they defined “curriculum as a sequence of potential experiences set
up in the schools for the purpose of disciplining children and youth in group ways of thinking
and acting”
Some influential definitions combining various elements to describe curriculum are as follows
 John Kerr: According to John Kerr a curriculum is a planned and guided by the
school, whether it is carried on in groups, individually inside or outside the school.
 The curriculum is a total learning experience provided by the school. It includes the
content of courses (the syllabus), the method employed (strategies) and other
aspects like norms and values, which relate to the way school are organized.
 Thus a curriculum is neither a development nor a sequence of experiences. It is a
plan for facilitating learning for students.
 This plan starts with where the child is. It enumerates all the aspects and dimensions
of learning that are considered necessary. It gives a reason why such learning is
considered necessary and what educational aims it would serve.
In a nutshell,
 A systematic group of courses or sequence of subjects required for graduation or

certification in a major field of study
 It is a Planned learning experience
 The curriculum is a means followed by the teachers and students for achieving the
set goals and the aims or objectives of education being provided in the school.
 Curriculum, in every sense, is supposed to be used for all experiences. These may be
curricular or co-curricular, imparted by the school for the realization of the stipulated
aims and objectives of the school education.
 The aims and objectives of the curriculum are set by professionals and experts who
believe that they have sufficient technical knowledge to produce the desired product
(Hart, 2002). It assumes that there is agreement by all interested groups (teachers,
students, communities, employers) on common educational goals and, therefore,
dialogue and consensus building among groups are not required.
Examples of Curricula:
 B.E/ B.Tech EEE/ECE/CSE Curricula

 B.Sc Maths/Physics etc
 Similarly for various Engineering science and arts programme of PG level.
1.7.3 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A CURRICULUM AND SYLLABUS

The syllabus is described as the summary of the topics covered or units to be taught in
the particular subject. Curriculum refers to the overall content, taught in an educational
system or a course. Syllabus is descriptive in nature, but the curriculum is
prescriptive. Syllabus is set for a particular subject.
Curriculum Syllabus
Curriculum is for a programme Syllabus is for a course
Curriculum is the superset Syllabus is the subset of the curriculum
Curriculum is a whole document which Syllabus gives the hyphenated content
includes the Objectives, the Instructional to be taught
methods, Subject matter and also the
scheme of evaluation
Curriculum should not simply be seen as a kind of super syllabus because there is a qualitative
difference between the two. On the one hand, curriculum may be viewed as the programme
of activities, the course to learn by pupils in being educated. On the other, curriculum may be
defined as all learning, which is planned and guided by the school, whether it is carried on in
groups or individually, inside or outside the school. That is one school of thought regards the
curriculum as a plan, while the other views it as activities.
Allen distinguishes at least six aspects of levels of curriculum:
 Concept formation
 Decision-making
 Syllabus planning
 Materials design
 Classroom activities
 Evaluation
1.7.4 COMPONENTS OF A CURRICULUM
The four components of the curriculum are :
1. Curriculum Aims, Goals and Objectives

2. Curriculum Content or Subject Matter
3. Curriculum Learning Experiences
4. Curriculum Evaluation
These four components of the curriculum are essential. These are interrelated to each other.
Each of these has a connection to one another.
 Aims, goals, and objectives can be simplified as “what is to be done”,

 the subject matter/content: what subject matter is to be included,
 the learning experience” what instructional strategies, resources and activities will
be employed,
 the evaluation approaches, while curriculum evaluation is “what methods and
instruments will be used to assess the results of the curriculum.
The curriculum aims, goals and objectives spell out what is to be done. It tries to capture what
goals are to be achieved, the vision, the philosophy, the mission statement and objectives.
Further, it clearly defines the purpose and what the curriculum is to be acted upon and try
what to drive at.
In the same manner, curriculum has a content. In here, it contains information to be learned
in school. It is an element or a medium through which the objectives are accomplished.
A primordial concern of formal education is primarily to transmit organized knowledge in
distilled form to a new generation of young learners.
The traditional sources of what is taught and learned in school is precisely the foundation of
knowledge, therefore, the sciences and humanities provide the basis of selecting the content
of school learning.
In organizing the learning contents, balance, articulation, sequence, integration, and

continuity form a sound content.
For the third component, the curriculum experience, instructional strategies and methods are
the core of the curriculum. These instructional strategies and methods will put into action the
goals and use of the content in order to produce an outcome.
These would convert the written curriculum to instruction. Moreover, mastery is the function
of the teacher direction and student activity with the teacher supervision.
For the fourth component, the curriculum evaluation is an element of an effective curriculum.
It identifies the quality, effectiveness of the program, process and product of the curriculum.
In summary, the components of a curriculum are distinct but interrelated to each other. These
four components should be always present in a curriculum, as they are essential ingredients
to have an effective curriculum.
For example, in a curriculum, evaluation is also important so one could assess whether the
objectives and aims have been met or if not, he could employ another strategy which will
really work out.
Curriculum experience could not be effective if the content is not clearly defined. The aims,
goals and directions serve as the anchor of the learning journey, the content or subject matter
serve as the meat of the educational journey, curriculum experience serves as the hands –on
exposure to the real spectrum of learning and finally the curriculum evaluation serves as the
barometer as to how far had the learners understood on the educational journey.
1.7.5 ATTRIBUTES OF A CURRICULUM

1. Related to an occupation: Students perceive themselves to have certain attributes and
quite often think of these as relating to jobs. They need to become aware of how they
can build on their attributes to gain work. For example, a person wishes to become a
Electrician, he should undergo a course related to his Job.
2. Objective oriented content: Objectives are usually specific statements of educational
intention which delineate either general or specific outcomes. The Objectives
specified in the curriculum must guide the students to reach their goals
3. Planned learning experience are a way for teachers to structure, sequence, and plan
outlearning goals for a specific instructional period, typically for the purpose of moving
students toward the achievement of larger, longer-term educational goals such as meeting
course learning expectations, performing well on a standardized tests. Planned
learning experiences provide the means to satisfy objectives. Learning experiences
indicate with different degrees of specificity how teachers and students are to interact
with content
4. Curriculum must be dynamic: A good curriculum must be dynamic. It has to be kept
dynamic in order to keep with the needs. interests, attitudes, abilities and life of
students
5. Criteria for evaluation of students performance
The curriculum document must contain the scheme of Evaluation
1.7.6 TYPES OF CURRICULUM

(i) CORE CURRICULUM:
The term core assumes many meanings. Traditionally includes all required content areas in
the school programme. More recently, the term “core” refers to type of course such as
general education, united studies, common learning, social living and integral programmes.
Regardless of the term that is employed in the school the two ideas common to the concept
of core are that they provide experiences needed by all youth and the experiences cut across
subject lines. The core curriculum deals problems of persistent and recurring deal with youth
and of society irrespective of subject matter lines from martial may be down for the solution
of the problems. Experiences have shown that “core” should occupy only portion of the
school day.
Objectives of Core Curriculum
The following are the Objectives stated as:
 To provide a youth a common body of experience organized around personal and

social problems,
 To give boys and girls successful experience in solving the problem which are real to
them here and now, thus preparing them to solve future problems,
 To give youth experience which will lead them to become better citizens in a
democracy
 To increase the holding power of the secondary school by providing a program that
has meaning for all, these are some of the needs of the core curriculum.
Characteristics of Core Curriculum
 Core Curriculum utilities the problems of personal and social development common
to all youth.
 It develops these problems without reference to the traditional subject matter fields.
 It encourages the use of the problem- solving technique to attack problems. These
core issues are problems not topics of subject matter.
 It requires a wide variety of techniques and materials for their development
 There is a provision for individual and group guidance
 It provides for a scheme of organizing around the core the majority of the teachers
of the school in relation to dominant central purpose that of the school programme
around individual interests and purpose of supplementing the core work
(II) TEACHER CENTERED AND LEARNER CENTERED CURRICULUM:
Though there is a foundational shift from a traditional classroom, a learner-centered

approach does not eliminate the teacher. A learner-centered environment facilitates a more
collaborative way for students to learn. The teacher models instructions and acts as a
facilitator, providing feedback and answering questions when needed. It’s the student that
chooses how they want to learn, why they want to learn that way and with who. Students
answer each other’s questions and give each other feedback, using the instructor as a
resource when needed.
This process is designed so that students can learn how they learn best. Taking into
consideration what works for one may not work for another and at the end of the day it’s not
about what was taught but what was learned.
A Look at the Differences Between Teacher-Centered and Learner-Centered Learning
Teacher-Centered Learner-Centered
Focus is on instructor Focus is on both students and instructor
Focus is on language forms and structures Focus is on language use in typical
(what the instructor knows about the situations (how students will use the
language) language)
Instructor talks; students listen Instructor models; students interact with
instructor and one another
Students work alone Students work in pairs, in groups, or alone
depending on the purpose of the activity
Instructor monitors and corrects every Students talk without constant instructor
student utterance monitoring; instructor provides
feedback/correction when questions arise
Instructor answers students’ questions Students answer each other’s questions,
about language using instructor as an information
resource
Instructor chooses topics Students have some choice of topics
Instructor evaluates student learning Students evaluate their own learning;
instructor also evaluates
Classroom is quiet Classroom is often noisy and busy
Source: The National Capitol Language Resource Center (a project of the George Washington
University)
(iii) ACTIVITY BASED CURRICULUM:
When course material is taught in the form of an activity or hands-on project, the curriculum
is considered activity based. The learning takes place as students are working in labs
completing experiments or collaborating in group work through games or competitions,
according to Study Lecture Notes.
Each activity or project in an activity-based curriculum serves as the means for students to
learn concepts and skills. For example, students may be asked to re-enact a movie, story or
play to physically and visually learn the plot of the piece. Through actions and physical activity,
students are often motivated and enthusiastic about learning concepts versus sitting in the
classroom and merely observing a lecture about the course concepts.
Activity-based learning does not always include physical activity. Students can complete a
project together by brainstorming ideas, designing a web page and collaboratively writing
literature. Students can also complete math problems as a group, identify science definitions
and make a block diagram of manufacturing plant together in an activity-based curriculum.
(iv) INTEGRATED CURRICULUM:
An integrated curriculum is described as one that connects different areas of study by cutting
across subject-matter lines and emphasizing unifying concepts. Integration focuses on
making connections for students, allowing them to engage in relevant, meaningful activities
that can be connected to real life. In general science learning as opposed to separate subjects
such as physics, chemistry and Biology.
Teachers of different subjects within an existing curriculum can determine collectively the
extent to which other domains are addressed already in the teaching learning programs (For
example, Thinking, ICT, Interpersonal skills, Learning etc within English or History etc.).
(v) INTENDED CURRICULUM:
INTENDED CURRICULUM-refers to a set of objectives identified set at the. beginning of

any curriculum plan. It establishes the goal, the specific. purposes, and the immediate
objectives to be accomplished
Figure 1 Relationship between three types of curriculum
(vi) IMPLEMENTED CURRICULUM: This refers to the various learning activities or a experience
of the students in order to achieve the intended curricular outcomes. Implemented
curriculum refers to the ACTUAL activities being practiced in schools.
(vii) ACHIEVED CURRICULUM: Achieved Curriculum- refers to the curriculum outcomes based
on the first two types of. curriculum, the intended and implemented.
(viii) HIDDEN/ LATENT CURRICULUM: A hidden curriculum can be defined as the lessons that
are taught informally, and usually unintentionally, in a school system. These include
behaviors, perspectives, and attitudes that students pick up while they are at school.
This is contrasted with the formal curriculum, such as the courses and activities students
participate in. A hidden curriculum is a side effect of an education which are learned but not
openly intended" such as the transmission of norms, values, and beliefs conveyed in the
classroom and the social environment.
Any learning experience may teach unintended lessons. Areas of hidden curriculum in our
schools that mold perspectives of students deal with issues such as gender, morals, social
class, stereotypes, cultural expectations, politics, and language. Hidden curriculum is often
found within the formal curriculum of a school; this may be partially in what is not taught.
Various aspects of learning contribute to the success of the hidden curriculum, including
practices, procedures, rules, relationships, and structures. Many school-specific sources,
some of which may be included in these aspects of learning, give rise to important elements
of the hidden curriculum. These sources may include, but are not limited to, the social
structures of the classroom, the teacher’s exercise of authority, rules governing the
relationship between teachers and students, standard learning activities, the teacher’s use of
language, textbooks, audio-visual aids, furnishings, architecture, disciplinary measures,
timetables, tracking systems, and curricular priorities.
Although the hidden curriculum conveys a great deal of knowledge to its students, the
inequality promoted through its disparities among classes and a social status often invokes a
negative connotation. Since the hidden curriculum is considered to be a form of education-
related capital, it promotes this ineffectiveness of schools as a result of its unequal
distribution.
As a means of social control, the hidden curriculum promotes the acceptance of a social
destiny without promoting rational and reflective consideration. Although the hidden
curriculum has negative connotations, it is not inherently negative, and the tacit factors that
are involved can potentially exert a positive developmental force on students. Some
educational approaches, such as democratic education, actively seek to minimize, make
explicit, and/ or reorient the hidden curriculum in such a way that it has a positive
developmental impact on students.
Today, it is considered that the social development of students are important as well as
cognitive development and proving social development they give importance to a second
curriculum, including social and cultural features of school, rather than formal curriculum.
Except from the curriculum which is written at school, this curriculum is referred to as a
second curriculum and referred to names such as ‘the hidden curriculum’, ‘secret curriculum’,
‘stored curriculum or ‘non-written curriculum’, but it does not provide a clear and distinctive
elements of the official curriculum for students, such as feelings, values, attitudes and habits
of the official curriculum of the correct knowledge is stated to be more effective (Yüksel,
2004).
Within the context of hidden curriculum, it is suggested that elements like social class of the
students that they come from and their academic achievement levels, social and academic
life in schools, interactions between school and the environment, management and
organizational preparations of the school, position of the teacher and the students in
classroom and school environment should be properly taken into account during the process
of character education.
(ix) NULL CURRICULUM
The ‘Null’, or ‘excluded’ curriculum is a concept that was formulated by Elliot Eisner (1979).
Eisner suggests that all schools are teaching three curricula: the explicit, the implicit, and the
null. The explicit curriculum simply refers to publicly announced programs of study-what the
school advertises that it is prepared to provide. Such a program typically includes courses in
mathematics, science, social studies, English, art, and physical education.
The implicit curriculum, on the other hand, includes values and expectations generally not
included in the formal curriculum, but nevertheless learned by students as part of their school
experience.
The null curriculum Eisner defines as what schools do not teach: “ ... the options students are
not afforded, the perspectives they may never know about, much less be able to use, the
concepts and skills that are not part of their intellectual repertoire” (1985, p. 107). Like many
terms used in the curriculum field, ‘the null curriculum’ is a multi-faceted concept. Eisner
himself identifies two major dimensions of the null curriculum: intellectual processes and
subject matter. These two dimensions may be supplemented by a third, that of affect. Null
content can also consist of subfields within a discipline.
Topics within sub-fields represent yet a more specific level at which we may identify
components of null content. The concept of evolution omitted from a biology curriculum
would be an example of this type of exclusion. Null content can be considered in terms of
particular facts.
Pelletier also observes the existence of the null curriculum: “what is not taught, addressed,
or even mentioned in education.” Here Pelletier is thinking particularly of the implications of
not teaching philosophy. However, what she has to say about the null curriculum applies to
other subject areas, conspicuous for their absence.
Potentials of Null Curriculum
 Visual and Performance of Arts

 Relationship and sexuality
 Contraceptive method
 Conservational second language
 Home economics
 Carpentry and Industry Arts
 Basic life skills Contribution to Students
 Increased knowledge leads to increased understanding leads to increased
acceptance leads to increased and more collaboration
 More than excluded culture/perspectives, null-curriculum can be expressed through
excluded methods or modes of expressions
 Deeper understanding, more well-rounded students.
(x) SPIRAL CURRICULUM:
A spiral curriculum can be defined as a course of study in which students will see the same
topics throughout their school career, with each encounter increasing in complexity and
reinforcing previous learning
A spiral curriculum is one in which there is an iterative revisiting of topics, subjects or themes
throughout the course. A spiral curriculum is not simply the repetition of a topic taught. It
requires also the deepening of it, with each successive encounter building on the previous
one.
Bruner (1960), when he coined the term `spiral curriculum’, suggested that such a curriculum
would be structured around the great issues, principles and values that a society deems
worthy of the continual concern of its members. A curriculum as it develops should revisit the
basic ideas repeatedly, building upon them until the student has grasped the full formal
apparatus that goes with them
REFERENCES
1. Brahadeeswaran D and Rathy G A Resource material on curriculum Evaluation
2. KNOWLEDGE AND CURRICULUM. pdf - Bharathidasan University.

http://www.bdu.ac.in/cde/docs/ebooks/BEd/II/KNOWLEDGE%20AND%20CURRICULU
M.pdf. Visited on 14.07.2019
3. Railph W. Tyler (1949) Basic principles of Curriculum and Instruction, Chicago:

University Press Chicago
4. Ben-Peretz, M. (1990). The Teacher-Curriculum Encounter. Buffalo: State University of

New York Press.
5. Ornstein, A. and Hunkins. (1998) , F. Curriculum: Foundations, principle and issues.

Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Chapter 10: Curriculum implementation.
6. Kelly A.V (1999) Curriculum Theory and Practice Sage Publications
7. Sowell, E. (2000). Curriculum: An integrative introduction. Upper Saddle River,

NJ:Prentice- Hall. Chapter 1: Overview of curriculum processes and products.
UNIT 8: CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION, MONITORING
AND EVALUATION
Contributors
Dr. G.A. RATHY
Associate Professor
Electrical & Electronics and Communication Engineering, NITTTR, Chennai.
Dr. P. MALLIGA
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE NO.
1.8 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION MONITORING AND EVALUATION

1.8.1 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS 1
1.8.2 CRITERIA OF UTILITY, VARIETY AND
FLEXIBILITY FOR CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 3
1.8.3 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MONITORING AND EVALUATION 4
1.8.4 ASSESSMENT VS. EVALUATION 4
1.8.5 INTERPRETING THE CURRICULUM 4
1.8.6 CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES 5
1.8.7 CO-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES 8
1.8.8 EDUCATIONAL VALUES OF CURRICULAR
AND CO-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES 13
REFERENCES 16
Unit 8: Curriculum Implementation, Monitoring and Evaluation
1.8 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION

MONITORING AND EVALUATION
1.8.1 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

Four phases of Curriculum Process
(i) CURRICULUM DESIGN PHASE
The main objective of this phase is to determine the general and specific objectives of the
particular programme
Tasks to be undertaken
1. For a chosen area of curriculum we have to obtain data on job descriptions and
from that prepare the task analysis. These two are referred as ‘job analysis’. This
can be done by a number of methods
• Well-designed questionnaires
• Actual observation of jobs
• Interview Techniques
• A judicious combination of all the three mentioned above
2. A detailed analysis of different jobs will reveal the clusters of knowledge and skills
that these jobs demand. These clusters of knowledge and skills are then written in
the form of course objectives.
These objectives reveal in general and specific terms what students can do at the end of
specific period of Instruction by the way of achieving these objectives.
In other words the curriculum designer must determine
a) What abilities the student possess on entry in to the course?
b) What abilities they will acquire on leaving the course? (as indicated in the job
analysis)
The difference between (a) and (b) is the gap that must be bridged when designing the
curriculum.
(ii) CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PHASE
1. Sequencing the various subjects
2. Selecting the content in each subject
3. Sequencing the topic in each subject
4. Selecting instructional methods, instructional resources (materials and media)
5. Preparation of plans (Unit plan & Lesson plan) for instruction
6. Development of tests and other materials needed for evaluation of student

performance
7. Pilot trials of instructional resources and evaluation materials
8. Revision of materials based on feedback information collected from pilot trials
9. Printing and supplying the materials to teachers and students
10. Orienting the teachers in the use of methods and materials developed for
implementation of the new curriculum.
(iii) CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION PHASE
1. Preparation of implementation plans
2. Organizing in-service staff development programmes
3. Effecting organizational changes like work distribution, role clarification, provision

of support services and streamlining procedures and communication channels
4. Actual implementation of the curriculum in the identified institutions
5. Monitoring the implementation processes and evaluation of students performance
6. Collection of feedback information
(iv) CURRICULUM EVALUATION PHASE
1. Formative evaluation (carried out during the process of curriculum development)
2. Summative evaluation (carried out after implementing the curriculum once or

twice)
3. Curriculum improvement
1.8.2 CRITERIA OF UTILITY, VARIETY AND FLEXIBILITY FOR CURRICULUM

DEVELOPMENT
(I) CRITERIA OF UTILITY:
Unless a particular concept or skill contributes directly to the achievement of one or more of
the stated curricula objectives, it cannot be included in the curriculum.
The ‘nice to know’ content must be trimmed and time should be devoted to ‘must know’
curriculum
(ii) CRITERIA OF VARIETY:
Care should be taken to provide an interesting variety of learning experiences, instructional

materials and media to prevent monotony.
(iii) CRITERIA OF FLEXIBILITY:
The curriculum for different stages of education should be so organised that it permits
mobility, both horizontal and vertical of the student. It should be possible for a person to
enter and leave the system at different points.
1.8.3 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MONITORING AND EVALUATION
Monitoring Evaluation
Purpose: Why? To improve the efficiency of To determine the
curriculum implementation Effectiveness of the curriculum
process
Time frame When? During curriculum implementation After curriculum implementation
Persons involved Who? Mostly internal Mostly external
Role of the monitor / Facilitator (coach) judge
evaluator
1.8.4 ASSESSMENT VS. EVALUATION
• Assessment is an ongoing process aimed at understanding and improving student

learning.
• Evaluation is a judgment or determination of the quality of a performance, product

or use of a process against a standard.
1.8.5 INTERPRETING THE CURRICULUM
Teachers need a rich repertoire of criteria for interpreting curriculum materials and
revealing the possible educational opportunities embodied in them. A more refined and
differentiated mode of teacher-thinking about curriculum could lead to a better grasp of the
richness and complexity of the educational opportunities offered by curriculum materials.
Metaphorically speaking, one may view the set of criteria teachers use for discerning
characteristics of curriculum materials as a set of goggles. Manifold and varied goggles will
reveal more of the hidden world of educational opportunities embodied in the materials.
Teachers who are able to differentiate between various aspects of curriculum materials,
who are well practiced in thinking about curriculum potential, may be better equipped to
make professional decisions about the way materials could be used in diverse educational
situations.
1.8.6 CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES
Activities encompassing the prescribed courses of study are called curricular or academic
activities. In simple words it can be said that activities that are undertaken inside the
classroom, in the laboratory, workshop or in library are called “curricular activities.” These
activities are an integral part of the over-all instructional programme. In all these activities,
there is active involvement of the teaching staff of the educational institution.
Curricular activities include:

(i) CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES:
These are related to instruction work in different subjects such as classroom experiments,
discussions, question-answer sessions, scientific observations, use of audio-visual aids,
guidance programmes, examination and evaluation work, follow-up programmes etc.
(ii) ACTIVITIES IN THE LIBRARY:
It deals with reading books and magazines, taking notes from prescribed and reference
books, for preparing notes relating to talk lessons in the classroom. Reading journals and
periodicals pertaining to different subjects of study, making files of news-paper cuttings, etc.
(iii) ACTIVITIES IN THE LABORATORY:
These refers to activities which are carried out in science laboratories, engineering
laboratories, laboratories in humanities (psychology, education, language etc.).
(iv) ACTIVITIES IN THE SEMINARS, WORKSHOPS AND CONFERENCES:
These activities refer to the presentations, discussions, performed by delegates and

participants on emerging areas of various subjects of study in workshops, seminars and
conferences.
(v) PANEL DISCUSSION:
For enriching knowledge, understanding and experience of both the teachers and students
panel discussion is essential, which would have be organised in the classroom situation.
Organisation of this programme facilitates scope for interplay of expressions on the topic
under discussion.
As we have seen different curricular activities, it is essential for the teacher to integrate
either some or all these activities in their teaching and learning process.
Committees of Curricular Activities:
To ensure that these activities are integrated, organized in smooth manner, there is the
need for formation of different committees in every educational institution. This will pave
the way for proper institutional management.
These are as follows:
(i) ACADEMIC COMMITTEE:
This committee plays a vital role for ensuring proper academic transaction of the
educational institutions. It comprises the senior academicians of different disciplines. Its
major purpose is to prepare the framework of the courses to be covered during an academic
session and determine the instructional programme for every class.
(ii) LIBRARY COMMITTEE:
A library committee may be formed for proper academic development of students. As it is

true that library is the heart of an institution. For actualizing this the need of formation of
this committee is felt. For this the committee must prepare the list of prescribed books,
reference books and magazines, journals, periodicals of national and international
importance each year.
(iii) TIMETABLE COMMITTEE:
This committee consists of the selected teachers who have ability, efficiency and aptitude
for preparing timetable for the educational institutions.
The timetable preparation work is usually done before the reopening of the classes for a
semester/ year. While preparing timetable for different classes they give importance on the
physical facilities available, the staff position for teaching and principles of timetable
preparation. Besides, the committee gives weightage to different courses in terms of
periods or hours while preparing the timetable and revises or modifies it during the session
as and when necessary.
(iv) INSTITUTIONAL PLANNING COMMITTEE:
It is perennial that planning is a must when there arises the overall improvement of an
educational institution as it results in proper management of every educational institution.
For this every institution should have a ‘planning committee’ under the chairmanship of the
head of the institution.
It is essential to highlight here that planning for every institution should be done in
accordance of the vision, mission and resources available in it. The major concern of this
committee is to co-ordinate both curricular and co-curricular activities. In relation to
curricular perspective this committee co-ordinates the activities of the committees meant
for proper academic or curricular programmes.
(v) EXAMINATION COMMITTEE:
This committee is formed for the purpose of conducting different examinations smoothly.
This committee carries out in overall charge of conducting examination and evaluation
work. For this the committee prepares programme schedules for different examinations,
makes arrangement for questions, answer scripts, invigilation work, evaluation work,
tabulation and publication of results.
(vi) GUIDANCE COMMITTEE:
In recent years formation of guidance committee has become essential for every
educational institution. The prime cause behind it is now “organisation of guidance and
counselling services has become an integral part of curricular activities.” The committee
organizes orientation programmes for the students in selection of their subjects of study,
selection of elective subjects to be taken, choice of job, further education and training.
In addition, it has to provide personal, educational and vocational guidance. This committee
consists of counsellor, career master, teacher having interest and area of specialisation in
guidance headed by the head of the institution.
1.8.7 CO-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES
Having seen curricular activities, let us explore the co- curricular activities.
Co-curricular refers to activities, programs, and learning experiences that complement, in

some way, what students are learning in school—i.e., experiences that are connected to or
mirror the academic curriculum. These have indirect reference to actual instructional work
that goes on in the classroom.
Co-curricular activities are typically, but not always, defined by their separation from
academic courses. For example, they are ungraded, they do not allow students to earn
academic credit, they may take place outside of school or after regular school hours, and
they may be operated by outside organizations.
As the modern educational theory and practice gives top most priority on all round
development of the child there is the vitality of the organisation of these activities, in the
present educational situation. So for bringing harmonious and balanced development of the
child in addition to the syllabus which can be supplemented through curricular activities, but
the CO- curricular activities play significant role. These activities are otherwise called as
extra-curricular activities. As we have learnt that
An extracurricular activity or extra academic activity (EAA) is an activity, performed

by students, that falls outside the realm of the normal curriculum of school, college or
university education.
It is therefore said that the co-curricular or extra-curricular activities are to be given

importance like the curricular activities. So now organisation of co-curricular activities is
accepted as an integral part of the entire curriculum.
There are different Types of Co-Curricular Activities:
− Physical Development Activities:
− Academic Development Activities
− Literary Activities
− Cultural Development Activities
− Social Development Activities
− Moral Development Activities
− Citizenship Training Activities
− Leisure Time Activities
− Emotional and National Integration Development Activities
(i) PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES:
These activities include games, sports, athletics, yoga, swimming, gardening, mass drill,
asana, martial arts, etc.,
(ii) ACADEMIC DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES:
These activities include formation of clubs in relation to different subjects. Such as science
club, engineering club, ecological club, economics club, robotics club, civic club etc. Besides
this, the other activities like preparation of charts, models, projects, surveys, quiz
competitions etc. come under this category.
(iii) LITERARY ACTIVITIES:
For developing literary ability of students the activities like publication of college magazine,
wall magazine, bulletin board, debates, news paper reading, essay and poem writing are
undertaken.
(iv) CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES:
The activities like drawing, painting, music, dancing, dramatics, folk song, variety show,
community activities, exhibition, celebration of festivals, visit to cultural places having
importance in local, state, national and international perspective come under this category.
(v) SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES:
For bringing social development among students through developing social values resulting
in social service the following co-curricular activities are organised. Such as – NSS, red cross,
adult education, NCC, mass programme, social service camps, mass running, village surveys
etc.
(vi) MORAL DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES:
The co-curricular activities like organisation of extra mural lectures, social service,
celebration of birth days of great-men of national and international repute, morning
assembly should be organised. These activities bring moral development among individuals.
(vii) CITIZENSHIP TRAINING ACTIVITIES:
The activities like student council, student union, visits to civic institutions like the
parliament, state legislatures, municipalities, formation of student self government, co-
operative stores are essential for providing useful and valuable civic training.
(viii) LEISURE TIME ACTIVITIES:
These activities are otherwise known as hobbies of different students. These include
activities like coin-collecting, album making, photography, stamp collecting, gardening,
candle making, binding, toy making, soap making, play modeling etc.
(ix) EMOTIONAL AND NATIONAL INTEGRATION DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES:
Under this category organisation of camps, educational tours, speech programmes,

celebration of national and international days are included.
Principles of Organisation and Management of Co-Curricular Activities
For making the co-curricular activities meaningful in order to bring all-round development of
students, there is in need of ensuring sound organisation and management of these
activities. For this certain principles should be followed while organizing and managing co-
curricular activities. These are also known as essentials of organisation and management of
co-curricular activities.
So these principles as essentials of organisation and management of co-curricular

activities are given below:
(i) APPROPRIATE SELECTION:
It implies that co-curricular activities are to be selected in such a way that will suit the
interest of the students and facilities available and would be available, shortly in the
educational institution.
(ii) VARIETY OF ACTIVITIES:
A wide variety of activities should be planned for the sake of meeting the different needs of
all the categories of students.
(iii) ADJUSTMENT IN SCHOOL TIMING:
The major purpose of this principle is the co-curricular activities are to be organized during
school hours. For smooth organization of these activities it should be placed in the time
table in such a manner that will be organized mostly one hour before and after the
instructional work of the educational institution. As a result of which the students will be
facilitated to take part in different activities without facing any problems.
(iv) GUIDANCE OF TEACHERS:
All the co-curricular activities should be organised strictly under the guidance of teachers.
(v) CASUAL GROWTH OF THE ACTIVITIES:
This principle states that activities should be started in a slow and steady manner and
developed gradually.
(vi) FACILITIES TO TEACHERS:
Some credit either in the form of less teaching periods or in the form of extra payment to
teachers should be given to encourage teachers.
(vii) PROVISION OF NECESSARY FACILITIES:
It refers to the fact that before organizing any co-curricular programme materials needed
and facilities required are to be prepared in advance and then the programme will be
organised.
(viii) PARTICIPATION OF A LARGE NUMBER OF TEACHERS:
All the teachers should be actively involved in the organization of co-curricular activities in
their institution. For this head of the institution should make the distribution of charges in
such a manner that each member of teaching staff will remain in charge of a particular
activity of his interest.
(ix) PROVISION OF FUNDS:
The financial status of the educational institution in general and financial allocation in
relation to a co-curricular programme should be taken into consideration while selecting
activities. Because the degree of success of any co-curricular programme depends upon
maximum utilization of human and material resources available in the educational
institution. Otherwise no co-curricular activity will be accepted if the financial status of the
educational institution is not permitted.
(x) FIXATION OF REGULAR TIME, DATE AND VENUE:
Before organizing any co-curricular activity the time, date and venue are to be informed to
the pupils earlier, as a result of which there may not be any disturbance in relation to
dislocation and confusion.
(xii) INVOLVEMENT OF COMMUNITY:
Involvement of community members should be ensured at the time of organizing different

co-curricular activities. This will enable them to become aware about different co-curricular
programmes and their role in bringing harmonious development of their wards. Besides this
participation of community members act as safeguard to the authority of an educational
institution in a large scale.
(xiii) EVALUATION:
Provision of evaluation should be made for monitoring the co-curricular programmes

encompassing upon the services and value of these activities.
(xiv) MAINTENANCE OF RECORDS:
A detailed record should be maintained by the educational institution on the organisation of

various co-curricular activities
Due importance has to be given to student welfare services, institutional planning,

institutional climate and discipline, management of educational finance etc.
1.8.8 EDUCATIONAL VALUES OF CURRICULAR AND CO-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES
We have explored different cocurricular and extracurricular activities. Let us investigate the
educational values inculcated through these activities.
1 Physical Development:
Co-curricular activities specially the physical activities, help in the normal growth and
development of the body. The activities like sports, athletes, and games lead to the
muscular development of students. These develop helpful habits and keep the students
physically fit.
2. Social Development:
The co-curricular activities are carried out in social environment. The pupils work together,
act together and live together. This helps in socializing the child and develops social
qualities, like team spirit, fellow feeling, co-operation, toleration etc. Activities like scouting,
first aid, red cross, community living etc. provide complete social training to children.
3. Training for leadership:
In these activities the students are actively involved in the organisation of different
programmes. They discharge various responsibilities and therefore get opportunities to
come forward and lead. They get training for leadership. Their talents are recognized and
developed.
4. Educational Value:
Co-curricular activities supplement class work. These enrich and widen the bookish
knowledge of students. They get opportunities of observation and experience.
5. Moral Development:
The co-curricular activities have a great moral value. These activities encourages the
students to develop sportsmanship. It believes in fair play. While delegating some
responsibilities of these activities, it leads to the moral development like honesty, justice
and impartiality.
6. Emotional Development:
These activities meet the psychological needs of pupils and lead to their emotional
development. Their instincts are sublimated. Instincts like gregariousness and
self-assentation which are so dominant in adolescence period find expression in one activity
or the other. The activities also lead to emotional training.
7. Disciplinary Value:
The pupils get a number of facilities to frame certain rules and regulations concerning
activities. They also act according to the rules. They themselves impose restrictions on their
freedom. Hence, they learn mode of discipline which is self-imposed. They learn to behave
with a sense of responsibility.
8. Cultural Value:
There are co-curricular activities which have great cultural value. The activities like
dramatics, folk- dance, folk-music, variety shows etc. provide glimpses of our culture. These
activities help in the preservation, transmission and development of our cultural heritage.
9. Aesthetic and Recreational Value:
The co-curricular activities bring a healthy change in the dull classroom routine. The pupils
feel relaxed and free when they perform activities like sports, cultural programmes, dances,
drama etc. The activities like drawing, painting, fancy dress, music, preparation of models
etc. develop aesthetic sensibility.
10. Proper Use of Leisure Time:
Some co-curricular activities help in the proper use of leisure time. For example: crafts,
hobbies and other creative activities can be pursued by the pupils. In the absence of such
constructive activities, they may pick up some bad habits.
Co-ordination of Co-Curricular Activities
Before launching programme of any activity (co- curricular) it should be approved

democratically by the staff both the teaching and non-teaching as a whole. Coaches or
sponsors of school activities should be the members of the staff and not outsiders.
Activities that are organised in the school should, aim for achieving civic, social, moral and
other worthwhile values as far as possible. Activities for enjoyment are useless though they
may be harmless. The number of activities which allows students to take part in different
activities in an academic year should be according to their needs and requirements. A
restriction on participation for students is required as it will check the overloading nature of
organizing any co-curricular activity. However, the students having same abilities, interests,
attitudes, aptitudes should be encouraged to participate in large number.
Need of Curricular and Co-Curricular Activities:
it is essential to know the need of these two types of activities.
These are given below:
1. Organisation of curricular activities enables students to be active in the classroom

and the organisation of co-curricular activities brings sound health and proper
physical fitness among the students through organizing games and sports.
2. Proper organisation of curricular activities develops study habits among the

students. And the co-curricular activities develop literary talents of the students.
3. Organisation of curricular activities provide both theoretical and practical

knowledge to students in their taught subject matters and co-curricular activities
provide scope to apply the obtained knowledge in different situations.
4. Proper organisation of curricular activities enable the students to have their

academic brilliance by acquiring mastery over their subjects of study. And co-
curricular activities provide ample scope for the students for social adjustment
through different social activities.
5. Organisation of curricular activities give a sound theoretical knowledge and

understanding about useful, responsible and democratic citizenship to the
students in the classroom situation. This becomes possible through academic
treatment of civics and politics.
REFERENCES
1. Brahadeeswaran D and Rathy G A Resource material on curriculum Evaluation
2. KNOWLEDGE AND CURRICULUM. pdf - Bharathidasan University.

http://www.bdu.ac.in/cde/docs/ebooks/BEd/II/KNOWLEDGE%20AND%20CURRICULU
M.pdf. Visited on 14.07.2019
3. Railph W. Tyler (1949) Basic principles of Curriculum and Instruction, Chicago:

University Press Chicago
4. Ben-Peretz, M. (1990). The Teacher-Curriculum Encounter. Buffalo: State University of

New York Press.
5. Ornstein, A. and Hunkins. (1998) , F. Curriculum: Foundations, principle and issues.

Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Chapter 10: Curriculum implementation.
6. Kelly A.V (1999) Curriculum Theory and Practice Sage Publications
7. Sowell, E. (2000). Curriculum: An integrative introduction. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
8. Prentice- Hall. Chapter 1: Overview of curriculum processes and products.
L–1: Professions and Professionalism
Contributors
Dr. Shashi Kant Gupta

Professor of Assessment and Evaluation
Prof. (Mrs.) Susan S. Mathew

Associate Professor, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Editor: Dr. Joshua Earnest, Professor of Electrical Engineering
National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training and Research

Shamla Hills, Bhopal M.P. - INDIA 462002
Unit 1: Technical Teachers as Professionals L1: Professions and Professionalism
L–1: Professions and Professionalism
Learning outcomes: At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
LO 1. Describe the role of a professional in his/her occupation.
LO 2. Distinguish between profession and professionalism.
LO 3. Justify the need of professionals for creating new knowledge.
LO 4. Describe the concept of self-regulation with reference to a profession.
Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 3
2.0 CHARACTERISTICS OF PROFESSIONALS ...................................................................................................... 3
3.0 PROFESSIONALS DEAL WITH A VAST BODY OF COMPLEX KNOWLEDGE ................................................... 4
4.0 PROFESSIONALS CONTINUE TO CREATE ‘NEW KNOWLEDGE’ IN THEIR PROFESSION ............................... 5
5.0 PROFESSIONALS DEAL WITH HIGH STAKE ACTIVITIES................................................................................ 6
6.0 PROFESSIONALS WORK BASED ON TRUST WITH CLIENTS ......................................................................... 8
7.0 PROFESSIONALS ARE SELF-REGULATING ................................................................................................. 12
8.0 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................................ 14
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...................................................................................................................................................... 15
AICTE–NITTT Module 02: Professional Ethics and Sustainability NITTTR, Bhopal Page 2
Lesson –1
Professions and Professionalism
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Teachers of higher education institutions are regarded as professionals in the same way as
doctors, lawyers, chartered accountants, engineers and architects. This brings along with it
special responsibility on the shoulders of faculty members of higher-education institutions.
Therefore, every faculty member need to understand what makes professionals different
compared to other occupations such as administrators or executive officers (IAS, Income Tax
commissioners, Revenue officers, Managers and other government officers) defence
(military, police and such others), traders (businessmen and marketing executives) and crafts
persons (technicians, plumber, carpenters, clerks and such others). The faculty members
should also contemplate what the society expects from them as professionals. In other
words, ‘what are their responsibilities or privileges as professionals’? These issues are
discussed in this lesson.
2.0 CHARACTERISTICS OF PROFESSIONALS

The concept of ‘Professionalism’ is closely related to professions. Professionalism is such an
abstract and complex concept that it is difficult to define it absolutely. For understanding the
concept of ‘professionalism’, it is essential to discuss the characteristics of professionals.
However, if you can identify the necessary and sufficient conditions of professionals or the
characteristics/attributes of professionals, then you can understand professionalism in a
better way. In other words, you can give a normative definition of professionals or
professionalism by listing the essential and sufficient conditions for it. Bayles (1989) defines
the term ‘profession’ as ‘Professions are those form of works, which involves advanced
expertise, self-regulation and concerted service to the public good’. From this definition it is
obvious that:
i. Professionals deal with vast and complex knowledge.
ii. Professionals continue to create new knowledge in their profession
iii. Professionals deal with high stake activities
iv. Professionals work based on trust with clients.
v. Professionals are self-regulating.
Professionals of any class i.e. whether Doctors, Lawyers, Professors, Scientists, Chartered
Accountants, Architects or Engineers are supposed to possess the following five essential
characteristics discussed in the following sections. For any occupation to be declared as a
profession that particular occupation need to possess all of these FIVE characteristics and
absence of even one of these will render that occupation not as a profession.
3.0 PROFESSIONALS DEAL WITH A VAST BODY OF COMPLEX KNOWLEDGE

All occupations require some kind of specialized knowledge for performing the jobs related
to that profession. Even occupations or vocations such as that of a carpenter, welder,
plumber or electrician, the person is required to possess some special knowledge/skills
related to that vocation for performing their duties. But for most of the vocations, training of
one or two years after schooling (up to the secondary, i.e. grade/class tenth) is sufficient.
However, this condition is not so with respect to professional knowledge.
However, first and foremost is that the special knowledge required to be possessed by
professionals of that ‘body of knowledge’ has to be quite vast and complex. The profession
related knowledge is so vast that it requires many years of study at higher levels of thinking
to acquire that level of knowledge. Secondly, this specialized knowledge is so complex that
for its proper use, it must be understood in its totality, which means that understanding of
the relationship between different components of that body of knowledge which is equally
important.
For example, acquiring professional qualifications in the areas of engineering, medicine and
law, five to seven years of academic study is required after successfully taking the secondary
school leaving certificate. This includes two years of higher secondary (i.e. class/grade
eleventh and twelfth) and minimum four years of UG education. For mastery in any of these
professions, two more years of PG education is required. For becoming a leader in the same
profession, a research degree such as Ph.D. or super-specialization is also required. This will
again entail a minimum of three more years of hard work after their PG education. Thus, it
works out to making it a minimum total eleven years of very hard work or ‘tapasya’ after
class 10th or lower secondary education.
Application of professional knowledge also calls for more complex decision making, that too
in a given context (engineering situation, medical/legal case). The context of application of
knowledge in most cases is a social context, directly related with the human beings and
makes each case a unique one. Some examples of complex situations are given below:
ACTIVITY- 1
State two areas of your expertise which fall under the category of 'vast and complex body
of knowledge'. For each of your identified areas, specify the depth of knowledge you
have attained and what more need to be attained in those areas of your profession and
post them in your E-portfolio.
a) A student of medicine might have studied treatment for blood pressure, diabetes
and some contagious disease such as typhoid during his/her college days, but in real
life s/he may face patients, who are having all the three ailments simultaneously, the
of case becomes more complex. In some situations, if the patient is an infant baby or
very elderly person or a pregnant lady it becomes still more complex.
b) Each student is different from one another since different students have different
IQ,EQ, aptitude, attitudes, learning styles, social background, financial background,
interests and aspirations, which reveals that each student is unique. Therefore,
professors need to understand these differences for dealing with students.
4.0 PROFESSIONALS CONTINUE TO CREATE ‘NEW KNOWLEDGE’ IN THEIR PROFESSION

Professional knowledge is continuously growing in most professions due to the continual
researches. New innovations/inventions and discoveries are happening continuously.
Innovations in procedures, techniques and materials used are very common. These
discoveries and innovations are being made by the professionals to meet the changing needs
of the society and to take the advantage of scientific discoveries made in other bodies of
knowledge. Therefore, the professionals are to engage in small and big researches to create
new knowledge. Further, professionals are also supposed to learn the new knowledge
developed by other fellow professionals. This makes it necessary for professionals to keep
updating their knowledge till they are active in their profession. Professionals are therefore
required to read the journals related to their field of specialization in order to keep
themselves abreast. They are supposed to attend different conferences and training
programmes to learn new developments taking place all over world in their field of work. In
some countries such as UK, the professionals especially the doctors are required to obtain
re-certification periodically, say, after every 10 or 15 years to prove that they have learned
new techniques/new procedures. Some examples of the need for updating knowledge is
given here:
a) In the field of medicine, many doctors are doing researches to develop new
diagnostic methods, new medicines, use of new procedures for surgeries and such
others. Other doctors are supposed to learn from these developments for improving
their medical practice and better treatment of patients.
b) Parliament and legislative assemblies pass new laws, regulations and acts every year
depending upon the changing needs of the society. Lawyers are supposed to learn
not only about these laws, but also to debate and criticize these laws which are
passed and not in line with natural justice and create an opinion against such laws.
Thus, lawyers must keep on studying and learning throughout their professional life.
c) In this age of technological advancements, new materials and technologies are being
developed in different disciplines of engineering, which all practicing engineers are
not only supposed to learn and keep abreast, but also are have to contribute in such
developments by engaging in research at their end.
d) For teachers in higher education and scientists, it is their regular duty to engage in
research and guide researches conducted by their students.
Thus, for all professionals it is essential to contribute in creating new knowledge, as well as,
learn new knowledge developed by other fellow professionals.
ACTIVITY- 2
List down at least two ‘new chunks of knowledge’ that you have created in the past
years and post them in your E-portfolio.
5.0 PROFESSIONALS DEAL WITH HIGH STAKE ACTIVITIES

Some decisions and activities involve high stakes of users, while some are not so important.
When somebody purchases a television or refrigerator, s/he pays for it and wants the best
product. But, if the purchased product does not perform as guaranteed by the trader, then
the peace of the customer is lost due to the lack of desired satisfaction for the money paid.
In most cases, the consumers do not attach much value to the loss as certain time lapses.
However, in case of education, health and legal issues, if results are not as expected due to
some complacency or mistake of professionals who gave them service, then such deficiency
in outcomes may lead to lifelong or long-term loss or sufferings to the clients and society.
Some examples given below can provide greater clarification:
a) It is reported that some students lose interest in some key courses or become fearful
even about an easy courses, because a particular teacher do not taught that subject
in a proper way. Such a lack of interest in a key subject may force the students to
choose some other career option, where they can avoid that subject. Therefore, the
insincerity of such teachers may affect the career choices of many students.
b) Mistakes, incompetence or complacency of a doctor or a surgeon may render the
person disabled for life, or in some extreme cases may lead to death.
c) The incompetence or mistakes of a lawyer, the petitioners may get deprived of their
jobs or their property rights or may even end up in jails for no crime committed by
them.
Thus, the activities of the teachers, doctors and lawyers can brighten or tarnish any persons’
life/lifetime chances. The decisions or activities of engineers may also affect the individuals
directly. However, but their collective actions can affect the lives of many to a great extent.
Engineers build infrastructure such as roads, dams, bridges, telecommunication system,
power generation and distribution system, surface/water/air transportation system, defense
equipment and such others that are used for benefit of common public. If engineers design
these systems well, then they work as a boon for society. On the other hand, if these
systems are not designed or maintained well then, they may result in a great harm to the
society involving considerable number of people. Such examples of accidents of great
engineering failures are:
 Indonesian airline Boeing 737 MAX crash tragedy in 2019
 Fukushima (Japan) nuclear reactor leakage related tragedy
 Chernobyl (Russia) Nuclear reactor leakage related tragedy
 Bhopal (India) Gas leakage related tragedy in December 1984
 Mine Collapses, Mine Fires, Mine Flooding Related Tragedies in Bihar
 Dam breaches
 Titanic ship sinking several decades ago.
Often, the engineering mistakes of large scale may not be so apparent as above-mentioned
examples, but some others do affect millions of lives over a long period of time. For
example, a poorly designed road network increases chances of accidents on roads.
Inappropriate use of technology and materials may lead to more consumption of energy and
other natural resources affecting environment adversely and so on. Thus, engineering and
architectural activities are also high stake as they affect safety of human being, energy and
environment conservation to a large extent.
Similarly, the chartered accountants (CA) are entrusted with the responsibilities of certifying
the accounts of large companies where pension funds and savings of millions of common
people are invested. Whatever CAs certify in their report about the companies’ financial
health, investors believe it blindly, which may affect many people good or bad.
In some cases, such as ENRON Power Company of USA, Satyam Computers of India, IL& FS
companies CAs wrongly reported that these companies are in profit, and millions continued
to deposit their savings in these companies and one day the bubble burst and it came to
public knowledge that these companies were running in loss and investor’s money was being
used to pay interests on borrowings and losses. The companies were not only bankrupt, but
were already under huge debt burdens, which were no more sustainable. Millions of people
lost their lifetime savings and pension funds in these companies and their retired life must
have become miserable. If CAs had acted with true professionalism i.e. honestly and had
reported correct financial position, loss of life time savings of such a huge number of people
might have been averted.
Thus, the actions of some Professors, Doctors, Lawyers, Engineers and Charted Accountants
are high-stake as their actions have the potential to affect millions of lives people positively
or negatively. Whereas, the actions of the people in other occupations such as plumbers,
carpenters, welders or shopkeepers are not of high-stake. Therefore, the mistakes
committed by people such in such occupations may affect only a few, and not large number
as seen earlier. Moreover, activities of these people are supervised by other type of
professionals such as activities of plumber, carpenter, welder and such trades are supervised
by Engineers, while activities of restaurants are supervised by foods and drug department to
ensure the quality of the food and edibles.
ACTIVITY - 3
List down at least two mistakes that you as a professional teacher have committed during
the past years that may have affected your students or the society and post in your E-
portfolio.
6.0 PROFESSIONALS WORK BASED ON TRUST WITH CLIENTS

In most of the occupations, the quality of goods and services provided to the customers may
be well specified in advance. For example, when you purchase a house, a car or a television
set you can fix or choose the specifications of these products in advance and if a product is
not as per specifications or does not perform as guaranteed, then you can return the
product and claim your money back. Similarly, in case of services provided by travel and
hospitality industries also, the quality of services can be well specified in advance and if the
services provided are not as specified, then the customers may ask the service providers to
return their money back. In such cases, people can decide about quality of goods and
services by common sense or general knowledge.
However, in case of education, medicine and legal and such professions, it is very difficult to
define the quality of services provided, as they are complex and specialized fields. The clients
do not possess the sufficient knowledge to appreciate what good quality means. Often, the
effects of such services provided by such professions are seen only after considerable time
has elapsed. Some examples given below in support these arguments.
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Example Set-1
a) In the case of professional education, often the students do not know what content is
supposed to be learnt and what competencies and skills are to be attained through
the course or programme. What are the best methods that a teacher should adopt
for teaching the subject matter is also not known by the student.
b) A particular institute/university may award good marks to undeserving students, and
parents may feel that teaching-learning process is going on well. But after some time,
such students may fail to get jobs. If they are not able to perform well, even after
they have got the jobs, they would be subsequently fired.
c) In some other cases, the examination system of the institute/university may seem to
be trustworthy and due to best efforts of teachers, students may also genuinely get
good marks by doing hard work. It may appear to the society that the quality of
education is quite good, but when students get the job, they are not be able to
perform to the industry expectation, since the curriculum itself was obsolete or
irrelevant.
d) Patients generally do not know ‘what is the right medicine required?’ The doctor may
prescribe very strong medicine to heal the patients quickly and patients may feel
happy. However, it may result in severe side effects which may be evident only after
some years have gone by.
e) Clients of an advocate/lawyer may not know the different provisions of law which
may help them. Similarly, a lawyer may argue the case in the court of law very
strongly, but s/he may not know the different provisions of the law which may help
his/her client. In such cases, the client may feel that his/her advocate is quite good,
although the advocate is only a mediocre one who is not able to extract maximum
possible benefits for the client.
6.1 Responsibility of the Professionals and Clients

Apart from the complexity of educational, medicinal or legal services, there is one more
important dimension related to the professional, and that is ‘responsibility’. The clients are
equally responsible for the outcome of the services received from the professionals and this
makes it difficult to say that who is responsible for poor quality of outcomes. Some examples
are given here in support this argument.
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Example Set-2
a) Despite the best of teaching efforts by the teachers, students may not score good
marks, if they do not study hard.
b) Despite appropriate medicines prescribed by the doctors, patients may not heal if
they do not take the medicines regularly or do not follow the dosage or precautions
suggested by doctors.
c) If petitioners do not inform all the relevant information to their advocates, how can
advocates prepare unchallengeable argument and they may face embracing situation
in the court of law if some issue is raised by the opponents’ advocates based on the
facts hidden by the petitioners.
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Therefore, the outcome of the services provided by the professionals depend on the efforts
and contributions of the clients as well. It means that, if the outcomes do not come out as
expected, it may be difficult to identify whether it is due toa mistake of the professional or of
the client. The services provided by the professions such as medicine, education and law are
not only very complex, but also, these services provided are also in a very uncertain social
and human context. Therefore, despite best efforts of both professionals and the clients, the
outcomes may not match the expectations. Some examples are given here to support this
argument.
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Example Set-3
d) Doctors must take decisions based on clinical examinations of the patients and
pathological tests, but unfortunately most of these are not fully reliable because, for
the same parameters, different methods of tests may reveal different findings. Even
the timing of test or factors such as, whether the test sample was taken before or
after meals, which may affect the measurement of parameters. The quality of
medicine may not be as expected; the medicine may have different effects if taken
with different kind of foods or with other medicines. If some medicines are not
stored at particular temperature at pharmacy store, its effectiveness may reduce.
Even it is reported that the effectiveness of good quality medicines get reduced after
some years, as the bacteria or viruses have developed immunity against such
medicines. All these factors add up to the uncertainty about effectiveness of the
medical treatment. Thus, despite best efforts by the all concerned, the expected
results may not be obtained and it becomes practically impossible to identify the
actual cause of ineffective treatment.
e) Similarly, in case of education, the performance of students in a particular
examination may depend on many factors other than their own and their teachers'
efforts. It may depend on students' health and mood on the day and time of
examination, the tendency of question paper designer may set a very difficult or
moderate or easy question paper. The assessor may be liberal, moderate or stringent
in giving marks and depends on luck of the students. If student is very lucky, then
s/he may get questions in the examination for which s/he may have rote learned, if
not rote learned, the student may even fail.
f) In case of legal profession, the situation is more subjective. It is often in the news
that in a particular case, the decision of Trial Court was reversed by the High Court
and in some cases; the decision of High Court was again reversed by the Supreme
Court. In such cases, it is difficult to blame anyone. It is the nature of the human and
social situations that same situation may be interpreted differently by different
judges. Therefore, in cases of national and social importance, a bench of judges is
constituted so that the merit of the case may be judged in different perspectives. The
point here is that, despite best efforts of a capable lawyer, the client may not get
justice in a particular court because the view of judge may be different and it may be
right in its own way. Thus, it is difficult to make the advocate or lawyer responsible
for unfavorable decision. It depends on many factors such as, perspective of judge,
performance of witnesses in the court, sincerity of investigating agency such as police
and forensic department and other such agencies.
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6.2 Reasons for Uncertainty
From above discussions, it is obvious that it is difficult to ascertain that whether
professionals have performed to match the expectations of the client or not. Following are
some reasons that are mainly responsible for such situations.
a) For clients it is difficult to define or specify, what is good quality education, good
quality medical treatment or good quality legal services. This is because these
services are very complex in nature and depend on several factors as seen above. In
many situations, good or bad effects of the education or medical treatment are
known only after long time has elapsed.
b) The outcome or result of the services provided by professionals do not depend only
on their capabilities and efforts but also depend to a great extent on the
contributions of their clients for example hard work of students in case of education,
sincerity of patients in following instructions of doctors and petitioners in informing
all relevant facts to the advocate.
c) The social and human situation is so uncertain that outcomes of education, medical
treatment or legal services not only depend on the capabilities and efforts of
professionals and clients but also depends on many other factors which are neither in
control of professionals no rof clients.
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Therefore, the relationship between professionals and clients cannot be same as between
traders and customers. In case of goods, customers demand what they want from the
traders and the traders supply the goods of the specified quality. In fact, there are specified
procedures by which the quality of the goods can be tested before delivery to the customer.
In such cases, the quality of goods can be ensured mainly by the providers irrespective of the
way the product or service is used by the customer. Hence, even if the quality of product is
not as specified, then customers may get their money back. If customers do not get the
money back, then they may go to the consumer forum or court for justice.
However, in the case of professionals, their clients may not know exactly what is required by
them. Therefore, it becomes the responsibility of the professional to suggest what will suit
the client according to their situations and then both professionals and clients jointly decide
what is required and both work together to achieve the desired aim. This relationship is
more personal, more intense and lasts long. Since clients do not know what is exactly
needed by them and the professionals suggest what is appropriate for them, this makes
clients completely dependent on the professional. Hence, the relationship of professional
and client is not based on equal terms as in the case of trader and customer. It is a kind of
power relationship where the professionals have the upper hand. This power relationship is
not the same as between 'administrators' and 'administered' which is based on fear, but the
relationship between professionals and their clients is based on faith or trust.
In fact, when students develop faith in a teacher they surrender their mind to teacher -
whatever teacher teaches the students believe and learn. When patients develop faith in a
doctor they surrender their bodies to doctor - patients takes the medicines that the doctor
prescribes, becomes ready for surgery under general anesthesia where the whole body is
under doctor's control. In the legal profession, when the petitioner develops faith in an
advocate, s/he surrenders their fate to the advocate. However, if the advocate does not
offer work properly, the petitioner may lose the case in the court of law, which may affect
his/her entire life prospects. Thus, the relationship is based on trust and faith. Hence, to
develop this faith in clients, professionals must first develop the trust in their clients by
depicting an honest and sincere behaviour consistently. Although the clients pay the fees to
the professionals for their services, the relationship has human touch and is only based on
trust.
ACTIVITY 4
List down at least two incidents of how you could/can build up the trust between you
and the client and submit them in the E-portfolio.
6.3 How Trust Can Be Built Between Professional and Client

It is essential that the relationship between professionals and their clients is based on trust
which should not be breached. It is the responsibility of the professionals to build this trust
with the client for effective and smooth services. Building this trust is not an easy task and it
requires a great amount of effort and sometimes even sacrifices on the part of the
professionals. How to build this trust is discussed in detail in the lesson related to
‘Professional Excellence’.
7.0 PROFESSIONALS ARE SELF-REGULATING

Since professionals are experts and are at the top of their professions and possess mastery
on a complex body of knowledge, it is difficult for a common man to identify mistakes of
professionals and even if a client is able to notice the intentional malpractice or
unintentional mistakes committed by professionals, the power relationship between client
and professionals is such that it is difficult for the client to highlight those mistakes or
malpractices in front of the professionals. Some professionals misuse this situation for their
short-term gains. Since it is a matter of expertise, even courts of law find it difficult to punish
a professional for his/her wrong doings. The following example will help to clarify this:
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Example 4
If a student complains in the court of law that due to some prejudices, his/her teacher of a
particular course has given him/her less marks as compared to what s/he deserves, then the
judge will not be able to decide whether concerned teacher has given appropriate marks or
not, the Judge may be forced to appoint a committee of three other professors of that
subject to examine the concerned students and find out the facts. Thus, only professionals
can identify mistakes or malpractices of their fellow professionals.
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If more professionals become complacent and do not do their duty sincerely, or, due to
some kind of greed, commit intentional malpractices; then it brings disrepute to that
profession. Trust of the client in that profession erodes. In the long run it may become
difficult for the professionals to function effectively. An example can illustrate this further.
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Example 5
In developed countries, where medical practitioners started to charge high fees from their
patients. In pursuit of earning more money, they started treating more patients and giving
them lesser time to each patient and in this process eroded the trust between doctors and
patients. If this trust deficit exists and something goes wrong in the medical treatment and
the doctor is not able to cure the patients, then the patients may not hesitate in taking legal
action and claim compensation from doctors who will be forced to pay. However, it may be
very difficult to say with guarantee that it is because of the negligence of the doctor only.
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As discussed earlier, the treatment of illness involves high degree of uncertainty, as many
factors are responsible for successful treatment and out of these factors, considerable
numbers of factors are not in the control of the doctors. Just because of the greed and
malpractice of some doctors, people have started to see all doctors with suspicion.
Therefore, of late doctors are getting their practice insured, to avoid paying the huge
compensation so that, in case something goes wrong the insurance company pays the
compensation. Ultimately, the cost of insurance premium is collected from patients as part
of consultation fee and this further increases the cost of treatment.
Similarly, misuse of autonomy by some teachers in giving marks to students based on their
liking or disliking due to personal reasons rather than academic reasons have reduced the
trust in teaching community and society felt the need of external examinations by the
‘Examination Boards’ or affiliating universities. This has increased the cost of examinations,
as students have to spend extra time and money in external examinations, which in turn
reduces the time and resources available for stress free teaching-learning process.
Therefore, for a smooth functioning of every profession, it is mandatory that the behaviour
of every professional remains high in the eyes of the society. For this to happen, the
professionals must maintain the highest standards of integrity in their practice and conduct,
so that society continues to trust them. Unfortunately, due to a few individuals in every
profession who misuse this relationship of trust to satisfy their ever-increasing greed, has
brought disrepute to the professions and has made the society suspicious of even honest
professionals. Therefore, if professionals want that prestige of their profession to remain
intact, then it becomes the duty of the conscious professionals not only to self-regulate
themselves but also, to prevent their fellow professionals from engaging in malpractices.
Leaders amongst the professionals need to form professional societies or councils and make
it mandatory for their fellow professionals to become members of these societies/councils.
These societies/councils ensure that professionals maintain at least, some minimum
standards of expertise and exhibit honest and ethical behavior in their practice.
Governments also give some regulating power to these councils by act of parliament. Some
examples of councils and societies are-
a) All India Council of Technical Education
b) Council of Architecture
c) Medical Council of India
d) Nursing Council of India
e) Pharmacy Council of India
f) Bar Council of India
g) Indian Society for Technical Education.
Some of these societies or councils are entrusted with the powers of issuing licenses to
practice to its members. These councils also make code of conduct and every member is
supposed to follow it. In case, a member breaches this code of conduct, even after
reprimanding a member for mending his/her ways, then the professional body/council may
punish him/her and in extreme cases, the council may revoke the license of practice issued
to such members.
Thus, professions have to be ‘self-regulating’ to maintain their prestige and relationship of

trust they enjoy with society. In case of other occupations, public at large can ensure quality
of goods and services just based on their common sense and general knowledge. For
example, if politicians do not work up to expectations then the public votes them out. If
administrators do not work up to their expectations, then the politicians (ministers) can
control or punish them. If businessmen do not deliver, then market forces throw them out.
Thus, self-regulation is a necessity for professions, as compared to other occupations. This is
because, the working of professions is so complex that, only the members of that profession
can understand which member is engaged in malpractice.
ACTIVITY 5
List down at least two steps that you have decided to take for 'self-regulation' of
yourself and submit them in the E-portfolio.
8.0 SUMMARY
If you want to determine whether any occupation may be termed as a profession or not, you
must check the presence of the five essential characteristics mentioned in this lesson. Even if
one of the five characteristics is missing, then that occupation cannot be termed as a
profession. If the practitioners of any occupation say administrators follow above five
characteristics, then it may help them to excel and look different from others in their
occupation. The corollary of this proposition is that, if the so-called ‘professionals’ do not
follow these five characteristics in their profession, then they no more remain true
professionals. For example, if a faculty member of an higher education institute do not do
make any efforts to create new knowledge in his/her field of specialization (by reading
journals/attending conferences and so on) and do not contribute to the creation of new
knowledge by engaging in research or guiding student’s researches, then s/he is not fulfilling
the condition number (ii) and hence s/he is not a true professional.
It is obvious from the discussions thus far, that all occupations such as administrators and
executives (IAS, Income Tax commissioners, Revenue officers and other Govt. Officers,
Managers) Armed Forces (Military, Police, and such others), Traders (Businessmen and
Marketing Executives), Workers (technicians, plumber, carpenters, clerks and such others)
work for the benefit of the society and require some knowledge, skills and a great degree of
honesty and sincerity. Although, all these occupations are very important for the society, but
they generally do not fall under the category of professions as in all of these occupations,
the five characteristics as discussed in the beginning of this lesson.
****
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2020.
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[2] Chitkara, M.G., ‘Education and Human values’ Delhi: APH Publishing Corporation, 2003
[3] Sahu, B., ‘The New Educational Philosophy’ Delhi: Sarup and Sons, 2002
[4] Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. , A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and Assessing - Á revision of
Bloom's taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Pearson Education. 2001.
L–1 DISCUSSION FORUM
Start a discussion on social media on any one or more of the five characteristics of your
profession.
L–2: Technical Teacher as
Professionals – ‘Guru-Shishya Parampara’
(गुरु शिष्य परं परा)
Contributors
Dr. Joshua Earnest

(Professor, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering)
Prof. (Mrs.) Asmita A. Khajanchee

(Associate Professor, Department of Electronic Media

Unit 1: Technical Teachers as Professionals L2: Technical Teacher as Professional -Guru-Shishya Parampara’
Lesson–2
Technical Teacher as Professionals
‘Guru-Shishya Parampara (गुरु शिष्य परं परा)
Learning Outcome: At the end of this lesson, you will be able to rejuvenate the Guru-
Shishya Parampara in the context of modern education system.
Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 3
2.0 GURU-SHISHYA’ PARAMPARA ..................................................................................................... 3
3.0 HOLISTIC LEARNING IN THREE DOMAINS.................................................................................... 4
4.0 GURU-SHISHYA PARAMPARA IN THE PRESENT TECHNICAL EDUCATION CONTEXT ................... 4
5.0 ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE TECHNICAL TEACHER ..................................................... 5
6.0 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................... 9
BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................................................................................... 9

Lesson – 2
Technical Teacher as Professionals - ‘Guru-Shishya Parampara’
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Due to the knowledge and technological explosions and the digital world entering into every
sphere of life, the traditional value systems and relationships between teachers and
students have also faded quite a bit. Before, these relations vanish into oblivion, it is high
time to revive them and find ways of how best the good
value system of the ‘Guru-Shishya Parampara’ (गुरु शिष्य
can be revived.Figure 1 depicts the basic concept of
परं परा)
Guru-Shishya Parampara where the figure represents the
professional level of ‘Guru’, the acceptance and respect
that is to be given the ‘Shishya’. The gesture of Guru
represents the goodwill that he offers and his assurance to
satisfy the needs of ‘Shishya’ whenever s/he approaches
him. The basic essence of this depiction could be adapted
in the present context so that a technical teacher is
respected as a professional by the society. This lesson
therefore endeavors to help the technical teacher to
understand his/her role in this perspective and earn back
the honour due to him/her as in the yester years. Figure 1. Representation of
Guru - Shishya Parampara
2.0 GURU-SHISHYA’ PARAMPARA

The ‘Guru-Shishya Parampara’ (गुरु शिष्य परं परा)(Teacher-Disciple tradition) is the age-old
Indian education and culture. In Sanskrit, ‘Shishya’ means, ‘a Student of a Guru’. Whereas,
Parampara means ‘an uninterrupted succession’ or tradition. It is the lineage of passing
knowledge from a succession of Gurus to students through oral tradition. The ‘Shishya’ stays
with his Guru as a family member in the Gurukul and gets holistic education through various
ways and means from his Guru. A ‘Guru’ means a knowledgeable person acknowledged for
his mastery in a particular area/field having good attitudes. He transfers knowledge and
guidance to anyone; be it a teacher at school, or a master in arts/skills/spirituality. It is the
Guru’s responsibility to help his disciples’ progress and build a strong Guru-Shishya’
relationship. The ‘Shishya’ is expected to be obedient and has to prove his worthiness to
acquire the Gurus teachings. Some common characteristics of this Guru Shishya’ Parampara:
a) The establishment of a teacher/student relationship. It requires mutual trust,
Shishya’s respect in the Guru and the Guru’s perspective of importance of holistic
education
b) This relationship is not a loose one, but formalized by the society by the Guru taking
up the initiation ceremony when the Guru accepts the ‘Shishya’ in a formal function
and accepts the responsibility of developing the new ‘Shishya’ into maturity in all
respects.

c) Generally, the ‘Shishya’ stayed full time with the Guru in the ‘Gurukul’. The preaching
of the Guru was unique to establish the identity or ‘School of Thought’ of that
Gurukul. The ‘Shishya’ had to be a very attentive disciple who had to listen to the
teachings and experiences of his Guru. He had to assimilate them and then was
supposed to briefly systematically record them in the form of unique scriptures called
‘Upanishads (उपशिषद)’, which means to ‘sit near and listen’ to absorb.
d) The Gurukul system was founded on Experiential Learning. Problem solving and
inquiry-based teaching were some of the main strategies followed to impart
education. Educational tours (भ्रमण) were common to Gurukul.
e) Consultations with other Gurus or Schools of Thought were held in the form of
intellectual debates and discourses (िास्त्रार्थ).
f) ‘Guru-dakshina’ (गुरु दशिणा) was a custom, where the ‘Shishya’ would give a gift to the
Guru as a mark of gratitude; it could be monetary or could also be in the form of
performance of learned skill. Well known examples of ‘Gurudakshina’ are available in
ancient literature.
3.0 HOLISTIC LEARNING IN THREE DOMAINS

The ‘Shishya’ (student) typically lives with the Guru (teacher). The relationship requires the
student to be obedient and devoted to the teacher. As the student is with the Guru 24x7
hours and 365 days in a year, the knowledge in all respects and in all the three domains of
learning is passed on from the teacher to the student through the spiritual, intellectual and
emotional bonding between them. The student can see the Guru through and through
considering the Guru as a role model. The Guru's level of authority varies based on the
tradition.
However, this system of education vanished with the disappearance of Gurukuls and with
the advent of more advanced institutional system of education. Having understood this
concept; can one think of imbibing such good values into the present education, especially
technical education system? It is a million-dollar question that will make every teacher start
thinking. As the saying goes, ‘if there is a will, there is a way’. But the onus lies on the
teacher to have the will and find the way.
4.0 GURU-SHISHYA PARAMPARA IN THE PRESENT TECHNICAL EDUCATION CONTEXT

For this concept to happen, everyone should maintain the intention of being a student or a
disciple in every situation, in tune with the T.J. Watson President of IBM Corporation who
said ‘there is no saturation point in education’. In other words, every teacher and student
should have perspective to remain a life-long learner. Presently, it is much easier than thirty
years ago, because of the onslaught of the digital and information technology and the smart
mobile phones that almost every student and teacher have at hand and the freely available
different types of mobile applications.

In earlier days, the Guru and ‘Shishya’ had to be physically nearby for the knowledge and
skills to be passed on to the ‘Shishya’. Today also this philosophy could materialise if
designed accordingly. Especially, with the internet age, the one-to-one relationship can still
be maintained to develop the requisite skills
(see figure 2). Rather than spoon feeding, the
teacher as a facilitator can be showing the
direction where the students should go. Some
of the teachers may already be doing it to
some extent. But it is high time that every
teacher starts using the modern technology.
The sooner this can happen, still better, if the Figure 2. Teacher leading the way
roles and responsibilities of the present-day
technical teachers are also well known, which are discussed in the following sections in the
context of Guru-Shishya Parampara.
Every technical teacher needs to be fully aware of the requirements of the industry. The
term ‘industry’ here means ‘any enterprise in the community or corporate sector (wage
employed or self-employed), which helps to earn one’s livelihood’ [Earnest, 2016]. This could
happen by developing close linkages with them through effective liaisoning work. It could
begin with a visit, brief internships in the industry, solving small and large problems for the
industry. It is the duty of the teacher that the student which s/he is grooming develops the
following capabilities:
a) Acquisitive i.e. the capability to acquire the relevant knowledge by different means,
in other words ‘learns to learn’
b) Adaptive i.e. the capability to adapt to different situations so that s/he is not a failure
in the new jobs, tasks or projects that s/he will be required to take up during his/her
career)
c) Innovative i.e. the capability to bring out changes which may be at the micro, minor
or major levels related to the processes and/or products on which s/he may working.
5.0 ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE TECHNICAL TEACHER

When it comes to the Guru-Shishya Parampara, roles and responsibilities of technical
teachers need to be seen much more differently and seriously. The major roles of a teacher
could be categorised as:
 Instruction related
 Research and documentation
 Management and institution development related
 Consultancy related.

5.1 Instruction Related Roles

It is told that in those days the Gurus used to teach the students with so much sincerity and
enthusiasm that it used to leave lasting impressions on the student:
a) The primary duty of today’s teacher is also to teach with all sincerity, earnestness so
that it will leave indelible impressions on the minds of the students and lead to
holistic development of student. However, many of the technical teachers today are
deficient in domain specific knowledge, practical skills, industrial experience and
even the understanding of basic educational technology principles. You as a technical
teacher is required to update yourself with the advances in technology in your
domain area and also analyse the curricula of the various courses that you are to
teach. This will bring a clearer understanding of the different types of learning
outcomes and thereby manage the teaching-learning (T-L) process by providing
varied learning experiences to the students to develop hard and soft skills in them for
gainful employment.
b) You a professional teacher need to develop various types of (T-L) material such as
handouts, ‘starters’ (stories, pictures real things, video clips and others) to hook the
attention of the students, bank of different types of questions and projects, small
video clips and also develop one-to-one relationship for understanding individual
student’s potential and develop the outcomes including affective domain outcomes
and learning-to-learn skills.
c) Remember, that you as professional teacher are to prepare the ‘student to earn
his/her ‘bread and butter’ (i.e. career of each student). When that realization is
there, naturally every teacher has to accept the responsibility of preparing well to
deliver the instruction in classroom, laboratory or field work to achieve learning
outcomes.
d) Students have to be taught in such a way that you can continuously undertake
formative assessment of the students through different means. Provide constructive
feedback to the students so that positive learning occurs in every classroom and
laboratory situation.
e) Assessing the students and certifying them is also an instructional activity that
teachers have to undertake. It has to be borne in mind that in the field of technical
education, often, the teachers assess the lower order thinking skills (LOTS), whereas
the industry needs only higher order thinking skills (HOTS). The focus should be to
prepare students for the world of work.
f) More student-centred methods of instructional delivery should be used, where
problem solving and discovery learning has to occur. In the industry all work given to
the graduates are in the form of small and large projects. Therefore, it is high time,
that the students are accustomed with project works and hence from the first
semester itself use of micro projects will go a long way to incrementally develop the
various skills to undertake larger projects and capstone projects as required by the
industry. This requires that the teachers to provide the right type of guidance so that

the students do all the micro-projects on their own and not get them done from
external sources to get high grades/marks. It is not the quality of the project report
that is important, but the process of doing the project work which is more important
so that the various competencies and skills are demonstrated in the process of doing
the project. Therefore, progressive assessment has to be given greater weightage in
project work. In those days the Guru was interested in seeing the process of learning
to integrate various skills by the student, rather than the finished product given by
the student.
5.2 Research and Documentation Role

Development takes place only with research. Research generates new knowledge which gets
added to the existing ‘body of knowledge’. Any organization that does not undertake
research may soon cease to exist and there are umpteen such examples. Therefore, after
teaching, the first major role, of a technical teacher is to undertake small and large
researches. For the research to be more relevant, the teacher needs to be in close touch
with the society/industry from where the problems that require solutions emerge out. This
can at the individual level or by teaming up with peers and/or with the students. But, every
teacher should take the initiative to find the problems which require research.
Documentation has been a weak area in the Indian research scenario. Researches big or
small in the area of engineering education, or industry will throw up a number of new
models and new methods that can be adapted for which the research is undertaken. Much
of the knowledge during the Guru-Shishya Parampara days was often verbal as it was passed
on to the ‘Shishya’ that got lost after their lifetimes due to the poor documentation.
Therefore, proper documentation both in hard copy and digital form (which can be done
better now due to the technology advancements) is necessary for all types of projects – big
or small. Therefore, technical teachers need to continuously scan and identify new and
emerging areas to undertake small and large researches, which could also form part of
M.E./M.Tech. or Ph.D. projects.
ACTIVITY 1
Prepare a write up on the role of the guru in a Gurukul-based system of education and
post it in the E-portfolio.
5.3 Management and Institutional Development Role

It is true that the strength of the institute is the faculty. Therefore, the managing the various
other activities for institutional development is also a role that you have to play and it can be
done in several ways. In today’s scenario, the first and fore most priority of the engineering
institute is to get NBA and NAAC accreditation for survival whereby the corporate reputation
of the institute is enhanced. This is an opportunity for the teacher to get involved in the
institute development activities.

Connected to the accreditation process are the various extra-curricular and co-curricular
activities which create opportunities in which the teacher can involve the students too. The
teacher can give his/her inputs in the various types of ‘staff development plans’ for
developing human resources at all levels that the management should take up for the
progress of the institute. The teacher should also provide inputs to the administrative
authorities regarding the procurement of various types of equipment and other materials,
developing Learning Resource Utilization Center as well as allocation of other resources to
various departments and centres. The teacher should also get involved in providing
assistance in the preparation of institutional budget and conduction of audits.
Planning and organizing the NSS and NCC activities, cultural and sports related activities are
also good platforms where the student’s exposure to the aspects needed by the society also
get developed in the students. Organising ‘Tech-Fests’, debates, seminars, workshops,
national and international conferences, job fairs and the like where the students’
involvement can lead to their all-round development, is also very much needed by the
society and industry.
ACTIVITY 2
Prepare a write up of about 250 words about ethical practices of teacher for
development of the student in the light of ‘Guru Shishya Parampara’ and post it in the E-
portfolio.
5.4 Consultancy Related Role

In the Guru-Shishya Parampara, the other major role of the teacher is the consultancy.
Consultancy and industry-institute interaction go together. The interaction with the industry
will be effective, when it is a win-win situation. The industry will be benefitted when the
institute will take up its small and large problems as consultancy to undertake researches to
find solutions to these problems. This exercise will not only benefit the teachers both
technologically and financially, but will also establish stronger ties with the collaborating
industry. In these transactions, the students also get benefitted by way of additional
industrial exposure which may lead to enhanced employability.
Another form of consultancy could be, offering continuing education programmes for
different categories of their workforce, both in the contact and/or online mode which can
help the vertical and horizontal mobility of the industry workforce. Tailor-made education/
training programmes to suit the industry needs are to be designed and offered. Such
offerings can also result in national and international conferences and thereby increase the
areas of outreach. All these activities lead to development of different types of
competencies and skills in the students raising the chances of enhanced job opportunities
for students.

Even another form of consultancy is taking part in rural upliftment by taking up rural-based
projects where the students can be actively involved. Through such consultancies, the
teacher is sensitizing the students of the societal needs of the under-privileged and deprived
masses, and thereby creating opportunities for the students to develop virtues of empathy
and sympathy. Conferences on concurrent themes should be organized to give an exposure
to students with respect to emerging trends.
ACTIVITY 3
Prepare a plan and the related activities with the timelines to organize consultations
with neighbouring industries and institutions and post it in the E-portfolio.
6.0 SUMMARY
If some of the activities discussed so far are considered in ‘letter and spirit’, and the
teachers’ take an active role, not only in teaching (which is their primary duty), but also in
planning and organising with the active involvement of the students, following the paths of
empathy and sympathy, to some extent, the Guru-Shishya Parampara could be practiced in
the present technical education context as well. Therefore, each teacher should individually
start practicing the above mentioned activities systematically, in all possible ways. So, do not
wait. Get started at the earliest.
*******
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] Chopra, Deepak (2008) – ‘The Seven Spiritual Laws of Success’, Hay House, New
Delhi, Reprint 28th 2020.
[2] Banthiya, N. K. (1999) – Modle 7 Development of Curriculum for a Subject/
Programme. UK-REC Project on Development of Competency-based Self Learning
Module. Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India: TTTI, Bhopal.
[3] Gupta, S.K. and Earnest Joshua (2017) –
https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/conhome/7749394/proceeding accessed on 2
October 2019
[4] Kashalkar, S. (2013) – Comparative Study of Ancient Gurukul System and the New
Trends of GURU-SHISHYA’ PARAMPARAhttp://www.iasir.net, American International
Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, 2(1), March-May, 2013,
pp. 81-84
[5] Mittal, L.N. ( 2016) – Improving Engineering Education - Some Suggestions;
Cognifront Publishers, Nashik.
[6] www.indranathchoudhuri.com › Guru Shisya Parampara accessed on 2 October 2019
[7] https://www.innovativepulication.com › journal-article-file
[8] iasir.net › AIJRHASSpapers › AIJRHASS13-140
[9] https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/183417/9/09_chapter1.pdf

DISCUSSION FORUM
a) Start a discussion on the social media on some societal issues involving the students
b) Which qualities the teachers should strive to imbibe in their students in the light of ‘Guru
Shishya’Parampara’? Discuss with your peers and prioritise them.

ASSIGNMENT
Develop a plan to organise a one-day rural activity involving the students.

L–3: Professional Excellence
Contributors

Professor (Assessment and Evaluation)
Dr. Joshua Earnest

Professor of Electrical Engineering

Unit 1: Technical Teachers as Professionals L3: Professional Excellence
Lesson – 3
Professional Excellence
Learning Outcome: At the end of this lesson, you will be able to plan to attain to excel
in the five essential characteristics, which is the hallmark of professional.
Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 3
2.0 EXCEL IN DOMAIN SPECIFIC COMPLEX KNOWLEDGE ................................................................. 3
3.0 EXCEL IN CREATING NEW KNOWLEDGE ...................................................................................... 5
4.0 EXCEL IN DEALING WITH HIGH-STAKE ACTIVITIES ...................................................................... 6
5.0 EXCEL IN BUILDING TRUST WITH CLIENTS................................................................................... 7
6.0 EXCEL IN SELF-REGULATION ........................................................................................................ 8
7.0 GUIDELINES TO ACHIEVE THE PROFESSIONAL EXCELLENCE ....................................................... 9
8.0 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................. 11
BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................................................................... 11

Lesson – 3
Professional Excellence
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Donald Schon, the MIT professor, in his pioneering book, ‘Reflective Practitioner’ states that
a ‘professional is one who is able to excel in his/her profession’. In lesson-1 titled
‘Profession and Professionalism’, you have already seen that teachers in higher education
are professionals and the five cardinal characteristics of professionals (reiterated below)
which make them distinctly different from the other occupations:
i. Professionals deal with vast and complex knowledge.
ii. Professionals continue to create new knowledge in their profession
iii. Professionals deal with high stake activities
iv. Professionals work based on trust with clients.
v. Professionals are self-regulating.
If professionals want to excel in their field of work, they have to work for improving their
capabilities to strengthen all these five characteristics. For a professional to follow universal
moral values and engage in ethical practice, requires that s/he should possess strength in all
of these characteristics. Excelling becomes difficult if a professional lacks even one of these
five, then it becomes difficult for him/her to perform ethically and that will lead to his/her
downfall and moral degradation. If professionals want to excel, it is very important for them
to realise this fact.
An illustration of the human body will throw more light of this cardinal feature. In a human
body, malfunctioning of any one of the internal organs, say the lungs or the kidney, affects
the functioning of other organs too. If the lungs are not able to supply enough oxygen
through the blood, then the heart will need to circulate more blood and this will load the
heart and affect its functioning in the long run. Similarly, the malfunctioning of the heart i.e.
imbalance in blood pressure will affect the functioning of the kidneys. Similarly, for overall
professional excellence it is essential to excel in all the above five professional
characteristics. If you look around, you will see many cases where upcoming and promising
professionals could not excel, as they lacked one or more of these five characteristics. In this
backdrop, the need to professionally excel in each of these five cardinal characteristics are
discussed at length.
2.0 EXCEL IN DOMAIN SPECIFIC COMPLEX KNOWLEDGE

As mentioned in Lesson 1 that professionals need to master a vast and complex body of
knowledge related to their chosen field for which they have studied for a long period after
grade/class X or XII. This period of higher studies ranges from 6-10 years for different

professions. For academics or professors, it is at least 7-8 years, if they are postgraduates. It
will be 10 to 11 years of study, if they have acquired Ph.D.
For becoming a good citizen and live life with dignity by wage employment or self-
employment, the education up to class/grade ten is sufficient. However, for becoming a
good professional around 10 more years of proper and rigorous education is required.
However, present education and examination system in India is such that in most
universities, learning different courses related to the chosen discipline for graduating UG
and PG programmes with high grades/marks is easy. However, developing mastery and
depth in the subject matter related to your domain area is relatively difficult.
Of late, after completion of formal education in engineering/architecture/pharmacy many of

the young graduates rather than going in for technical jobs, they opt for generic jobs, such as
general banking, software development administration, management and the like. For such
jobs, only logical thinking is required, as they are not related to the courses of their UG and
PG programmes and do not require an in-depth knowledge of the technology/professional
courses. Therefore, they somehow scrape through the days, weeks, months and years of
professional education, without making efforts to develop an in-depth knowledge of the
professional courses.
If any graduate of a UG or PG professional, wants to work as scientist, pharmacist, engineer,

architect or professor, then s/he must develop an in-depth knowledge of the various chosen
professional courses without which s/he will not possess enough and pertinent knowledge
required to do justice to his/her professional practice. As mentioned earlier, professionals
work in such a complex and specialized field, that even if they provide services of inferior
quality, the people taking services from them i.e. the clients/students will not be able to
detect their inferior quality services. The following two examples further illustrate this issue.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example 1
A graduate civil engineer, who does not have enough knowledge about structural design, will
use more steel in the structure, although the actual steel requirement may be much less.
The client will never come to know in his lifetime, that s/he has spent more money due to
excess use of steel. Thus, the engineer did not act ethically, because of incomplete or
insufficient knowledge and such engineers would continue such unethical practices
throughout their career, affecting many clients and in turn harming ecology and economy of
the country due to inefficient or excess use of materials and other resources.
Example 2
A teacher in higher education employed in an engineering education institute who has not
mastered some difficult concepts and principles during his/her UG/PG studies will avoid
teaching such courses, as s/he is weak and not thorough with such courses. Further, if such a

teacher happens to be part of autonomous education institute where the same teacher who
teaches the course designs the question paper, then s/he will also not formulate questions
from that portion of the course, which s/he has not taught. Therefore, the students of this
teacher may pass the engineering examinations, but end up without learning the critical or
important portions of that course or programme. When such teachers avoid teaching
difficult and complex portions of the courses, then it is an unethical practice to the ‘complex
and vast body of knowledge’. In other words, incompetence and unethical practice of a
teacher will result in incompetent engineers.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Hence, if anyone decides to join the profession of teaching, s/he should again study in depth
the courses, which s/he has to teach, even if s/he may not have been taught that well by
his/her teachers. Therefore, it is an ethical duty of all teachers to master the knowledge of
all the topics (not just few) and sub-topics of the courses of the curricula, which they are
called upon to teach.
Further, it is the ethical duty of all professionals to also correct the mistakes if any, of their
predecessors. When professionals during their practice, apply the knowledge learnt from
books related to the profession into real life situations, they come across many doubts. To
clear these doubts they need to re-visit/review the books, journals, work manuals, internet,
or learn from some experienced senior teachers. Thus, mastery in the related field requires
lifelong learning of not only new knowledge, but also developing in-depth understanding of
the basics of the facts/concepts/principles/procedures and applications thereof.
ACTIVITY1
As a sincere professional, make a list of the areas where you need to undertake mastery-
learning, actions you will take and in how much time to achieve the mastery and post it
in the E-portfolio.
3.0 EXCEL IN CREATING NEW KNOWLEDGE

Some professionals who have completed their formal education sincerely and scored good
marks in UG and PG programmes may think that they know everything well. Based on this
assumption they neither read any journal, nor engage in research, with the result that their
knowledge becomes obsolete within a few years. In this era of knowledge explosion, new
knowledge is being created very fast in most of the disciplines and professionals who do not
continuously update their knowledge may soon find their knowledge is becoming obsolete/
outdated and they themselves are becoming unfit to remain in the profession. It will be
unethical for them to continue to work in the system, because they may take some wrong
decisions, which may be harmful for their clients.
Therefore, it is the ethical duty of every professional to continue to learn in his/her entire
lifetime about the developments taking place in his/her field of specialisation or domain

area not only in their country, but also, throughout the world. Hence, you need to keep your
‘eyes and ears open’ by regularly and periodically listening to expert talks, taking part in
conferences/webinars, visiting the websites, working in that particular area and also reading
reputed journals being published related to your domain area. You should not stop there. It
is your ethical duty as a professional to also contribute to the creation of new knowledge by
engaging yourself in small and big researches. The following two examples will throw more
light on this.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example 3
A professor of higher education, who is not engaged in creating and learning new
knowledge, is asked to be a member of curriculum revision committee. If that professor
does not know the advances that have taken place in his/her domain area, how can s/he
design a state-of-the-art curriculum? More specifically, if the curriculum has been designed
and developed by some eminent professors from reputed institutes, then it may contain the
latest developments taking place in that branch of engineering. In such cases, the teachers
who have not updated themselves will find it difficult to teach the new subject matter
included in the revised curriculum, which is an unethical practice. This will adversely affect
the students, as they will miss the learning of the newly introduced curricular topics/sub T
topics.
Example 4
The philosophy of the curriculum provided the direction to the design of the question
papers. However, if the answer sheets of the students are sent for assessment to the
professors who have not yet updated themselves in that area, how can such professors
assess the answer sheets and grade them correctly. In such situations, they give good
grades/marks to all students, irrespective of the correct answers. In such situations, students
who have learnt the new subject matter through hard work would be disadvantaged as
compared to students who have not answered correctly the questions related to the new
subject matter.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Therefore, if you do not acquire new knowledge, then it is an unethical practice. In some
good universities, teachers have to maintain portfolios of their work and training
experiences to prove that they have continually kept abreast about the new
technologies/new methods and such others as an evidence. Based on such portfolios the
teachers’ contracts are renewed for further terms/periods.
4.0 EXCEL IN DEALING WITH HIGH-STAKE ACTIVITIES

Since professionals deal with the high-stake activities, it is imperative for them to be
successful. If they are not successful, then it may affect the life and career of many people
adversely. It goes without saying, that for being successful, professionals should have the
ability to understand the context of every case, diagnose the problem, identify the most

suitable solution and apply/execute it effectively and efficiently according to the context of
the problem to get the desired outcome. This ability to work successfully across a full range
and different types of activities is professional excellence. In other words, if professionals do
not develop excellence, then they are liable to take some wrong decisions in these high
stake activities with which they are associated with, which may adversely affect the society
on a large scale on several counts. Therefore, it is not a matter of personal choice for
professionals to excel, but it is mandatory for them to excel is their ethical responsibility.
This issue is discussed further in lesson 5, which is related to social responsibility of the
professionals.
ACTIVITY 2
As a sincere professional teacher in a higher educational system, make a list of the
following and post it in the E-portfolio:
1. New knowledge that you have acquired.
2. Mode through which you have acquired above knowledge.
3. State the year(s) in which the new knowledge was acquired.
4. State the year(s) in which the new knowledge was created.
5.0 EXCEL IN BUILDING TRUST WITH CLIENTS

As mentioned in Lesson 1, the services provided by professionals are so complex and
specialized that it is difficult for a common man to judge the quality of service rendered to
him/her. The following example can throw further light.
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Example 5
A student does not know the type of courses that should form part of a state-of-the-art
curriculum and the topics and sub-topics in each course and the proper methods of teaching
and assessment of the course. In this situation, students trust the university/institute and its
teachers with the hope that they will do their best to enhance their employability. This
situation puts more responsibility on the shoulders of the professional teacher to continue
to update their knowledge, which means that professionals need to be experts in their work
so that they provide the best services.
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If the professionals do not provide the best services, then it may affect the life and the
career prospects of their students (or clients). In such cases, the students (or clients) come to
know about the damage to their quite late, after some years have passed. This will result in
same type of anger, as when some close relative of yours whom you fully trust, has cheated
you. Hence, professional excellence is an essential condition rather than a desired or
optional condition for professionals for maintaining the trust bestowed or reposed in them
by their clients.

Now the above-mentioned condition raises a question as to how can an individual

professional always provide excellent services. The solution to this problem is that, all
professionals should strive to develop excellence in all the aspects of their professions.
However, if some professionals are not able to develop themselves in all the aspects of their
profession, then they should be ethically ready to accept that they are not excellent enough
in that particular aspect and should ask clients to take the help or services from some other
professionals who are better than them in that particular aspect of consultancy.
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Example 6
The principal of an engineering institute asks a professor of Electrical Engineering, who
teaches ‘Electric Power Generation’ to develop a curriculum urgently for a course on
‘Renewable Energy Power Generation’ with greater focus on wind and solar technologies.
The updated curriculum has to be submitted to the University within a week. Although the
professor has an expertise in teaching ‘Electric Power Generation’ and done research in the
area of Thermal, Nuclear and Hydro Power Plants, he does not have in-depth knowledge in
wind and solar power technologies. The ethical question is what should be the stand taken
by this professor. He can enrich his credentials/resume for further promotion prospects if he
the re-designing this curriculum for the University. If this professor accepts the above-
mentioned task, then s/he may re-design the curriculum in a week’s time after undertaking
some superficial study of the renewable energy sources even though s/he does not possess
in-depth knowledge of all the aspects of wind and solar technologies. Undertaking such a
kind of task is unethical as s/he will not be able to design a good curriculum. This will lead to
inadequate and incomplete learning for thousands of students and affect their career and
life in the years to come. Therefore, in this situation he should withdraw from this
prestigious task and if possible should suggest the name of some other professor who is an
expert in renewable energy.
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In the long term, such a situation will result in the erosion of the trust bestowed by society
on higher education teachers (who are professionals). This may be considered as an
example of unethical practice with far reaching consequences affecting the students and
graduates and the development of the country at large. Therefore, if some professionals are
not having excellence in one particular area, then they should refrain from taking tasks
related to that area independently, till they develop some expertise in that area by studying
or working with some other experts. Nevertheless, professional excellence is an essential
requirement for working in the profession with dignity and lack of professional excellence
may lead to breach of trust. Hence, excellence in all aspects of the profession related to
your area of expertise must be maintained at all costs.
6.0 EXCEL IN SELF-REGULATION

The professionals are generally at the top rung of their profession (seen in Lesson 1). The
power relations and equations are such that their subordinates dare not point out their

mistakes. Similarly, the nature of work of professionals is so complex that, it is difficult for
their clients to detect their mistakes. In this situation, it becomes imperative for the
professionals to self-regulate themselves. In this context, the professional societies have a
great role to play which is discussed in Lesson 14. However, for managing the professional
societies the leaders in that profession are required to identify the mistakes committed in
complex situations by their fellow professionals and give honest and constructive feedback
to them. For becoming such leaders, professional excellence and conduct is essential.
Therefore, professional excellence is a necessary condition also for self-regulation.
7.0 GUIDELINES TO ACHIEVE THE PROFESSIONAL EXCELLENCE

Donald Schon, the MIT professor suggested that normally education systems produce only
competent professionals, i.e. professionals who can work only in the routine situations and
can solve the known type of problems. In other words, no education system can produce
expert professionals but, it is the long-term experience that can develop expert
professionals. Schon (1984) continues to say that the theoretical knowledge given in the
books is normally of general nature and when that knowledge is to be applied in real life
complex situations, then knowledge has to be applied differently according to differences in
the contexts. The expertise lies in understanding the subtle differences of the different
contexts and applying the knowledge according to these subtle differences. To develop this
expertise, the professionals have to ponder over their experiences reflectively and learn
from that.
You call some professionals as experts in their field as they are able to solve the complex
problems. The experts are able to analyse the complex problem to arrive at the basic cause
of it, and then search the proper solution from the available options. Such professionals are
known as experts because they are able to choose the right solution from the repertoire of
the possible options available to them.
However, the key question is how can the professionals acquire such level of expertise or
possess that exhaustive repertoire of solutions? The answer to this question lies in the origin
of the word ‘expertise’. The origin of word ‘expertise’ is in the word ‘experience’. In other
words, only experience can convert an ordinary professional into an expert. However, some
professionals are not able to become expert even after 20 or even 30 years of experience.
This means that experience alone is not enough for transforming an ordinary professional
into an expert, but the capability to learn-to-learn from the experiences is necessary. Such
learning from experiences in turn requires, continuous and reflective thinking about those
experiences.
Experts are those individuals who have the habit of reflecting on their experiences. These
professionals when they face a new type of problems and try to solve it by applying one of

the possible solutions. After the problem is solved, they ask some questions to themselves
such as:
a) Whether they could solve the problem as expected? If not,
b) What could be possible reasons? Even if they could solve the problem
c) Whether they could solve it in an efficient manner? If not,
d) What other alternative solution could they have tried? and so on.
These professionals thus, should continue to learn on their own and that of others
experiences, by reflecting on those experiences and make their own rules for solving
different problems.
When teachers give feedback to students based on their performance, this feedback does
not only depend on expected level of performance of the student, but also, on the existing
knowledge level of the student. The following example illustrates this aspect still further.
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Example 7
Consider a case of a student who normally gets ‘C’ grade in most of his/her assignments and
this student once again gets ‘C’ in the current assignment. Now the issue is what type of
feedback the teacher should give this student. Suppose, in a particular case of student
assignment, the student is expected to write 10 important features of a process. Out of
these, 5 features are easy to explain, and the remaining 5 features are relatively difficult.
Normally and ideally, a teacher should try to bring every student to ‘A’ level. However, to
expect a student, who has consistently scored ‘C’, to suddenly jump to score ‘A’ level would
be expecting too much in one go. If the teacher informs the student how to incorporate all
the 10 features into his/her assignment to make it to ‘A’ level, then student may get
overstressed and may abandon all the efforts to improve the grades. In such cases an expert
teacher will help the student to attain only the first 5 relatively easy features so that s/he
can first incorporate those features into his/her assignment to make it ‘B’ grade level
without getting over-stressed. After the student starts scoring ‘B’ grade in the assignments,
s/he may be given feedback on the remaining5complex features to bring his/her
assignments up to ‘A’ level.
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Similarly, the theoretical knowledge given in books on education, suggests that, while giving
feedback about shortcomings in the students’ assignments, it should be given in an
encouraging and positive way. However, this guideline cannot be applied in case of all the
students. Some students are so insensitive or thick skinned that if feedback for improvement
is given in positive and encouraging words, they may take it as appreciation and may ignore
the message hidden in it for improvement. The expert teacher knows that such students
need to be given feedback in clear and direct language that they are having these short
comings and they urgently need to improve upon these shortcomings else they may suffer

drastically. Thus, an expert teacher will be able to bring the required changes in the students
by teaching and dealing with different students differently according to their characteristics
while inexperienced teachers will not be able to bring the desired change in the students
because they will treat all the students in the same manner.
Thus, an expert professional has the capability to understand the situation and apply the
solution according to the context. To develop this ability, they have to deal with different
types of cases and learn to solve the cases in an efficiently and effectively. By assessing the
self-performance in each case, you can find out what went well, and what did not, what
could have been better, what s/he should try, even if s/he has to face a similar case in
future, and so on. Thus, reflecting on different types of professional experiences as possible
and meditating on them to learn from mistakes/shortfalls is the only way upward for
becoming an expert professional from a level of competent professional.
ACTIVITY 3
Prepare a table with three columns. In the first column, list the different experiences
related to the 5 characteristics of a professional. In the second column, specify the
mistakes/shortfalls. In the third column mentions the ways and means to overcome the
mistakes/shortfalls.
8.0 SUMMARY
From the discussions in this lesson, it is obvious that professional excellence is not an option
but it is mandatory and essential for professionals to excel in their field and practice
ethically. If a professional is not able to excel, then his/her performance is affected and s/he
may be tempted to engage in unethical behaviour. Professional excellence requires lifelong
learning, which can be formal, non-formal or informal. Professionals continue to study
throughout their professional lives by updating the developments in their domain area by
reading reputed journals, presenting papers in conferences, participating in webinars/face-
to-face discussions, conferences or by attending some short-term training programmes
related to their domain area. Professionals should also learn informally from their
experiences by reflecting upon them. Only by continual learning through different means
throughout his/her professional life, can a professional move towards excellence to be
transformed from a ‘competent’ person to an ‘expert’. Hence, to ensure ethical behaviour
in professionals, there is no other alternative solution, but to excel in all the five
characteristics.
*******
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] Chopra, Deepak (2020)– ‘The Seven Spiritual Laws of Success’, Hay House, New Delhi,
(2008) Reprint 28th 2020.

[2] Schon, Donald A. (1984)–The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think In

Action, Basic Books, USA, ISBN: 978-0465068784
[3] Kashalkar,S. (2013)–Comparitive study of ancient gurukul system and the new trends
of guru-shishya parampara http://www.iasir.net, American International Journal of
Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, 2(1), March-May, 2013, pp. 81-84
[4] Shodhganga;
https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/183417/9/09_chapter1.pdf
accessed on 10 September 2019

DISCUSSION FORUM
 Start a discussion on the ‘social media’ on some issues involving professional
excellence

ASSIGNMENT
Develop a plan to organise a one-day seminar on professional excellence.

L– 4: Mentoring and Counselling of
University Students
Contributor
Dr. B. L. Gupta
(Professor, Department of Education, Research and Management)

Unit 1: Technical Teachers as Professionals L4: Mentoring and Counselling of University Students
Lesson – 4
Mentoring and Counselling of University Students
LO 1. Justify the need of counseling and mentoring.
LO 2. Describe the types and levels of counseling
LO 3. Explain the paradigm shift required in counseling.
Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 3
2.0 CHARACTERISTICS OF UNIVERSITY STUDENTS ........................................................................................... 3
3.0 CONCEPT OF COUNSELLING AND MENTORING ......................................................................................... 4
4.0 PURPOSES OF COUNSELLING AND MENTORING ....................................................................................... 5
5.0 CHARACTERISTICS OF COUNSELLING ......................................................................................................... 7
6.0 PRINCIPLES OF COUNSELLING .................................................................................................................... 8
7.0 TYPES OF COUNSELLING ............................................................................................................................ 8
8.0 LEVELS OF COUNSELLING ........................................................................................................................... 9
9.0 TRADITIONAL COUNSELLING ..................................................................................................................... 9
10.0 FACTORS AFFECTING COUNSELLING AND MENTORING SERVICES .......................................................... 10
11.0 PARADIGM SHIFT REQUIRED IN COUNSELLING PROCESS ........................................................................ 10
12.0 SUMMARY ................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...................................................................................................................................................... 12

Lesson – 4
Mentoring and Counselling of University Students
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The students from different background take admission in universities. They belong to
different social, cultural, geographic, religious and family background. They belong to rural
and urban areas having wide difference in living conditions. They belong to poor, middle and
rich family. They belong to educated and uneducated family. They join university education
with different ambitions and aspirations. Their educational level is different although they
achieve almost same marks in the qualifying examinations. Apart from the wide dissimilarity
in the background they go tremendous changes biologically, socially, physically, emotionally
and spiritually. Their life style changes significantly in the university as compared to school.
They come out from the controlled and disciplined environment of the family, schools and
society. They experience a fairly good degree of freedom in the world of glamorous life of
the city and university. They compare themselves with the fellow students and seniors and
want to place themselves in a respectable position. In the light of background of students, it
is difficult for them to cope up with the academic and non-academic activities in the
university. They are confused and face dilemma about their career, life and future. They face
severe problems and fail to take right decisions. Failure on significant fronts creates de-
motivation, frustrations, anxiety, tension and stress. This lesson is therefore designed to help
you to handle counselling and mentoring sessions with university students wisely.
2.0 CHARACTERISTICS OF UNIVERSITY STUDENTS

The university students of today are quite different than their predecessors so far as learning
maturity is concerned. In some areas they are far ahead than their teachers because of
access to television, computers and internet connecting the whole world. They have access
to all types of latest information within no time. They have wide variety of expectations from
teachers and other stakeholders. Some of the indicative characteristics of university
students are listed below:
a) Many students have crafted their vision, ambitions and missions of life. They want to
pursue and achieve it.
b) They are more conscious to their career and want to enjoy the life. They want to
learn career related competencies and not outdated theory.
c) They have passion for innovation, change and development.
d) They want to explore their potential under the guidance of able teachers.
e) They have competitive spirit.
f) They are ready to accept challenges.
g) They have interest in purposeful learning rather than copy of the old book on Black
Board or on Power point.
h) They want experiential learning through challenging learning projects.

i) They want to learn learning. They want to have a deeper feel of it.
j) They want respect and recognition for their achievements.
k) Their needs of the learning are varied and strong. They want to satisfy learning needs
in flexible way.
l) They are ready to develop competencies of their interest at any time and at any cost.
They want an expert who can make them learn joyfully.
m) They have different styles of learning. So, they want flexibility in learning process and
learning methods matching to their learning styles.
n) They explore opportunities for learning and not for getting bored listening for hours
and hours without relevance to their needs.
o) They want psychological, emotional and social support during the process of learning.
p) They want to share learning, feelings and learning problems openly with their true
friends may be teachers.
q) They want to spend their precious time for fruitful activities may be learning
activities. They want to become mover of the learning process. They want to do
concrete and significant things. They do not want to kill their time in irrelevant
activities.
r) They want to develop their personality. They want to develop competencies related
to personality, entrepreneurship, communication, leadership, software development.
s) They want to pursue learning to satisfy hobbies and career needs. They want to
develop competencies such as facing competition and crisis.
t) They learn uniquely. There are differences in individuals that affect the learning
process. They want that individual differences should be recognized by the teacher
and design the learning process to suit them.
u) They want to enjoy university life because they will not get same opportunity in their
life time.
3.0 CONCEPT OF COUNSELLING AND MENTORING

In the backdrop of the discussion in above points, counselling has a wider and deeper scope
for understanding, analyzing and helping the students to solve their problems. The university
plays a vital role to prevent, reduce and eliminate anxiety, tension and stress in students. It
enables them to take better decisions for the future.
For university students, Gupta (2009) defines counselling as a process of enabling the
students to identify, chart and recognize their needs, potential, ambitions, aspirations and
vision and articulate the same in terms of professional life. It is a guiding process that helps
the students to explore the self, identify the potential and harness it. The trained teachers
and counselors help the students in exploring the self. The students select a course of study
in order to pursue their vision and satisfy their needs. The universities create all reasonable
opportunities for students to pursue variety of visions and immediate goals of life at
appropriate cost and time.

Gupta (2009) defines mentoring as a process of development of individuals and teams to

their full potential level using collective, collaborative and cooperative learning methods.
The traditional counselling services focus on solving behavioural problems of the students
whereas mentoring focuses on harnessing potential of students for their development. It is a
process of creating learning environment in which students learn with joy, gain energy for
learning from the learning process and experience thrill of learning. At the same time, they
learn to manage emotions, anxiety, tension and stress. The counselors empower the
students to manage their behaviour. The mentoring automatically prevents the behavioural
and discipline problems in the university.
The university articulates the vision statement considering the external and internal
environment in general and industrial environment in particular. The university creates
ample opportunities for students to achieve their vision. At the same time, it guides and
shapes the behaviour of the students, staff members, faculty members, and stakeholders to
achieve the vision of the university. The culture and climate of the university is aligned to
vision reach strategies of the university. The university takes all guiding and controlling
measures to shape the behaviour of the students, staff and faculty members. The behaviour
of all institutional members is guided through professional counselling and mentoring
services. The university appoints professional counselors and mentors to manage and guide
counselling and mentoring services. It also develops selected governors, faculty and staff
members as counselors and mentors to guide day-to-day behavioural activities of the
students and staff. The counselling and mentoring arethe processes that contain one or
more sub processes considering the requirements of specific situation. The sub processes
are awareness building, education about life, exploring self, encouraging the students for
achieving goals, helping, guiding, influencing, controlling behavior, problem solving,
coaching, training and the like.
4.0 PURPOSES OF COUNSELLING AND MENTORING

The purposes of counselling and mentoring are varied and many. It depends on the type,
size, performance, climate, culture, vision, location and level of the university. The right
counselling and mentoring opportunity to university students can change their view about
the professional and social life. It helps students to select the area of occupation and opt for
a particular profession by design and not by chance. Defining the purpose of the counselling
and mentoring helps the counselors and the students to fix the problem and develop
effective strategies for changing the behaviour or fixing the goals for development. There
can be one or more than one goals of counselling and mentoring. The counselling and
mentoring can focus individuals, groups, whole class and institution. An indicative list of
purposes of counselling and mentoring is stated below:
a) Identify Potential: The students are encouraged to draw the profile of their
potential, talent, personality and ambitions on various aspects of development. They
are guided, helped and assisted by counselors using various tools and techniques to

explore the self. They are helped to draw the profile on various parameters of
personality to realize that they can grow and develop in a particular area of their
interest or discipline or profession.
b) Diagnose the Problems: The students are motivated to identify the behaviour related
problems which are detrimental to their student life and professional life. They are
assisted to appreciate their weaknesses coming in way of their development. They
are encouraged to identify the problems they are likely to face in near future in their
career. The counselors warn the students about their weaknesses and problems and
guide them in removing weaknesses and problems using appropriate strategies.
c) Craft Vision: The counselors and mentors help students to craft the vision for the life
and professional life. Students analyze their strengths, weaknesses and
developmental opportunities available in the environment. They craft the vision for
their life on their own under the guidance of the counselors and mentors, which is
enduring, challenging, enjoying, compelling, attractive, achievable and credible. The
counselors and mentors encourage the students to develop strategies to achieve the
vision with minimum barriers and in joyful way.
d) Develop Self-image: Students are encouraged by the counselors and mentors to

explore the inner self and self-image in order to develop and increase their
confidence for achieving the vision and goals in life. They are encouraged to develop
greater level of maturity for the life in decision-making and problem solving. The
counselors and mentors develop can do attitude in students through counselling
process. They encourage students to explore the self-concept and help them to
thrive on their strengths. Students are encouraged to explore set of questions such
as; who am I? Where I have come from? Where am I going? What is stopping me?
How will I get there? What will I need to get there? What will it be like when I get
there? The answers of these questions tell them about their inner self.
Understanding inner self, they use appropriate methods to improve their self-
concept.
e) Learn the Secrets of Success: Students are equipped with tested theories, models
and principles to ensure success in their life in long run. They internalize the secretes
of the success using variety of modes recommended by the counselors and mentors
such as selecting and imitating the role model, designing and observing systematic
and scientific approach, dealing with emotions, following principle centered habits
and values, taking initiatives, being proactive and the like.
f) Observe Norms of the university: Students are encouraged to observe the norms of
the university in order to promote healthy academic culture. The counselors and

mentors take proactive approach to shape the behaviour of the students right from
the beginning of their university life to prevent behavioural problems and promote
self-discipline. They develop skills in students to appreciate their own limitations.
They develop skills to have patience and wait for favorable conditions to remove
weaknesses and strive for desired goals.
g) Adjust with Culture and New Situations: There is a big transition in the life of the
students when they join university. They undergo tremendous changes physically,
socially, intellectually, culturally, emotionally and spiritually. They find themselves in
a totally different environment than school environment of caring, supporting,
playing and enjoying. They find difficult to adopt, adjust and adapt in entirely difficult
environment. They need someone to help and guide them in transition phase of
physical, social, academic, cultural and glamorous life.
h) Solve Academic Problems: The main purpose of counselling and mentors for majority
of students is to develop competencies to grab best available jobs in national and
multinational companies. During the course of study, they find variety of problems
related to learning such as non-availability of appropriate literature, relevance of
subject matter with the current practices, complex and abstract concepts, repetition
of contents, paucity of time, selection of stream of specialization, unawareness of
effective method of learning, sources of literature, and so on. Students certainly need
guidance in solving their day-to-day problems.
i) Observe Exceptionally Undesirable Behaviour: Students are at the threshold of the

turbulent life in the university. The institution is expected to observe the behaviour
of the students and identify the students indulged in undesirable, unsocial, unlawful
and unethical activities. Their negative behaviour needs to be sincerely diagnosed
and modified under the observation of professional counselor otherwise one rotten
apple in the basket may spoil the apples of entire basket.
j) Opportunities of development: The institution creates adequate opportunities and

flexibilities for the development of the students so that they are placed with high
salary in area of their own interest. It means the counselling is directly linked to the
needs of industry and students. The university can design need based curricular and
co-curricular interventions to help the students to grab the opportunity.
5.0 CHARACTERISTICS OF COUNSELLING

The counselling process of university students is totally different than school students in the
sense that they are conscious and clear about their career to a large extent. The students are
more interested in latest information about the companies, technology and job trends. To be

effective, the counsellingand mentoring process should be interactive, natural, supported by

scientific tools and techniques, continuous, unbiased, and empower the students.
6.0 PRINCIPLES OF COUNSELLING

The counselors and mentors use principles of counselling and mentoring to make the
counselling and mentoring effective and efficient. These principles are evolved over the
years in different contexts and based on various theories, models, concepts and practices.
The indicative principles of counselling and mentoring applicable in universities are stated
below:
a) Create adequate opportunities for empowering the students for learning
b) Promote team learning and collaborative learning
c) Respect the potential of young students
d) Unbiased approach in teaching learning and assessment
e) Encourage best practices
f) Create learning organization.
7.0 TYPES OF COUNSELLING

The counselling in university has been an area of low concern in the past. The counselling
was conducted to maintain the discipline in the university. In most of the counselling
situations punitive actions were taken using rules and regulations. Management and
teachers who were not trained in counselling techniques did the counselling in past. It was
purely reactive approach. It had nothing to do with development of the students and the
university. It emphasized on maintaining the status quo in the performance of the students
and university.
Now considering the competition and demands of graduates with professional competence
there is a dire need to provide counselling and mentoring services at different levels by
professional counselors and mentors. There is a need to explore the potential of faculty
members, staff members and students and use it for the development of the self and
university. There is a need to identify the intelligence, abilities, aptitude, interest, needs and
personality of the students. There is a need to have vision of the university and at the same
time opportunities for the staff and students to develop up to their self-actualization level
through individual vision. This is promoted through mentoring services in the university.
It focuses on the development of one and all in the university as per their needs and desire.
It helps the university to plan its services to satisfy the internal and external customers. It
provides sense of purpose to the life of individuals and purpose to university functioning. It
enables the institution to set benchmarks and achieve them. The counselling and mentoring
for students, faculty members and staff members can be classified in two categories viz
reactive and proactive. Reactive counselling is further classified as solving behavioural and
career related problems. Mentoring is further classified as exploring the potential, crafting

the vision, modifying behaviour to achieve vision, developing life skills and achieving vision
for the self and institution
8.0 LEVELS OF COUNSELLING

The university campus has wide spectrum of behaviours of students ranging from bright to
problematic. The university has a challenge to channelize the energy and synergy of the
students for common purpose i.e. their development to all heights to pursue vision. The
university requires three types of counselors to provide proactive and reactive counselling to
students. The types of counselors are professional counselor, teacher counselor and trained
counselors.
The professional counselors are drawn from the education system and trained to assume the
full-time role of counselling in institution. Teacher counselors are trained to conduct routine
proactive as well as reactive counselling activities in the university. Trained counselors are
persons drawn from various positions and trained to conduct counselling services or support
counselling services in the university. They offer counselling services which are not related to
academic activities of the students but other activities in the campus. The counselling in the
campus of institution is carried out by professional and trained counselors at different levels
such as individual, small group, whole class, and whole university.
9.0 TRADITIONAL COUNSELLING

Many universities have created services for the development of the students but they have
offered the services on adhoc basis. These services may improve the performance of the
students in a particular area but may not satisfy varied needs of the students. The
universities have experimented a lot to improve the quality of performance of the institution
and students. Some of the significant efforts made in universities are placement services,
conflict management, incentives and reward giving programmes, activities of professional
bodies, educational tours, awareness programmes, complaints handling, problem solving,
crisis management, entrepreneurship development programmes, discipline maintenance
etc. These services do not focus on roots of development of students and institutions. These
services are good for short term results but cannot give long term impact on the
performance of the students.
Types of Problems Faced by University Students

University students face variety of problems which are addressed by traditional counselling.
Large numbers of universities are involved in reactive counselling and they face variety of
problems. Some of the broad problem areas are related to career, occupation, language,
communication and presentation, coping skills, professional skills, personality, biological
problems, drugs habits, adjustment, harassment, and examination.

10.0 FACTORS AFFECTING COUNSELLING AND MENTORING SERVICES

The effectiveness and efficiency of the counseling and mentoring services depend on
numerous facilitating and restraining factors as stated below:
Facilitating Factors
a) High employment opportunity
b) Curriculum addresses the current and future needs of the industry and student
c) Healthy relationship between the counselor and students
d) Healthy climate and culture of the institution for learning and developing
competencies
e) Presence of hygienic and motivating factors in the institution
f) Competent and experienced counselors and mentors
g) Autonomy to work
h) Active problem solving and grievance handling mechanism in the institution
i) Expert, experienced and trained teachers
j) Adequate teachers, staff members, counselors and mentors
k) Awareness, education and training of faculty members, staff members and students
on counselling and mentoring
l) Mutual trust between counselors and counselee
m) Adequate physical resources
n) Institution and students believe in excellence
Restraining Factors
a) Financial conditions of the students
b) Adhoc curricular decisions
c) Content based curriculum
d) Outdated curriculum
e) Vague policy and rules of the institute
f) No policy for counselling at institution level
g) Favoritism, biased approaches and politics
h) Formality in the name of counselling and mentoring
i) Lack of transparency, objectivity, direction, autonomy and systems
j) Problem solving and crisis management techniques
k) Lack of focus on academic activities
l) Too much politics, dominance, buttering and lobbying
m) Everybody is concerned for short term gains
n) Unwilling and seasoned faculty and staff members
11.0 PARADIGM SHIFT REQUIRED IN COUNSELLING PROCESS

The universities are facing high level of competition and challenges in their functioning. They
need to work professionally without conflict, confrontation and decline in performance. The

students, staff and faculty members should be satisfied in the institution. There should not
be any frustration, tension, stress, depression, revelry, quarrel, fight, harassment and crime
in the university. At the same time all human beings should get an opportunity to develop up
to their self-actualization level. It demands for paradigm shift in counselling services
provided by the university for students, staff and faculty members. The significant
parameters of counselling and mentoring, current status and paradigm shift are stated in
Exhibit 1.
Exhibit 1
Paradigm Shift in Counselling to Mentoring
Parameters Current Practices Paradigm Shift Required

Objective  Solve behavioral  Helping the students, staff and
problems faculty members to explore the self
 Manage conflict and self-potential
 Enforce discipline  Helping to craft vision for the life
 Prevent revelry  Design and implement behavioural
 Remove frustration strategies to achieve the vision
 Demonstrate behaviour aligned to
institutional vision
Approach  Purely reactive  Purely proactive
 Bureaucratic  Autonomy
Mechanism Problem solving Decision making and development
Focus Problematic person Whole institution
Foundation Punishment Rewards, growth and development
Resource Management Professional counselors and trained
person faculty members
Methods Controlling Empowering
Consequences Problem solved  Culture and image of the institution
enhanced
 Best placement
After Management feel tension  High level of satisfaction
counselling released  Win - win situation
Long term Discipline maintained  Culture to thrive success and
impact excellence
 Graduates do miracle in their life
12.0 SUMMARY
The students in universities join from different and varied social, cultural, religious,
educational, spiritual and geographic background. They have a wide range of expectations
from universities. They also face variety of academic and non-academic problems. They have

tremendous unexplored potential that can be tapped for their development. They have
interest, ambitions, aspirations and vision to achieve. They need guidance and counseling
related to their personality, career and future. They want to solve their problems in the
university. They are at the age of transition and enter from controlled to uncontrolled
environment. This calls for counselling and mentoring. Counselling is a process carried out by
trained and professional counselors in order to help the students to craft the vision of their
life considering their strengths and limitations. At the same time the counselors enable the
students to know their undesirable behaviour and behavioural problems. They help the
students to design strategies to modify the behaviour to match with the culture and climate
of the institute. They help the students to develop maturity, self-discipline and
professionalism in their day-to-day activities. The effective counselling process is carried out
following various characteristics such as interactive, natural, use of scientific tools and
techniques, unbiased approach, continuous process and empowerment. Considering the
need of the situation counselling is carried out at five levels i.e. individual, group, whole
class, institution level and outside the campus. There are numerous factors that affect the
process of counselling and mentoring. These factors are classified as facilitating factors and
restraining factors. There is a need of paradigm shift in current counselling practices which
are based on reactive approaches of counselling. The university should create opportunities
to develop variety of competencies in students considering their individual preferences to
make them satisfied professionals.
*****
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] Gupta B. L. (2009) Proactive Counselling, Mahamaya Publishing House, New Delhi
[2] Gupta B. L. (2008) Excellence Through Performance Appraisal, Mahamaya Publishing House,
New Delhi

L - 4 DISCUSSION FORUM
Start a discussion on social media on any aspect of counselling and mentoring.

L–5: Social Responsibility
Contributor

Associate Professor and Head, Department of Electronic Media

Unit 1: Technical Teachers as Professionals L5: Social Responsibility
Lesson – 5
Social Responsibility
Learning outcome: At the end of this lesson, you will be able to plan to
contribute to the social responsibilities that every professional is morally bound
to do in the larger interest of the society to make the world a better living place.
Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 3
2.0 ACCOUNTABILITY OF THE TEACHER ........................................................................................................... 3
3.0 SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY AND TRANSPARENCY IN THE CONTEXT OF EDUCATION SYSTEM ....................... 4
4.0 SENSITISING STUDENTS FOR COMMUNITY SERVICE ................................................................................. 5
5.0 SUMMARY .................................................................................................................................................. 5
BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................................................................ 5
Lesson – 5
Social Responsibility
1.0 INTRODUCTION
A teacher in India is considered as an icon of ethics, sincerity and honesty. The teacher’s role
is not only confined to academics, but also to other social responsibilities, which is the need
of the hour for the country. Therefore, the teacher should not only be fair in his/her work,
but should be sensitive social issues as well and to imbibe them in the students through
various activities. As discussed in earlier lessons, the professionals are the most respected
segment of the society. There are many professionals who are practicing to use their
knowledge for the benefit of society. Every profession brings some responsibilities to
contribute as a knowledgeable, authentic and acceptable source of information, inspiration
and ambassador of goodwill and practice. One of them is when a doctor is called upon to
talk about importance of basic vaccination of infants. Similarly, a teacher is a source of
authentic information and his views and actions are generally regarded with esteem by the
society. A teacher being the one of the key persons in grooming citizen of the future has a
big share to play concerning social responsibility which is discussed in this lesson.
2.0 ACCOUNTABILITY OF THE TEACHER

It is very important to realize that the main responsibility of sensitization of human beings to
good habits and values is with parents and teachers. The teacher’s main role is to make the
student realize that the world keeps changing, knowledge is ever-changing or dynamic and
process of learning and unlearning are a lifelong activity. Mainly, the development of good
values in the student is very much necessary for building a good nation.
The key social responsibility principles are accountability and transparency, which is the
responsibility of every professional in his conduct. In the context of quality of life, the term
social responsibility is a means of achieving sustainability in one’s own environment.
Adopting these principles can help a person to ensure the long-term viability and success of
any process or system of which he is a part.
The teacher working in higher education system is expected to deliver the knowledge and
skills in such a way that the students develop abilities to earn their living. The role of teacher
is to guide the student in overall development of his personality and also to choose right
path for career. S/he is supposed to impart a body of knowledge and skills that are recent
and relevant. The accountability which is part of the social responsibility of a teacher
considerably held high by the society is considered to be a very valued profession by default.
Considering this aspect of accountability, the teacher performance is judged and in many
developed countries, the teaching contracts are reviewed annually.
ACTIVITY–1
Describe how accountability can be ensured in classroom teaching-learning process.
Discuss the description and share your experiences with peers in your organization and
post in the E-portfolio.
3.0 SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY AND TRANSPARENCY IN THE CONTEXT OF EDUCATION

SYSTEM
Social Responsibility in the context of education has been considered by educationists and
philosophers as well. Forbes, has given the concept of ‘socially responsible education’. ‘To
begin to answer the question of what ‘socially responsible education’ means, you may ask
whether the term ‘socially responsible education’ describes the contents of an education (i.e.,
what is hoped that the students will learn, or whether it describes the way in which the
education is conducted, or both. Although many people may assume the term ‘socially
responsible’ will predominantly refer to the contents of an education, some thoughts about
the way education conducts itself in regards to social responsibility merit consideration. In
fact, the social responsibility of the way education conducts itself is a principal argument for
the existence of public education. It is seen as socially responsible that quality education is
freely available to all children; and that argument has remained unchanged despite many
changes in the contents of public education.
The teacher has to be very clear about his/her role in the development of a student as a
citizen of future years. S/he should not be silent on burning issues which threaten the
peaceful life of citizens of today and tomorrow in our society. Corporate social responsibility
(CSR) is one of the Government of India mandated activities that every organisation is bound
to do. Every educational institutional can also take this up. Such issues may include
sustainability, unity, literacy, poverty, health and hygiene, blood donation, adopting a village
for all round development, development. Activities to reduce of social evils such as dowry,
bribes, corruption, female feticide, unfair wages, not caring the aged parents, and such other
illegal activities.
Transparency in operations is a much-wanted qualitative characteristic of any process

including teaching-learning (T–L). The ultimate quality of output can be judged easily when
the process is transparent and it is possible to identify the factors responsible for poor
quality. The (T–L) process also can be made transparent with the help of proper policy
guidelines and implementation of the same in an institution. Frequent and relevant
communication between the administrators of educational institutions and teachers,
teachers and student, the parents and administrators and that of administrators with other
agencies and stakeholders is very important. IT tools such as web portal, websites facilitate
open access to student’s performance and (T–L) process in an educational institution will
help maintain accountability and transparency in society.
4.0 SENSITISING STUDENTS FOR COMMUNITY SERVICE

Community service is one of the effective tools towards the effort to develop good values,
attitudes and other aspects with respect to the ‘Affective Domain’ of learning. It is the duty
of the teacher to inculcate sense of service and self-sustenance in students, through the
various courses that s/he will teach and provide opportunities to develop them in the
classroom, laboratory and other places. Opportunities should be created for the students to
take part in activities like NSS, NCC and the like so that they can see the world in practice
with discipline. Internships also offer such opportunities.
The institutions could adopt some villages; guide the students of how to help the community
in different ways such as tree plantation, ‘biogas plants’, and the like. The students could
also be encouraged to take part in schemes like ‘Unnat Bharat’, ‘Community Radio Station’
activities of the Government of India (you could even initiate yourself for the institute, for
which you could refer to the websites https://www.mib.gov.in/broadcasting/community-
radio-stations-0, http://crfc.in/) in different ways (see example in Appendix-1).
Further, the students may be encouraged to visit the field organizations, places of heritage,
villages, old age homes, orphanages, places affected by natural disasters and such other
places. Since each student have their unique learning styles, many of the activities may not
impact all students, but some students or the other.
5.0 SUMMARY
The purpose of education system is not only to give academic knowledge to the students,
but also to be responsive in making the students responsible to needs of society. Only the
teacher and parents can be considered accountable and responsible for grooming
responsible citizens of next generation. The sense of responsiveness and responsibility can be
transferred with ease through a good teacher. If that spirit is lost in a teacher such as you,
the world can never be at peace, as disparities will remain unattended. Only the teachers
and parents can create a peaceful, worthy and prospering society. Therefore, understanding
of social responsibilities is very important for a new teacher as discussed in this lesson.
****
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] Gaur, R.R, Sangal, R, G.P.Bagaria (2010) – A foundation course in Human Values and
Professional Professional Ethics; Excel Books, New Delhi
[3] FORBES, S. H. (2003) – Holistic Education: An analysis of its ideas and nature,
Foundation for Educational Renewal.; Vermont, Holistic Education Press, USA
[4] Learn About Quality. Retrieved from asq.org: https://asq.org/quality-
resources/social-responsibility
[5] https://www.mib.gov.in/broadcasting/community-radio-stations-0, http://crfc.in/)
Appendix – 1
Community Radio Station (CRS): A Case of Social Responsibility

[Courtesy: Dr. Balwinder Singh, Associate Professor, Electronics and Communication Engineering ECE
Department, NITTTR Chandigarh]
FM Community Radio Station (CRS) is such a platform which can be used to reach to masses
in a very effective way which can be taken up as social responsibility especially as a technical
teacher. There is a policy by the government of India to grant licenses for setting up of CRSs
to well established educational institutions and ‘Non-profit’ organizations like civil society,
voluntary organizations and such others. Technical teachers can use CRS to disseminate
technical and other knowledge to the people around them.
I got a chance to set-up and operate a CRS for almost 5 years. To operate a CRS is really a
satisfying and challenging task as you interact with local population listen to their problems
and then find right type of experts to address the same. It brings you very close to the
society and the real issues which they deal with. We used to broadcast a diverse range of
programs based on various themes like technology advancements, health, career guidance,
agriculture, social problems, public affairs, interviews of renowned personalities and such
others to address social issues. The CRS was operated by the faculty and staff only on
volunteer basis. A core team of five members consisting of teachers and staff members was
involved in recording, editing and broadcasting the programmes. The other teachers of the
institution used to act as experts in their field of expertise and provided technical knowledge
to the people to get maximum advantage of the latest technology. For example, faculty
members from Electrical Engineering department provided knowledge of ‘Star Rating’ of
electrical appliances, electricity saving tips, importance of renewable energy resources and
so on. Similarly, faculty members from Civil Engineering recorded their programmes on solid
waste management techniques, issues during house construction and so on. Similarly,
faculty from all departments participated to record their expertise for the benefit of
community. In addition to recording their own programmes, faculty and staff members
arranged experts from different fields to provide knowledge on areas other than technical
and this contributed to the success of CRS.
A team of students was also constituted for the support of core team to perform various
activities. Students used to act as radio jockey (RJ) and provided help in field based activities
like interaction with locals to find out their problems. This provided them a chance to get in
touch with the society and the same time it also helped them in their career. The students
who were actively involved in the CRS activities had greater advantage in placement
interviews when the industry was told about their experiences of the involvement in CRS
activities. So, being a part of CRS brought a great a sense of satisfaction that I had
contributed to the society in a novel and noble way and to some extent fulfil the cause of
social responsibility; http://crfc.in/
Start a discussion on the social media on some of the social responsibilities of yourself as
a professional teacher.
L– 6: Human Aspirations: Sustainable
Happiness and Prosperity
Contributors

Dr. A.K.Sarathe
Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Unit 2: Human Realities and Essentialities of Values and Skills L6: Human Aspirations: Sustainable Happiness and Prosperity
Lesson – 6
Human Aspirations: Sustainable Happiness and Prosperity
Learning outcomes: At the end of this lesson, you will be able to take adequate
decisions/measures to attain sustainable happiness and prosperity for a satisfied
and successful personal and professional life.
Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 3
2.0 WHY SOME PROFESSIONALS ARE NOT HAPPY? ......................................................................................... 3
3.0 PURPOSE OF LIFE OF A PROFESSIONAL ...................................................................................................... 4
4.0 SUSTAINABLE HAPPINESSFOR THE PROFESSIONAL ................................................................................... 5
5.0 PROSPERITY (SAMRUDDHEE) FOR THE PROFESSIONAL ............................................................................. 6
6.0 NEED FOR SUSTAINABLE HAPPINESS AND PROSPERITY ............................................................................ 7
7.0 SUMMARY .................................................................................................................................................. 9
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...................................................................................................................................................... 10

Lesson – 6
Human Aspirations: Sustainable Happiness and Prosperity
1.0 INTRODUCTION
As discussed in earlier lessons, the professionals (such as teachers of higher education
institutions) are regarded as the most respected segment of the society and their
relationship with society is based on trust between them. Generally, professionals need to
sacrifice considerably, including some pleasures of life and devote sufficient time of their life
to achieve the mastery on the vast and complex body of knowledge they have acquired. They
also take pains to use this knowledge for the service of the mankind. Nevertheless, society
also gives them a substantial amount of money and respect, name and fame in recognition
of their services. Because of these privileges associated with the professional life, a large
number of youths aspire to become a ‘professional’. Currently, there are ample
opportunities for the people to choose a career from the various available choices. For
becoming a professional, students have to study hard for a long number of years to acquire
the desired higher level of qualifications and competence. Students become professionals on
their own choice and it is a hard-earned position for them. However, it is often seen that
they do not seem to be happy with their professional life. This lesson is an attempt to help
you to understand and take adequate steps to attain sustainable happiness and prosperity
for a satisfied and successful professional life.
2.0 WHY SOME PROFESSIONALS ARE NOT HAPPY?

If you look around, you may notice many professionals who are not satisfied with their
professional and personal lives. Some professionals engage themselves in some unethical
practices, although they very well know that whatever they are doing is harmful to the
society. In a way they cheat those clients who have faith in them, and this act of them may
be considered as a sin. For example, some doctors undertake illegal sex determination test
of the foetus and perform illegal abortions to earn more money. Some professors misuse
their powers to award Ph.Ds. to undeserving research scholars just to get undue favours or
oblige their colleagues of their fraternity who keep referring them for adjudication of Ph.Ds.
Both these types of behaviours are unethical and lead to deterioration in the quality of
education and research. If the causes of such unethical behaviours of the professionals are
analysed, the following probable reasons emerge out:
a) Earn more quick and easy money for getting more comforts
b) Get support of other professionals for own survival because of the market conditions.
There are many professionals, who earn enough money from their ethical practices to lead a
comfortable life. Even then they indulge in other unethical practices. This situation forces
you to think about the reasons behind such behaviour. The most common reason may be
‘misplaced notion about the purpose of life’ or in other words, their understanding about life

and their expectations from life. Socrates has said ‘Ignorance is the cause of all evils’, and
therefore, first of all you should ‘know yourself’ i.e. everyone should first know what s/he
really wants to be and based on his/her own strengths and weaknesses, choose the relevant
occupation. The mismatch between what you really want to be (according to your choice)
and what you are forced to be (due to your greed or social pressure or lack of opportunity) is
the root cause of most problems of ‘unhappiness’ discussed in the following paragraphs.
3.0 PURPOSE OF LIFE OF A PROFESSIONAL

Every person, irrespective of profession/occupation wants to live a ‘fulfilling life’ or an
‘abundant life’. Now, this assertion raises a fundamental question, as to what do you mean
by fulfilling life or an abundant life. There is a general consensus that most of the people in
life aspire for ‘prosperity’ and ‘happiness’. Most of the greeting cards which carry messages
for different occasions like those for birthday, anniversary, promotion and other cards
mention these two words. Methods for achieving happiness and prosperity are different for
different people. A philanthropist may get happiness in donating to poor people in cash
and/or kind, while a thief may get happiness in stealing things even from poor people. So, it
is the mindset, which decides the ways of getting happiness. But the intrinsic desire remains
the same i.e. to be happy.
Even when you become a professional of your choice, this problem of mismatch between
your desires and your actions continues in your professional life. Argyris, C. (1974) has given
the concept of ‘Espoused Theories‘ and ‘Theories in Use’. He expounds that the real problem
with most of the professionals is that they unknowingly or subconsciously oscillate between
these two types of theories. One is idealistic theory according to which all actions should be
based on moral values and ethics so that they should serve the larger good and general
interest of the mankind, and are called ‘Espoused Theories’. In other words, these theories
are held in high esteem by professionals and they glorify and promote these theories in
social and academic circles.
However, when it comes to real life practices, some professionals take decisions based on
practical considerations and justify their ethically wrong decisions based on excuses such as:
‘it has to be done for survival in the present system’, ‘one professional alone cannot reform
the whole system’, ‘you cannot grow, if you do not follow the ‘tricks of the trade’ and so on.
All these reasons or justifications can be said to emerge from the ‘Theories in Use’. Thus,
there is a conflict between what professionals should do and what they actually do. The
main reason for such conflicts may be that professionals have not clearly resolved in their
mind as to what they want in their professional and personal lives. In other words, such
professionals are not clear about the purpose of life. Therefore, it is better to discuss what
is meant by ‘prosperity’ and ‘happiness’.

4.0 SUSTAINABLE HAPPINESSFOR THE PROFESSIONAL

When are you happy? One of the answers to this question is generally given as ‘you are
happy when you are able to get what you want’. In other words, you feel happy when you
are in a situation of your liking or state of your liking. An example can illustrate this further.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example 1
You like to be in an office room where temperature is maintained at a comfortable 24oC by
an air conditioner. Then you feel comfortable to work in that room and this makes you
happy. But, if for some reason, the air-conditioner in that room stops working and the
temperature of the room shoots up to 40oC, then you do not feel comfortable. If the air-
conditioner in not repaired at the earliest, then you will start feeling unhappy. In another
instance, you feel comfortable in the office room where temperature is maintained at 24oC,
but you have to share the same room with a colleague who always creates problems for you.
Then again this will be a state of disliking or unhappiness for you.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
So, happiness here means, ‘to be in a state of liking’. However, human beings want ‘state of
liking’ in many aspects of life simultaneously. It may be not only be about physical comforts
but also of good relationships with friends, social recognition and such others.
Generally, human beings are not only satisfied with physical comforts in their lives. Rather,
they also want to have many other things, such as to remain healthy, look beautiful/
handsome, be liked, loved and respected by others. Some ambitious people also wish to do
something great, so that they can get some ‘name’ and ‘fame’. However, if you think about
what are the driving forces for all these actions in human beings, then you will realize that
people wish to derive happiness by fulfilling their desires. So happiness is the most basic
desire which everyone longs for.
For being happy as a professional, you need to be in harmony with people around you. For
example, if you love some people, you wish that, those people should appreciate your love.
If you respect the seniors, you wish to be respected by your juniors. Moreover, any person
cannot remain happy in the company of people who dislike him/her. Naturally, nobody
would like to do this, because being with someone who is not of your liking will result in
disharmony as everyone wants to live in harmony. So, to be happy requires that you are in
harmonious relationship with the people around you.
Sometimes, you are not happy because you have contradictions within yourself. There is a
conflict between ‘what you are’ and ‘what you really want to be’? The reasons for this
situation is that, often you as professional live a life according to choices of others such as
parents, spouses or children. You wanted to get some type of job you liked, but you could
not get it due to lack of opportunities or lack of your capability. Maybe, your superiors in the

organization might have given you some work, which is not of your liking. All these situations
create conflicts within you and this results in the state of unhappiness.
From the above discussions, it may be concluded that for you to be happy, you should not
only have physical comforts, but be in harmony with persons who matter in your life, but
also should not have any contradictions within oneself. It is also defined as ‘happiness is due
to the happenings around you’, and the happenings around you is dynamic. This means that
whenever, the happenings around you change, your happiness also changes.
Another term closely related is happiness (‘Anand’ in Sanskrit), is the term ‘joy’ (‘Sadanand’
in Sanskrit) also called as sustained happiness. Your ‘joy’ is something which will not be
disturbed by the happenings around you, because it wells up from deep within yourself, as it
is rooted in the right value system and priorities that you have chosen, adapted and practice
yourself (i.e. oneself) all the time. Therefore, joy (sustained happiness) is defined as ‘the
state of being conflict free within oneself’. Three conditions arise out of this definition:
a) Being in harmony oneself, which is the calmness that wells up from deep within.
b) Being in harmony with family and persons who matter to you. In other words, being
in harmony with the family and colleagues who matter most in anyone’s life, it can
be said that sustained happiness is also ‘Being in harmony with family and society’
c) Being in harmony with nature/surroundings. In other words, being in the physical
situation of your liking.
If you summarise the above conditions, then you can re-define ‘joy’ (Sustainable Happiness)
is, ‘Being in harmony with oneself, family/society and nature’. Practicing this state of
harmony for most of the people is easy said than done. How to establish this harmony will
be discussed in the following lessons.
ACTIVITY - 1
List down some purposes of your own life for introspection to check whether it is
affecting the attainment of sustained happiness in your life and post it in the E-portfolio.
5.0 PROSPERITY (SAMRUDDHEE) FOR THE PROFESSIONAL

‘Prosperity’ is related with abundance of physical resources required for living a comfortable
life. The meaning of prosperity in Sanskrit is ‘Samruddhee’. This includes basic things such as
food, clothing, and shelter. In these modern times, it also includes: resources for education,
medical treatment, communication, transportation and entertainment. These resources are
required basically to take care of the needs of human body i.e. to sustain human body in a
decent and comfortable manner. In addition, these physical resources are required for
getting good education, good medical treatment and good entertainment, such as, money
required for site seeing in the country and in other parts of the world. So, when people are
able to accumulate enough physical resources they feel prosperous.

‘Prosperity’ may also be defined as ‘a feeling of possessing required physical resources in

abundance’. In this definition, two words are critical, the first one is ‘abundance’, which
indicates that the physical resources in possession is more than that which is required by you
to live. In other words the physical resources with you ‘are in excess’. The second term is
‘feeling’, i.e. it is a feeling of having physical resources in abundance. This term ‘feeling‘ is
very critical, because people who have physical resources many times more than require still
feel that they do not have sufficient resources and continue to strive for more of it, even at
the cost of their health and time. There are many instances where people spend their whole
life in amassing resources and they do not have time to use these resources for enjoyment
or some other useful activity. Such people confuse between ‘prosperity’ by ‘wealth’.
‘Prosperity’ is ‘Samruddhee’ in Sanskrit and ‘wealth’ is called ‘Sampatti’. So ‘wealth’ is

physical resources and ‘prosperity’ is a feeling of having ‘enough physical resources’. Socially
also, when you send greetings to your relatives and friends during festivals, then it is
common to wish them for ‘prosperity’ and not for ‘wealth’. Because what is essential in life,
is ‘prosperity’ and which is achievable in normal circumstances. Nevertheless, adequate skills
related to your profession for earning sufficiently enough is also required to be acquired.
Thus, there is no limit to acquire the wealth, as it is endless. But a person can decide that
how much wealth s/he requires for fulfilling his/her essential needs and desires. However, if
desires are unlimited and unrealistic, then the wealth required to fulfill those desires will be
also unrealistic and/or unlimited. So, if needs and desires are limited, a person can earn
enough wealth to satisfy those needs and desires. After the required wealth has been
accumulated by you, you may feel that you are now ‘prosperous’.
6.0 NEED FOR SUSTAINABLE HAPPINESS AND PROSPERITY

If you are asked “whether you would like to be unhappy even for an hour”? The answer will
be a definite ‘NO’, which means that all human beings always want to remain happy. Hence,
the concept of Sustained Happiness (or joy) and Prosperity is discussed.
6.1 Sustained Happiness (Joy)

It will be better to discuss about happiness first, as most people confuse ‘pleasure’ or
‘enjoyment’ with happiness. You may derive pleasure or enjoy things through your sensory
(organs) interactions, but sensory interactions cannot be continuous and it is limited by the
capacity of the human body. The following example can throw more light.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example 2
You may enjoy tasty food and derive pleasure from it, but there is limit to which you can eat
tasty food. Pleasures could be enjoying tasty food, seeing an interesting movie or smelling a
pleasant fragrance is short-lived and their continuity cannot be ensured. Rather too much
enjoyment may harm the body and it may lead to diseases. Similarly, indulging in too much

tasty food may also affect the heart, kidneys, digestive system and insulin system of the
body and so on. Another example is when people who watch too much television or internet
may develop many physical problems.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Thus, to experience joy (sustained happiness) or sadanand in your personal and professional
life, you need to have the right values and set the right priorities. In other words, too much
pursuit of body pleasures may lead to sufferings instead of happiness. So, joy can be
achieved only by controlling the desires related to pleasures. However, if there are no
pleasures in life, it may become a boring life. Whereas, too much of pleasures may create
problems for the body itself. Therefore, for a joyful or sustainable happiness, there is a need
to strike a correct balance.
Essentially, the common cause of unhappiness is found to be conflict with oneself i.e.
conflict of what you wish to be and what you are actually doing. In other words, ‘joy’ or
‘Sadanand’ state can only be achieved when an individual is in harmony with oneself,
family/society and nature. So, if you really want to have sustained happiness, you have to
not only think about pleasures, but also, work for having harmony with oneself, family/
society and nature. How to achieve this state of mind is discussed in the following lessons.
6.2 Prosperity
Similarly, nobody would like to remain without prosperity in his/her life. You need prosperity
during childhood for good nourishment and education, during adulthood for good care of
your children and family and during old age, prosperity is required for you for good medical
treatment and maybe to follow religious/social pursuits. In Indian culture also the most
common blessing given by the elders is ‘Sada Khush Raho’ (always be happy) or ‘Sada Sukhi
Raho’ (always be prosperous).Thus, it is a natural desire for human beings to aspire for
happiness and prosperity throughout their life. This desire is termed as being in the state of
‘sadanand’ in Sanskrit. There is nothing wrong to aspire for this state as even the religious
scriptures suggest ways and means for attaining this state. However, often due to
misunderstanding and internal conflicts, many people unable to achieve this state of mind.
The reasons for this is discussed in the next lesson ‘Harmony with oneself’.
Not achieving the sustainable state of ‘prosperity’ is often due to not possessing the right
notions of the term ‘prosperity’, as many still confuse between ‘prosperity’ with ‘wealth’.
The actual meaning of the word ‘prosperity’ is ‘the feeling that you have more than the
required physical resources for yourselves’. This definition means that you accumulate
sufficient physical resources which is required to live your personal life with comfort and
also the manage professional work. However, large number of people have developed a
mindset, where they want to accumulate ‘unlimited wealth’ to indicate prosperity in their
lives. This pursuit for accumulating unlimited wealth has the following consequences:

a) It is a never-ending process, as there is no limit to wealth accumulation. Since the

person will be always busy acquiring the wealth, s/he may not find time to enjoy this
wealth and essentially, the person may be working more than the capacity of his/her
body and in the long run s/he may develop some disease, which may lead to his/her
unhappiness.
b) Since the person will become so busy in accumulating wealth, s/he may not have
time for oneself. This person may not even find time to establish harmonious
relationships with oneself, family and society. This situation will disturb the harmony
and ultimately lead to his/her unhappiness.
c) If everyone on this earth starts accumulating wealth, it may lead to ecological and
social problems, since the earth also has limited resources. ‘Mahatma Gandhi’, father
of the nation, rightly said that the mother earth can satisfy every one’s need, but not
a single person’s greed.
6.3 Wealth and Businessperson

Wealth can be an ‘aim’ or means for achievement for the businessman or woman, because
s/he is able to put the wealth for productive use by investing it in manufacturing,
production, job creation and others. However, for professionals some wealth may be
required for smooth running of their profession, but it cannot be the main focus of their
profession. If professionals start focusing on wealth creation and management of wealth,
then they are left with very less time for developing professional excellence. As discussed in
a previous lesson, lack of professional excellence forces a professional to indulge in unethical
practices and that ultimately leads to conflict with self and disturbance of harmony with
society.
Joy (sustainable happiness) and prosperity is possible, only when the professional keeps in
mind that his/her requirement of physical resources is to be limited to his/her essential
needs and the aim of his/her personal life is not to accumulate excess wealth other than
his/her bodily needs. If you as a professional teacher like to continuously acquire much
wealth, then you should leave the teaching profession and become a business person.
ACTIVITY 2
List some aspects in your own life for introspection to check whether it is affecting the
attainment of sustained happiness and prosperity in your life and post in the E-Portfolio.
7.0 SUMMARY
Most people wish to have a happy and prosperous applicable for professionals and
professionals of higher education. However, for achieving prosperity, professionals need to
develop the adequate skills related to profession for earning enough. Excelling in the
profession and serving the society should be the aim of professional life and professionals
should derive happiness from it. In return, they can expect respect, name and fame.

Therefore, true meaning of prosperity and joy (sustainable happiness or sadanand) and the
difference between prosperity and wealth has been discussed in this lesson.
Professionals, who mainly focus on acquiring ‘wealth’ should prefer to be businessperson,

rather than becoming a professional. Otherwise, they will continue to live with inner
conflicts and may indulge in unethical practices and never be able to experience the joy and
happiness in their lives. To achieve joy (sustainable happiness or sadanand), professionals
are required have the right values, set the right priorities and follow ethical practices for
which s/he is required to live in harmony with oneself, family, society and nature. For
achieving harmony with oneself, the most important condition is that a professional should
be in the profession of his/her own choice ands/he should like the chosen profession.
However, if professionals are more interested in accumulating wealth, then it will create
conflict within oneself leading to disharmony, which requires that you to re-set to the right
value systems and priorities.
****
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[2] Altekar, A.S. (2009) – ‘Education in Ancient India’ Delhi: Isha Books
[3] Argyris, C. and Schon, D. (1974) – Theory in practice: Increasing Professional
Effectiveness.Jossey – Bass Publishers, San Francisco, CA
[4] Argyris, C. and Schon, D. (1978) – Organizational Learning: A theory of Action
Perspective.Addison Welsley Publishers, Reading, MA, USA

L-6 DISCUSSION FORUM
Start a discussion on the social media about the difference between happiness (‘Khushi’
in Hindi) and joy (‘Sadanand’ in Hindi)

L–7: Harmony with Oneself
Contributors

(Professor of Assessment and Evaluation)
Dr. S.S.Kedar
(Associate Professor, Department of Electronic Media)

Unit 2: Human Realities and Essentialities of Values and Skills L7: Harmony with Oneself
Lesson – 7
Harmony with Oneself
Learning Outcome: At the end of this lesson, you as a professional will be able to
take necessary steps to live in harmony with oneself and also benefit the students.
Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 3
2.0 HARMONY WITH ONESELF REQUIRED IN A PROFESSIONAL ...................................................................... 3
3.0 NEEDS OF THE MIND AND BODY ............................................................................................................... 4
4.0 SUPERIMPOSING NEEDS ............................................................................................................................ 5
5.0 PROBLEM OF SUPER-IMPOSING NEEDS ..................................................................................................... 6
6.0 REAL NEEDS OF THE MIND ......................................................................................................................... 7
7.0 CHOICE OF PROFESSION ............................................................................................................................ 9
8.0 CONCEPT OF ‘NATURAL ACCEPTANCE’ FOR PROFESSIONALS ................................................................. 10
9.0 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................................ 11
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...................................................................................................................................................... 11

Lesson – 7
Harmony with Oneself
1.0 INTRODUCTION
As discussed in previous lessons, professionals often have to take high-stake decisions, and
work in complex uncertain environment. The professionals’ mind should be free from worries
for taking good decisions to tackle complex problems. This requires that they should be free
from mental tensions and conflicts and have peace of mind. If they are facing some tensions
or worries due to any issue in their personal or professional life, it will affect their
performance. In other words, peace of mind is more important for professionals as compared
to other occupations such as administrators, businessman/women or workers. Nevertheless,
professionals are also human beings and they also have aspirations as they also have families,
live in the society and with nature. If they are not able to adjust with family, society and nature,
they will be stressed which may hamper their professional growth and their right decision
taking capabilities, even in routine works. Some professionals are not able to withstand
pressures from their family and society to satisfy the ever increasing desire for material things
which they think will maintain status, comforts and luxuries. Under such pressure or influence,
they may start indulging in unethical practices to earn more money as quickly as possible. it is
therefore essential for professionals to learn to live in harmony with oneself, family, society
and nature, without getting unduly influenced from them. Essentially, for peace of mind, they
are required to be conflict-free from within and this lesson discussed who it can be done.
2.0 HARMONY WITH ONESELF REQUIRED IN A PROFESSIONAL

Harmony with oneself is most basic and essential part for peaceful and meaningful living. The
most common reason for lack of harmony within oneself is that your focus often remains only
on the needs of the body. Animals also have needs of body such as food and shelter (see figure
1). However, contrary to animals, human beings are complex entities having needs of both the
body and the mind.
Dalai Lama said “People were created to be loved. Things were created to be used. The reason
why the world is in chaos, is because things are being loved and people are being used”. Needs
of human body are physical things like food, clothes, shelter, transportation, energy and
others. Needs of mind are different from needs of body and they are psychological in nature
such as respect, love, recognition, companionship, friendship and others. “To develop from
animal consciousness to human consciousness is a distinct transformation. It is a qualitative
improvement in consciousness. Value education is about enabling this transformation in the
human beings” [Gaur, 2016].

Human Consciousness
Food & shelter required but
NOT complete without the
mind
Transform to
Animal Consciousness
Limited to food & shelter
Need of Body
Food & shelter for
Animal
(Necessary & complete)
Figure 1 Transformation Required in a Professional
3.0 NEEDS OF THE MIND AND BODY

Mind resides in the body and hence for mind it is necessary that needs of the body are
satisfied. At the same time, the body acts on the instructions of the mind. Thus body and mind
are separate but at the same time highly dependent on each other and can have synergic
relationship if in harmony with each other. The real needs of mind do exist and a time will
come when lack of fulfillment of the real needs of the mind create the stress and disharmony
in the human beings. It is therefore necessary to understand the real needs of the body and
that of the mind. You should try to achieve both kinds of needs in a balanced manner. If this
balance is not maintained, then the harmony is disturbed. So for harmonious living with
oneself, you have to try to keep both the body and the mind satisfied.
Table 1 indicates that the basic needs of body are materialistic/physical facilities such as (food,
shelter, clothing and such others). These needs are concrete in nature and hence can be
measured or quantified. It differentiates well between needs of the body and mind and nature
of those needs. Moreover, there is a limit to which a person can enjoy these physical facilities
such as food, house, car or clothes. There is a difference in possessing the physical things and
enjoying them. There could be no limit to possess these things, but there is a limit to enjoy
them. The happiness that the physical things provide you is temporary, because after a period
of time, you again feel the need for a change.

Table -1
Needs of the Body and Mind for Human Consciousness
Particulars Body Mind

Needs are: Food, Clothing and such others Trust, Respect
Physical Facilities (suvidha) Happiness
Temporary In time, needs are Continuous
Needs are Qualitative (limited in quantity) Qualitative (no quantity)
in Quantity: Food, clothing and such others Needs are fulfilled by right understanding
and right thinking
Activities are: Breathing, Heart beats and such others Desiring, thinking, and such others
Recognizing, Fulfilling Knowing, Assuming, Recognizing, Fulfilling
It is a type of: Physio-Chemical/ physiological (material) Conscious/Psychological (non-material)
As far as qualities of these things/facilities are concerned, there are two components of quality
- one needed by body and the other for the mind. An example will highlight this.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example 1
If you wish to visit a high altitude hill station during winter season, then you will need warm
clothes, say a woolen coat. The amount of warmth this will provide depends on the quality of
the material it is made of and the quality of warmth required by the body. However, the style
of stitching the coat, and some embroidery work over it are only embellishments so that this
coat looks more attractive and this is the quality needed by the mind, and not the body.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4.0 SUPERIMPOSING NEEDS

Over a period of time, humans have mixed the needs of body with needs of mind. For example,
clothes are a need of the body, but clothes with embellishments are need of mind super-
imposed over needs of the body. Nutritious food is need of the body, but tasty food is need
of the mind super-imposed over need of the body. Desire of having a vehicle to travel may be
considered as need of body. But desire of having a luxurious and fancy car is definitely need
of the mind super-imposed over the need of the body. In this way, human needs of the body
have been made so complex, that often people exhaust most of their time, energy and
resources in fulfilling the needs of the body, at the cost of the real needs of the mind which
are i.e. respect, love, friendship, peace and such others.
The most important is in being harmony with oneself. Harmony with oneself is normally at
two levels, first at individual level and other at professional level. At individual level you have
to understand that for human beings the needs of body as well as needs of the mind, both are
equally important. Needs of the body such as food, clothing and shelter are limited and it is
possible to satisfy them with reasonable efforts. However, you will face problems when you
wish to satisfy the needs of the mind by superimposing them on the needs of the body.

5.0 PROBLEM OF SUPER-IMPOSING NEEDS

The problem with some professionals is that they try to satisfy the needs of the mind by
additionally attaching the quality features to the physical things, with the hope that real needs
of the mind such as respect, love, recognition will be achieved through this. It is true that when
some people see you living in a big bungalow, moving around in a luxurious car, wearing
designer clothes, they may look at you with awe and liking. But this liking is not for you, it is
for your house, your clothes or your car. These things are not able to generate love or respect
for you. Love or respect comes only when you give some things to people without expecting
anything in return. It should be understood that professionals can gain respect only by
providing good and quality services. You as a teaching professional, gain the respect of the
students by your effective teaching and devotion. If a teacher wears trendy and branded
clothes and uses a luxury SUV car, but is not able to teach well, then s/he will NOT get love
and respect of the students.
Table 1 shows that needs of the mind such as respect and love are different from the needs
of the body. They are abstract and qualitative things and cannot be quantified. Since they
cannot be quantified, there is no limit to these things. A person can get unlimited respect. For
example, the respect, love and reverence offered to Mahatma Gandhi can be termed as
infinite. Moreover, these abstract things are not temporary or periodic. Respect, name, fame
can be forever. Thus, the needs of the mind are associated with feelings, while that of body is
associated with physiological aspect of the body. In other words, body is mainly a physiological
entity and mind is mainly a psychological entity or consciousness.
The needs of mind are more diverse and complex. If needs of mind are not clearly understood,
then these needs may create more stress as compared to the needs of the body. Suppose, you
desire to buy a house, car, mobile phone, clothes and such others for your requirements, then
these things can be acquired with reasonable efforts by which you can live a stress-free life.
However, if you go beyond this necessary requirement, and buy designer clothes, expensive
mobile phones, luxurious expensive cars, palatial houses and such others to enhance your
status, then you will fall in the vicious trap of purchasing the latest and the most luxurious
things every time they are introduced in the market and in this process you will forget the
most basic needs of your body i.e. health, and when you develop the health problems your
life will become problematic and stressful. Moreover, this wrong intention of maintaining the
status will divert the attention from your professional duties and real needs of the mind.
This discussion can be summarised by saying that one of the main causes of lack of harmony
with oneself is the wrong amalgamation of the needs of the body with needs of the mind. It is
totally a misplaced expectation to derive respect, love, recognition and such others by
possession of large amount of expensive, beautiful and glamorous things such as big house,
luxury car, fancy mobile phones and others. It should be well understood that the real need

of the body is quite limited, and it is not expensive items, and therefore, you should dissociate
these needs of the body from need of the mind, for maintaining the wrong notion of ‘status’.
ACTIVITY 1
List out some of the physical things that you have acquired beyond your required
necessity with an intention to maintain your status for introspection and self-correction.
6.0 REAL NEEDS OF THE MIND

There are a wide range of jobs/occupations/professions available in this world and a person
has to choose one of his/her liking if s/he wants to enjoy and excel in that profession. The
basic need of the mind is to have a job/livelihood of one’s own liking, since human beings
spend most part of their life in their job or occupation. If a person is forced to take up an
occupation, which is not of his/her liking, then even if s/he is earning considerable amount of
money, s/he may not enjoy the work and this will lead to stress and disharmony.
Sometimes, people are forced to do a job which is not of their choice, because of some
compulsions, but often, when opportunities to choose jobs of their liking are available, even
then, people take wrong decisions as their criteria of choosing jobs is something else, rather
than the job of their liking. The other reason is that there is such a wide range and variety of
jobs, that a student between the age of 16 to 18 years get confused to choose a proper
programme of study leading to a job, which can satisfy his/her mental needs. After a student
has chosen a particular UG programme of study then it becomes difficult for him/her to
change at a later stage. For better understanding and choice of jobs it is important that
students are informed about the basic features of every job/occupation. Based on the basic
features of the jobs/occupations, all the jobs can be clubbed in four major categories:
a) Knowledge based jobs
b) Power/position based jobs
c) Capital or money based jobs
d) Skill based jobs.
It is true that for all the jobs is required some basic related knowledge, some capital (money),
electric power and some related skills. But out of these four categories (see figure 2), any one
category would be the most basic and dominant in that particular type of job. In fact, the
requirement of any one out of four attributes/strengths i.e. ‘knowledge’, ‘power’, ‘capital’ and
‘skill’ is very central to a job and a person needs to acquire that strength to undertake that job
for the livelihood and respect. Moreover, when the person does a job using that strength, s/he
further enhances it with experience and time. This increases his/her ability to earn more. This
further increases his/her earnings/reputation in the society till s/he retires. For example,
knowledge of a Doctor/Professor/Engineer increases with experience. Similarly, power of a
Politician/Administrator grows with seniority. Business persons also increase their capital with
time if they have not suffered losses. Skills of craftsman also improve with time and practice.

Occupations
Professionals Administrators/ Business Crafts

(based on Defence personnel (based on person/artists
knowledge) (based on position/power) capital) (based on skills)
predominantly)
 Professionals-  Politicians  Manufacturers  Carpenters
Arts/language  Administrators  Traders  Plumbers
- Science (IAS and other officers)  Bankers  Masons
-Engineering  Army  Farmers  Welders
-Medicine  Police  Travel Agencies  Pilots
 Engineers/Architects  Sports  Service  Drivers
 Doctors Officers/Coaches providers  Sculptors
 Judges/Lawyers (Wrestling, Athletics,  Insurance  Singers
 Chartered Accountants and such others) companies  Dancers
 Journalists  Film producers  Musicians
 Artists  Actors
- Poets/Writers  Sports persons
- Music composers
- Drama Directors
Figure 2. Occupations Categories
Now it is required to inform the students about the basic features/nature of these jobs and
ask them liking - knowledge-based, power-based, capital (money)-based or skill-based jobs.
However, it is to be informed that through every type of job, they can earn their livelihood,
reputation, name and fame depending upon the level at which they work. There are plenty of
examples of persons in each category who have earned enough money/reputation/fame.
However, there are also uncountable persons in each category of jobs, who could earn enough
only to sustain. So earning money/reputation/fame alone should not be the criteria of
choosing the job, the criterion for choosing the job should be liking of the job.
It is obvious to students that no job is superior or inferior. All jobs are equally important for
the society and all jobs can give enough money/dignity/reputation to live a respectable life in
the society. Further, the knowledge/money/power/skills required for living as a good citizen
is sufficient in all types of jobs. The only difference is that more knowledge is used for earning
livelihood and mental satisfaction by professionals/knowledge workers, as they feel that they
are doing something for the common good. Similarly, more power is used for earning
livelihood and mental satisfaction by politicians/administrators. Same is true for business
persons in capital (money) related jobs. Thus, money is a means for businesspersons for doing
business and not the end outcome of business. Similarly, knowledge is a means for
professional workers, as power is for politicians to serve the society. A performer like actor/
singer/sculpture serves the society by using his/her skills. So, knowledge/power/capital
(money)/skills are not to be enjoyed just by possessing them, rather they have to be enjoyed
by using them for serving the society. Students have to choose only what they like most out

of these four and choose their job accordingly. Livelihood/satisfaction/fame will come
automatically if you do the job of your liking.
7.0 CHOICE OF PROFESSION

The choice of a profession should be based on two basic criteria; first based on the liking
(interests) and secondly, based on your capability. If choice of profession is not based on
these two criteria, a professional will always a conflict within oneself and it will with great
difficulty to remain in harmony with oneself. Further, it will lead to ineffective services being
provided by that professional to the clients, which will be harmful to the society. Therefore, it
is unethical to work in a profession, if it is not based on these two criteria. The following
example will help to understand it better
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example 2
If you want to become a famous actor in Bollywood and you are very much like it, then you
should also have talent to learn it and also act well. If you do not have the acting talent or
aptitude, you may not become a good actor, despite your extreme liking for this occupation.
If you are still adamant about staying on in this occupation and somehow manage to be
famous actor, it may make your life miserable.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Every profession and each of its specialties are important. In each specialisation (see figure 1)
there is sub-specialisation. For example, Civil engineers can have sub-specialisation in
structures or water resources or public health engineering or transportation and so on. Such
large variety creates the problem for selection. All these varieties and variations create
confusion in the minds of students and they are not able to fix their mind on one profession
and this creates problem in development of professional excellence. This has been a big cause
of stress and disharmony in many professionals. The solution is that professionals should
choose the profession and the specialties mainly based on their own liking.
Different specialisations have their merits and limitations. Similarly, different professions have
their own privileges and protocols. The employability and earning opportunities are cyclic in
nature and in every person’s life time every profession sees the ups and down in earning. At
different points of time, different specialisation provides different prospects for employment
or earning money. The following example throws more light.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example 3
About two decades ago, a professional Radiologist (specialisation in medicine) used to earn
relatively less as compared to other specialties. But after advent of ultra-sonography, CAT and
MRI, radiologists earn more money as compared to other specialties.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Hence, earning money should not only be the criterion for choosing a profession, if you want
to be at harmony with oneself.

8.0 CONCEPT OF ‘NATURAL ACCEPTANCE’ FOR PROFESSIONALS

Gaur et al. (2016) defines ‘Realization’ as the ability to see the reality ‘as it is’. The term
‘Understanding’ means to understand the ‘self-organization’ in all entities of nature/existence
and their ‘inter-connected’ organization ‘as it is’. If you can appreciate the inter-connectedness
of different entities such as oneself, family, society and nature, then it will be possible for you
to be at peace, content and harmony with every entity including yourself. Gaur et al. [2016]
suggests that to overcome this problem, you should identify your own natural acceptance i.e.
you should continue to observe yourselves and keep asking yourselves the question,
“Whether this is naturally acceptable to me”? If you keep asking this question to yourselves,
you will be able to access your natural acceptance and this will lead you to the right realization
and understanding. If you are able to appreciate your natural acceptance, then it will lead to
the right realisation (ability to see the reality or the world as it is) and understanding i.e. your
interconnectedness, with the reality.
Since people are not aware of their own ‘natural acceptances’ and they take decisions based
on pre-conditioned views (created by society/media and others) or based on sensations
(pleasures associated with jobs) leading to desires which are incompatible to ‘natural
acceptances’. Most of the times, you do not look within and never try to appreciate your
‘natural acceptance’. Often, people plan (think and analyse) their actions based on those
desires which are incompatible to their natural acceptance. Most of the times those desires
do not get achieved (since they were incompatible to ‘natural acceptance’) and therefore, it
creates stress and disharmony.
Thus, for harmony you have to activate your thinking for realisation (appreciation of reality)
and understanding (appreciation your role/responsibility in that reality based on our natural
acceptance). If you do not do it, your desires arise from external environment and since
external environment keeps changing, your desires will also keep changing or shifting and this
indefiniteness will get reflected in your thoughts, your choices and finally in your behaviour
and work.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example 4
You talk about protecting the environment, but your actions are such that they consume more
energy/material and also create more pollution. However, if you had identified your natural
acceptance and kept your mind active for ‘Realisation’ and ‘Understanding’, then there will
be a ‘certainty’ in your behaviour and conduct. This will lead to a kind of definiteness or
stability in your professional life. There will be stability in your direction and purpose new
techniques which are more effective and efficient are continually adopted to achieve the
desired purposes. When you are certain about your purposes and direction, then your desires
will be according to your interests and capabilities in place of short term trends in the
society/economy/profession and such others. Once your desires are compatible with your
natural acceptance, your thinking for protecting the environment will be in harmony with core

values of your mind and this will result into proper actions which in turn will lead to success
and more peace and harmony within yourself.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
8.1. Natural Acceptance and Disharmony
The modern world presents so many opportunities, so many varieties in every aspect of life
and that too in such a way that a considerable number of people start following a fashion
trend and this creates an attraction about that particular fashion trend in others also. Hence
more young people go for this fashion trend and the people start thinking that ‘How to do it?’,
without thinking ‘why to do?’. Before following a new trend (whether it is fashion, cars,
mobiles or some professional practice), you ask yourself that whether it is naturally acceptable
to you, then you may save yourself from falling in unnecessary traps. Such traps reduce your
efficiency and effectiveness, leading to deteriorations in your professional practice and
disharmony within yourself. Once you are certain and definite in your aim, you will not be
distracted by irrelevant changes or trends in the society/market/professional practices. This
will create a harmony within you, and this will make your professional practice more effective
and which are more ethical.
9.0 SUMMARY
It is essential for professionals to have peace of mind for working efficiently and effectively.
This peace of mind is possible only when professionals are in harmony with oneself. To face
the life, you have to choose one virtue out of four virtues (i.e. based on knowledge, power,
capital (money) and skills) which matches with your natural acceptance as discussed in this
lesson. This will help you not only, to earn enough to satisfy the needs of the body, but also,
earn respect and reputation that satisfies the needs of the mind as well, as you will be
providing the best products/services to the society through your chosen occupation. A
professional who mainly uses the virtue of ‘knowledge’ for his/her profession, it is essential
that you choose an occupation of your liking (based on your natural acceptance) and then you
remain firm to that choice over a period of time. As a professional, if you get tempted by the
fluctuations in financial returns due to market conditions and frequently change your
specialization then you would not be able to grow and would not be able to remain in harmony
with yourself. So, as a professional, you need to remain firm on your choice of your profession
for professional excellence and growth as well as harmony within yourself.
****
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[2] Altekar, A.S. (2009) – ‘Education in Ancient India’ Isha Books: Delhi
[3] Chopra, Deepak (2008) – ‘The Seven Spiritual Laws of Success’, Hay House, New Delhi,
Reprint 28th 2020.


Perspective.Addison Welsley Publishers, Reading, MA

Start a discussion on the social media on any one or more four virtues (i.e. knowledge,
power, capital (money) and skills).

L–8: Harmony with Family, Society and
Nature for Co-existence: ‘Sarve
Bhavantu Sukhinah’ (सर्वे भर्वन्तु सुखिन)
Contributors

Dr. A. K. Jain
Professor of Civil Engineering

Shamla Hills, Bhopal M.P. - INDIA 462 002
Unit 2: Human Realities and Essentialities of Values and Skills L8: Harmony with Family, Society and Nature for Co-existence
Lesson – 8
Harmony with Family, Society and Nature for Co-existence: ‘Sarve

Bhavantu Sukhinah’ (सर्वे भर्वन्तु सुखिनः)
Learning outcomes: At the end of this lesson, you as professional will be able to
plan to live in harmony with family, society and nature for peaceful co-existence.
Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 3
2.0 PROFESSIONAL’S HARMONY WITH FAMILY ............................................................................................... 3
2.1 Misunderstanding Among Family Members ................................................................................ 4
2.2 Mitigating Misunderstandings ..................................................................................................... 4
2.3 Abuse of Trust .............................................................................................................................. 5
3.0 PROFESSIONAL’S HARMONY WITH SOCIETY .............................................................................................. 6
3.1 Conflict of Interests ...................................................................................................................... 7
4.0 PROFESSIONAL’S HARMONY WITH NATURE .............................................................................................. 8
5.0 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................................ 10
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...................................................................................................................................................... 11

Lesson – 8
Harmony with Family, Society and Nature for Co-existence: ‘Sarve
Bhavantu Sukhinah’ (सर्वे भर्वन्तु सुखिनः)
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Professionals are supposed to work as leaders (not as a political leader) to show and guide the
right way of doing things to society on different aspects of life, such as education, health,
ethics, lawful conduct, aesthetics, arts and culture. In other words, professionals show the
path to the society as to how to live a proper life. However, for this to happen satisfactorily,
professionals have to first show that they themselves live in harmony with their family, society
and nature. The present day definition of healthy person is ‘when that person is physically,
mentally and socially fit’. That is why you as professional teacher say to your students that
they must develop healthy habits. That is why, when a student tells a ‘lie’, the teacher tells
him/her that it is wrong habit. In other words, a person to be healthy has to be in harmony
with oneself, family, society and nature. This harmony with oneself is possible only when a
person is able to discover his/her ‘natural acceptance’ (discussed in preceding lesson) and
chooses a profession according to that natural acceptance. This identification of natural
acceptance is possible though the process of realization (knowing what the reality is) and
understanding (knowing ones’ own role in this reality). If a person has identified his/her
natural acceptance and leads the professional and personal life accordingly, then s/he will be
able to show a definiteness in his/her life and the behaviour will not be affected by some small
variations in the economic or social environment around him/her. When a person shows a
consistency or definiteness in his/her personal and professional behaviour, s/he will not only
be able to, develop his/her professional skills, but also, be able to gain the trust of the people
around him/her. Trust is a basic or fundamental condition for a stress free, smooth and
harmonious relationship between two individuals. Hence, for establishing a relationship of
trust with family, people around in his/her profession and nature, these are the aspects
discussed in this lesson.
2.0 PROFESSIONAL’S HARMONY WITH FAMILY

Every professional normally lives in a family, which may be a nuclear family of life partners
with children or extended family where members of three generations may be living together.
For an effective professional life, it is essential for them to have a harmonious relationship
within the family. Otherwise, it will lead to stress in the members which in turn will affect
his/her professional performance. Normally, every member in the family takes care of each
other and thinks of welfare and well-being of other members although there may be
exceptions to this statement. In few cases, some particular member of the family may be
exploiting the situation by taking advantage and enjoying privileges of being the family
member, but not contributing his/her own bit. Sometimes, it may also happen that, although
every family member is trying to do his/her best with full honesty in the common interest of

the family, some kind of misunderstanding may crop up between some family members,
which may require some introspection and reflection.
2.1 Misunderstanding Among Family Members

Gaur (2016) states that the main cause of such misunderstanding is that people are not able
to distinguish the ‘intentions’ of the person with his/her ‘competence/capability’ and this
creates the problem. It is agreed that harmony with family and society also depends upon
how other members of family and society respond. However, in most cases with the genuine
efforts of an individual, it is possible to establish harmony with most of the members of the
family and society (barring some exceptionally bad members). This can be better explained
with the following examples.
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Example 1
A father wants to earn enough money so that he could provide necessary facilities to his kids.
But, due to some ill-health, he feels tired quickly and is not able to work as much as he wants
to do and hence, earns lesser money. Since he is not able to fulfill the demands of his kids due
to lack of money, his kids think that their father does not work hard enough to earn money
for them, because he is not much bothered about them. In this case, the father has good
intentions about providing needed facilities to the kids, but due to his ill-health (in other words
lack of competence to earn sufficient money) he is not able to earn enough. This creates a
misunderstanding.
Example 2
A man is not very efficient in his official work and hence he requires more time in the office to
complete the task given by his boss. Moreover, his boss is a tough task master and is very
particular that deadlines should be met. Due to this work pressure, the man spends more time
in office to meet the targets. His wife observes that his colleagues return from office in time,
but her husband is always late. So, she thinks that her husband is not bothered about family
and likes to spend more time in office, rather than at home. In this case also, the wife is
mistakenly confusing ‘intentions’ with ‘competency’ to work.
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If you reflect and look around, you will find many such examples where people confuse
intentions with capacity/competence and this creates the misunderstanding and problems in
relationships.
2.2 Mitigating Misunderstandings

For removing misunderstandings between family members, you have to consciously work to
mitigate it and everyone has to start with oneself. If you explore your natural acceptances in
family relationships, then you will find that first you wish to be happy and live stress free in
family and you desire the same state of mind for every member of your family too. It is also
natural that as a family member each one of them also desires the same for you too. If you

assume that your family members are like you and they are your well-wishers, as you are for
them, then it will result in unwavering confidence in you, and your behaviour towards every
family member will be very natural and free from any kind of suspicion. This type of behaviour
will induce same feelings in your family members and their behaviour will also become natural
and they will also stop seeing your intentions with any suspicion. This mutual behaviour will
develop trust amongst every family member. This is further explained by the following
examples.
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Example 3
When there is a feeling of trust amongst family members and you notice that the behaviour
of one family member ‘A’ is not as expected. Even then you continue to trust that ‘A’, and not
doubt ‘A’s intentions. Rather, you try to understand the problems or weakness in ‘A’ and try
to remove the cause, so that capability of ‘A’ improves and s/he starts working and behaving
as before with other family members.
Example 4
Sometimes, a family member ‘B’ is having some ill feelings against some other family member
‘C’. If family member ‘C’ continues to behave normally with family member ‘B’, then in the
long run, the ill feeling of the family member ‘B’ will gradually diminish.
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As the saying goes trust begets trust, the only condition is that it requires patience and time,
which should be continually nurtured. Thus, if a family member shows trust for a long time
towards every other member, then every other family member also develops the trust
towards others and sustainable peace and harmony will set-in/prevail in the family.
2.3 Abuse of Trust

Now you may ask a question, that if you go on trusting people without doubting their
intentions, then some family member can take advantage of this situation and exploit others.
This is a genuine question because, such cases have happened in many places. The concepts
discussed in the above paragraphs is not that you trust everybody blindly. Rather, you should
start the relationship based on mutual trust and give that family member a chance to
reciprocate that trust. Moreover, if you find that family member is not able to perform up to
the expectations, then you should help him/her to build his/her capability to perform up to
the expectations. In this way, an environment of trust will develop and capacity of family
members will also develop with the help of each other.
However, if some family member due to some bad habits or some bad intentions continues
to exploit that trust, then you should try to counsel that family member and if that family
member does not change his/her attitude/habit, then you can withdraw or minimise the
relationship depending upon the kind of biological (i.e. blood relationship) relationship you
have with that family member. The point here is that you should not mistrust family members

and should not start every relationship on mistrust because, if you start relationship based on
mistrust, then positive relationship will not get developed and there will not be any harmony.
It will create more stress and will reduce the capacity to help each other leading to more
mistrust. However, if relationships are established based on trust then, it will lead to greater
harmony, stress free life and promote capacity building of each member leading to more trust
development and synergic relationships. Nevertheless, if someone misuses this relationship
of trust then you always have the choice to come out of that relationship or minimise the
intensity of the relationship.
For harmonious relationship within family, it is essential that professionals develop the culture
of trust within every family. They should educate the family member that in case a family
member’s behaviour/working is not up to the required expectations and you have doubts
about his/her intentions, you should check whether he/she is facing some problem. If so, you
should try to help to improve his/her capacity/competence levels in order to build up the
confidence to come up to the expectations.
3.0 PROFESSIONAL’S HARMONY WITH SOCIETY

It is evident from the previous sections that initially, it is difficult to achieve the harmony with
oneself and within family as it requires considerable efforts. However, after the harmony is
established, life becomes more peaceful and fruitful in the family. It is now obvious that the
basis of a harmonious relationship between any two individuals is trust. Therefore, for
establishing the harmonious relationship with society also, you as a professional have to
develop the trust with the individuals of the society. In the family, every member has almost
equal importance. Sometimes, some power relationships does exist. But, in these power
relationships, there is also an element of love and belongingness. The importance of every
member and feeling of love and belongingness for and by every member cannot be generally
expected in society. In this situation it is more difficult to develop a relationship of trust with
society.
However, as discussed in lesson 1, professionals can work smoothly only when they have a
relationship of trust with their clients. So on one extreme it is difficult to develop trust with
members of society (many of whom professionals even do not know) and on the other
extreme trust is an essential component for smooth functioning of the professions. Hence, it
is a challenging task for professionals to harmoniously carry on their profession. Moreover, it
is more important for professionals to develop that trust as compared to that of the clients.
Power relationship between clients and professionals is also such that it becomes the
responsibility of the professionals to develop that trust. Now it is a million-dollar question as
to how can professionals develop trust with society.

3.1 Conflict of Interests

If you analyse the reasons of not developing trust by one individual or group of individuals,
then the conflict of interest emerges as most common cause. Following examples can throw
more light on this.
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Example 5
Suppose a company secretary of a large company holds a large number of stocks or shares of
that same company. If that company secretary suggests that it will be in the interest of the
company to grant bonus share free of cost against each share held by the shareholder, then
this suggestion of company secretary may be taken with suspicion by other stakeholders of
the company.
Example 6
Some lawyers are seen with mistrust by their clients, as they think that lawyer is trying to
prolong the case, so that the lawyer continues to extract more money.
Example 7
Similarly, when a gynecologist doctor, who is also the owner of the hospital suggests that for
smooth delivery of the baby, a caesarian operation of the pregnant lady is necessary, then it
is natural for relatives of pregnant lady to doubt that doctor is suggesting this because s/he
owns the hospital and wants to make more money by performing the caesarian delivery.
Example 8
If a professor offers the paid coaching classes to students of his/her college at his/her home
or some coaching centre is also an example of conflict of interest. As most of the students who
do not attend his/her paid coaching classes fail in the examination, then it is natural for
stakeholders to think that professor is intentionally not teaching well in the college regular
classes, so that the students fail in the examinations and are forced to attend his/her paid
coaching classes.
Example 9
Similarly, if a teacher of higher education (as s/he is a professional) of a public sector/
government institution draws salary (i.e. tax payer’s money) from the government and
simultaneously earns a second income after office hours by teaching at home or coaching
centre (as it is illegal by law) secretly, is also another example of conflict of interest as a
government officer is on duty for 24 x7 hours.
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If you try to find out the root cause of the conflict of interest in all of the above viz. company
secretary, lawyer, doctor and professor, then the root cause of the problem seems to be the
desire for excess money. This ‘desire for excessive money’ is the root cause of trust deficit. If

you examine the life style of professionals in ancient India, it is a well-documented that
professionals in ancient India viz. Teacher (guru), Doctor (Vaidya), Judges (Raj Guru) and
others were not allowed to accumulate wealth, and the society at that time used to guarantee
to take care of their basic needs. Since professionals never accumulated wealth in ancient
India, they lived a very simple life and there was no reason to doubt their decisions and
actions. Moreover, as discussed in previous lessons, professionals should think of
accumulating knowledge and use that knowledge for the betterment of the community.
Now the big question as to why professionals need not have more money. If they have more
money, then they will also need time to invest and manage it and this process will take their
time and attention away from the knowledge acquisition. They will fall in the trap of
multiplying their wealth and there is no limit to wealth accumulation. This accumulation of
wealth will make professionals more of business person, rather than lover of knowledge, with
professionals losing the trust of the society. As discussed in lesson 1, professionals work in
highly uncertain, complex and high-stake situations and it is possible that despite of their
best intentions and efforts, the outcome of the decisions/actions may be negative. If a
professional is viewed as a money-minded person, then the clients may think that such a
professional has taken decisions based on his/her interest for earning more money, rather
than based on the interest of the clients.
The present day situations have created big problems for sincere professionals. The Indian
media have brought to light several incidents where the relatives of patients have beaten up
the doctors because something went wrong with the patients. Such incidents are indicators
of loss of trust due to general perceptions in the public mind that professionals have become
lethargic and money minded. In ancient India, professionals were always respected by the
general public at large, because the general public was aware of the fact that, although the
professionals had so much knowledge and could use that knowledge to earn excessive money,
they did not do that. Instead, the professionals lived modest lives and used that knowledge to
serve the society. From these discussions, it can be concluded that to gain the trust of the
society and to develop a harmonious relationship, professionals need to develop an image
that they are the seekers of knowledge and not of money as was in ancient India.
4.0 PROFESSIONAL’S HARMONY WITH NATURE

The most difficult task that mankind is facing in the 21st century is to re-establish the
harmonious relation between human beings and nature. The unprecedented scientific and
technological developments of the last two hundred years have given tremendous impetus to
humans to exploit the nature for their own pleasures. The mute nature could not raise its
voice against such exploitation, but this exploitation has disturbed the balance of nature so
much so, that now survival of mankind seems under threat, the indications of which are quite
evident. Everybody agrees that the relationship of nature and mankind cannot be termed
harmonious and fault for this situation lies with human beings. If there is no harmony between

nature and mankind then it will very adversely affect all aspects of human life. Despite all
scientific developments you still basically depend on nature which is made of five tatvas i.e.
basic elements viz. earth, water, air, fire (energy) and space.
If you analyse this world, it can be classified in four orders, the most fundamental order is
‘material order’ (i.e. land, soil, mountains, rivers, seas, minerals, gases and such others) which
is made of these five traditional elements or tatvas mentioned above. This material order
supports ‘plant order’ on earth grow all type of plants, fruits, vegetables, cereals and others
with the help of space, water, air, and energy. This plant order in turn supports ‘animal order’
‘since all kind of bacteria, insects, land animals, birds, fishes and other sea animals require
food from plants.
The most outer order is that of ‘human beings’ who are using their knowledge to harness all
three orders i.e. material order, plant order and animal order for their own pleasures. If you
analyse closely, it becomes clearly visible that plant order is dependent on material order, but
plant order has not disturbed the material order, similarly animal order is dependent on plant
and material order, but animal order has not disturbed either plant order or material order. It
is because all the three orders behave according to the basic principle of nature i.e. to
maintain the balance by following the cycle of taking and giving.
Water cycle, Nitrogen Cycle, soil-plant-soil cycle are such examples which show that how
different orders interact with each other and at the same time maintain a balance so that this
beautiful earth continues to exist with all its diversity of flora and fauna. However, human
order is taking so much and so quickly from all other three orders and returning it in such a
distorted form that it is not able to become natural part of the nature.
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Example 10
You are returning so much plastic waste every year to nature, that it is not able to absorb even
one percentage of it and hence plastic is contaminating the earth and water both. This
contamination is so intensive that it has poisoned the animals, birds and the water creatures.
When these poisoned animals, birds and water creatures are eaten by human beings, they
poison the humans which has led to emergence of unheard diseases such as corona virus
COVID-19, which originated in China and became a pandemic across the world in early 2020.
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So, the present life style of humans is neither suitable for these three orders nor even for you.
In this scenario it is the duty of all professionals (such as you) to selflessly and truthfully work
to continue to create new knowledge, in their respective areas for preserving the planet earth
from further deterioration.

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Example 11
Engineers should develop renewable energy technologies, energy and environment friendly
materials and processes, recyclable goods or their parts. Professors should teach relevant
energy and environment friendly technologies, lawyers should force parliament to make
relevant acts or laws such as on ban on single use plastics and so on.
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Thus, for harmonious relation between mother earth and human beings it is absolutely
essential that all professionals work in unison and take environmentally-sustainable decisions.
You have to understand that for sustainable happiness, it is essential to have conducive and
sustainable environment. How professionals can work for sustainable development is
discussed in later lessons.
5.0 SUMMARY
This is an over-arching concluding section binding together even the previous lessons of this
unit as they are also interlinked. For co-existence of individuals with each other and nature,
and happiness of every individual (especially you as a professional). Since professionals are
leaders or role models in the society, they are supposed to first show to the society, how to
live in harmony first with oneself, family, society and nature. It is not a very difficult task, but
it requires a proper realization and understanding leading to identification/discovery of the
‘natural acceptance’ of oneself, the following steps need to be followed:
a) To live in harmony with oneself a person should identify his/her profession according
to his/her liking and capability. If someone likes and is capable in some kind of
profession, it is highly possible that s/he will excel in that profession and will be able
to earn sufficient money and reputation in the long run, although initially it may not
seem to be a lucrative one. However, if a person chooses a profession which is not of
his/her liking and capabilities but prospects of earning more money in that profession,
even then it is highly possible that after sometime s/he may not enjoy the profession
and may feel stressed and dis-interested. The criterion of earning money should not
be the sole deciding factor,
b) To live in harmony with family, every member of the family should start treating each
other with trust. The relationships should start with trust and even if behaviour of a
family member is not up to the mark. Instead of doubting his/her ‘intentions’ one
should try to find out the level of his/her ‘capability/competence’ to work and help
him/her to come up to the expectations. If you could identify such weakness, then you
should develop that individual to overcome that weakness and help him/her to come
up to the desired expectations.
c) To live in harmony with society, the same condition as for family is applicable. You have
to treat the society as family i.e. the concept of Indian wisdom of ‘vasudhaiva
kutumbakam’. In addition to this, the most important thing is that you should NOT
start accumulating wealth, but aspire for prosperity and not for wealth, as discussed in

lesson 1. Professionals should aspire to accumulate knowledge and not wealth. A

classic example of an outstanding professional is the living legend, Prof. Goodenough
of Texas State University, Texas, USA who got the Nobel Prize for Physics at the age of
97 years in the year 2019 for his contribution to the world with Lithium-Ion battery and
which was the trigger for Industrial Revolution 4.0 (IR4) revolutionising the entire
lifestyle of human beings.
If professionals start accumulating wealth, it will create conflict of interests and their
relationship with society, which is based on trust, will deteriorate. Professionals should
use their knowledge to serve the society. If they start accumulating wealth, their time
and focus will shift from pursuit of knowledge to pursuit of wealth and this will affect
their harmony with oneself and the society. Similarly, administrators should
accumulate power, and not wealth. Only business persons can accumulate wealth
since they use wealth for creating jobs by expanding the business.
d) To live in harmony with nature, human beings should learn from the plant order and
the animal order that their consumption pattern should be such that they return back
to the nature as much as they take from nature. This requires multi-pronged strategies
which are discussed in lessons 3 to 15 and lesson 20. But it is worth mentioning that as
professionals are most knowledgeable and most respected individuals in the society,
it is their onerous duty to not only suggest ways and means to protect nature, but also,
to live their own lives according to those suggested principles.
You should not forget that sustainable happiness is best possible in a sustainable
environment. If every individual (especially you as a professional) works for establishing
harmony with the oneself, family, society and nature based on these principles automatically
happiness set in for all and you as a professional would be able to achieve the mission of Indian
civilization i.e. ‘Sarve Bhavantu Sukhinah’.
****
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[2] Altekar, A.S. (2009) – ‘Education in Ancient India’ Isha Books: Delhi
[3] Chopra, Deepak (2008) – ‘The Seven Spiritual Laws of Success’, Hay House, New Delhi,
Reprint 28th 2020.
Perspective.Addison Welsley Publishers, Reading, MA

L– 8 DISCUSSION FORUM
Start a discussion on social media about the steps that may help you in achieving harmony
with family, society and nature.

L–9: Understanding Values, Attitudes
and Ethics
Contributors
Prof. Prakash W. Dandekar

(Evangelist & Visiting Professor, IIT Gandhinagar & Bombay, Member, Heartfulness Institute)
Prof. Asmita A. Khajanchee

Associate Professor, Department of Electronic Media, NITTTR Bhopal

Unit 3: Development of Professional Values, Attitudes and Ethics L9: Understanding Values, Attitudes and Ethics
Lesson – 9
Understanding of Values, Attitudes and Ethics
LO 1. Describe the role of values in personal life.
LO 2. Explain importance of positive attitudes.
LO 3. Justify the need to follow ethics.
Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 3
2.0 VALUES ....................................................................................................................................................... 3
2.1 More about Values ...................................................................................................................... 3
2.2 Attributes Related to Values ........................................................................................................ 4
3.0 ATTITUDES ................................................................................................................................................. 5
3.1 Positive attitude ........................................................................................................................... 5
3.2 Negative attitude ......................................................................................................................... 6
3.3 Neutral Attitude ........................................................................................................................... 7
3.4 Sikken Attitude............................................................................................................................. 7
4.0 ETHICS ........................................................................................................................................................ 7
4.1 Ethical Violation ........................................................................................................................... 8
4.2 Academic Ethics ........................................................................................................................... 8
4.3 Business Ethics ............................................................................................................................. 9
5.0 DISTINTICTIVE FEATURES OF VALUES, ATTITUDES AND ETHICS ................................................................ 9
6.0 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................................ 10
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...................................................................................................................................................... 10

Lesson – 9
Understanding Values, Attitudes and Ethics
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Values, attitudes and ethics are like the lubricant that is instrumental in running the
mechanism of human social life smoothly. Without it, a purposeful life cannot be lived, since
they affect the credibility of the activities being carried out by any human being. In a way,
they depict the individual qualities a person chooses to represent; to guide one’s actions; the
sort of person one wants to be; the manner in which a person treats himself/herself and also
others, and the interactions one carries with the society. They are very important in every
aspect of life, and a teacher needs to be conscious about it and ought to demonstrate his or
her commitment by being a role model and intends to develop the core ethical values and
positive attitudes in the students. On the face of it, generally for a new teacher it is difficult
to differentiate all these terms as this has not been their area of study or work. In this
lesson, the concepts of values, attitudes and ethics are discussed and their importance in the
life of every human being and civilized society.
2.0 VALUES
Values refer to the beliefs for which a person has an enduring preference. Values are defined
as the principles and ideals, which helps a person in making the judgment of what is more
important. Values exist in the mind and are independent of public affirmation. Following are
some examples.
a) Respect to parents
b) Helping the needy
c) Simplicity
d) Charity
e) Integrity
f) Rejecting bribe
g) Respecting purity of material and thoughts
h) Respect Purity of Environment
i) Use of only handmade clothes such as Khadi.
2.1 More about Values

Values are the principles and ideals that help a person in making judgment of what is more
important in one’s life. Values are not feelings, but they are preferences. Although values are
expressed as feelings, but they are more than feelings. One need not have an agreement or
consent or acceptance from others for valuing something in his actions or life. Some other
aspects with respect to values are given below:
a) Values are stimuli for thinking.
b) They differ from person to person.

c) Advise/ guide what we wish to achieve

d) Determine or discriminate between choices based on level of importance.
e) Motivate people to do better in life
f) Some values are inborn; some are inculcated later in life.
g) Values are taught by a teacher only through demonstration. A student learns the
most by teacher's actions rather than lectures alone.
2.2 Attributes Related to Values

The values inculcate several good human attributes. This section discusses how good
attributes can be developed or created in a teacher due to sound values. Basic or most
fundamental attribute of a good teacher is abundance of universal and selfless ‘love’
towards his/her students, fellow teachers and his institution. Every other good quality or
value emerges from this one source. Sage Patanjali in his epic work, ‘Ashtang yog, shat-
sampatti and saadhan chatushtya’ specifies many good attributes related to values that
students expect to see in their teacher:
a) Be impartial. Should not favour anybody due to caste, religion, region or gender.
b) Be truthful and honest about his readings of himself and about evaluating the
students. Whatever he promises, he must fulfil diligently and happily.
c) Not copy material from any source without due acknowledgement or should not
steal credit for students’ achievements or work done.
d) Carry out basic teaching craft with great care. Be punctual, plan lessons ahead of
time, be very concise and precise.
e) Be open- hearted and not greedy.
f) Be transparent in academic matters and while dealing with all. Maintain cleanliness
in all transactions. What he thinks, what he speaks and how he acts must all be
aligned and harmonious.
g) Be contended and satisfied with self-achievements, his student's performance, and
facilities provided by the management.
h) Make a thorough preparation for classroom presentations and rehearse well so that
maximum output can be delivered to students, effectively.
i) Read and study regularly technical literature and teaching material inside and outside
the syllabus.
j) Have a calm and balanced mind to face the adverse situation and must not have
revengeful attitude.
k) Have excellent discriminatory mind - what to retain and what to discard as useless
material.
l) After doing all the hard work and labour and the desired result is not achieved, he
should be ready to let it go and accept it.

3.0 ATTITUDES
Attitudes are often the result of experience or upbringing, and they can have a powerful
influence over behaviours. In simple terms, ‘attitude’ is a way of looking at a particular
object, person, thing, or event. It indicates the approach taken by the observer to deal with a
situation, person or object. In psychology, an attitude refers to a set of emotions, beliefs,
and behaviours toward a particular object, person, thing, or event. While attitudes are long
lasting, they can also change. The change can happen due to circumstances or it can be
induced by repeated exposure like demonstration, positive reinforcement and so on. The
Krathwohl’s taxonomy of affective domain describes five levels of attitude development-
Receiving, Responding, Valuing, Organization and Characterization. The associated video
describes these levels in more detail.
"Attitude is a small thing that makes a big difference."

-Winston Churchill, Former British leader & PM
Attitudes are the ‘glasses’ through which one sees oneself, others, events, experiences, the
future, and the world around him. Everyone wears ‘attitude glasses’ and each one's glass is
unique to him/her. What a person sees - light vs. dark, rosy vs. gloomy, clear vs. distorted, all
depends upon a person's attitude. The way s/he sees things appear very real to him/her,
even if it’s not the truth. A person’s attitude affects his/her behaviour. S/he thinks and
behaves in a way consistent with his/her attitude, which becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy.
Attitude comprises basically of mind-set, viewpoint, beliefs, preferences and such others.
These elements add to the personality of a person. His/her skill in facing the challenges of
life and moving ahead is often shaped by the attitude s/he holds. Following are some of the
good attitudes:
a) Compliance with rules promptly
b) Honestly paying taxes
c) Teaching the students with necessary preparation
d) Friendliness
e) Sympathy
f) Sincerity.
Attitudes are generally classified as positive and negative attitude. However, two more types
of attitudes about which a teacher needs to be aware of are Neutral attitude and Sikken
attitude. All these types are discussed briefly in the following sections.
3.1 Positive attitude

Persons with positive attitude generally don’t care about the hurdles in life. They nurture
their skills daily and overcome daily hurdles in life. In addition, they avoid negative thoughts
and persons with negativity. They recognize their mistakes, own them, take responsibility

about them and instead of being ashamed of them, they vow not to repeat the same thing.
For the beginners, the best way to maintain a positive attitude is to believe in oneself, avoid
negative thoughts and persons with negativity.
A person with positive attitude will look for the good in other person’s acts and nature, no
matter how bad they behave or how bad is their attitude. In a workplace, positive attitude
keeps the work moving and progressing, smoothly and fosters team spirit and co-operation.
Four important positive attitudes are briefly described here:
a) Confidence: This attitude is necessary to approach life with zest. A confident person
looks at the challenges and says "I can overcome this". Confidence will start with
being confident with self.
b) Happiness: A happy mind is an abode for all the good things in life. Confident people
are quite happy as they are not worried about results, interviews and other similar
things in life. Persons with this attitude are happy within themselves.
c) Sincerity: A person with positive attitude is generally sincere. Sincerity is one trait
that you should never let go off or compromise with. S/he is aware of the work to be
done and know that the only way out of a situation is through it.
d) Determination: A person who is driven by strong will overcome all impossibilities. A
right dose of hard work, effort and determination are essential to achieve the desired
goal.
3.2 Negative attitude
“A bad attitude is like a flat tire. You cannot go anywhere, until you change it!’
- An American proverb
Persons with negative attitude ignore the good things in life and only think about whether
they will fail. They often find a way out of tough situation by running away from it. They
mostly compare themselves with other persons and find the worse in others. In other
words, they are exactly the opposite of those with a positive mind-set. Here are a few
important negative attitudes which should be avoided:
a) Anger: A person with a negative mind-set is often found to be angry most of the
time. Many times, there is no specific reason behind their anger. Anger is the root
cause of self-destruction. While some amount of anger is good to get things going,
extreme cases of anger only lead to all around destruction.
b) Doubt: A person can question oneself. But, s/he should never doubt himself/herself.
Unfortunately, those who have a negative mind-set, often doubt themselves. Self-
doubt leads to no progress and often leads to low confidence.
c) Frustration: This attitude leads to all round dissatisfaction with self, others and
environment, at all times. If a person is frustrated that can be seen on his/her face,
may confront some serious difficulties. Frustration is the biggest roadblock in one's

career advancement. It is an irritant and it keeps preventing a person from taking any
positive step forward.
3.3 Neutral Attitude

A third type of attitude which is quite common is the Neutral Attitude. In a neutral attitude
person, there is neither any doubt nor there is any kind of hope. Such a person generally
tends to ignore the problems in life and waits for some other individual to take care of their
problems. Such persons generally have a lazy life and they are often un-emotional and
insensitive about others. They never feel the need to change themselves as they can simply
live with the way they are. Another example is when a common person shows lack of
interest in serious national matters such as politics, finance, debt, legislation and such others
leave everything to rulers and administrators.
3.4 Sikken Attitude

A fourth type of attitude is the Sikken Attitude. A person with Sikken attitude tends to
destroy every image that comes in connection with a positive image. This type of attitude is
more of a negative attitude and is very destructive and dangerous. For example, assume that
a person with such attitude hates spiders and openly says, “I hate spiders!". Whenever he
will see a spider, he will proceed to kill it first, without giving it a single thought. It is difficult
to change a person with this type of attitude as it is deep rooted within their personality .
4.0 ETHICS
‘Ethics’ is a branch of moral philosophy – which depicts a sense of rightness or wrongness of
actions. Ethics are well-defined standards that a person should comply with, concerning
rights, obligations, fairness, and benefits to society and so on. Ethics refer to the guidelines
for conduct, that address question about morality. In other words, it is a discipline that
identifies human conduct about, good or evil, just or unjust, fair or unfair practices. The
ethical standard puts a reasonable obligation to stop crime like stealing, assault, rape,
murder, fraud and so on.
Ethics is a system of moral principles decided by a group of persons, an organization, culture

or society and every member of that profession is expected to abide by those. The ethics
control and govern the behaviour of a person according to the norms set by others. Ethics
attempts to answer the basic questions of the human morality such as:
a) What should be a standard way for people to live?
b) What are the appropriate actions in the given situations?
c) What should be an ideal human conduct? and so on.
Ethics describes what is morally correct or incorrect, in the given situation and prescribes
dos and don'ts. It also determines extent of rightness or wrongness of your options, as

required by a jurisprudence or law. Ethics are a guide to person for making the right option
or choice. Therefore, teachers should:
a) Be well informed about subject matter
b) Provide excellent instruction with a deep obligation to help students learn
c) Stimulate the spirit of inquiry in students for thoughtful formulation of worthy goals
d) Not to deliberately suppress/distort subject matter relevant to the student's progress
e) Regularly review and update instructional practices
f) Refrain from plagiarism.
g) Come to work regularly and on time
h) Not use professional relationships with students for private advantage.
i) Not to disclose information about students obtained in the course of professional
service unless disclosure serves a compelling professional purpose or is required by
the court of law
j) Not to allow students to cheat in examinations
k) Cooperate with colleagues to observe institution policies so the whole institution
works effectively
l) Criticise unsatisfactory institution policies tactfully, but firmly, to propose
constructive solutions.
4.1 Ethical Violation

Any violation of ethics may affect the value and credibility of the activities which are done as
a part of that teaching learning activity or business/service profession. Some examples of
violation are:
a) Overlook standard norms in practical examination
b) Casual evaluation of answer books.
c) Teaching from guides and refreshers
d) Liberal marking the answer books to avoid efforts of teacher in taking retest and so
on.
There can be academic ethics, business ethics, and others.
4.2 Academic Ethics

Mahatma Gandhi is known to follow principles of ethics some of which are very relevant for
a higher education teacher as a professional:
a) Truth
b) Right Means and Right Ends
c) Primacy of Duties over Right
d) The Deed, not the Doer
e) True Religion (Universality and Brotherhood)
f) Service and Sacrifice (Yajna).

4.3 Business Ethics

In the sphere of business and services, the sellers and buyers follow some basic ethics, which
are accepted as a baseline by every stakeholder in that activity. Following are some
examples of business:
a) Give the full amount in quantity and quality as agreed
b) Provide timely after sales service
c) Take care in handling customer material
d) Use only genuine parts in a vehicle service centre
e) Promptly address customer complaint.
5.0 DISTINTICTIVE FEATURES OF VALUES, ATTITUDES AND ETHICS

Values, attitudes and ethics are important in every aspect of life. When you have to make a
choice between two things, wherein ethics determine what is right, values determine what is
more important amongst the available choices.
Table – 1 Features of Values, Attitudes and Ethics
Criteria Values Attitudes Ethics

Key words Principles and ideals, The way of looking at System of moral principles
in which help a person in a particular object, decided by a group of
Definition making the judgment of person, thing, or persons, an organization,
what is more important. event. It indicates the culture or society and
approach taken by every member of that set
observer to deal with is expected to abide by
a situation, person or those.
object.
Effect of Not governed by Related only to These are situation

given situation. specific situations. specific. The person may
situation behave other way in a
different situation
How it is The manifestation of it By thinking, by By the way of informing

manifested differs from person to feeling, by sensing, by to the person and
person, by the way of intuition monitoring; may not be
thinking by an individual. personal preference/
It is inherent part of choice; same for persons
thought process; due to belonging to the same
personal preference. business/ teaching
fraternity
To Guide What is more important; Action or expression What is right/ wrong,

based on values an (Verbal or non-verbal) good/bad, fair/unfair for
individual makes society as whole; related

Criteria Values Attitudes Ethics

decisions such as how to to morals; impose
live life; provides boundaries.
motivation, inspiration
and decides emotional
state
6.0 SUMMARY
Values help a person decide what is important in various choices and options before him.
Attitude is like a pair of tinted eye-glasses through which s/he looks at the world and decides
his/her further action. Ethics tells a person what to do and what not to do in that particular
profession. Values, attitudes and ethics help a person to determine what is important and
provide the general guidelines for any person’s conduct. They help him/her to navigate
through life successfully under all conditions.
ACTIVITY
List at least three examples for each of the values, ethics and attitudes from
your daily life, which you may discuss with peers and mentors which is to be
posted on the E-portfolio.
******
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (2001). A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and Assessing
- Á revision of Bloom's taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Pearson Education.
[2] Understanding The Power Of Attitude: Is Yours Worth Catching?
https://www.strategez.com/blog/2018/08/26/understanding-the-power-of-attitude-is-
yours-worth-catching/
[3] https://www.mkgandhi.org/articles/sept081.htm

DISCUSSION FORUM
Start a discussion on social media about the ethical and unethical behaviour of a technical
teacher related to use of online resources for teaching students?

ASSIGNMENT
1. List three values for a teacher to carry out teaching learning activities smoothly.
2. List three points describing ethical behaviour of a teacher towards a poor learner.
3. List three points describing to good attitude of a teacher towards laboratory work.

L–10: Value Education: Need for Self-
Exploration
Contributors

Prof. N. V. Deshpande
(Former Professor, Devi Ahilya University, Indore)
Mrs. V. Deshpande
(Member, Heartfulness Institute, Indore)

Unit 3 Development of Professional Values, Attitudes and Ethics L10: Value Education: Need for Self-Exploration
Lesson – 10
Value Education: Need for Self-Exploration
Learning outcomes: At the end of this lesson, you will be able to explain the
process of self-exploration to also help the students to practice it.
Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 3
2.0 VALUE EDUCATION .................................................................................................................................... 3
4.0 OUTCOME OF SELF-EXPLORATION ............................................................................................................ 4
5.0 BENEFITS TO TEACHER FROM VALUE EDUCATION AND SELF-EXPLORATION ............................................ 5
6.0 REGULATION OF ENERGY BY ADOPTING GOOD VALUES ........................................................................... 5
7.0 A MODEL FOR CONDUCTING SELF-EXPLORATION USING VALUE EDUCATION .......................................... 6
A CASE-STUDY ............................................................................................................................................ 7
8.0 PROCESS OF SELF-EXPLORATION ............................................................................................................... 8
9.0 SUMMARY .................................................................................................................................................. 9
BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................................................................ 9

Lesson – 10
Value Education: Need for Self-Exploration
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Personal 'values' play a big role in one’s life as they guide the person as to what is more
important and help him/her to make better choices in various situations. Good values also
motivate a person to do better in his/her life. A person with good values can play a
significant role in bringing about positive changes at workplace and will be able to perform
the role of a good citizen. Values can be developed through consistent efforts. Therefore,
value education becomes more important so as to appreciate inherent values in oneself and
also realise the need to imbibe them. A person usually faces situations in life where s/he is
in dilemma and struggles with questions such as, ‘What can give me peace and happiness? It
is known that s/he cannot derive satisfaction, happiness and peace from the external
materialistic world. This is moment, when s/he needs introspect, explore choices by self-
exploration which can lead to happiness, peace and satisfaction from his/her actions or
decisions. Self-exploration is very important because it very much helps in one’s happiness.
However, such an exploration is seldom done by persons while making decisions affecting
one’s life. This lesson therefore discusses the need of value education which is needed for
self- exploration and derive the benefit out of these aspects affecting himself/herself and
pass on these benefits to the students as well.
2.0 VALUE EDUCATION

All the human beings continuously aspire for a happy, fulfilling and successful life. One of the
purposes of education is to provide adequate competence to actualise this aspiration. The
subject which enables you to understand ‘What is Valuable` for human happiness is called
Value Education. Value education is the process by which importance of moral values is
instilled into the learner. The process adopted for doing this may comprise of different types
of experiences such as listening to the teacher or by undergoing simulated experience or by
practical experience in real situation and reflection thereafter. It can be said that Value
Education enables one to:
a) Rationalise one’s needs and priorities
b) Visualize one’s life goals correctly and
c) Indicate right direction for making efforts to fulfill them.
Explicit value education is associated with different pedagogies and the methods that the
teachers or educators adopt in order to create learning experiences for students especially
when it comes to value-based questions and situations.

3.0 SELF-EXPLORATION
Often, there a conflict between the outside world, and personal preferences in this
materialistic world. Such situations give rise to dissatisfaction or unhappiness. The person is
faced with the dilemma as to which path to follow, e.g. whether to remain an honest
teacher at the cost of losing a bribe offered by a student or, how to maintain work-life
balance or, whether to demonstrate strong ethical behaviour versus quick money by
unethical professional practices or, whether to avoid to pay extra for environment friendly
articles thereby saving money for personal entertainment and so on. This is the point where
the need of self- exploration becomes evident. The process of self-exploration helps the
teacher to be in harmony within oneself and in harmony with everything around. It is the
process of finding out ‘what is valuable to me’ by investigating within oneself.
While the word ‘exploration’ refers to observing what is outside the self, the word ‘self-
exploration’ talks about observing what is inside the self. The purposes of self-exploration
can be described as:
a) A dialogue between ‘what you are’ and ‘what you really like to be.’
b) A process of self-evolution through self-investigation.
c) Knowing oneself and through that knowing the entire existence.
d) Recognizing one’s relationship with every unit in existence and fulfilling it.
e) Being in harmony with oneself and in harmony with entire existence.
f) Appreciating human conduct, human character and living appropriately.
g) Identifying human innateness (svatva or स्वत्व)and moving towards self-organization
(swashasan or स्वशासन), swavyavashtha or स्वव्यवस्था)and self-expression (swa-
prakatikaran स्वप्रकटिकरण).
ACTIVITY 1
State ten to fifteen sentences which includes the answers to questions such as:`
a) Who are you? What are your priorities?
b) What are your ambitions?
c) What is the supreme source of your energy and motivation?
d) Is there any conflict in your personal and professional life?
e) How do you handle it?
f) How do you handle the problems at your workplace?
4.0 OUTCOME OF SELF-EXPLORATION

The end-result or outcome of the process of self-exploration is the ‘Realisation’ and
‘Understanding’ of what are the strengths that are truly within you that you should harness.
It will transform you to a level of perfection where you are free to behave or act accordingly
to the needs of that moment. This is the ultimate freedom that everyone aspires for.

5.0 BENEFITS TO TEACHER FROM VALUE EDUCATION AND SELF-EXPLORATION

A teacher can do self-exploration in the context of the verbal and non-verbal feedback
received from his/her students and fellow teachers. A set of commonly observed ailing
symptoms or conditions applicable to a teacher are given in the table 1. These can be
mitigated by adopting correct values. There is no strict one-to-one correspondence but this
gives reasonable number ideas.
Table 1
BENEFITS FROM VALUE EDUCATION
S. Common Symptoms or Value to be Comments About Outcome

No. Shortcoming of a Inculcated or
Teacher Enhanced
1 Lack of patience for slow LOVE Love of teacher empowers slow learners to
learners overcome their hurdles and excel.
2 Intolerance towards COMPASSION Compassion of teacher enables changes in
miscreants feelings of students, make them obedient and
grateful, helps to make effort for achieving
desired academic performance.
3 Lack of self-control; COMMITMENT Strong commitment of teacher leads to fulfill
uncontrolled anger promises and obligations by winning over self-
weaknesses.
4 Incomplete preparation BEING FOCUSSED, The teacher accepts folly, prepares better
of classroom or HONEST, next time and shines.
laboratory session HUMBLE
5 Lack of conviction or TRANSPARENT The teacher should practice what is preached
firmness in speeches or and walks-the-talk. This will produce a moral
teaching force behind the assertions and arguments.
6 Does not enjoy student's TRUSTWORTHY Teacher should maintain confidentiality;

trust or confidence never abuse or divulge student information.
7 Worried due to non- FORTITUDE Teacher’s strength of mind that enables one
academic issues - family, to endure adversity with courage.
society tensions
8 Depressed due to lack of FORBEARANCE, Despite shortages, teacher should focus on
desired facilities, support, FORGIVING excelling and achieving very high proficiency
encouragement in in his/her work overcoming lack of amenities
workplace and negativity.
6.0 REGULATION OF ENERGY BY ADOPTING GOOD VALUES

Normally, a human being starts learning basic values at his home at first and then in school
followed by learning in the society. This process involves learning through discipline and
relatively harsh environment where one's desires are made subservient to priority decided
by the trainer.

Slowly s/he learns the advantages of following the path of discipline by enjoying the new
found skills and fruits of accomplishments. Thus a virtuous (Morally Good) cycle begins. Over
a period of time, after schooling, s/he has learnt enough to earn a livelihood and live a
respectful life. Now begins his/her most productive part of life where s/he bears many
positive and negative aspects of life.
As s/he comes across a variety of trying circumstances, s/he notices that s/he is able to
regulate energy flow only under certain conditions and can produce excellent results. But,
under certain another set of circumstances, s/he fails miserably. This is the time when it is
worthwhile to re-examine the values needed to empower him/her to be a good regulator of
energy or so to say, the master of his own destiny.
7.0 A MODEL FOR CONDUCTING SELF-EXPLORATION USING VALUE EDUCATION

The urge to conduct self-exploration with the help of value education can be explained with
a model:
a) Every human being is a reservoir of finite amount of energy which is channeled into
our mental, physical and emotional processes, depending upon our aspirations,
desire and needs.
b) Your intellect enables this energy flow into various paths for the desires to come
through. When a desire is fulfilled, the you become happy. On the other hand an
unfulfilled desire leads to not only pain and misery but also, to other mental and
physical illnesses.
c) Usually a person does not know how to control the amount of energy channeled into
a particular activity. Sometimes, s/he may over-indulge into something which s/he
likes. Some other time, s/he may shirk from an important tasks (which requires
his/her urgent attention) by not feeding enough energy into that activity. Thus, the
entire problem is mismanagement or misappropriation of human energy into less
efficient, less productive and many times in more detrimental enterprises. It should
be remembered that every human being is endowed with a finite amount of energy
each day. If that energy is spent on less important matters; then the important
matters get stacked up in pending queue. This causes stress, anxiety, fear of failure
and loss of prestige and earnings. Therefore, there is a need for a perfect ‘valve’ to
'regulate' or 'discipline' the flow of energy. There is also a need for a method or
algorithm or discrimination (Vivek टववेक) to decide when to operate this ‘valve’ to
regulate energy and by how much amount. This is where; value education empowers
a person’s intellect to do this job precisely.
d) Value education teaches him/her to regulate the flow of energy by advising him/her:
i. Where to apply?
ii. When to apply?
iii. How much to apply? and
iv. When to stop?

Therefore, by following the path of great values, a person escapes the traps of destruction
laid in the path by uncontrolled, over-indulgent, wasteful and untimely dissipation of
precious human energy. Here is a very important aspect to note: ‘Most of the human issues
including the destiny of human being are created by timely and perfect management of
channeling this energy in requisite amounts into essential tasks and stopping its flow when it
is no longer required. Mostly, human beings are trained to apply their mind to a particular
task and immerse fully in that. What they are not taught is how to make free the mind from
that task, once it is over. Unless the mind is made free, it cannot be applied elsewhere.
ACTIVITY 2
Close your eyes. Take deep breaths for five minutes. Try to feel energy within you. Try
to focus on your supreme source of energy. Think of tasks that you have to do. Which
are the priority level tasks? Open your eyes, write on paper the tasks that are your
priority.
Again close your eyes for five minutes. Take deep breaths. Think of first two tasks in
your list. Ignore any other thoughts that come to your mind. Open your eyes. Make an
action plan to complete the first task. Discuss with a person/mentor of your choice.
A CASE-STUDY
Mr.‘A’ is a teacher who is afflicted by one or more of the symptoms mentioned in the
section 5. The students recognize the weaknesses of the teacher and neither respect him nor
interested to learn anything from him. That makes his life difficult and the students also
suffer in the process. There is heartburn all around the campus including management and
the consequences may be disastrous.
Now the teacher Mr. ‘A’ picks up a 'value' corresponding to that 'symptom', understands its
utility and worth and starts inculcating, absorbing and imbibing it. The discipline required in
learning process will help the teacher shed some of the symptoms, develop confidence and
rectify his teaching mistakes and make everybody happy. Mr. ‘A’ will soon be able to
regulate his energies away from bad habits and move towards what is desirable and
productive. This is the process of self-exploration in action where the teacher goes from
'what he is' to 'what he should be' level. Absorbing and practicing right values in real life,
enforces a discipline which prevents a person from going emotional over-board, or saves
him/her from any kind of excesses and develop rectitude (moral correct behaviour).
One-by-one, the teacher Mr. ‘A’ goes on adopting values, named against his symptoms and
wins over his weaknesses. Thus, a virtuous circle of adopting a value and elimination of
corresponding bad symptom will further strengthen his moral fiber. His surroundings will

encourage him to further shed his/her undesirable traits by embracing newer values. The
values cause tremendous changes in his personality.
Questions for Reflection

What is the limit up to which such a virtuous cycle can be taken by Mr.‘A’? The limit is ….the
sky and the maximum improvement level is perfection. A teacher who has nearly reached
perfection can be identified by his goals, objectives and working style:
a) He shows a harmonious behaviour and existence to all around him - all mankind and
nature.
b) He takes care of emotions of living beings and ecology of the planet.
c) He appreciates the value of others and their contributions, however insignificant that
may seem.
d) He is not perturbed by setbacks nor gets elated by successes.
e) He does not feel jealous or covet other's property or achievements.
f) He is happily contented in his worth and his contribution.
It can be concluded that his behaviour has now become appropriate to the need of the
moment. He will do an intellectual level work or a mental work (low level and boring work)
equally well, equally cheerfully without ever seeking credit for it. In such a situation, it can
be said that he has completed the process of self-exploration or self-realization, by
conquering himself. Now there is nothing left in the world for him to conquer.
8.0 PROCESS OF SELF-EXPLORATION

The process of self-exploration begins with a tiny step and it can be listed as:
Step 1 Examine the stated (given) proposal

Don’t start by making any assumptions whether the proposal is true or false, but verify it
yourself. Don’t just accept or reject it on the basis of scriptures, instruments or on other's
advice.
Step 2 Use your Natural Acceptance to verify the proposal

Natural Acceptance is the process of seeing and observing attentively and then using your
inner conscience to get the answer from within. It is a way to bring out the goodness in
everything naturally.
Step 3 Live according to the proposal to validate it experientially

You may like to know more about Natural Acceptance. It is a faculty in a human being, which
has the following attributes:
a) It does not change with time/age.
b) It does not depend on place.
c) It does not depend on our beliefs or our past conditioning.

d) It is omnipresent or always there within us.

e) It is commonly available and applicable to all.
ACTIVITY 3
Sit quietly at a clean and peaceful place.
a) Take deep breaths and close your eyes. Let the thoughts freely flow. Keep
breathing deeply at least for five minutes.
b) Just watch your thoughts with deep breathing and eyes closed. You may like to
increase the time for deep breathing and concentration.
c) Then open your eyes slowly.
d) Try to feel that you are out of your body and observing the body. You are
observing your energy and your thoughts.
e) Try to imagine your supreme source of energy. Think, how will you like to use
your energy for a good cause.
f) Share your experience with a person of your choice or write it down maybe in a
notebook or diary for discussion with mentor.
Repeat this activity once every day.
9.0 SUMMARY
In this lesson, the model for self-exploration by value education is discussed. Whenever
conflicting situations arise in one’s life, appropriate values help the person to resolve the
conflicting situations by adopting right approach. Self-exploration helps a person to make
right choices and follow a path of self-discipline which helps him/her achieve happiness in
life by channelising energy to his/her priorities thereby achieving his goals. A person can
relate his existence and its purpose to the overall or entire existence through self-
exploration and realize the importance of staying in harmony with the entire existence or
universe and also decide the priorities. Excellence can be attained in life by continuous self-
exploration and adopting right values.
*****
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] Bajpai B. L. (2008) – Indian Ethos and Modern Management, New Royal Book Co.,
Lucknow. Reprinted, Page no.: 2-10. CHAPTER II: Self- Exploration as The Process of Value
Education, Understanding The Need, Basic Guideline, Content, Process For Value Education
[2] Dhar P. L., Gaur R. R., –Textbook of Science and Humanism, Commonwealth
Publishers, page no.: 15-25.
[3] http://hvpenotes.blogspot.com/2017/01/chapter-ii-self-exploration-as-process.html
[4] https://www.slideshare.net/parasharparashar8021/understanding-the-need-basic-
guidelinecontent-process-for-value-education

DISCUSSION FORUM
 Start a discussion on social media on Need for Self-Exploration

L–11: Professional Values and Ethics
for Technical Teachers
Contributors

Prof. (Mrs) Susan S. Mathew

(Associate Professor, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, NITTTR Bhopal)
Dr. K.James Mathai

(Associate Professor, Department of Electronic Media, NITTTR Bhopal)

Unit 3: Development of Professional Values, Attitudes and Ethics L11: Professional Values and Ethics for Technical Teachers
Lesson – 11
Professional Values and Ethics for Technical Teachers
Learning Outcomes: At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
LO 1. Explain values expected of a technical teacher.
LO 2. Describe the process of developing values in students.
LO 3. Justify the importance to follow professional ethics by a teacher.
Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 3
2.0 VALUES EXPECTED FROM TEACHERS OF TECHNICAL INSTITUTIONS ......................................................... 3
2.1 Development of Values ................................................................................................................ 5
3.0 ACADEMIC ETHICS IN TECHNICAL TEACHERS ............................................................................................ 6
3.1 Ethical Conduct towards Students ............................................................................................... 6
3.2 Ethical Conduct towards Colleagues ............................................................................................ 6
3.3 Ethical Conduct towards Professional Practice ............................................................................ 7
4.0 NETIQUETTES FOR TECHNICAL TEACHERS ................................................................................................ 7

4.1 Plagiarism ..................................................................................................................................... 8
4.2 Intellectual Property and Copyright ............................................................................................. 9
4.3 Legal Use of Software .................................................................................................................. 9
4.4 Code of Conduct on Internet ..................................................................................................... 10
5.0 ROLES OF TECHNICAL TEACHER VIS-À-VIS VALUES AND PROFESSIONAL ETHICS .................................... 10
6.0 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................................ 10
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...................................................................................................................................................... 11

Lesson – 11
Professional Values and Ethics for Technical Teachers
1.0 INTRODUCTION
A professional person like technical teacher has to fulfil many roles namely - a good teacher,
a good engineer, an ethical professional and above all, an ethically correct person. Values
are important in life for any person to be successful in his/her endeavours. It is doubly true
for teachers, since they are the architects of tomorrow's generation. For technical teachers,
it becomes even more important as they create tomorrow's engineers and technocrats. They
create nation's future wealth and intellectual property, through their students. Technical
teachers are indirectly responsible for a generation's growth, prosperity and development. A
teacher might be required to train student in order to develop teaching skills to prepare
them to serve as educators, so a positive attitude and a team-centred mind-set can make all
the difference. Therefore, this lesson discusses about the desired values and ethics in a
professional person, especially one who is teaching in a technical educational institution.
2.0 VALUES EXPECTED FROM TEACHERS OF TECHNICAL INSTITUTIONS

It is quite obvious that whatever values a technical teacher desires to inculcate in their
students to make them good engineers, those must first be practiced by the teachers
themselves. To be a successful technical teacher it is expected to adhere to and inculcate
following values in his/her daily life and teachings:
a) Role model: The teacher must practice best values in his/her own life and become
the role model for students. They learn from his/her behaviour, actions and thought
process much more than what they learn from the classroom teaching. A good
teacher keeps a dignified demeanor commensurate with their expectations, uses
moderate and modest language and chooses mild adjectives in adverse comments.
The students learn far more from teacher's practiced values rather than empty
preaching in class.
b) Compassion: This value increases the tolerance of the teacher towards weaker and
unwilling students. It makes teacher empathetic to student's difficulties or challenges
in learning what is taught in class. The issues could be language barrier, cultural
barrier, backwardness, financial condition, emotional distress or even health related.
These issues cause students to be inattentive in class-room study or in laboratories.
This value brings out some students from their shell of timidity, disinterest and
general lack of interest in learning. This value refrains the teacher from subjecting
any child to fear, trauma, anxiety, physical punishment, sexual abuse and mental and
emotional harassment.
c) Unprejudiced and even-handed: The teacher must treat all students in an even-
handed manner. He must not discriminate based on their background, language
caste, creed, religion, sex, economic status, disability, language and place of birth.

This is especially applicable while evaluating their answer sheets or conducting

laboratory-based oral tests
d) Encouraging: A teacher with positive attitude will encourage students to do better
than they did before, to give their best and to bring out their potential completely.
S/he would help weak students to overcome their difficulties and extend the limits of
testing for very bright students.
e) Trustworthy: The teacher must be able to keep information pertaining to students,
colleagues and administration confidential. The students must feel encouraged to
share their innermost thoughts, their aspirations, and their mental blockages with
their teacher, with confidence that their privacy will be maintained.
f) Respectful: Respect begets respect. Each student must be respected as an individual.
In most colleges, the students are already grownup persons and legally adults. Even
though their behaviour might be childish and immature, sometimes bordering on
insult to teacher, s/he should not lose his/her habit of treating them as a ‘person’
whose individuality and rights are to be respected. The student recognizes this value
and respect teacher in return. A teacher who is derisive in class to students or
environment or management, quickly loses student's respect. Teacher should also
teach students to respect diversity of languages, religions, outlook and viewpoints
and right to dissent with others.
g) Focused: His/her endeavor must be focused on student’s physical, social, intellectual,
emotional and moral development. The atmosphere in his/her classroom, should
promote safety, security and acceptance, always avoiding any form of bullying,
hostility, dishonesty, neglect or offensive conduct.
h) Honest: A teacher must fulfil all his/her promises and contracts. He must accurately
describe his/her qualifications, credentials and achievements to all those enquire.
He/she must account for all funds and resources at his/her disposal and be thrifty
with expenses.
i) Humility: A secure and contented teacher also shows humility to accept his/her
mistakes and vows to improve. If s/he is unable to answer a question asked by a
student in the class, s/he must accept his/her ignorance and promise to try for giving
the answer in next class. Humility is an excellent protection against getting over-
confidence and hubris (Excessive pride).
j) Lifelong learner: Teacher must upgrade and refurbish his/her learning abilities, skills,
academic knowledge and new technology, very frequently. S/he should cite his/her
latest experiences and learning to students to impress upon them the advantages of
staying up-to-date with new developments. It's his/her duty to ensure that teaching
methods used are relevant and comprehensive.
k) Research: Teachers must engage in educational research to continuously improve
their teaching strategies, be attentive to continuing education requirements and
career development. S/he must research new teaching methods, attend classes to

maintain certifications, consult colleagues for professional advice, participate in

curriculum improvements and stay up-to-date on technical advancements.
l) Team player: This value creates a trust between teacher and his/her colleagues and
parents. A teacher realizes that s/he can do greater good of more students by joining
hands with others, and that s/he is not the sole factor of influence on student's
growth and others have equal role to play in shaping their future. Thus, a teacher
must create a culture that encourages purposeful collaboration and dialogue among
colleagues and stakeholders. In addition to fostering healthy relationships with
students, a teacher must build strong relationships with parents, staff and colleagues
in the college, guidance counsellors and administrators.
m) Nationalist: A deep sense of gratitude for being a citizen of a free and democratic
nation should be deeply imbibed in a teacher. S/he should keep the country
uppermost in mind and refrain from taking part in any activities that may spread
feelings of hatred or enmity among different communities, religious and linguistic
groups. The teacher should transact the curriculum in conformity with the values
enshrined in the Constitution of India.
2.1 Development of Values

Values are adopted and cultivated by a teacher himself or herself. Many persons, when they
join as teacher, are bereft of many desired values. So, it is of paramount importance that
development of these values is undertaken, its process is understood and emphatic training
is imparted to them, to bring them up to the pre-determined expectations. Since the
learning about all desired values may be a long and tedious process, but the learning path
may be broken down into simple sub-groups as:
a) Values related to daily practice and those that affect daily performance such as
punctuality, lesson pre-preparation, revising what is discussed in class and asking
simple questions to refresh memory. These helps create a wonderful teaching /
learning atmosphere in class.
b) Values related to important activities undertaken over a medium term such as a
semester or a year. These include planning rigorously for introduction of a new
course or a new laboratory practical, preparing lesson plan or designing practicals for
these and so on. It also includes planning for weak students' remedial classes.
c) Values pertaining to teacher's character building and setting standards for students.
Most of the ethics-oriented behaviour and values fall in this category. Many of these
values will help students to become a better engineer, a better co-worker and a
better all-round person, when they start a job in their career. These values can be
imparted through out-of-curriculum coaching, such as in inter-semester vacation.
The development of the above values can be undertaken sequentially or simultaneously. In

addition to classical method of one-to-many lecture approach, teachers must be given topics
in value development and asked to address the group about them, their importance, and

their impact on others and cite case studies where their application yields in positive
outcome. Importance should be attached to estimate the effect on students due to ‘absence
of each value’. Mentoring by senior teachers can be done for inculcation of values.
ACTIVITY 1
List at least three examples of professional values to discuss with peers and mentors.
3.0 ACADEMIC ETHICS IN TECHNICAL TEACHERS

Ethics are set by government agencies, society, culture, professional bodies, teacher
associations and college organizations. Teachers help students learn the academic basics,
but they also teach valuable life lessons by setting a positive example. As role models,
teachers should follow a professional code of ethics. This ensures that students receive a
fair, honest and uncompromising wholesome education. A professional code of ethics
outlines teachers' main responsibilities to their students and defines their role in students'
lives. Above all, teachers must demonstrate integrity, impartiality and ethical behaviour in
and outside the classroom the classroom in their conduct with students, parents and co-
workers.
3.1 Ethical Conduct towards Students

A professional technical teacher having ethical conduct towards students can do the
following:
a) Treat all students with love and affection.
b) Respect the value of being just and impartial to all students irrespective of their
background, gender and cultural differences.
c) Respect basic human dignity of the student in all aspects of college life
d) Make planned and systematic efforts to facilitate the student to actualize his/her
potential and talent.
e) Will neither intentionally expose the student to negative criticism, nor look down
upon him for student's failings.
f) Will not reveal confidential information concerning students, unless required by rules
and law.
g) Make a constructive effort to protect the students from conditions detrimental to
learning, health, or safety.
h) Present facts without distortion, bias, or personal prejudices.
3.2 Ethical Conduct towards Colleagues

A teacher's ethical conduct toward his/her professional colleagues is equally important. A
teacher having ethical conduct may do the following:
a) Cooperate with fellow teachers, parents and administrators to create an atmosphere
that's conducive to learning.

b) Refrain from making unsubstantiated allegations against colleagues and higher

authorities
c) Avoid making derogatory statements about colleagues, especially in the presence of
pupils, other teachers, officials or parents.
d) Never make wilfully false statements about a colleague or the college education
system.
e) Never discuss private information about colleagues unless disclosure is required by
law.
f) Never interfere with a colleague's freedom of choice, and work to eliminate coercion
that forces educators to support actions and ideologies that violate individual
professional integrity.
g) Avoid gossip, including false or mean-spirited comments about co-workers.
3.3 Ethical Conduct towards Professional Practice

A teacher having ethical conduct may conform to the following professional practices and
performance:
a) Refrain from engaging himself/herself in private tuition or private teaching activity.
b) Refrain from accepting any gift or favor that might impair or appear to influence
professional decisions or actions
c) Not intentionally misrepresenting official policies of the college or University, and
clearly distinguishing the management’s views from his or her own personal
opinions.
d) Account honestly for all funds committed to his or her charge.
e) Not using institutional or professional privileges for personal or partisan advantage.
f) Update himself from time to time and transfer current knowledge, skills and
practices to student.
g) Will follow Intellectual Property related fair practices.
h) Do fair assessment of students.
ACTIVITY 2
List at least three examples of professional ethics that require to be discussed
with your peers and mentors.
4.0 NETIQUETTES FOR TECHNICAL TEACHERS

Due to growing use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and the use of
internet widely using the cell phones and computers by millions of people of every age has
brought in the term netizens, which derived from the words ‘Internet’ and ‘citizen’
‘netizen’. The code of conduct to be followed by netizens is called by the term netiquette
from two words ‘Internet etiquette’. Netiquette is required for communication on Internet

in both online verbal and non-verbal forms for email, social media, online chat, web forums,
website comments and many more.
Due to growing use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) by individuals and
society of this digital age, there arouse a need for formulation of polices by educational
institution globally for the ethical use of such technologies including software’s and E-
contents. These ethical polices constantly change with changing Information Communication
Technology (ICT). Four characteristics are necessary netiquettes for all netizens.
 Plagiarism
 Intellectual property and Copyright
 Legal use of Software
 Code of conduct on Internet.
4.1 Plagiarism
Today, the condition of education system is deteriorating due to plagiarism. Plagiarism is
considered as an academic sin. It is unethical. The word ‘Plagiarism’ has been derived from
the Latin word ‘Plagiare’ means ‘to kidnap or abduct’. Plagiarize means stealing ideas or
words of another person as one’s own without proper citation. This may happen by
incorporating someone else’s work as your own work with or without the consent or full
acknowledgement. The plagiarism could be intentional and unintentional. It is important
that an ethical teacher or student should not plagiarize content that s/he prepares such as
handouts, course materials, writing papers, preparing web-pages on websites and so on,
which can even lead to litigation problems.
The regulatory body ‘All India Council of Technical Education’ (AICTE) and ‘University Grant
Commission’ (UGC) have seriously taken up this issue in higher education and have provided
guidelines. Refer to levels of plagiarism and penalties at https://www.ugc.ac.in/
ugc_notices.aspx?id=2079 for UGC letter and Gazette Regulations (UGC Gazette Notification,
2018 [2]. The Government of India is planning to make strict law for prevision of plagiarism
in academics.
a) Plagiarism Detection Software

Today educational institutions, use plagiarism detection software to uncover potential
plagiarism because manually it is impossible to detect them. This software also helps to
deter students from plagiarizing content. There are many free Plagiarism Checker - Free
Online Plagiarism Detector available on Internet. One of them is https://smallseotools.com/
plagiarism-checker/. The free online software has limited database against with it checks the
documents for plagiarism and are not much dependable. Some of them are restricted to
1000 words at a time.
There are other propriety plagiarism software’s which checks submitted document

automatically and generates reports too. These software’s are much better and can be
purchased for number of license users and now are being used by many educational
institutions. These propriety plagiarism software’s’ check submitted documents against
billion(s) of web pages, database of million student papers, publications, scholarly journals
and articles etc. The pricing of such software’s depends on its feature and collection of
repository or database.
4.2 Intellectual Property and Copyright

According to the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), intellectual property
‘….refers to creations of minds, such as inventions, literary and artistic works, designs and
symbols, names and images used in commerce’. It is an overarching term for a variety of
assets created by the human mind otherwise classified as intangible prosperity. The rights to
the intellectual property can be claimed exclusively by the creator or recipient of ownership
transfer and covers the expression of an idea rather than the idea itself. [WIPO Headquarters
Switzerland, Accessed on 27/02/2020[3]]. Further, IPR and Copyright aspect can be
learnered from In order to protect from website http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/wct/.
To avoide Intellectual Properity and Copyright issues; you are suggested either to purchase
the licence to use the IPR or use appropriate Creative Commons (CC) Licensed knowledge or
software. Today there are large ‘Open Educational Resources (OER)’ and courses with CC
Licencing which an teacher can use for academics without legal hurdles.
a) Creative Commons (CC) Licensing

Creative Commons [Creative Commons,Mountain View, CA 94042. (2017)] [4] helps to
legally share your knowledge and creativity to build a more equitable, accessible, and
innovative world. Creative Common work spans a variety of different areas like Arts and
culture; Legal; Open Access; Open Science; Education and OER; Policy and advocacy; Open
data; Technology. With the internet the universal access to education has become possible.
But its potential is hindered by increasingly restrictive copyright laws and incompatible
technologies. The Open Education program with Creative Commons Licensing works to
minimize these barriers, supporting the CC mission through education, advocacy and
outreach on using the right licenses and open policies to maximize the benefits of open
educational resources (OER) and the return on investment in publicly funded education
resources. Further, the use of CC Licensing E-content can be learned from their website
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/
4.3 Legal Use of Software

It is unethical to use of un-licenced or pirate software in technical institution. The use of
license software and open source software’s in educational institution is necessary to avoid
legal problems from proprietary software developers. One of the important aspects to be
pursued is to either purchase license software’s or should use open source solutions for

educational purposes. Otherwise this will call for litigations against educational institution
for using software’s without license.
4.4 Code of Conduct on Internet

Netiquette in simple words mean the use of good manners in online verbal- textual
communication such as e-mail, chats, forums, blogs, and social networking sites to name a
few. Following are some ‘Core Rules of Netiquette on Cyberspace/Internet’
Rule 1: Respect People’s Privacy
Rule 2: Do not abuse, hack or hurt online community
Rule 3: Respectful Communication- remember the human element
Rule 4: Adhere to the same standards of behaviour online that you follow in real life.
Rule 5: Do not hurt sentiments on Cyberspace where people of different cast, creed, and
religion are available.
Rule 6: Respect others time and bandwidth.
Rule 7: Make yourself look good online with content and engagement.
Rule 8: Share expert knowledge online community for the information that you post
remains forever.
Rule9:Do not use metaphorically speaking or double meaning language.
ACTIVITY 3
State any three examples of non-netiquettes as an ethical teacher you have
experienced.
5.0 ROLES OF TECHNICAL TEACHER VIS-À-VIS VALUES AND PROFESSIONAL ETHICS

With respect to values and educational ethics, a professional teacher recognizes that quality
education is the common goal of the public, parents, technical administrators and educators,
and that a cooperative effort is essential among these groups to attain that goal. Towards
achieving this goal, s/he promises to adhere to:
a) Making concerted efforts to communicate to parents all information that should be
revealed in the interest of the student.
b) Respect the values and traditions of the diverse cultures represented in the
community and in his or her classroom.
c) Pledge to protect public sovereignty over public education and private control of
private education.
d) Manifest a positive and active role in college/community relations.
6.0 SUMMARY
This lesson has discussed the desired values required in a profession to fulfil the multiple
roles of being a good teacher, a good engineer/an ethical professional and above all, an
ethically correct person. The teacher ought to be a role model and should be able to exhibit

the values in his or her own life in an acceptable and responsible manner. He or she should
also exhibit the values and educational ethics as a professional during the interactions
undertaken with the students and other stake holders of technical education system.
****
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] Code of Professional Ethics for School Teachers by National Council for Teacher
Education] https://www.aaeteachers.org/index.php/about-us/aae-code-of-ethics
[2] wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/wct/ accessed on 27 Feb 2020
[3] https://creativecommons.org/licenses/ accessed on 27 Feb 2020
[4] https://smallseotools.com/ plagiarism-checker/ accessed on 27 Feb 2020
[5] https://www.ugc.ac.in/ ugc_notices.aspx?id=2079 accessed on 27 Feb 2020

DISCUSSION FORUM
 Start a discussion on social media on some values and ethics to be followed by

technical teachers

L– 12: Ethical Conflict: Case Studies of
Professionals
Contributors
Prof. Prakash Dandekar

Dr. Joshua Earnest

(Professor of Electrical Engineering, NITTTR Bhopal)

Unit 3 Development of Professional Values, Attitudes and Ethics L12: Ethical Conflict: Case Studies of Professionals
Lesson–12
Ethical Conflict: Some Case Studies for Professionals
Learning outcomes: At the end of this lesson, you will be able to resolve ethical
conflicts according to moral values and ethics.
Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 3
2.0 CODE OF CONDUCT AND ETHICAL CONFLICT IN TECHNICAL EDUCATION ................................................ 3
3.0 Case 1 ......................................................................................................................................................... 4
4.0 Case 2 ......................................................................................................................................................... 4
5.0 Case 3 ......................................................................................................................................................... 4
6.0 Case 4 ......................................................................................................................................................... 5
7.0 Case 5 ......................................................................................................................................................... 5
8.0 Case 6 ......................................................................................................................................................... 5
9.0 Case 7 ......................................................................................................................................................... 5
10.0 Case 8 ......................................................................................................................................................... 6
11.0 Case 9 ......................................................................................................................................................... 6
12.0 Case 10 ....................................................................................................................................................... 6
13.0 SUMMARY .................................................................................................................................................. 7
BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................................................................ 7
AICTE–NITTT Module2: Professional Ethics and Sustainability NITTTR, Bhopal Page 2

Lesson –12
Ethical Conflict: Some Case Studies for Professionals
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The personality of a person, his/her actions and choices made by him/her reflect his/her
values. On the other hand, the 'ethics' control and govern the behaviour of a person
according to norms set by others. In the sphere of business and services, the sellers and
buyers follow some basic ethics which are accepted as a baseline by every stakeholder in
that activity. In professional situations, such as teaching, medical, legal or hospitality and
such others, the persons involved may experience ethical conflicts. This lesson presents
some case studies based on some real incidents that have happened (or maybe happening
now) in the Indian University system. The intention is to open up your minds of how to
relate the situations in day-to-day life, how such ethical issues have to be handled without
any compromise when striving towards excellence in your profession. Criticism and gossip
over these 10 case studies presented in this lesson will not help much and will not help to
achieve anything good. Therefore, the cases given in this lesson are the ones which will help
in introspection and learning. Good values can also be inculcated by regular exposure to
good behavior by teachers, seniors.
2.0 CODE OF CONDUCT AND ETHICAL CONFLICT IN TECHNICAL EDUCATION

Ethics are taught to everybody right from school days and generally students and teachers
are fully aware of what ought to be done and what not to be done. All teaching institutions
frame their code of conduct and everybody signs on the dotted line promising to conform to
them. Something which is both morally and legally correct is not worth mentioning over
here since it meets the expectations of all human beings. However, there are many
infringements and rule breaking instances which are common in educational campuses all
over the world.
Following are some cases where the persons who broke the rule of ethics knowing fully well
what they were doing and had given one or the other moral justification for doing so. These
cases for simplicity can be categorised as the following:
a) Cases which are morally correct but legally incorrect (punishable)
b) Cases which are morally incorrect but cannot be legally challenged
c) Cases which are both morally and legally incorrect.
Both morally and legally incorrect behaviour is easy to spot. It is the other two categories
where the teachers get confused and undertake them willingly or unwillingly and suffer from
the consequences. The readers are encouraged to categorise the cases given here into these

two categories and judge which become the moral and legal traps for an unexpecting or
unsuspecting sincere teacher.
The case studies given below are more or less black and white cases and there is no reason
for giving any benefit of doubt to the perpetrator. These are discussed here to highlight the
fact that whatever may be the reason, the person concerned must follow the rules in letter
and spirit. That may make him/her suffer the consequences including collateral damage to
relationships with the teaching fraternity. These are stark reminders to teachers of what the
profession and the rest of society expects from them to conduct.
3.0 Case 1
A theft has occurred in the laboratory and a meter is found missing. Students have been
asked about it and they have denied taking it. After a few days, a bright and hardworking
student confesses to a teacher that he had taken it for study at home and to conduct some
experiments. Now he wishes to return it and he is seeking teacher's assistance in putting
back the meter in its place in the lab, without anybody knowing about it.
Question for Reflection: Should the teacher condone this action in the light of the excellent
academic record of the student or bring it to the notice of the head of the institution?
4.0 Case 2
The teacher ‘A' finds that one of his colleagues, teacher 'B’ is tutoring a few students at
home and charging a fee for that. Teacher B openly advises weak students to visit his home
and get personally tutored. Those students who attends his tuition are given undue benefits
like more marks than they deserve. Those who do not attend tuition class are failed in the
examination. An important point to note is Teacher ‘B‘ has been very helpful to Teacher ‘A‘
and teacher ‘A‘ owes some money to ‘B‘.
Question for Reflection: Should teacher ‘A’ keep quiet about ‘B’'s action due to a gratitude
or friendship, or report it to the management about the malpractice.
5.0 Case 3
A student is exceptionally gifted in a game such as football and represents national team.
Since he is most of the time travelling or practicing, he is not able to attend classes and is
very weak in studies. Teacher has made all efforts to teach him, even teaching in extra time,
yet in the final examination, the student has performed dismally and deserves to be failed. If
the student fails, he would lose financial support from the college and will become ineligible
to play for national team. So, his passing in all courses is most essential for his future.

Question for Reflection: Should the teacher bend the rules for this student, give him
unearned marks and pass him or go by ethical standards and give him only the marks earned
and if required, fail him?
6.0 Case 4
A teacher is lazy in checking examination answer sheets. He cursorily glances at the answer
book, leaves pen marks on each page but does not read the text. Then based on the general
impression, gives almost similar marks to all questions. He does not check the quality of
content written by the students, but looks at the total volume or length of the answer,
neatness, quality and handwriting. He never fails any student, so nobody complains about
his lack of efforts in a checking the paper properly. One of his colleagues has come to know
about this malpractice and has collected enough evidence against him.
Question for Reflection: Should this colleague keep quiet, since nobody is complaining and
nobody suffers any loss or bring it to the notice of the administration?
7.0 Case 5
A teacher has two bright students ‘A‘ and ‘B‘. ‘A‘ is topper in the class and ‘B’'s rank in the
class is between5thand 10th. Student ‘B‘ belongs to teacher's community and even distantly
related to the teacher. When the final examination is conducted, the teacher gives undue
extra marks to ‘B‘ and reduces ‘A‘'s score to enable ‘B‘ to get the 1stposition. On the
complaint to head of institution, who asks for answer sheets are shocked by the blatant
partiality. The teacher otherwise is a normal efficient person. A strong disciplinary action
against him may upset the regular teaching operations.
Question for Reflection: Should head of institution look at teacher's usefulness and condone
the act?
8.0 Case 6
A teacher is very competent, dynamic and is always arranging college festivals and events.
He has been given funds to purchase certain items needed for the stage. He gets the bills
inflated from shopkeeper and uses the extra amount obtained illegally to compensate
volunteer students' expenses of food and transportation, which, were otherwise, not
admissible under the college rules. The head of the institution comes to know about it.
Question for Reflection: Should the head of the institution take action against the teacher
for causing extra expenditure to the college? If he does that, will he cause a setback to the
teacher's career, and the teacher may not volunteer to work for similar tasks again, at least
not with the same willingness, zeal and initiative.
9.0 Case 7

A group of four students ‘A‘, ‘B‘, ‘C‘ and ‘D‘ are a team which has been assigned a year-long
project. ‘C‘ is the only one who spends most of the time in researching about it, designing,
building and testing. ‘B‘ assists him but spends only 30% time as compared to ‘C‘. ‘A‘ spends
10% time and ‘D‘ is mostly non-participating. When the evaluation is done internally, ‘C‘ gets
high marks, while the rest of the 3 students get about 80% of what ‘C‘ got, though they
contributed very little compared to ‘C‘. When an external evaluation is done, the project is
adjudged the best and everybody gets very high, but equal marks. ‘C‘ is watching all this and
wondering why the other 3 batch mates have been given equal marks. When he complains,
his advisor tells him, why it should matter to him since ‘C‘ is adjudged correctly and has not
lost anything.
Question for Reflection: Should student ‘C‘ complain to higher authorities about it?
10.0 Case 8
Teacher ‘A‘ teaches his classes regularly and diligently. Another teacher ‘B‘ who teaches
another course to the same class, is sloppy, careless and disorganised and does not teach
well. ‘B‘ misses the classes many times on some pretext of administrative load. The students
confide in ‘A‘, that they are not being taught properly by ‘B‘ but they cannot muster courage
to go to higher authorities. They instead request A to intercede on their behalf. ‘A‘ talks to
‘B‘, informally but ‘B‘ does not mend his ways.
Question for Reflection: What should ‘A‘ do? Should he just be a passive onlooker or should
he take student's complaint to higher authorities such as Dean or Principal.
11.0 Case 9
Teacher A is quite lazy in designing question papers. He has about 40 questions from last 4-5
year's question papers and selects eight questions randomly and creates a new paper,
without changing anything in the questions. The student community too has access to old
question papers too and is fully aware of teacher's laziness so they prepare a set of probable
questions and not study the whole course. The students rote learn the answer and
reproduce them correctly in the examination and get higher marks without learning. So they
are not complaining. This is known to all of his colleagues but they do not complain because
it does not affect anybody adversely.
Question for Reflection: How can the head of institution be made aware of it and what
should be done to prevent it?
12.0 Case 10
On the practical examination day, a student broke his leg due to an accident and was
confined to his bed. His parents approached the professor whether the student could be
given another chance later when he is fit. The professor told them that student will have to

be declared absent and will have to reappear for that exam 6 months down the line. The
father offered the examiner's panel to visit his home and take student's viva-voce exam over
there, as an alternative to save student's loss of 6 months. The professor asked the other
panel members and they all agreed after all other students are examined. At the end, they
will visit the ailing student and take his viva-voce exam over there. The examination at home
was duly carried out and student being good in studies, passed the exam easily. Another
teacher in the institute complained to the head of the institution that this is an undue favour
and illegal benefit given to a student which would set a wrong precedent and likely to be
misused in the future.
Question for Reflection: What should the head of institution to do in this case?
ACTIVITY-1
For each of the 10 cases mentioned above, from ethical point of view, justify the actions
that you will take.
13.0 SUMMARY
Personal 'values' guide a person as to what is more important and help him/her to make
better choices in various situations. On the other hand, the 'ethics' control and govern the
behaviour of a person according to norms set by others. In the sphere of teaching, the
persons such as teacher, students, administrators and supporting staff involved may
experience ethical conflicts. Counseling of persons can also be undertaken by appropriate
persons to help the students. Good values and display of ethical behavior in tune with good
practices by anyone should be brought to notice of persons involved as a matter of regular
practice. Discussion platforms and debate forums can be created by you in different groups
of students and teachers on different occasions in educational institutions, which can
motivate many people especially teachers in such situations to adopt good values and follow
ethics.
ACTIVITY-2
Prepare case on issues such as plagiarism in research papers, projects and assignments,
ethics in organising conferences, assessment of student projects, preparation for
teaching, interpersonal conflicts in faculty and staff that affect academics.
******
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] http://tutorials.istudy.psu.edu/academicintegrity/academicintegrity9.html

[2] https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5432416/

Lesson – 12 DISCUSSION FORUM
Start a discussion on social media on some ethical conflict issues for you seek solutions.

L–13: Code of Conduct: Academic
Ethics and its Implementation
Contributors

(Evangelist & Visiting Professor, IIT Gandhinagar& Bombay, Member, Heartfulness Institute)
Prof. N. V. Deshpande
(Former Professor, Devi Ahilya University, Indore)
Mrs. V. Deshpande
(Member, Heartfulness Institute, Indore)

Unit 3: Development of Professional Values, Attitudes and Ethics L13: Code of Conduct: Academic Ethics and its Implementation
Lesson–13
Code of Conduct: Academic Ethics and Its Implementation
LO 1. Plan for the implementation of the code of conduct for technical teachers.
LO 2. Interpret the code of conduct as applicable in your institution.
LO 3. Plan to implement code of conduct for the students.
Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 3
2.0 CODE OF CONDUCT FOR TEACHERS........................................................................................................... 3
2.1 Expected Conduct of Teachers..................................................................................................... 3
2.2 Improper Conduct of Teachers .................................................................................................... 4
2.3 Teachers’ Conduct with Administration ...................................................................................... 4
2.4 Teachers’ Conduct with Guardians .............................................................................................. 5
2.5 Teachers’ Conduct with the Community/Society ........................................................................ 5
3.0 CODE OF CONDUCT FOR PRINCIPAL/DIRECTOR OF THE INSTITUTE .......................................................... 5
3.1 Code of Conduct of Principal/Director of Institute ...................................................................... 6
4.0 CODE OF CONDUCT FOR GOVERNING BODY MEMBERS OF THE INSTITUTE ............................................. 6
4.1 Code of Conduct Governing Body Members of the Institute ...................................................... 7
5.0 CODE OF ETHICS REGARDING PUBLISHING AND COPYRIGHT .................................................................... 7
6.0 SUMMARY .................................................................................................................................................. 8
BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................................................................ 8
AICTE–NITTT Module 2: Professional Ethics and Sustainability NITTTR, Bhopal L13 Page 2
Lesson –13
Code of Conduct: Academic Ethics and its Implementation
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Academic ethics is an umbrella concept which encompasses many issues. The code of
conduct for ethical practice in teaching institutions is highly prevalent and most of them
publish it widely for the benefit of stakeholders. Many institute websites prominently display
the rules of conduct for the benefit of all incoming students and teachers. Based on some of
them, one can categorize rules for different group of personsengaged in different activities
in the institution. There are some basic guiding practices which are common to all groups
and there are some which are profession-specific. The code of conduct for teachers with
different types of transactions in each category is discussed in this lesson.
2.0 CODE OF CONDUCT FOR TEACHERS

The code of conduct for teachers normally addresses the matters to relate the conduct of
the teachers such as teaching, learning, evaluation, relationship with the students,
associated staff, management, parents, duties and responsibilities with moral and
professional ethics, human values, external services, devotion, dedication and integrity of
the teacher towards the college.
2.1 Expected Conduct of Teachers

The following are some of the code of conduct expected from faculty members as professionals in
higher education:
a) Seek to make professional growth continuous through study and research.
b) Express free and frank opinion by participation at professional meetings, seminars,
conference etc. towards the contribution of knowledge.
c) Maintain active membership of professional organizations and strive to improve
education and profession through them.
d) Perform their duties in the form of teaching, tutorial, practical, seminar and
research work conscientiously and with dedication.
e) Co-operate and assist in carrying out functions relating to the educational
responsibilities of the Institute and the university such as: assisting in appraising
applications for admission, advising and counseling students as well as assisting
the conduct of university and Institute examinations, including supervision,
invigilation and evaluation; and
f) Participate in extension, co-curricular and extra-curricular activities including
community service.
g) Manage their private affairs in a manner consistent with the dignity of the
profession.
h) Adhere to a responsible pattern of conduct and demeanor (outlook) expected of
them by the community.
2.2 Improper Conduct of Teachers

The teacher shall perform all his/her duties faithfully and should not avoid responsibility.
However, following lapses would constitute improper conduct on the part of the teacher:
a) Failure to perform his/her academic duties such as lecturing, demonstration,
assessment, invigilation and others
b) Gross partiality assessment of students, deliberately over/under making an attempt
of victimization on flimsy grounds.
c) Inciting or instigating students against other students, colleagues, administration,
(This does not interfere with teacher’s right to express the differences on principles in
seminars other places where students are present.)
d) Raising questions of castes, creed or religion, race or sex in his relationship with the
students and his colleagues and trying to use the above considerations for
improvement of his prospects.
e) Refusal to carry out the decisions of competent authorities, officers, administrative
and academic bodies of the college. (This will not inhibit his right to express his
difference with their policies or decisions, provided that he will not use the facilities
or forum of the Institute to propagate his own ideas or beliefs for or against
particular party of alignment of political or religious activities.)
f) Involvement in the activities that are unethical to good academics directly or
indirectly, such as:
 Writing of questions-answers guides, keys, likely questions, and such others.
 Undertaking of any office of profit, agency. The teacher shall not avoid any work
related to the University/Institute examinations without reasonable grounds.
g) Immodest behaviour with male and female students and other employees.’
h) Anti-bigamy Act and Anti-dowry Act in any manner directly or indirectly
i) Drunken and substance abuse.
ACTIVITY 1
List any five acts of teaching that you follow as good conduct of teacher.
2.3 Teachers’ Conduct with Administration

Following are some of the code of conduct for the teachers of the institute/college with the
college administration personnel
a) Discharge their professional responsibilities according to the existing rules and
adhere to procedures and methods consistent with their profession in initiating steps
through their own institutional bodies and/or professional organizations for change
of any such rule detrimental to the professional interest
b) Refrain from undertaking any other employment and commitment including private
tuitions and coaching classes which are likely to interfere with their professional
responsibilities.
c) Co-operate in the formulation of policies or the institution by accepting various

offices and discharge responsibilities which such offices may demand.
d) Co-operate through their organizations in the formulation of policies of the other
institutions and accept offices.
e) Co-operate with the authorities for the betterment of the institutions keeping in view
the interest and in conformity with dignity of the profession.
f) Should adhere to the conditions of contract.
g) Refrain from availing themselves of leave except on unavoidable grounds and as far
as practicable with prior intimation, keeping in view their particular responsibility for
completion of academic schedule.
2.4 Teachers’ Conduct with Guardians

Try to see through teachers’ bodies and organizations, that institutions maintain contact
with the guardians. Their students send reports of their performance to the guardians.
Whenever they meet the guardians in meeting convened for the purpose, they mutually
exchange ideas for the benefit of the students and the Institution.
2.5 Teachers’ Conduct with the Community/Society

Following are some of the code of conduct for the teachers of the institute/college with the
community/society. The teacher should recognise that education is a public service which
decides their conduct.
a) Keep the public informed of the educational programmes which are being offered
b) Work to improve education in the community and strengthen the community’s moral
and intellectual life.
c) Address the social problems conducive to the progress of society and hence the
country as a whole.
d) Participate in community activities and shoulder responsibilities of public offices as
the duties of a citizen.
e) Refrain from taking part in or subscribing to or assisting in activities which tend to
promote feeling or hatred or enmity among different communities, religions or
linguistic groups, but actively work for National Integration.
ACTIVITY 2
Explain at least two examples of good conduct of a teacher in society.
3.0 CODE OF CONDUCT FOR PRINCIPAL/DIRECTOR OF THE INSTITUTE

Principal/Director as the head of an Institute is solely responsible for addressing and
resolving all issues concerned with the stakeholders of education. This code of conduct
provides an explicit definition of the standards of professional conduct expected from the
Principal as a Head of the institution.
3.1 Code of Conduct of Principal/Director of Institute

Subject to the supervision and general control of the management, the Principals/Directors
as the Principal Executive and Academic Head of the Institute/college, is responsible for the
following:
a) Academic growth of the college/institute.
b) Provide equal opportunities to all employees/staff
c) Academic growth in spite of resistance to change
d) Must be unbiased and fair to all
e) Take decisions based on criteria
f) Transparency in admission of students
g) Administration, cultural activities using optimum resources
h) Fair conduction of university examinations
i) Teaching, research and training programmes of the college/institute.
j) Planning and implementation of academic programmes such as refresher/orientation
course, seminars, in-service and other training programmes organized by the
University/ Institute for academic competence of the faculty member.
k) Admission of students, maintenance of discipline in the Institute.
l) Receipts, expenditure and maintenance of true and correct accounts.
m) Overall administration of the Institute and Hostels.
n) Correspondence relating to the administration of the Institute.
o) Administration and supervision of curricular, co-curricular/extracurricular or extra-
mural, student’s welfare activities of the Institute and maintenance of records.
p) Observance of the Acts, Statutes, Ordinances, Regulations, Rules and other Orders
issued by the University authorities and bodies, from time-to-time.
q) Supervision of the examination, setting of question papers, moderation and
assessment of answer papers and such other work pertaining to the examination of
college/ recognized Institutions.
r) Overall supervision of the University Examinations.
s) Observance of provisions of Accounts Code.
t) Maintenance of Self –Assessment Reports of teachers and their Service Books.
u) Any other work pertaining to the Institute or recognized Institution relating to the
administration of the Institute as may be assigned to him/her by the Management
from time-to-time.
4.0 CODE OF CONDUCT FOR GOVERNING BODY MEMBERS OF THE INSTITUTE

The Institute may be managed by a regularly constituted Governing Body. The composition,
functions and other condition pertaining to the Governing Body shall be as prescribed in the
‘Directive of Principals’ made and accepted by the Management.
4.1 Code of Conduct Governing Body Members of the Institute

Following are some of the code of conduct for the governing body members of the
institute/college:
a) Decisions and resolutions made by the Governing Body, Executive Body and all the
Trust Units are obligatory.
b) The members of Governing Body shall maintain their character, transparency,
mannerisms and good image.
c) No property of Trust will be used for personal benefits.
d) The members of the Governing Body can obtain service from the Trust employee as
and when required.
e) Any member of Governing Body will not express non-satisfaction with any decision
made by the Executive Body. It will be discussed or expressed in the meeting only.
One must respect majority taking the decisions.
f) If any member of Governing Body needs any primary information from the Institute,
s/he will communicate to the Principal and will not have any oral or written
communication with the employee.
g) If any misbehavior and action by the employee defames the Institute, it will be
communicated to the Secretary orally or in writing.
h) All shall mind that no person is greater than the Institute.
i) The Governing Body will receive all communication in writing only from the Principal.
In the same way the Governing Body will reciprocate their decision through principal.
j) Respect other member’s opinion and give them a chance to express, if necessary
permit to register their differences of opinion.
5.0 CODE OF ETHICS REGARDING PUBLISHING AND COPYRIGHT

No project report, dissertation or a thesis, should contain plagiarized work including third-
party copyright material without permission, or with insufficient acknowledgement, or
authorship of the document, whether intentional or unintentional.
5.1 Code of Ethics for Students Regarding Publishing and Copyright

Students shall not violate the trust of the teacher by:
a) Cheating
b) Fabricating information or citations
c) Falsifying documents
d) Falsifying information about test material
e) Forgery
f) Gaining unauthorized access to examinations
g) Making up or changing data for a research project
h) Plagiarizing
i) Submitting credentials that are false or altered in any way
j) Tampering with the academic work of other students
k) Using words or ideas from others without appropriate attribution

l) Facilitating another student’s academic misconduct
m) Submitting course work or taking an exam for another student
n) Buying or selling of course materials, including exams, test answers and course
papers.
6.0 SUMMARY
This lesson has discussed the desired values required in the teaching profession to fulfill the
multiple roles of being a good teacher, a good engineer/an ethical professional and above all
as a good citizen of the country. Even the students’ code of ethics is also highlighted and all
of which should be implemented in a judiciously, tactfully, strictly and lovingly.
********
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] https://www.aaeteachers.org/index.php/about-us/aae-code-of-ethics Code of

Professional Ethics for School Teachers by National Council for Teacher Education]
[2] http://kilyos.ee.bilkent.edu.tr/~ge301/NSPE_CodeOfEthics.pdf Code of Professional Ethics
for Engineers
Discussion Forum
a) Discuss examples of violation of code of conduct by teacher and principal.
b) Discuss the effect of such violations on students and employers.
L–14: Role of Professional Societies
Contributors

(Evangelist & Visiting Professor, IIT Gandhinagar& Bombay, Member, Heartfulness Institute)

(Professor of Assessment and Evaluation, NITTTR Bhopal)

Unit 3: Development of Professional Values, Attitudes and Ethics L14: Role of Professional Societies
Lesson –14
Role of Professional Societies
LO 1. Describe role of professional societies.
LO 2. Describe code of conduct for professionals.
LO 3. Describe the role of professional teachers with respect to the professional
societies.
LO 4.
Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 3
2.0 PROFESSIONAL SOCIETIES .......................................................................................................................... 3
3.0 ATTRIBUTES AND ROLES OF PROFESSIONAL SOCIETIES............................................................................. 3
4.0 COMMON CODE OF CONDUCT FOR ALL PROFESSIONS ............................................................................. 4
5.0 ETHICS FOR DOCTORS ................................................................................................................................ 5
6.0 ETHICS FOR LAWYERS ................................................................................................................................ 6
7.0 ETHICS FOR ACCOUNTANTS ....................................................................................................................... 7
8.0 ETHICS FOR ENGINEERS ............................................................................................................................. 7
9.0 ATTRIBUTES FOR PROFESSIONAL TEACHERS ............................................................................................. 8
10.0 ETHICS FOR TEACHERS ............................................................................................................................... 8
11.0 SUMMARY .................................................................................................................................................. 9
BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................................................................ 9
Lesson – 14
Role of Professional Societies
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the career of a technical teacher, membership of a professional society is very important
as it is one of the main prime movers in his/her professional progress. Some teachers enter
the profession because they're eager to make a difference — their students tend to
remember their teachers for an entire lifetime, long after they have left the university/
institute. Other teachers are inspired by their own teachers earlier during their education
who had a positive impact on them. Although they are driven by a positive energy, many fail
to understand the true meaning of being a professional educator. Professional teachers
always recognize that change is the norm. They are growth-oriented and consider
themselves life-long learners and contributors. This lesson discusses about the roles of
different professional societies so that the technical teacher appreciates his/her role as a
professional technical teacher with respective to the professional society.
2.0 PROFESSIONAL SOCIETIES

A professional society (also called a professional body, professional organization,
or professional association) seeks to further the cause of that particular profession, the
interests of individuals engaged in that profession and the public interest. In most countries,
such societies are typically non-profit organisations for tax purposes. Many others are either
supported by national governments, or are enacted by a national law. All professional
societies define a code of conduct or ethics for their members. Though they are operate in
different professional spheres such as doctors, engineers, lawyers, accountants and so on,
there is still a common set of ethics which all of them expect their members to follow. In
addition, they have ethical rules that are specific to their respective professions.
3.0 ATTRIBUTES AND ROLES OF PROFESSIONAL SOCIETIES

Following are some of the attributes of professional societies:
a) Such a society is a group of people, in an occupation who are entrusted with
maintaining control or oversight of the legitimate practices of the occupation. It is
also a body acting to safeguard the public interest. Such organizations fully represent
the interest and well-being of the professional practitioners. They act to maintain
their own privileged and powerful position as a controlling body.
b) The Science Council, UK defines a professional society as 'an organization with
individual members practicing a profession or occupation in which the organisation
maintains an oversight (supervision or control) of the knowledge, skills, conduct and
practice of that profession or occupation'.
c) The mission of the professional societies is primarily educational and informational.
Their influence flows from their continuing and highly visible functions: to publish
professional journals, to develop professional excellence and to raise public

awareness. Through their work, they help to define and set standards for their
professional fields and to promote high standards of quality through awards and
other forms of recognition. In addition, there are statutory bodies and regulators that
guarantee quality assurance and 'have powers mandated by Parliament to regulate a
profession or group of professions and protect the use of professional titles'.
d) There are professional societies that 'are independent membership organizations
that oversee the activities of a particular profession and represent the interests of
their members' and which 'may offer registration or certification of unregulated
occupations on a voluntary basis.'
e) Many professional bodies are involved in accrediting degrees, defining and examining
the skills and competencies necessary to practice a person, and granting professional
certifications to indicate that a person is qualified in the subject area. Sometimes
membership of a professional body is synonymous with certification, though it may
not be so always. In some professions, membership of a professional body, as a legal
requirement, can form the primary formal basis for gaining entry to and setting up
practice within the profession such as medical council of India (MCI), Nursing Council
of India (NCI), Dental Council of India (DCI), Bar Council of India and such others.
f) Many professional bodies also act as learned societies for the academic disciplines
underlying their professions. Many professional, or disciplinary, societies were
founded to support the single disciplines for which they are named. In recent
decades, these societies, like many other organizations, have been increasingly called
on to expand their relationships to new fields of research. Such societies are common
in computer applications, bio-sciences, economic, statistics and applied mathematics.
Following sections highlight the different ethical code of conduct specified by different
professional societies for different professions. The details given below is neither
comprehensive nor exhaustive, but merely representative sample to show the basic
expectations from members. The ethics expected from engineers and technical teachers are
also included.
4.0 COMMON CODE OF CONDUCT FOR ALL PROFESSIONS

The professional ethics define how you agree to relate to one another and the codes of
professional conduct lay out a road map for professional relationships. Though many codes
may differ across the spectrum, few basic ethics stand out clearly. These are common to all
societies and they expect their members to be a good human being first, before being a
good professional. Same applies to technical teachers. First they are engineers, then they are
teachers but underlying all this veneer, they are expected to be first a good human being.
So, the common ethics are listed below for reconsideration and recapitulation:
a) You shall be honest in your profession towards the person whom you are providing
service (students).
b) You shall be just and even-handed to all and show no favors or bias or prejudices.
c) You shall be compassionate in dealing with others.
d) You will take responsibility for all your actions.
e) You will perform your task diligently, meticulously, punctually and cheerfully at all
times.
f) You will foster an atmosphere of peace, brotherhood, mutual cooperation and will
never exploit others.
g) You will abide by the rules of community and country and present a role model to
others.
h) Your conduct should be so as to enhance the honor, reputation, and usefulness of
the profession.
i) You shall be truthful and transparent.
ACTIVITY 1
a) Describe your own behavior in the light of one aspect of ethical conduct i.e.
b) ”You will take responsibility for all your actions”.
5.0 ETHICS FOR DOCTORS

In India the ethics for doctor's code of conduct was prepared or enforced by Medical Council
of India (MCI) which is likely to be replaced by National Medical Commission (NMC), soon.
The actual list for ethics is very long and only 4 guiding principles are given here:
a) Autonomy: The doctor must provide the patient complete autonomy and freedom of
thought, intention, and action when making decisions regarding health
care procedures. Therefore, the patient's decision-making process must be free of
coercion or coaxing. In order for a patient to make a fully informed decision, she/he
must understand all risks and benefits of the procedure and the likelihood
of success.
b) Justice: The idea is that the burdens and benefits of new or experimental treatments
must be distributed equally among all groups in society. The health care provider
must do these tasks in an even handed manner - fair distribution of scarce resources,
competing needs, rights and obligations, and potential conflicts with established
legislation.
c) Beneficence: Doctor must undertake a procedure with the intent of doing good for
the patient involved. S/he must develop and maintain skills and knowledge,
continually update training, consider individual circumstances of all patients, and
strive for patient’s benefit.
d) Non-malfeasance: Doctor must ensure that a procedure does not harm the patient
involved or others in society. In some cases, it is difficult for doctors to successfully
apply the do no harm principle.
6.0 ETHICS FOR LAWYERS

The profession of law is a noble profession with reference to professional ethics, harbored in
compliance with the established set of rules and code of conduct for advocates. There is a
given code of conduct for lawyers in India that they are expected to follow while practicing
the profession. This code of conduct is laid down under legislation that governs the legal
profession in India. Rule for Code of conduct of lawyers is mandated to secure the
importance of legal profession in India as the lawyers are officers of the court who play an
important and critical part in securing the administration of justice.
The Bar Council of India is a statutory body that has been set-up to perform several
disciplinary, reformative and regulatory functions in the field of law and other related fields.
It recognizes Universities that award law degrees that act as a relevant qualification for the
registration of an advocate. It also safeguards the privileges, rights as well as interests of the
lawyer. So, in order to sustain his/her membership in the Indian bar, a lawyer has to follow
the prescribed bar council code of conduct, standards, ethics and regulations righteously.
The Advocates Act, 1961 was enacted to govern the law profession in India by making
provisions that regulate their registration, admission, methods of practice and education,
standardize the ethics of legal provision in India. Each lawyer who is a member of the State
Bar Council and Bar Council of India has to follow the provisions of this Act. In India,
advocate is a sub-set of lawyer but the act only applies to the Advocates as the Advocates
are the ones who are allowed to practice in the court because of their membership in the
Bar Council of India and State Bar Council whereas, lawyers are the persons who have
completed their bachelor’s degree in law. Thus, Bar Council code of conduct is applicable
only to the member lawyers i.e., advocates.
Here are a few ethical conducts expected by lawyer member:

a) A lawyer must accept bribes from their client in order to stand for them in the court.
b) A lawyer cannot pull out of a case without a reasonable and serious cause.
c) A lawyer has to be truthful and open to their clients and declare all details of the case
even if those details may cause harm to the client’s case in future.
d) A lawyer has to always protect and defend the well-being of his client. It is an ethical
responsibility of a lawyer to put his client’s interest before anyone else’s.
e) It is unethical for a lawyer to hide or conceal any material evidence or information if
that may lead to the unfair sentencing of a person who is innocent.
f) A lawyer must maintain confidentiality of exchanged information in a client-advocate
relationship. A lawyer must maintain trust and confidence of their client and must
not ill-treat or abuse any information shared for any other purposes than
representing the client.
g) A lawyer cannot misuse or mis-arrange any of client’s funds without informing them,
like converting them into loans or any other wrongful means. A lawyer has to be
accountable to his client for any amount of money delivered by the client i.e. details
of the money spent, records of information gathered by that money, and others.
h) If a lawyer is representing one of the parties in a legal proceeding, he cannot
represent any other party in that suit.
7.0 ETHICS FOR ACCOUNTANTS

The professional society of accountants expects their members to adhere to following code
of conduct or ethics:
a) Integrity: A professional accountant should be straightforward and honest in all
professional and business relationships.
b) Objectivity: A professional accountant should not allow bias, conflict of interest or
undue influence of others to override professional or business judgments.
c) Professional Competence and Due Care: A professional accountant has a continuing
duty to maintain professional knowledge and skill at the level required to ensure that
a client or employer receives competent professional service based on current
developments in practice, legislation and techniques. A professional accountant
should act diligently and in accordance with applicable technical and professional
standards when providing professional services.∗
d) Confidentiality: A professional accountant should respect the confidentiality of
information acquired as a result of professional and business relationships and
should not disclose any such information to third parties without proper and specific
authority unless there is a legal or professional right or duty to disclose. Confidential
information acquired as a result of professional and business relationships should not
be used for the personal advantage of the professional accountant or third parties.
e) Professional Behavior: A professional accountant should comply with relevant laws
and regulations and should avoid any action that discredits the profession.
8.0 ETHICS FOR ENGINEERS

Engineers provide growth and sustenance of material wealth of a nation. Their efforts
improve living standards and well-being of the population. The tasks they perform involve
huge investment in manpower, money and national resources and their effort has gigantic
impact over their people. As professionals, engineers need to internalise their codes and to
realize that they have a personal stake in the application of codes as well as the process of
developing the codes. Yet, most engineers view professional codes as static statements
developed by 'others' with little (or no) input from the individual engineer. Complicating the
problem, questions of professionalism (such as ethics) are frequently viewed as topics
outside the normal realm of engineering analysis and design. In reality, professional
responsibility is an integral part of the engineering process. The professional societies,
expect that in the fulfillment of their professional duties, they shall:
a) Give high importance to safety, health, and welfare of the public.
b) Perform services only in the areas of their competence.
c) Avoid all conduct or practice that deceives the public.

d) Maintain confidentiality and not disclose, without consent, information concerning
the business affairs or technical processes of any present or former client or
employer, or public body which they serve.
e) Avoid to be influenced in the professional duties by conflicting interests.
f) Avoid attempting to obtain employment or advancement or professional
engagements by untruthfully criticising other engineers, or by other improper or
questionable methods.
g) Desist from attempting to injure, maliciously or falsely, directly or indirectly, the
professional reputation, prospects, practice, or employment of other engineers.
h) Present information to the competent authority for actions of others who are guilty
of unethical or illegal practice.
i) Accept personal responsibility for their professional activities while seeking
indemnification for services arising out of their practice for other than gross
negligence, where his/her interests cannot otherwise be protected.
j) Give credit for engineering work to those to whom credit is due, and will recognize
the proprietary and interests of others.
9.0 ATTRIBUTES FOR PROFESSIONAL TEACHERS

Following are some of the attributes for professional teachers. They are:
a) Value-driven, guided by principles, passion, and a purpose bigger than themselves.
b) Need analysts – competent to diagnose and prescribe options for educational success
and significance.
c) Believers of their profession is their calling.
d) Growth-oriented and consider themselves life-long learners and contributors. They
recognize that change is the norm.
e) Climate creators, recognizing that the conditions that surround learning contribute to
learning.
f) Catalysts in promoting calculated risks that advance their profession and enable
everyone to access success.
g) Promoters of cohesiveness, collaboration, and team-building. They promote ‘we are
better together' philosophy.
h) Creators of a climate of ownership by ensuring that everyone involved in the
educational process is invited to participate.
i) Accountable to their clients, community, studentsand their parents providing a
quality educational program for all.
j) A class that promotes their profession above personal gain.
10.0 ETHICS FOR TEACHERS

The technical teacher is first and foremost an engineer and are therefore governed by the
ethics of engineering societies as well. It is very important that engineers need to observe an
honourable conduct towards other engineers, employers, clients, and toward the public. The
current education curriculum and professional societies pay inadequate attention to the
area. So, the burden of responsibility of technical teacher gets bigger because s/he has to
follow two sets of codes of conduct - first for being an engineer and second for being a
teacher. Indian Society for Technical education (ISTE) lists a few codes of ethical conduct for
technical teachers as follows:
a) Deal justly and impartially with students regardless of their social, economic, regional
and religious background.
b) Recognise the differences among students and seek to meet their individual needs.
c) Encourage students to work for higher individual goals. Aid students to develop an
understanding and appreciation not only of opportunities and benefits but also of
their responsibilities.
d) Inculcate in students respect for teachers, love towards fellow students and loyalty to
institution and the country.
e) Acquaint students with civic responsibilities and environmental protection.
f) Never use students to solve his/her personal problems.
g) Accept no remuneration for tutoring except in accordance with approved policies of
Government / Institutions.
The International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE), at Washington D.C., USA
expects its members and even participants to communicate professionally and
constructively, whether in person or virtually, handling dissent or disagreement with
courtesy, dignity and an open mind, being respectful when providing feedback, and being
open to alternate points of view.
ACTIVITY 2
Describe your own behavior in the light of one aspect of ethical conduct i.e. Deal justly
and impartially with students regardless of their social, economic, regional and religious
background.
11.0 SUMMARY
The professional societies play a very important role in the life of technical teachers as they
set up the expectations about the expectations from its members and prevent members
from any wrong actions which will negatively impact the lives of people and community. In
short, they seem to become similar to an arm of law in the country.
****
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] Ethics by professional bodies https://gradeup.co/ethics-and-values-in-engineering-
profession-i-2b1ef000-d260-11e6-a244-93755fd0e51e
[2] Professional responsibility: The role of the engineer in society

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11948-997-0039-x
[3] What is a Professional Educator? https://www.astapro.org/index.php/about-us/the-
professional-educator
DISCUSSION FORUM
Discuss the role of a teacher in dealing with students having extremely poor academic
background and also economic background. Assume that the institution in which the
situation is a government institution having a committed Principal and adequate
infrastructural and human resources.
L–15: Development and Poverty
Alleviation
Contributor
Dr. Aashish Deshpande

(Professor, Department of Education Research and Management)

Unit 4: Sustainable Development L15: Development and Poverty Alleviation
Lesson – 15
Development and Poverty Alleviation
LO 1. Explain the concept of ‘development' and related terms in the national
context.
LO 2. Describe the role of technical teachers with regard to 'development'
LO 3. Distinguish the terms poverty and related terms.
LO 4. Describe the roles of technical teachers in poverty alleviation.
Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 4
2.0 UNDERSTANDING THE TERM 'DEVELOPMENT' .......................................................................................... 4
2.1 Economic Indicators (Change in Real GDP) .................................................................................. 5
2.2 National Income as an Index of Development ............................................................................. 6
2.3 Per Capita Income as an Index of Development .......................................................................... 6
2.4 Human Development Index (HDI) ................................................................................................ 6
3.0 UNDERSTANDING POVERTY ....................................................................................................................... 7
3.1 Poverty Concept........................................................................................................................... 7
3.2 Poverty Definitions ...................................................................................................................... 7
3.3 Poverty Measurement ................................................................................................................. 8
3.4 Human Poverty Index (HPI) .......................................................................................................... 9
3.6 Poverty Line ............................................................................................................................... 10
3.7 Absolute Poverty ........................................................................................................................ 10
3.8 Relative Poverty ......................................................................................................................... 10
3.9 Rural Poverty ............................................................................................................................. 11
3.10 Urban Poverty ............................................................................................................................ 11
4.0 NEED OF (SUSTAINABLE) DEVELOPMENT FOR POVERTY ALLEVIATION ................................................... 12
4.1 From MDGs to SDGs .................................................................................................................. 12
5.0 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................................ 14
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...................................................................................................................................................... 14

Lesson – 15
Development and Poverty Alleviation
1.0 INTRODUCTION
During the industrialization process, the phenomenon of poverty in developing countries and
its relationship to the development process has been the subject matter of intense study. Two
decades ago, in the year 2001, 189 countries unanimously approved the Millennium
Declaration, culminated in eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Till 2015, these
MDGs were endorsed by United Nations as the international framework for planning and
monitoring progress on poverty alleviation. These have been primary objectives of
international development efforts and have been adopted in the policy statements and
declarations of many developing countries. This lesson intends to build a basic understanding
of the development and poverty alleviation relationship for MDGs and sustainable
development goals (SDGs) allowing students to develop a deeper understanding. Comparing
the measurement techniques of poverty and development would enable the technical
teachers to discuss and address the issues and implications at institute, state and national
levels. This lesson will help you to understand various aspects of ‘development’ and poverty
alleviation.
2.0 UNDERSTANDING THE TERM 'DEVELOPMENT'

Development means ‘improvement in country’s economic and social conditions’. The term
development has multitude of meanings and is complex, at times contested, or have different
meanings and to some an elusive concept. Development is a process in which economic
growth, progress in environmental conditions and positive changes in social and demographic
components takes place. In other words, development can be defined as bringing about social
change that allows people to achieve their human potential. It is to create wealth and improve
quality of life of the population in a manner to create or expand avenues for local income and
employment opportunities without damaging the natural resources.
Conventionally, development has been classified into first, second, third world countries and
at different development status, various countries occupy different positions in this
'development continuum’. The countries have been grouped as global north/south and also
grouped at different stages of development like BRICS, The Americas and so on. Through the
years, ‘development’ has been looked from different lenses and researchers have come out
with a number of definitions and emphases for the term.
Amartya Sen, the Nobel Laureate, looked development from ‘capability approach ’and defines
it as a tool enabling people to reach the highest level of their ability, through granting freedom
of action in terms of economic, social and other factors. Using this approach, development is
measured by the HDI (Human Development Index). This was developed by the United Nations
Development Program (UNDP) in 90s and development was defined as a process of economic

and social advancement in terms of quality of human life. UN has standardized its
measurement in terms of culture, wealth, education, healthcare, opportunities and termed it
as HDI- human development index. It measures based on 3 factors viz. life expectancy,
literacy/education, and standard of living. To measure the standard of living, per capita gross
domestic product (GDP) is used. GDP is value of goods and services divided by the number of
people in the country.
The ‘development’ continuum involves natural environment and is considered as conversion

of natural resources into cultural resources. As it is known, the basic function of economy is
to use and convert natural resource into goods and services useful to humans. In this
conversion process some waste is also generated. This results in various forms of pollution
into the environment as the process in not totally efficient. Hence, in economic activity,
environment functions as a source as well as a sink. With growth of economic activities more
and more goods and services are produced. It is generally assumed that these goods and
services provide humans with higher standard of living. This approach of development aims
to increase the size of the economy by way of increasing the output of goods and services
produced, which inevitably would require rawer material and energy and will generate more
waste impacting the environment. To assess the extent to which a country has developed may
be assessed by considering a range of narrow and broad indicators, including per capita
income, life expectancy, education, and the extent of poverty.
2.1 Economic Indicators (Change in Real GDP)

The economic development is measured by Gross National Product (GNP) per capita. There
are many possible measures of development of a country viz.: income per head, the
percentage of resources unexploited, capital per head, saving per head and amount of social
capital. However, increase in national income, per capita real incomes are commonly used
criteria of economic development along with comparative concept, standard of living and
economic welfare of the society.
The national income is commonly measured as Gross domestic product (GDP). It is the value
of expenditures on final goods and services at market prices produced by domestic factors of
production (labor, capital, materials) during a year. The ‘Gross’ implies that no deduction for
the reduction in the stock of plant and equipment due to wear and tear has been applied to
the measurements and survey-based estimates.
‘Domestic’ broadly means that the GDP includes only production by factors located within a
country. GDP also includes the production and income of foreigners and foreign-owned
property in the home country and excludes the production and incomes of the non-residents
and their property located abroad.

‘Product’ refers to the measurement of output at final prices or of the market value of factors
(inclusive of taxes less subsidies) used in their production and only newly produced goods are
counted in GDP. Sales of used goods and sales from inventories of goods produced in prior
years are excluded, but the services of dealers, agents, and brokers in implementing these
transactions are included.
2.2 National Income as an Index of Development

National income is the total market value of production of an economy during a year. It can
be measured alternatively and equivalently in three ways:
i. Value of expenditures method
ii. Value of inputs used in production method
iii. Sum of value added at each level of production method.
Various economists have shown preference for the national income as index of development
where in the net national product (NNP) is preferred to gross national product (GNP), as it
better depicts the progress of a nation.
2.3 Per Capita Income as an Index of Development

Per capita national product is the most widely used measure of the level of national economic
development. Per capita income estimates are drawn from dividing the ‘national income’ by
size of population. This measure is used to assess sector's average income and compare the
wealth of different populations and often used to measure standard of living in a nation. It is
useful as it is easily calculable from readily available national income statistics and population
estimates, and produces a useful statistic for comparison of wealth between different
countries and for calculating the human development index.
2.4 Human Development Index (HDI)

The Human Development Index (HDI) (United Nations Development Programme, 1994) is a
comprehensive measure of socio-economic development. To compare the level of
development of different nations HDI approach is most commonly used as the GDP and per
capita income approaches are narrower indicator of economic development and fail to indicate
other aspects of development. HDI is a summary measure of average achievement in three key
dimensions of human development and a composite index of these social indicator:
a) Longevity (life expectancy),
b) Educational Attainment (adult literacy) and
c) Decent standard of living.
HDI value of a country is calculated by taking three indicators Longevity, Educational

attainment and decent standard of living and considers real GDP per capita. However, it
ignores some indicators of human development such as infant mortality, nutrition and such
others. The HDI has two main features:

 A scale from 0 (no development) to 1 (complete development).

 An index, which is based on three equally weighted components:
i. Longevity, measured by life expectancy at birth
ii. Knowledge, measured by adult literacy and number of years children are
enrolled at school
iii. Standard of living, measured by real GDP per capita at purchasing power parity
HDI ranges from 0.897 in high human development countries, while for low human
development countries it is 0.436. India has moved up to 130th position from 189 rank in year
2018. India's HDI value for 2017 was 0.640 (UN, 2018). The United Nations Development
Program (UNDP) comprehensively analyses the comparative status of socio-economic
development in different countries and publishes the annual assessment in the form of
Human Development Reports.
3.0 UNDERSTANDING POVERTY

Poverty is a state of an individual, a family or a society where people are unable to fulfill even
their basic necessities of life. Poverty is a social phenomenon in which, necessities of a large
section of the population are not fulfilled. It exists across nations. When a substantial segment
of a society is deprived of the minimum level of quality of living and continues to be a bare
subsistence level, that society is said to be plagued with mass poverty (Rao, 2005). The
problem of poverty and unemployment is considered as the biggest challenge to development
planning of a nation and India is no exception. High poverty levels are synonymous with poor
quality of life, deprivation, malnutrition, illiteracy and low human resource development. In
view of this, to design effective policies, programmes and strategies to avert poverty in a given
country or region, it is important to look at its characteristics.
3.1 Poverty Concept

The concept of poverty is multi-dimensional and covers not only the levels of income and
consumption, but also levels of health and education, elements of vulnerability and risk, and
marginalization and exclusion of the poor from the mainstream. The lower levels of income
which restricts a family from attaining the basic necessities of life, including a minimum of
food, clothing, shelter and water are associated with income poverty. Non-income poverty
elements include deprivation in relation to health, education, sanitation and others. The
poverty concept has two dimensions viz. relative and absolute, one measures the affordability
and the other is about relative deprivation. These are discussed in the following section.
3.2 Poverty Definitions

Poverty is easier to recognize than to define and compare. Generally, poverty is defined with
reference to certain basic amenities such as food, shelter or floor space per person and
medical care, etc. When a family lacks a certain proportion of basic amenities, it is considered
poor, regardless of income. The definition is broad enough to cover a miser who denies himself

basic amenities even though he has the ability to purchase these, and a family who has zero
income but manages to fulfill the basic needs by borrowing, reducing saving, or living on the
charity of friends and relatives.
Poverty is defined as a lack of income to acquire minimum necessities of life; per capita
income, per capita consumption expenditure, per capita calorie intake and availability of the
size of land holding, are the main indicators of poverty in different definitions (Sinha & Sen,
2000). Poverty has been defined in various ways using different standards.
Definitions by United Nations (Gordon, 2005) and The World Bank, (2001)
UNITED NATIONS
“Fundamentally, poverty is denial of choices and opportunities, a violation of
human dignity. It means lack of basic capacity to participate effectively in society. It
means not having enough to feed and clothe to family, not having a school or clinic
to go to not having the land on which to grow one’s food or a job to earn one’s
living, and not having access to credit. It means insecurity, powerlessness and
exclusion of individuals, households and communities. It means susceptibility to
violence, and it often implies living in marginal or fragile environments, without
access to clean water or sanitation.”
WORLD BANK
“Poverty is pronounced as deprivation in well-being, and comprises many
dimensions. It includes low incomes and the inability to acquire the basic goods and
services necessary for survival with dignity. Poverty also encompasses low levels of
health and education, poor access to clean water and sanitation, inadequate
physical security, lack of voice and insufficient capacity and opportunity to better
one’s life”
3.3 Poverty Measurement

The poverty measure is a statistical function which implies the comparison of the indicators
of household well-being and the chosen poverty line into one aggregate number for a
population. Here population can be considered as a whole or as a population sub-group. Many
methods of measurements exist, but broadly following three approaches of poverty
measurement are used (The World Bank, 2002):
a) Headcount index: the percentage of the population living in households with a
consumption per capita less than the poverty line, i.e. share of population living below
poverty line and is also known as incidence of poverty.

b) Poverty gap index: the mean distance below the poverty line expressed as a proportion
of that line, where the mean is formed over the entire population, counting the non-
poor as having zero poverty gap, i.e. how far off households are from the poverty line
and known as depth of poverty.
c) Squared poverty gap index: it is similar to poverty gap index except that it is the mean
of the squared proportionate poverty gaps, such that the resulting measure penalizes
inequality amongst the poor, i.e. it takes into account the distance separating poor
from the poverty line and also the inequality amongst them.
3.4 Human Poverty Index (HPI)

The United Nations Development has created a measurement system based on what is lacking
in different areas of the world known as ‘Human Poverty Index’. First launched in 1990, to
complement the Human Development Index, United Nations uses Human Poverty Index to
signify the standard of living in a specific country. It measures the deprivation levels
experienced by people in different countries. It encapsulates the factors such as short life
expectancy, low literacy rates and overall living conditions. Recently, a new poverty index HPI-
2 has been introduced to measures poverty in industrial countries. This has been done to
better reflect socio-economic differences and also addressing widely different measures of
deprivation in two groups of countries. Since 2007, the HPI is derived separately for
developing countries (HPI-1) and a group of select high-income Organisation for Economic Co-
operation and Development (OECD) countries (HPI-2).
3.5 2018 Global Multidimensional Poverty Index (2018 MPI)

Addressing the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, the 2018 MPI (Initiative, 2018) is
estimated for poverty eradication that goes beyond the economic deprivation and measures
acute multi-dimensional deprivations in 105 countries covering 77 percent of the global
population. Looking beyond the economic parameters of income the MPI measures how
people experience poverty in multiple and simultaneous ways. In this method dimensions of
poverty identifies how people are being left behind in terms of health, education and standard
of living and is assessed on ten weighted indicators:
i. Nutrition,
ii. Child mortality,
iii. Years of schooling,
iv. School attendance,
v. Cooking Fuel,
vi. Sanitation,
vii. Drinking Water,
viii. Electricity,
ix. Housing
x. Assets.

People who experience deprivation in at least one third of these weighted indicators fall into
the category of multi-dimensionally poor.
3.6 Poverty Line

In estimation of poverty, generally the concept of the ‘poverty line’ is used. A common method
used to measure poverty is based on the income or consumption levels. A person is considered
poor if his or her income or consumption level falls below a given ‘minimum level’ necessary
to fulfill basic needs. What is necessary to satisfy basic needs is different at different times
and in different countries. Therefore, poverty line may vary with time and place. Each country
uses an imaginary line that is considered appropriate for its existing level of development and
its accepted minimum social norms. In the early 1950s, about 85% of the poor lived in rural
areas and depended on the rural economy for sustenance. It is thus not surprising to find that
it was rural growth that largely determined the magnitude of poverty reduction in the country.
This is borne out by a decomposition analysis of the total decline in poverty into three
components representing the contributions of:
a) rural growth
b) urban growth
c) a distributional component representing changes in inequality and the shift of
population from rural to urban areas.
3.7 Absolute Poverty

Absolute poverty, is measured in terms of the ability of the population to afford a minimum
standard of living typically specified as a minimum level of per capita consumption or income
for the household and the level varies from country to country depending on their economic
conditions. And absolute poverty line is fixed in terms of the standard indicator being used
and fixed over the entire domain of the poverty comparison. It is useful for analyzing impacts
of anti-poverty policies over time of a scheme or a project (for example, micro-credit) on
poverty (Haughton & Shahidur, 2009) . Estimating absolute poverty line, absolute standard
minimum physical quantities of agriculture produce used like cereals, pulses, milk, butter etc.
are determined for a sustenance level and then those physical quantities are converted using
price quotient into monetary terms (Datt, 2008).
3.8 Relative Poverty

Relative poverty is described as ‘relative deprivation’ because the people in this category are
not living in total poverty but are not able to get the same standard of life as everyone else in
the country. It views poverty as socially defined and dependent on social context, hence
relative poverty is a measure of income inequality. Usually, relative poverty is measured as
the percentage of population with income less than some fixed proportion of median income.
According to the relative standard, income distribution of the population in different fractile
groups is estimated and a comparison of the levels of living of the top 5 to10 percent with the
bottom 5 to 10 percent of the population reflects the relative standards of poverty. There

exists a lacuna in this approach, it indicates the relative position of different segments of the
population in the income hierarchy. Even in affluent societies, such pockets of poverty exist,
but for underdeveloped countries, the existence of mass poverty that is alarming (Datt, 2008).
3.9 Rural Poverty

Poverty found in rural areas is considered as rural poverty. This includes the factors of rural
society, rural economy and rural political systems. India being agrarian in nature, maximum
population lives in rural areas. The rural poverty is a major concern in India. Many poverty
studies deal mostly with rural areas as the vast majority of poor are in African and Asian region
and live in rural settlements. These studies have tried to look at the reasons for rural poverty
and amongst the various reasons, the main reasons identified are;
a) Rapid population growth
b) Lack of capital
c) Excessive population pressure on agriculture
d) Illiteracy
e) Regional disparities
f) Lack of alternate employment opportunities other than agriculture
g) Lack of proper implementation of public distribution system.
h) Indifferent attitude towards investment
In India, rural poverty largely emanates from the semi–feudal relations of production in the
agriculture. It is attributed to rapid population growth that puts pressure on the limited land
base which leads to fall in real per capita income of labour and rural economy get crippled by
decline of labour productivity and employment as well as by the increases in food prices.
3.10 Urban Poverty

In last decade the global urban population has increased many folds. As per the recent UN
estimates nearly 48% of global population now lives in urban areas and the rapid growth in
city dwellers are developing countries including India. The number of towns and the absolute
urban population in India has risen during the last six decades. More than 25% of India’s
population now lives in urban settlements implying that poverty are no more a rural
phenomenon in India.
Urban poverty is a multi-dimensional phenomenon. The challenges faced by urban poor in

their daily life are many and are of many dimensions. The majority of them face the problems
of limited access to employment opportunities and gainful income, inadequacy of housing and
services and insecurity. The prevalence of violent and unhealthy environments and little or no
social protection mechanisms, including limited access to adequate health and education
opportunities are ever growing for urban poor. Therefore, urban poverty is not only collection
of characteristics but also ever evolving and changing conditions of vulnerability and
susceptibility to risk (Baker, 2008).

4.0 NEED OF (SUSTAINABLE) DEVELOPMENT FOR POVERTY ALLEVIATION

Poverty is a major cause and effect of global environmental problems as stated in the
influential Brundtland Commission in a sentence that captures widely held beliefs: Poor people
are often seen as compelled to exploit their surrounding for short-term survival and are
assumed to be the ones most exposed to natural resources degradation. With economic
development poverty alleviation became focal point of international development policies
and initiatives. In 1990, the World Development Report published with the title ‘Poverty’ and
in the same year the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in its Human
Development Report emphasized on poverty reduction by way of access to social services like
health and education. The poverty alleviation and development remain a daunting task as
even in Rio+20 Conference (UNCSD) 2012 reported as ‘Eradicating poverty is the greatest
global challenge facing the world today and an indispensable requirement for sustainable
development. In this regard we are committed to freeing humanity from poverty and hunger
as a matter of urgency‟ (UN, 2012). The report highlighted the approach to sustainable
development by promoting policy measures of;
a) promoting sustained, inclusive and equitable economic growth
b) creating greater opportunities for all
c) reducing inequalities
d) raising basic standards of living
e) fostering equitable social development and inclusion
f) promoting integrated and sustainable management of natural resources and
ecosystems.
These measures focus on ecosystem conservation, regeneration and restoration and resilience in the
face of new and emerging challenges. In developing countries, the poverty alleviation programmes
have been add-on measures of the development plan for overall economic growth. The international
development investments have largely focused on rural development in developing countries. The
development landscape is being addressed with emphasis on creation of infrastructure and the basic
amenities of electricity, water, sewerage and sanitation etc. continues to be the major problems of the
poor. In the global development agendas of sustainable development goals, the developmental
priorities of poor are crucial for poverty alleviation.
4.1 From MDGs to SDGs

In September 2000, at the UN Millennium Summit, the UN General Assembly adopted the
United Nations Millennium Declaration. The Declaration, which called for a global partnership
to reduce extreme poverty, was the first ever global strategy with quantifiable targets to be
agreed upon by all UN member states and the world’s leading development institutions. To
support the Declaration, former UN Secretary General Kofi Annan established eight
accompanying objectives. These objectives (listed below in Table 1) were set with a deadline
of 2015 and became known as the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) (Nations, 2011).

Table 1: Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)

1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
2. Achieve universal primary education
3. Promote gender equality and empower
women
4. Reduce child mortality
5. Improve maternal health
6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases
7. Ensure environmental sustainability
8. Develop a global partnership for
development
In the post-2015 development agenda, overcoming the MDGs focus, the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) were uniformly made applicable to all countries of the world. And
while there are similarities in regard to the format of the MDGs and the SDGs – e.g. each
framed the international development agenda for a 15-year period. The SDGs focuses on a
global development with an understanding that the environment is not an add-on and is not
against sustainable development. SDGs were structured as foundations of all goals. This
resulted in the SDGs included new themes which reflect an approach that sees the
environment, economy and society as embedded systems rather than separate competing
‘pillars’ in comparison to the MDGs which maintained a retrospectively narrow focus on
poverty reduction. In the SDGs, the urban areas, water and sanitation, energy, and climate
change are all prominent. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development consists of 17 SDGs
(SDGs, 2015) listed below in Table 2.
Table 2: The 17 Sustainable Development Goals

1. End poverty in all its forms everywhere
2. End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable
agriculture
3. Ensure healthy lives and promote wellbeing for all at all ages
4. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning
opportunities for all
5. Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls
6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all
7. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all
8. Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive
employment, and decent work for all
9. Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization, and
foster innovation
10. Reduce inequality within and among countries
11. Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable

12. Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns

13. Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts (noting agreements made
by the UNFCCC forum)
14. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable
development
15. Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably
manage forests, combat desertification and halt and reverse land degradation, and halt
biodiversity loss
16. Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access
to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels
17. Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for
sustainable development.
To achieve the economic betterment of the poorer sections, it is important to augment the
social transformation involving structural changes, educational development, growth in
awareness, and change in out-look, motivation and attitudes. As mentioned in the roadmap
for SDGs ‘‘all of the SDGs have targets directly related to the responsibilities of local and
regional governments’. However, the SDGs are not legally binding, governments are expected
to establish national frameworks to achieve the goals.
5.0 SUMMARY
It is clear from the above discussions that sustainable development and poverty alleviation
are interdependent. Development is must for poverty alleviation. However, if development is
not sustainable then in the long run, it will lead to increased poverty rather than poverty
alleviation. For example, depletion of resources will lead to increase in scarcity and cost of
products and services which will affect the lower income group people leading to increase in
poverty. Similarly, poor people striving for survival will try to use, whatever resources are in
their reach, for example cutting trees for fuel or defecating in open. This will lead to
environmental degradation. Thus, sustainable development is required for poverty alleviation
and poverty alleviation is required for sustainable development. The close scrutiny of above
17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) reveals that most of these goals have element of
poverty alleviation by making development more inclusive (in terms of gender, age, race and
geographical regions). Thus, it may be concluded that sustainable development and poverty
alleviation have synergic relationship and are inter-building and inter-dependent.
*****
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] Baker, J. L. (2008). Urban poverty: a global view.
[2] Datt, R. (2008). Growth, poverty, and equity: Story of India’s economic development.
Deep and Deep Publications.

[3] Gordon, D. (2005). Indicators of poverty & hunger. Expert Group Meeting on Youth
Development Indicators, 12–14. United Nations Headquarters New York.
[4] Haughton, J., & Shahidur, R. K. (2009). Handbook on Poverty + Inequality. The World
Bank. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004
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Multidimensional Poverty Index 2018: The Most Detailed Picture To Date of the
World’s Poorest People, University of Oxford, UK.
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[8] SDGs, U. N. (2015). United Nations sustainable development goals. UN. Org.
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[10] The World Bank. (2001). World Development Report 2000/2001: Attacking Poverty.
In World Development Report 2000/2001 - Attacking Poverty.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11115-009-0084-9
[11] The World Bank. (2002). A sourcebook for Poverty Reduction Strategies. In
Macroeconomic and Sectoral Approaches.
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FURTHER READINGS
[15] C. Stevens and N. Kanie, The transformative potential of the sustainable development
goals (SDGs), Springer, 2016.
[16] J. Rapley, Understanding development: Theory and practice in third world, Routledge,
2013.
[17] Millennium Development Goals by the United Nations
[18] Potter, R. B., and E. McAlasan. 2000. Urban Poverty and Urban Development
Commission in Barbados, West Indies. Geography 85(3):263-267. (Read on JSTOR)
[19] R. K. Payne, ‘A framework for understanding poverty,’ 2005.
[20] Sustainable Development Goals by the United Nations
Urban Poverty: An Overview by the World Bank

DISCUSSION FORUM
a) Discuss influence of economic growth on poverty alleviation.

b) ‘Growth becomes more pro-poor’ Comment and supplement your opinion.
c) Discuss the role of rural and urban economic growth on poverty reduction.
d) Evaluate growth influence in the primary, secondary and tertiary sectors of the
economy contributed to poverty alleviation.
e) Analyse the role of different poverty lines for different countries.

L–16: Impact of Development on
Ecosystem: Panch-tatva (पंच-तत्व)
Contributors
Dr. A. K. Jain
(Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering)
Dr. S. S. Kedar

Unit 4: Sustainable Development L16: Impact of Development on Ecosystems: Effect on Panch-tatva
Lesson – 16
Impact of Development on Ecosystem: Panch-tatva (पंच-तत्व)
LO 1. Describe the role of Panch-tatva in sustenance of human life.
LO 2. Describe the impact of development on the Panch-tatva.
LO 3. Describe role of technical teachers in managing Panch-tatva.
Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 3
2.0 ROLE OF PANCH-TATVA IN SUSTENANCE OF HUMAN LIFE........................................................................ 3
3.0 ROLE OF TECHNICAL TEACHERS IN MANAGING PANCH-TATVAS .............................................................. 5
4.0 SUMMARY .................................................................................................................................................. 8
BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................................................................ 8
FURTHER READINGS ................................................................................................................................................ 8
Lesson – 16
Impact of Development on Ecosystem: Panch-tatva (पंच-तत्व (
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The word 'panch-tatva’ is a combination of two words from Sanskrit. 'Panch' stands for five
while 'tatva' means the basic ‘elements’ of the planet earth. One of the laws states that,
everything on this planet is composed of five basic elements (tatvas) viz: Earth (Prithvi),
Water (Jal), Fire (Agni), Air (Vayu), and Space/Sky (Akash). The widespread exploitation of
these five elements (Panch-tatva) in the guise of development is affecting the sustainability
and thereby have a negative impact on human life. The ‘ecological footprint’ is one way of
measuring sustainability, which refers to the ability of a population to support itself in the
present without compromising that ability for the future. Footprintnetwork.org defines
Ecological Footprint as: A measure of how much area of biologically productive land and
water an individual, population or activity requires to produce all the resources it consumes
and to absorb the waste it generates, using prevailing technology and resource management
practices. This lesson discusses the various dimensions of the delicate balance of the use of
panch-tatva with regard to ecological footprint.
2.0 ROLE OF PANCH-TATVA IN SUSTENANCE OF HUMAN LIFE

The 'panch-tatva' impact the human life in different ways. For a peaceful and healthy life,
human beings need to learn how to manage their life by living in harmony with the panch-
tatva. Therefore, this section discusses in brief some of the aspects of the 5 basic elements
which God has created for the sustenance of human life.
2.1 Earth
Humans live on this earth which is one of the 'panch-tatva', which houses the soil, landscape,
flora and fauna. With its tremendous magnetic fields and gravitational force, it keeps the
ecosystem i.e. every living and non-living thing grounded to the earth. Human not only live
on it, but also live because of it for sustenance and in this process exploit it. The earth
contains various natural resources which help in the sustenance and well-being of human
beings. They can be categorised as energy resources (such as petroleum, coal, uranium,
renewable energy sources such as wind, tidal, solar and others), metallic resources (such as
iron, copper, aluminium, gold and others) and non-metallic resources (such as soil for plant
life, sand, granite, gypsum and others). All these are used by human beings and the
unabated exploitation of the earth by the humans have created problems of sustainability
which need to be addressed urgently.
2.2 Water
Water another tatva of the 'panch-tatva' is an important component of any ecosystem. 70%
of the earth is water and the same goes for the human body. The role of water is to maintain
all ecosystems on the planet. In an ecosystem, water cycles through the atmosphere, soil,
rivers, lakes, and oceans. The main function of water is to propel plant growth; provide a
permanent dwelling for all species that live within it, or provide a temporary home or
breeding ground for multiple amphibians, insects and other water-borne organisms; and to
provide the nutrients and minerals necessary to sustain physical life.
As nature's most important nutrient, all human beings and living organisms need water to
grow and survive. Fresh water makes up only 1% of the Earth’s surface, but they provide a
home for a considerably large number of the world’s species. In many ways, human beings
depend on freshwater ecosystems for survival, but their impact on these waterways can be
devastating. However, the ecosystem of a freshwater lake or river can be extremely fragile.
History records that over the centuries, many of the fresh water rivers are no more, such as
the Sindhu and the others. Human activities can be detrimental to the health of the fresh
water lakes and rivers in a number of ways: such as developing structures, diverting their
flow, polluting them, and draining them of resources.
2.3 Fire
Fire is another tatva of the 'panch-tatva' and is the source of energy and light. Sun is source
of fire that gives light on earth. In the absence of Sun, there will be no light on earth.
Without the sun there would be no life on the earth. The fire emanating from the sun gives
energy and light to all. Fire is the major source of all kind of energies on earth. The need of
energy for human life is always a high priority. There are many energy sources available.
Some pollute the environment and others do not such as the renewable energy sources of
wind, solar, tidal and so on. It is the controlled use of fire that helps a sustainable
development. This energy could be from various sources - coal, uranium, wood, solar, wind,
waves, tidal power and so on. By understanding the characteristics of these, it will help in
the right use of this 'tatva'.
2.4 Air
Air is another one of the 'panch-tatva' which can also be linked to the atmosphere. Absence
of air means absence of life on earth or any other living thing for that matter. Air is
composed of gases and elements that are essential for the survival of all species. It is
another powerful life source that is important to sustain life in all its forms for the flora and
fauna as well. Human beings breathe in oxygen because of which they live and life goes on.
Further, it makes life comfortable. Although you cannot see it, you can feel it. The air thrown
by the fan or the blower of the air conditioner gives comfort to the human beings. It can also
be observed that without the air, neither the birds can fly nor can the aero planes move in
the sky. Air is generally constructive, but at times it can be destructive, especially when it
attains very high speeds uprooting trees and causing damage to everything that comes in its
way. Keeping the air pollution free is what has to be done by every human being.
2.5 Sky/Space
Sky/Space is another tatva of the 'panch-tatva'. Sky has been considered the free space of
the universe. Space is the only element which does not have any limit. The clear blue sky
above acts as a shelter to the earth in the day, while at night it serves as a gateway to the
starry galaxies that exist light years away from human beings. Throughout history human
beings have looked to the sky to navigate the vast oceans, to decide when to plant their
crops, manufacture various things and such other matters. The sky is the vast open space
that accommodates everything. When the activities in the space take place, then only the
earth is able to receive light, heat, gravity, magnetic fields and others. All these changes in
the natural phenomenon affects human life as well. Thus, the significance of space or sky
cannot be overlooked when you think of sustainable development or sustainability.
3.0 ROLE OF TECHNICAL TEACHERS IN MANAGING PANCH-TATVAS

Development is required for the sustenance of human beings. In the race for development,
knowingly and unknowingly, it is affecting the 'panch-tatvas', which in turn is affecting the
life of human beings on this planet earth. How technical teachers can manage the panch-
tatva, by involving the students is discussed in briefly in the following paragraphs.
3.1 Managing the Use of 'Earth'

The earth is responsible for the existence of human life and all species. Therefore,
consumption of the geological or natural resources has become part and parcel of everyday
life of human beings and has become essential for survival. However, you as a technical
teacher need to communicate the judicious use of the various resources of the earth for
sustainability through the various courses that you will be teaching.
Overuse or distorted use of the earth's resources without planning for remedial measures is
mismanagement of the use of 'Earth'. Landfills are present all over the country. If the items
before the land is filled are segregated, the soil and the groundwater will not be
contaminated due to seepages. Alternatively, biomass energy could be generated from
different types of wastes. For example, unless re-plantation of trees and vegetation are not
undertaken after the cutting of trees and vegetation, it can affect rainfall, flooding, and
related problems. The students need to be made aware of these through various types of
student projects and activities. Therefore, as a technical teacher, students could be taught
and encouraged to adapt various kinds of constructive techniques and technologies to utilise
the earth’s resources without polluting the environment.
Activity 1
As a technical teacher, describe what you will do to spread the message in the students
to manage the use of this 'tatva' i.e. Earth for sustainable development.
3.2 Managing the Use of 'Water'

A number of forces continue to seriously affect the natural water resources. Many of these
are primarily the result of human actions and include ecosystem and landscape changes,
sedimentation, pollution, over-abstraction and climate change. In the name of development,
human beings are over-exploiting water around the world. A decrease in water availability
can affect agriculture, farmland, livestock, and other living organisms (including humans) in
the area. Human beings can damage Earth's fragile freshwater ecosystems in a number of
ways. Industry can divert water away from other bodies of water
In many places, the humans are altering and even destroying fresh water ecosystems. When
consumption outstrips the natural regeneration of the waterways, it will greatly affect the
flora and fauna. Over-pumping of water from lakes and other reservoirs puts pressure on
aquatic populations, reducing the amount of living space available. Often, municipal waste
water and sewage water also contaminate the ground water. As a technical teacher it is your
duty to stir up young minds to come up with ways and means to avoid contamination of
water sources, ground water and ensure the judicious use of water bodies and waterways. .
So whatever development projects are undertaken, the use of water should be from
sustainability in view.
Activity 2
As a technical teacher, describe what will you do to spread the message in the students
to manage the use of 'tatva' of ‘water' for sustainability.
3.3 Managing the Use of 'Fire'

The use of the tatva 'fire' (energy) judiciously will help in sustainable development on the
planet earth. As the saying goes, ‘Fire is good servant, but a bad master’. Fire i.e. energy can
destroy or create many things. For example, for the first time in many centuries in early
September 2019 the uncontrolled fire destroyed several hundred acres of the Amazon rain
forests, that spans across several countries in the continent of South America, as well as the
Australian bush fires and the California fires creating a panic of the climate change that could
have been disastrous for the whole world. At the same time, it is known how the controlled
coal fired thermal power stations generate millions of units of energy for the comfortable
living of human beings. With the advancement of technology, renewable energy has become
techno-economically viable for sustainable development. Therefore, it is high time that the
students are continuously informed through the various courses and projects and through all
the various technology programmes which are being offered that the lesser use of energy
sources such as coal and others that pollute the environment is good for sustainable
development.
Activity 3
As a technical teacher, describe what you will do to spread the message in the students
to manage the judicious use the 'tatva' of 'fire' for sustainability.
3.4 Managing the Use of 'Air'

Pure air is very much essential for all humans and living things. However, in today’s villages,
towns and cities, atmospheric pollution happens due to agricultural activity, construction,
and mining. As days go by, the pollution level rises in various towns and cities, where
uncontrolled industrial activities take place continuously. The industrial revolution has led to
rapid increase in man-made air pollution. The fossil fuels burning pollute the atmosphere.
Use of fossil fuel produces 10 times more greenhouse gases compared to that goes in the
atmosphere through natural processes. This has created much discomfort and diseases in
human beings and living things. This type of pollution is much grave during winters when the
smog in the atmosphere even disrupts the landing and take-off of aero planes disrupting a
sustainable living.
In this backdrop, it is the duty of the technical teachers and the technical education system
to address these issues both in the teaching and curriculum. You can try out various types of
activities which could be curricular, co-curricular and extra-curricular to help the students
become aware of this issue and come up with innovations, methods and lifestyles to
minimise air pollution.
Activity 4
As a technical teacher, list down some curricular, co-curricular and/or extra-curricular
activities to address the issue of minimizing air pollution for sustainable development.
3.5 Managing the Use of 'Sky/Space'

The sky is the unlimited space which can hold as many things as possible. Its blue colour
during the day, grey when the rains come and it is black when the sun ‘hides’ behind the
earth, once in every 24 hours. The sky’s capacity is limitless. It holds all the natural satellites
that God has created in the sky. It also holds the additional artificial satellites that humans
throw into it, through the various rocket launches. Many of the artificial satellites have been
put into space by various countries for various purposes. Some of them are weather
satellites for early warnings for the safety of human beings from the vagaries of the weather.
This will help human beings on earth so that remedial measures are taken and human and
animal lives are saved. Others are communication satellites in the sky and still others are
military satellites for defence purposes. But question is should the sky also be littered trash,
unless and until it is absolutely needed for a sustainable life. These are the questions to
ponder and could also be taken up as debates and panel discussions for the students, by the
students and of the students.
ACTIVITY 5
As a technical teacher, list the activities that will help the students to creatively manage
the sustainable use of the ‘sky’.
4.0 SUMMARY
‘Ecological footprints’ and ‘Carbon footprints’ are both ways of measuring something’s
impact on the environment. A carbon footprint measures the total amount of greenhouse
gas emissions caused by an individual, organization, or activity. The Ecological Footprint
definition is simply a way to measure how much you use and consume, in relation to the
environment’s capacity to provide and support your needs. It calculates your impact to the
environment. Therefore, the discussion thus far on the 'panch-tatva' makes it the
responsibility of the technical teachers as well to pass on and encourage the students whom
they teach to manage all the 5 ‘panch-tatva’ for the sustainable development on this planet
earth.
****
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] Network, G. F. (2016). Earth Overshoot Day. https://doi.org/Zuletzt zugegriffen am
28.01.2014 unter
http://www.footprintnetwork.org/de/index.php/GFN/page/earth_overshoot_day/
[2] O’Neill, D. W., Fanning, A. L., Lamb, W. F., & Steinberger, J. K. (2018). A good life for all within
planetary boundaries. Nature Sustainability, 1(2), 88–95. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-
018-0021-4
[3] UN. (2015). Global Sustainable Development Report: 2015 edition. Global Sustainable
Development Report: 2015 Edition.
[4] Wachernagel, M., & Rees, W. (1996). Our Ecological Footprint: Reducing Human Impact on
the Earth. In The New Catalyst Bioregional Series.
[5] Wackernagel, M., Monfreda, C., & Deumling, D. (2002). Ecological Footprint of Nations.
Sustainability Issue Brief.
[6] Zakari, R., Zolfagharian, S., Nourbakhsh, M., Mohammad Zin, R., & Gheisari, M. (2012).
Ecological Footprint of Different Nations. International Journal of Engineering and
Technology. https://doi.org/10.7763/ijet.2012.v4.411
FURTHER READINGS
[7] https://sciencing.com/human-impacts-freshwater-ecosystems-23308.html accessed on
23September 2019
[8] https://www.theworldcounts.com/stories/Ecological-Footprint-Definition accessed on 23
September 2019
[9] https://www.footprintnetwork.org accessed on 23 September 2019
[10] https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-ecological-footprint-4580244 accessed on 23
September 2019
Lesson -16 DISCUSSION FORUM
Start a discussion on social media on some methods/techniques/strategies of managing

one or more of the Panch-tatva.
L–17: Sustainable Development:
Concept and Environmental Ethics
Contributors
Prof. (Mrs.) Chanchal Mehra

(Associate Professor, Department of Vocational Education &
Entrepreneurship Development)


Unit 4: Sustainable Development L17: Sustainable Development: Concept and Environmental Ethics
Lesson – 17
Sustainable Development: Concept and Environmental Ethics
Learning Outcome: At the end of this lesson, you will be able to explain the
concept of sustainable development and the impact of environmental ethics.
Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................... 3
2.0 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ................................................................................................................... 3
3.0 INTEGRATING CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN ENGINEERING EDUCATION ..................... 5
4.0 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS ....................................................................................................... 5
5.0 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS ......................................................................................................................... 6
6.0 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................................. 8
BIBLIOGRAPHY...................................................................................................................................................... 8

Lesson – 17
Sustainable Development: Concept and Environmental Ethics
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Almost every sector of Indian Economy today is considering the concept of sustainable
development and sustainability whether it is education, construction, energy, transportation
textile and such others for all its future endeavours. The same is being done world over by
developed and developing economies in tune with the Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs) which were adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in September
2015, with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. National Board of
Accreditation (NBA), the accreditation agency for undergraduate engineering
programme has also included environment and sustainability as one of its Programme
Outcomes (POs). In this context, it is essential that all teachers should be trained in this
area so that they plan and implement the various courses integrating the concept of
sustainable development and environmental ethics. This will help in ach ieving the
programme outcome PO-7 of Engineering Undergraduate Programme i.e. ‘Environment
and sustainability’: Students should ‘understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need
for sustainable development’. Although the term ‘Sustainable Development’ has become
popular yet fiercely queried by professionals due to its vagueness. Jonathon Porritt, past
Chairman of the UK Sustainable Development Commission said, ‘Sustainable development is
a notoriously slippery term that can mean practically nothing to people, or practically
everything’. It therefore becomes imperative to go through various definitions to focus on that
is applicable in technical education system, as discussed in this lesson.
2.0 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

The concept of sustainable development is on a high note the world over and is also on the
international development agenda, enshrined in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Since, September 2015, this concept has
entered into almost every sector of the economy and has now become ubiquitous. In one
form or the other sustainable development and sustainability is one of the themes in majority
of international conferences, country reports, company manuals and advertisements of
products and utilities such as cars, appliances, energy production, consumer goods and other
places.
The most quoted definition of ‘sustainable development’ is from Brundtland Report (WCED,
1987) which says ‘Sustainable development is that which meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’. This
definition was commented by many authors due to its limitation towards the human needs
and wants mainly social and economic needs in nature. Moreover, it does not mention

explicitly about the natural environment. However, the report as a whole makes it clear that
these ‘needs’ include the conservation of the natural environment (Daley).
According to Diesendorf, Sustainable development comprises types of economic and social

development which protect and enhance the natural environment and social equity. This
definition conveys explicitly about three aspects: economic, ecological, and social with
emphasis on ecological and social equity (Diesendorf, 2000). In other words, social and
economic development is sustainable, provided that it protects and enhances the
environment and social equity.
According to Ben Daley, sustainable development is the critical relationship between

environment and development, as well as the choices we make – collectively and individually
– about these things, and this is at the heart of what sustainable development is about. The
first definition quoted in Brundtland report does not explicitly mention about role of
economic, social and environmental factors towards sustainable development. Whereas,
these are mentioned explicitly in the other two. All the above three definitions emphasize on
two problems faced by humans viz. global poverty (social and economic) and global
environmental change. These two issues led to the emergence of the idea about sustainable
development. Thus, development that focuses on social and economic aspects together with
environment must be considered together for promoting sustainable development.
To summarise what has been discussed so far, it is essential that for Sustainable Development
in any sector of economy whether education, energy, housing, transport and others,
government and private planners and implementers, need to focus on the three
interconnected elements within their sector. These are economic growth, social inclusion and
environmental protection. Integrated actions taken in this direction will help in reducing
poverty, inequality and climate change.
1 • Economic Growth
2 • Social Inclusion
3 • Environmental Protection
Thus sustainable development may be defined as a process in which an organization, group of

organizations or individuals plan and implement their course of actions in all forms of work
for economic, social and environment development. Development in any one of these
whether positive or negative will usually have a knock-on effect on the other two elements.
So, for ‘sustainable development’, proper balance between social, economic and environment

is essential. In real sense, it is difficult to achieve but, not impossible. Engineering education
can play a key role in promoting and understanding the issue of sustainable development
through its various courses being offered to students.
3.0 INTEGRATING CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN ENGINEERING

EDUCATION
In order to make the engineering education meaningful and responsive, it is now necessary to
adopt a transformative learning approach together with an adaptive process that equips
students with new knowledge and also promotes new ways of thinking. This is essential, when
they are working on real life problems in laboratories, projects and during internship and
providing sustainable solutions that are economically viable, socially relevant and
environmentally friendly. It is therefore your responsibility to promote such learning skills
among your students which are resilient in the sense that they fulfil the demands of future as
well. Alvin Toffler says, ‘The illiterate of the 21st century will not be those who cannot read and
write, but those who cannot learn, unlearn, and relearn.’ So prepare your students for the
future, where they can apply the skills already learned, remain ready to learn the new skills
and unlearn the skills that are not relevant’.
4.0 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were adopted by the United Nations General Assembly
in September 2015, with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. There are 17
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which are an indivisible set of global priorities that
incorporate economic, social and environmental aspects and recognise their inter-linkages in
achieving sustainable development. Following is the list of 17 SDGs. Brief description about
these can be read by accessing :
https://www.undp.org/content/dam/undp/library/corporate/brochure/SDGs_Booklet_Web
_En.pdf
GOAL 1: No Poverty
GOAL 2: Zero Hunger
GOAL 3: Good Health and Well-being
GOAL 4: Quality Education
GOAL 5: Gender Equality
GOAL 6: Clean Water and Sanitation
GOAL 7: Affordable and Clean Energy
GOAL 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth
GOAL 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure
GOAL 10: Reduced Inequality
GOAL 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities
GOAL 12: Responsible Consumption and Production
GOAL 13: Climate Action
GOAL 14: Life Below Water

GOAL 15: Life on Land

GOAL 16: Peace and Justice Strong Institutions
GOAL 17: Partnerships to achieve the Goal.
The purpose of including 17 SDGs in this lesson is for identification of the course relevant
micro and major projects for engineering students that are in some way associated with these
17 integrated SDGs and 169 associated targets. A brief outline of these is given in Annexure A.
Make your students aware of these goals and associated targets so that they start thinking
and appreciate the need for sustainable development and contributing in this direction.
Activity - 1
A suggestive list of topics that has potential to address issue of sustainable development
in engineering education is given. Prepare a write up of maximum 600 words (on 3 topics)
covering economic, social and environment aspects for inclusion of these in the course
curriculum. You may even add new topics of your choice.
a) Sector specific design solutions
b) Ethical considerations
c) Transportation
d) Construction
e) Energy solutions
f) Recycling
g) Waste Management
h) Rainwater conservation.
5.0 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS

The fast depletion of natural resources, extinction of species, habitat destruction, climate
change is the cumulative effect of impact of modern technology, population growth and
increased consumption. These are detrimental to humans having dependency on
environment. One of the major concerns of educationist today is that the young generation is
drifting away from nature and is willingly engrossed in non-human materialistic world. The
need for environmental ethics in engineering education has been felt so as to bring changes
in young minds in making decisions about interaction with the natural environment. Most of
the choices made by human have ecological repercussions like choice of food, mode of travel,
recreation practice, type of home, waste disposal practice, energy usage, family size (number
of children) and many more.
At this stage, you might be wondering why focus now is shifted to environmental ethics from
ethics, in general, which were discussed in preceding lessons. The purpose of including this is
‘Environmental Ethics’ to include non-human world as well, as they surpass the traditional
boundaries of ethics (which solely include humans). Holmes Rolston III pointed that
environmental ethics stretches Classical Ethics to its breaking point. By Classical Ethics Rolston

means system of morality that apply only to humans and such ethical systems are
Anthropocentric. Environmental ethics go beyond humans (anthropocentric) to include the
moral concerns for other mammals, perhaps lower animals and plants (biocentric) and finally
even entire ecosystem (ecocentric) (Gudrof & Huchingson, 2010).
If you consider that only humans have intrinsic value, then it is known as anthropocentric
environmental ethics. If non-human animals and plants are considered to have intrinsic value,
then it is biocentric environmental ethics and when you consider that biological and ecological
entities have intrinsic value then this is eco-centric environmental ethics.
Environmental ethics thus broadly relates to value of nature and ecological relationship
covering ethical significance for non-living (e.g., landscape); living but not sentient, i.e. having
feelings (e.g., plant); sentient but not human (e.g., animal); and collectives (e.g., species and
ecosystems); [Sandler, 2018]. Thus, environmental ethics may be considered as a bigger
umbrella within which inter-personal ethics is one component.
It is the ethical belief, that humans alone possess intrinsic value. In contra-perspective, all
other beings hold value only in their ability to serve humans, or possess instrumental value.
This is not true in all circumstances. The instrumental value is the value of things as means to
further serve some other ends. Whereas, the intrinsic value is the value of things as ends in
themselves. Intrinsic value is a non-relational property i.e. its value depends on the existence
of nothing else. For example, a certain wild plant may have instrumental value because it
provides the ingredients for some medicine or as an aesthetic object for human. But if the
plant also has some value in itself then the plant also has intrinsic value. When something has
intrinsic value, then it is moral duty to protect it or at least refrain from damaging it.
Now think about the earth or other living forms. In your opinion whether these have intrinsic
value or instrumental value. If you consider that the earth also has intrinsic value, then you
have a moral duty and obligation towards it, independent of its usefulness. Philosopher
Richard Routley devised a ‘Thought Experiment’, which is referred to as the ‘Last Person
Experiment’. Now read the Last Person Experiment given in the Activity-2.
Activity – 2
Last Person Experiment
Select five colleagues, students or friends who can spare about thirty to forty-five minutes
for this activity. You read the activity to them:
Imagine an Earth where everyone has died except for one man. Before this man dies, he
goes on eliminating animals, plants and every living thing he can. In your opinion has he
done anything morally wrong or objectionable. If you were the last man, then how you
would have reacted in this situation.
Observe how the different persons react and answer differently. Discuss with peers.

6.0 SUMMARY
In this lesson, brief description about the concept of sustainable development, outline of 17
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), 169 associated targets and concept of environmental
ethics have been discussed. This will help you in identification of projects and tasks that need
to be given to students. Focus of tasks and projects should channelize the thinking of students
while working on these, towards sustainable development comprising of social, economic and
environment aspects. You can also plan for Thought Experiments which will help in
development of environmental ethics.
*****
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] Daley, B. (n.d.). Understanding Sustainable Development. London: Centre for Development,
Environment and Policy, University of London.
[2] Diesendorf, M. (2000). Chapter 2 Sustainability and Sustainable Development. In The
Corporate Challenge of 21st Century (pp. 19-37). Epping NSW Australia: Sustainability Centre
Pty Ltd.
[3] Gudrof, C. E., & Huchingson, J. E. (2010). Boundaries - A Casebook in Environmental Ethics .
Washington D C: Georgetown University Press .
[4] Sandler, R. L. (2018). Environmental Ethics Theory in Practice. New York: Oxford University
Press.
[5] Sustainable Development Goal Knowledge Platform. (n.d.). Retrieved from Transforming our
world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development:
https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/post2015/transformingourworld

Annexure A
17 GOALS IN TRANSFORMING OUR WORLD:
The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
Reference: https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/post2015/transformingourworld
Goal 1. End poverty in all its forms everywhere

1.1. By 2030, eradicate extreme poverty for all people everywhere, currently measured as
people living on less than $1.25 a day
1.2. By 2030, reduce at least by half the proportion of men, women and children of all ages
living in poverty in all its dimensions according to national definitions
1.3. Implement nationally appropriate social protection systems and measures for all,
including floors, and by 2030 achieve substantial coverage of the poor and the vulnerable.
1.4. By 2030, ensure that all men and women, in particular the poor and the vulnerable, have
equal rights to economic resources, as well as access to basic services, ownership and
control over land and other forms of property, inheritance, natural resources, appropriate
new technology and financial services, including micro-finance.
1a. By 2030, build the resilience of the poor and those in vulnerable situations and reduce
their exposure and vulnerability to climate-related extreme events and other
economic, social and environmental shocks and disasters.
1b. Ensure significant mobilization of resources from a variety of sources, including
through enhanced development cooperation, in order to provide adequate and
predictable means for developing countries, in particular least developed countries,
to implement programmes and policies to end poverty in all its dimensions.
1c. Create sound policy frameworks at the national, regional and international levels,
based on pro-poor and gender-sensitive development strategies, to support
accelerated investment in poverty eradication actions.

Goal 2. End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable
agriculture
2.1. By 2030, end hunger and ensure access by all people, in particular the poor and people in
vulnerable situations, including infants, to safe, nutritious and sufficient food all year
round.
2.2. By 2030, end all forms of malnutrition, including achieving, by 2025, the internationally
agreed targets on stunting and wasting in children under 5 years of age, and address the
nutritional needs of adolescent girls, pregnant and lactating women and older persons.
2.3. By 2030, double the agricultural productivity and incomes of small-scale food producers,
in particular women, indigenous peoples, family farmers, pastoralists and fishers,
including through secure and equal access to land, other productive resources and inputs,
knowledge, financial services, markets and opportunities for value addition and non-farm
employment.
2.4. By 2030, ensure sustainable food production systems and implement resilient agricultural
practices that increase productivity and production, that help maintain ecosystems, that
strengthen capacity for adaptation to climate change, extreme weather, drought,
flooding and other disasters and that progressively improve land and soil quality.
2.5. By 2020, maintain the genetic diversity of seeds, cultivated plants and farmed and
domesticated animals and their related wild species, including through soundly managed
and diversified seed and plant banks at the national, regional and international levels, and
promote access to and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization
of genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge, as internationally agreed.
2a. Increase investment, including through enhanced international cooperation, in rural
infrastructure, agricultural research and extension services, technology development
and plant and livestock gene banks in order to enhance agricultural productive capacity
in developing countries, in particular least developed countries.
2b. Correct and prevent trade restrictions and distortions in world agricultural markets,
including through the parallel elimination of all forms of agricultural export subsidies
and all export measures with equivalent effect, in accordance with the mandate of the
Doha Development Round.
2c. Adopt measures to ensure the proper functioning of food commodity markets and
their derivatives and facilitate timely access to market information, including on food
reserves, in order to help limit extreme food price volatility
Goal 3. Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages
3.1. By 2030, reduce the global maternal mortality ratio to less than 70 per 100,000 live births.
3.2. By 2030, end preventable deaths of newborns and children under 5 years of age, with all
countries aiming to reduce neonatal mortality to at least as low as 12 per 1,000 live births
and under-5 mortality to at least as low as 25 per 1,000 live births.
3.3. By 2030, end the epidemics of AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria and neglected tropical diseases
and combat hepatitis, water-borne diseases and other communicable diseases.

3.4. By 2030, reduce by one third premature mortality from non-communicable diseases
through prevention and treatment and promote mental health and well-being.
3.5. Strengthen the prevention and treatment of substance abuse, including narcotic drug
abuse and harmful use of alcohol.
3.6. By 2020, halve the number of global deaths and injuries from road traffic accidents.
3.7. By 2030, ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health-care services,
including for family planning, information and education, and the integration of
reproductive health into national strategies and programmes.
3.8. Achieve universal health coverage, including financial risk protection, access to quality
essential health-care services and access to safe, effective, quality and affordable
essential medicines and vaccines for all.
3.9. By 2030, substantially reduce the number of deaths and illnesses from hazardous
chemicals and air, water and soil pollution and contamination
3a. Strengthen the implementation of the World Health Organization Framework
Convention on Tobacco Control in all countries, as appropriate.
3b. Support the research and development of vaccines and medicines for the
communicable and non-communicable diseases that primarily affect developing
countries, provide access to affordable essential medicines and vaccines, in
accordance with the Doha Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health,
which affirms the right of developing countries to use to the full the provisions in the
Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights regarding
flexibilities to protect public health, and, in particular, provide access to medicines for
all.
3c. Substantially increase health financing and the recruitment, development, training and
retention of the health workforce in developing countries, especially in least
developed countries and small island developing States.
3d. Strengthen the capacity of all countries, in particular developing countries, for early
warning, risk reduction and management of national and global health risks.
Goal 4. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning
opportunities for all
4.1. By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys complete free, equitable and quality primary and
secondary education leading to relevant and effective learning outcomes.
4.2. By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys have access to quality early childhood
development, care and pre-primary education so that they are ready for primary
education.
4.3. By 2030, ensure equal access for all women and men to affordable and quality technical,
vocational and tertiary education, including university.
4.4. By 2030, substantially increase the number of youth and adults who have relevant skills,
including technical and vocational skills, for employment, decent jobs and
entrepreneurship.

4.5. By 2030, eliminate gender disparities in education and ensure equal access to all levels of
education and vocational training for the vulnerable, including persons with disabilities,
indigenous peoples and children in vulnerable situations.
4.6. By 2030, ensure that all youth and a substantial proportion of adults, both men and
women, achieve literacy and numeracy.
4.7. By 2030, ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote
sustainable development, including, among others, through education for sustainable
development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a
culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity
and of culture’s contribution to sustainable development.
4a. Build and upgrade education facilities that are child, disability and gender sensitive
and provide safe, non-violent, inclusive and effective learning environments for all.
4b. By 2020, substantially expand globally the number of scholarships available to
developing countries, in particular least developed countries, small island developing
States and African countries, for enrolment in higher education, including vocational
training and information and communications technology, technical, engineering and
scientific programmes, in developed countries and other developing countries.
4c. By 2030, substantially increase the supply of qualified teachers, including through
international cooperation for teacher training in developing countries, especially
least developed countries and small island developing States.
Goal 5. Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls
5.1. End all forms of discrimination against all women and girls everywhere.
5.2. Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in the public and private
spheres, including trafficking and sexual and other types of exploitation.
5.3. Eliminate all harmful practices, such as child, early and forced marriage and female genital
mutilation.
5.4. Recognize and value unpaid care and domestic work through the provision of public
services, infrastructure and social protection policies and the promotion of shared
responsibility within the household and the family as nationally appropriate.
5.5. Ensure women’s full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership at
all levels of decision-making in political, economic and public life.
5a. Ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights as
agreed in accordance with the Programme of Action of the International Conference
on Population and Development and the Beijing Platform for Action and the outcome
documents of their review conferences.5.a Undertake reforms to give women equal
rights to economic resources, as well as access to ownership and control over land
and other forms of property, financial services, inheritance and natural resources, in
accordance with national laws.
5b. Enhance the use of enabling technology, in particular information and
communications technology, to promote the empowerment of women.

5c. Adopt and strengthen sound policies and enforceable legislation for the promotion
of gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls at all levels.
Goal 6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all
6.1. By 2030, achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for
all.
6.2. By 2030, achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and end
open defecation, paying special attention to the needs of women and girls and those in
vulnerable situations.
6.3. By 2030, improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and
minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of
untreated wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally.
6.4. By 2030, substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors and ensure
sustainable withdrawals and supply of freshwater to address water scarcity and
substantially reduce the number of people suffering from water scarcity.
6.5. By 2030, implement integrated water resources management at all levels, including
through transboundary cooperation as appropriate.
6.6. By 2020, protect and restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests,
wetlands, rivers, aquifers and lakes.
6a. By 2030, expand international cooperation and capacity-building support to
developing countries in water- and sanitation-related activities and programmes,
including water harvesting, desalination, water efficiency, wastewater treatment,
recycling and reuse technologies.
6b. Support and strengthen the participation of local communities in improving water
and sanitation management.
Goal 7. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all
7.1. By 2030, ensure universal access to affordable, reliable and modern energy services.
7.2. By 2030, increase substantially the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix.
7.3. By 2030, double the global rate of improvement in energy efficiency.
7a. By 2030, enhance international cooperation to facilitate access to clean energy
research and technology, including renewable energy, energy efficiency and
advanced and cleaner fossil-fuel technology, and promote investment in energy
infrastructure and clean energy technology.
7b. By 2030, expand infrastructure and upgrade technology for supplying modern and
sustainable energy services for all in developing countries, in particular least
developed countries, small island developing States, and land-locked developing
countries, in accordance with their respective programmes of support.

Goal 8. Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive
employment and decent work for all
8.1. Sustain per capita economic growth in accordance with national circumstances and, in
particular, at least 7 per cent gross domestic product growth per annum in the least
developed countries.
8.2. Achieve higher levels of economic productivity through diversification, technological
upgrading and innovation, including through a focus on high-value added and labour-
intensive sectors.
8.3. Promote development-oriented policies that support productive activities, decent job
creation, entrepreneurship, creativity and innovation, and encourage the formalization
and growth of micro-, small- and medium-sized enterprises, including through access to
financial services.
8.4. Improve progressively, through 2030, global resource efficiency in consumption and
production and endeavour to decouple economic growth from environmental
degradation, in accordance with the 10-year framework of programmes on sustainable
consumption and production, with developed countries taking the lead.
8.5. By 2030, achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all women and
men, including for young people and persons with disabilities, and equal pay for work of
equal value.
8.6. By 2020, substantially reduce the proportion of youth not in employment, education or
training.
8.7. Take immediate and effective measures to eradicate forced labour, end modern slavery
and human trafficking and secure the prohibition and elimination of the worst forms of
child labour, including recruitment and use of child soldiers, and by 2025 end child labour
in all its forms.
8.8. Protect labour rights and promote safe and secure working environments for all workers,
including migrant workers, in particular women migrants, and those in precarious
employment.
8.9. By 2030, devise and implement policies to promote sustainable tourism that creates jobs
and promotes local culture and products.
8.10. Strengthen the capacity of domestic financial institutions to encourage and expand
access to banking, insurance and financial services for all.
8a. Increase Aid for Trade support for developing countries, in particular least developed
countries, including through the Enhanced Integrated Framework for Trade-Related
Technical Assistance to Least Developed Countries.
8b. By 2020, develop and operationalize a global strategy for youth employment and
implement the Global Jobs Pact of the International Labour Organization.

Goal 9. Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and
foster innovation
9.1. Develop quality, reliable, sustainable and resilient infrastructure, including regional and
trans-border infrastructure, to support economic development and human well-being,
with a focus on affordable and equitable access for all.
9.2. Promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and, by 2030, significantly raise
industry’s share of employment and gross domestic product, in line with national
circumstances, and double its share in least developed countries.
9.3. Increase the access of small-scale industrial and other enterprises, in particular in
developing countries, to financial services, including affordable credit, and their
integration into value chains and markets.
9.4. By 2030, upgrade infrastructure and retrofit industries to make them sustainable, with
increased resource-use efficiency and greater adoption of clean and environmentally
sound technologies and industrial processes, with all countries taking action in
accordance with their respective capabilities.
9.5. Enhance scientific research, upgrade the technological capabilities of industrial sectors in
all countries, in particular developing countries, including, by 2030, encouraging
innovation and substantially increasing the number of research and development workers
per 1 million people and public and private research and development spending.
9a. Facilitate sustainable and resilient infrastructure development in developing
countries through enhanced financial, technological and technical support to African
countries, least developed countries, landlocked developing countries and small
island developing States.
9b. Support domestic technology development, research and innovation in developing
countries, including by ensuring a conducive policy environment for, inter alia,
industrial diversification and value addition to commodities.
9c. Significantly increase access to information and communications technology and
strive to provide universal and affordable access to the Internet in least developed
countries by 2020.
Goal 10. Reduce inequality within and among countries

10.1. By 2030, progressively achieve and sustain income growth of the bottom 40 per cent of
the population at a rate higher than the national average.
10.2. By 2030, empower and promote the social, economic and political inclusion of all,
irrespective of age, sex, disability, race, ethnicity, origin, religion or economic or other
status.
10.3. Ensure equal opportunity and reduce inequalities of outcome, including by eliminating
discriminatory laws, policies and practices and promoting appropriate legislation,
policies and action in this regard.
10.4. Adopt policies, especially fiscal, wage and social protection policies, and progressively
achieve greater equality.

10.5. Improve the regulation and monitoring of global financial markets and institutions and
strengthen the implementation of such regulations.
10.6. Ensure enhanced representation and voice for developing countries in decision-making
in global international economic and financial institutions in order to deliver more
effective, credible, accountable and legitimate institutions.
10.7. Facilitate orderly, safe, regular and responsible migration and mobility of people,
including through the implementation of planned and well-managed migration policies.
10a.Implement the principle of special and differential treatment for developing
countries, in particular least developed countries, in accordance with World Trade
Organization agreements.
10b. Encourage official development assistance and financial flows, including foreign
direct investment, to States where the need is greatest, in particular least
developed countries, African countries, small island developing States and
landlocked developing countries, in accordance with their national plans and
programmes.
10c. By 2030, reduce to less than 3 per cent the transaction costs of migrant remittances
and eliminate remittance corridors with costs higher than 5 per cent.
Goal 11. Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable
11.1. By 2030, ensure access for all to adequate, safe and affordable housing and basic
services and upgrade slums.
11.2. By 2030, provide access to safe, affordable, accessible and sustainable transport systems
for all, improving road safety, notably by expanding public transport, with special
attention to the needs of those in vulnerable situations, women, children, persons with
disabilities and older persons.
11.3. By 2030, enhance inclusive and sustainable urbanization and capacity for participatory,
integrated and sustainable human settlement planning and management in all
countries.
11.4. Strengthen efforts to protect and safeguard the world’s cultural and natural heritage.
11.5. By 2030, significantly reduce the number of deaths and the number of people affected
and substantially decrease the direct economic losses relative to global gross domestic
product caused by disasters, including water-related disasters, with a focus on
protecting the poor and people in vulnerable situations.
11.6. By 2030, reduce the adverse per capita environmental impact of cities, including by
paying special attention to air quality and municipal and other waste management.
11.7. By 2030, provide universal access to safe, inclusive and accessible, green and public
spaces, in particular for women and children, older persons and persons with disabilities.
11a. Support positive economic, social and environmental links between urban, peri-
urban and rural areas by strengthening national and regional development
planning.

11b. By 2020, substantially increase the number of cities and human settlements
adopting and implementing integrated policies and plans towards inclusion,
resource efficiency, mitigation and adaptation to climate change, resilience to
disasters, and develop and implement, in line with the Sendai Framework for
Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030, holistic disaster risk management at all levels.
11c. Support least developed countries, including through financial and technical
assistance, in building sustainable and resilient buildings utilizing local materials.
Goal 12. Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns

12.1. Implement the 10-year framework of programmes on sustainable consumption and
production, all countries taking action, with developed countries taking the lead, taking
into account the development and capabilities of developing countries.
12.2. By 2030, achieve the sustainable management and efficient use of natural resources.
12.3. By 2030, halve per capita global food waste at the retail and consumer levels and reduce
food losses along production and supply chains, including post-harvest losses.
12.4. By 2020, achieve the environmentally sound management of chemicals and all wastes
throughout their life cycle, in accordance with agreed international frameworks, and
significantly reduce their release to air, water and soil in order to minimize their adverse
impacts on human health and the environment.
12.5. By 2030, substantially reduce waste generation through prevention, reduction, recycling
and reuse.
12.6. Encourage companies, especially large and transnational companies, to adopt
sustainable practices and to integrate sustainability information into their reporting
cycle.
12.7. Promote public procurement practices that are sustainable, in accordance with national
policies and priorities.
12.8. By 2030, ensure that people everywhere have the relevant information and awareness
for sustainable development and lifestyles in harmony with nature.
12a. Support developing countries to strengthen their scientific and technological
capacity to move towards more sustainable patterns of consumption and
production.
12b. Develop and implement tools to monitor sustainable development impacts for
sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products.
12c. Rationalize inefficient fossil-fuel subsidies that encourage wasteful consumption
by removing market distortions, in accordance with national circumstances,
including by restructuring taxation and phasing out those harmful subsidies,
where they exist, to reflect their environmental impacts, taking fully into account
the specific needs and conditions of developing countries and minimizing the
possible adverse impacts on their development in a manner that protects the poor
and the affected communities.

Goal 13. Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts*
13.1. Strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and natural
disasters in all countries.
13.2. Integrate climate change measures into national policies, strategies and planning.
13.3. Improve education, awareness-raising and human and institutional capacity on climate
change mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction and early warning.
13a. Implement the commitment undertaken by developed-country parties to the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change to a goal of mobilizing
jointly $100 billion annually by 2020 from all sources to address the needs of
developing countries in the context of meaningful mitigation actions and
transparency on implementation and fully operationalize the Green Climate Fund
through its capitalization as soon as possible.
13b. Promote mechanisms for raising capacity for effective climate change-related
planning and management in least developed countries and small island
developing States, including focusing on women, youth and local and
marginalized communities
* Acknowledging that the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is the
primary international, intergovernmental forum for negotiating the global response to
climate change.
Goal 14. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for
sustainable development
14.1. By 2025, prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution of all kinds, in particular from
land-based activities, including marine debris and nutrient pollution.
14.2. By 2020, sustainably manage and protect marine and coastal ecosystems to avoid
significant adverse impacts, including by strengthening their resilience, and take action
for their restoration in order to achieve healthy and productive oceans.
14.3. Minimize and address the impacts of ocean acidification, including through enhanced
scientific cooperation at all levels.
14.4. By 2020, effectively regulate harvesting and end overfishing, illegal, unreported and
unregulated fishing and destructive fishing practices and implement science-based
management plans, in order to restore fish stocks in the shortest time feasible, at least
to levels that can produce maximum sustainable yield as determined by their biological
characteristics.
14.5. By 2020, conserve at least 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas, consistent with
national and international law and based on the best available scientific information.
14.6. By 2020, prohibit certain forms of fisheries subsidies which contribute to overcapacity
and overfishing, eliminate subsidies that contribute to illegal, unreported and
unregulated fishing and refrain from introducing new such subsidies, recognizing that
appropriate and effective special and differential treatment for developing and least

developed countries should be an integral part of the World Trade Organization fisheries
subsidies negotiation.
14.7. By 2030, increase the economic benefits to Small Island developing States and least
developed countries from the sustainable use of marine resources, including through
sustainable management of fisheries, aquaculture and tourism.
13a. Increase scientific knowledge, develop research capacity and transfer marine
technology, taking into account the Intergovernmental Oceanographic
Commission Criteria and Guidelines on the Transfer of Marine Technology, in
order to improve ocean health and to enhance the contribution of marine
biodiversity to the development of developing countries, in particular small island
developing States and least developed countries.
13b. Provide access for small-scale artisanal fishers to marine resources and markets.
13c. Enhance the conservation and sustainable use of oceans and their resources by
implementing international law as reflected in UNCLOS, which provides the legal
framework for the conservation and sustainable use of oceans and their resources,
as recalled in paragraph 158 of The Future We Want.
Goal 15. Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably
manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and
halt biodiversity loss
15.1. By 2020, ensure the conservation, restoration and sustainable use of terrestrial and
inland freshwater ecosystems and their services, in particular forests, wetlands,
mountains and drylands, in line with obligations under international agreements.
15.2. By 2020, promote the implementation of sustainable management of all types of
forests, halt deforestation, restore degraded forests and substantially increase
afforestation and reforestation globally.
15.3. By 2030, combat desertification, restore degraded land and soil, including land affected
by desertification, drought and floods, and strive to achieve a land degradation-neutral
world.
15.4. By 2030, ensure the conservation of mountain ecosystems, including their biodiversity,
in order to enhance their capacity to provide benefits that are essential for sustainable
development.
15.5. Take urgent and significant action to reduce the degradation of natural habitats, halt the
loss of biodiversity and, by 2020, protect and prevent the extinction of threatened
species.
15.6. Promote fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic
resources and promote appropriate access to such resources, as internationally agreed.
15.7. Take urgent action to end poaching and trafficking of protected species of flora and
fauna and address both demand and supply of illegal wildlife products.

15.8. By 2020, introduce measures to prevent the introduction and significantly reduce the
impact of invasive alien species on land and water ecosystems and control or eradicate
the priority species.
15.9. By 2020, integrate ecosystem and biodiversity values into national and local planning,
development processes, poverty reduction strategies and accounts.
15a. Mobilize and significantly increase financial resources from all sources to conserve
and sustainably use biodiversity and ecosystems
15b. Mobilize significant resources from all sources and at all levels to finance
sustainable forest management and provide adequate incentives to developing
countries to advance such management, including for conservation and
reforestation.
15c. Enhance global support for efforts to combat poaching and trafficking of protected
species, including by increasing the capacity of local communities to pursue
sustainable livelihood opportunities.
Goal 16. Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide
access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions
at all levels.
16.1. Significantly reduce all forms of violence and related death rates everywhere.
16.2. End abuse, exploitation, trafficking and all forms of violence against and torture of
children.
16.3. Promote the rule of law at the national and international levels and ensure equal access
to justice for all.
16.4. By 2030, significantly reduce illicit financial and arms flows, strengthen the recovery and
return of stolen assets and combat all forms of organized crime.
16.5. Substantially reduce corruption and bribery in all their forms.
16.6. Develop effective, accountable and transparent institutions at all levels.
16.7. Ensure responsive, inclusive, participatory and representative decision-making at all
levels.
16.8. Broaden and strengthen the participation of developing countries in the institutions of
global governance.
16.9. By 2030, provide legal identity for all, including birth registration.
16.10. Ensure public access to information and protect fundamental freedoms, in accordance
with national legislation and international agreements.
15a. Strengthen relevant national institutions, including through international
cooperation, for building capacity at all levels, in particular in developing
countries, to prevent violence and combat terrorism and crime.
15b. Promote and enforce non-discriminatory laws and policies for sustainable
development.

Goal 17. Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for
sustainable development Finance
17.1. Strengthen domestic resource mobilization, including through international support to
developing countries, to improve domestic capacity for tax and other revenue
collection.
17.2. Developed countries to implement fully their official development assistance
commitments, including the commitment by many developed countries to achieve the
target of 0.7 per cent of ODA/GNI to developing countries and 0.15 to 0.20 per cent of
ODA/GNI to least developed countries; ODA providers are encouraged to consider
setting a target to provide at least 0.20 per cent of ODA/GNI to least developed
countries.
17.3. Mobilize additional financial resources for developing countries from multiple sources.
17.4. Assist developing countries in attaining long-term debt sustainability through
coordinated policies aimed at fostering debt financing, debt relief and debt
restructuring, as appropriate, and address the external debt of highly indebted poor
countries to reduce debt distress.
17.5. Adopt and implement investment promotion regimes for least developed countries.
Technology
17.6. Enhance North-South, South-South and triangular regional and international
cooperation on and access to science, technology and innovation and enhance
knowledge sharing on mutually agreed terms, including through improved coordination
among existing mechanisms, in particular at the United Nations level, and through a
global technology facilitation mechanism.
17.7. Promote the development, transfer, dissemination and diffusion of environmentally
sound technologies to developing countries on favourable terms, including on
concessional and preferential terms, as mutually agreed.
17.8. Fully operationalize the technology bank and science, technology and innovation
capacity-building mechanism for least developed countries by 2017 and enhance the
use of enabling technology, in particular information and communications technology.
Capacity-building
17.9. Enhance international support for implementing effective and targeted capacity-
building in developing countries to support national plans to implement all the
sustainable development goals, including through North-South, South-South and
triangular cooperation.
Trade
17.10. Promote a universal, rules-based, open, non-discriminatory and equitable multilateral
trading system under the World Trade Organization, including through the conclusion
of negotiations under its Doha Development Agenda

17.11. Significantly increase the exports of developing countries, in particular with a view to
doubling the least developed countries’ share of global exports by 2020
17.12. Realize timely implementation of duty-free and quota-free market access on a lasting
basis for all least developed countries, consistent with World Trade Organization
decisions, including by ensuring that preferential rules of origin applicable to imports
from least developed countries are transparent and simple, and contribute to
facilitating market access.
Systemic issues
Policy and institutional coherence
17.13. Enhance global macroeconomic stability, including through policy coordination and
policy coherence.
17.14. Enhance policy coherence for sustainable development.
17.15. Respect each country’s policy space and leadership to establish and implement policies
for poverty eradication and sustainable development.
Multi-stakeholder partnerships
17.16. Enhance the global partnership for sustainable development, complemented by multi-
stakeholder partnerships that mobilize and share knowledge, expertise, technology
and financial resources, to support the achievement of the sustainable development
goals in all countries, in particular developing countries.
17.17. Encourage and promote effective public, public-private and civil society partnerships,
building on the experience and resourcing strategies of partnerships.
Data, monitoring and accountability

17.18. By 2020, enhance capacity-building support to developing countries, including for least
developed countries and small island developing States, to increase significantly the
availability of high-quality, timely and reliable data disaggregated by income, gender,
age, race, ethnicity, migratory status, disability, geographic location and other
characteristics relevant in national contexts.
17.19. By 2030, build on existing initiatives to develop measurements of progress on
sustainable development that complement gross domestic product, and support
statistical capacity-building in developing countries.
+++++++

L–18: SUSTAINABILITY: CRADLE TO
CRADLE APPROACH
2
Contributors

(Associate Professor, Department of Vocational Education &
Entrepreneurship Development)
Dr. Joshua Earnest

(Professor, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering)

Unit 5: Approaches for Sustainable Development L18: Sustainability: Cradle to Cradle Approach
Lesson – 18
Sustainability: Cradle to Cradle Approach
Learning Outcome: At the end of this lesson, you will be able to plan activities
and projects for effective curriculum implementation adopting cradle-to-cradle
approach in all teaching-learning processes for promoting sustainability in design
and use of materials, products and systems.
Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 3
2.0 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR SUSTAINABILITY ................................................................. 3
3.0 NEED FOR TRIPLE BOTTOM LINE APPROACH IN TECHNICAL EDUCATION .............................. 4
4.0 SUSTAINABILITY PRINCIPLES ................................................................................................... 4
5.0 PROMOTING SUSTAINABILITY THROUGH CRADLE–TO–CRADLE APPROACH ......................... 5
6.0 CRADLE–TO–CRADLE APPROACH VIS-À-VIS TECHNICAL EDUCATION SYSTEMS ..................... 7
7.0 SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................... 8
BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................................................................... 8

Lesson – 18
Sustainability: Cradle to Cradle Approach
‘Cradle to Cradle’ means “Doing good” instead of “Doing less bad” in all human endeavours.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The above slogan in black and white ecstatically reverberates what the ‘cradle-to-cradle’ is
all about and that a positive outlook is required for sustainability. The phrase ‘cradle-to-
cradle’ was coined by Walter R. Stahel in the 1970. Today ‘cradle-to-cradle’ is a registered
trademark of McDonough Braungart Design Chemistry (MBDC) consultants. ‘Cradle to
Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things is a 2002 non-fiction book by German chemist
Michael Braungart and U.S. architect William McDonough’. The book talks about how to
achieve ‘cradle-to-cradle’ (as against the conventional cradle-to-grave) Design model.
Therefore, this lesson is specifically written to link the sustainability aspects with the concept
of ‘cradle-to-cradle’ and how the technical education teachers could play a major role using
this concept in the design of curriculum and while implementing the curriculum. The teacher
is encouraged to think as to how to weave this concept in classroom teaching, laboratory
instruction and type of projects that can be given to the students during the entire tenure of
the engineering UG programme of 4 years duration.
2.0 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR SUSTAINABILITY

A brief recap of the conceptual framework for sustainability is essential before introducing
the concept of ‘cradle-to-cradle’ approach. The conceptual framework commonly referred
regarding sustainability is Triple Bottom line (TBL) proposed by Elkington (1998). TBL is
succinctly described by 3Ps (profit, planet and people) or alternatively by economic,
environmental and societal components. These components are interrelated and inter
dependent. None of the two components alone can achieve sustainability. Thus, sustainable
development will be an integration of
these three dimensions with a relation
among all the components (TBL).
Bearable
Viable
As shown in Figure 1, environment
together with the economic component
provide viable options, economic and
societal together provide equitable option
for all creatures, societal and environment
Equitable Sustainability
together provide bearable options. The
region where all these three meet or have Figure 1: Triple Bottom Line Framework
their existence is referred as sustainability.

This concept is also mentioned in Programme Outcome PO7 for Engineering UG programme
which is on ‘Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development’. It is therefore essential that when
students are working on real life problems and projects, they need to analyse the problems
with respect to society, environment and economic consideration. Creative, innovative and
sustainable solutions proposed by them must be brought to the knowledge of masses for
discussion, further improvement and to spread the message that sustainable solutions to
engineering-based problems are the need of the hour.
3.0 NEED FOR TRIPLE BOTTOM LINE APPROACH IN TECHNICAL EDUCATION

Sustainable development philosophy revolves around re-organisation of a threatened and
fragile environment. Today, the planet earth faces the risks of irreversible damage to the
human environment for which the population growth, technological growth, rising living
standards and many more are responsible.
Here, it is pertinent to mention that profit is purely economic in nature and is the bottom
most line as shown in Figure 2. People and planet though non-economic as far as revenue
generation is concerned, but these have positive
impact on the value system of any organisation and
its sustainability. This concept needs to be percolated
down to the bottom most level in organisations for
sustainable development. The engineers and
technologists coming out of technical education
system need to be made brand ambassador for this.
This can be achieved when they try to integrate this
concept during their undergraduate and graduate
courses, where they create, innovate and propose
material, product and system based on this approach. Figure 2: 3Ps Sustainability Framework
As a teacher, your responsibility is to make all the
stakeholders aware of the TBL concept. This concept benefits the natural order as much as
possible with the sole purpose of saving the environment. The need to apply the concept of
TBL in all walks of life right from education, training to businesses is due to concern of all
stake holders for environmental regulations and associated legal costs, human rights, global
warming, sensitivity towards safe and healthy eco system and many more.
4.0 SUSTAINABILITY PRINCIPLES

For sustainable future, Anastas and Warner (1998) have introduced 12 principles and
methodologies which take care of environmentally friendly and cost‐effective design
considering TBL– environment, economy and society. List of these principles are given in
Appendix A. Understanding of these principles is essential for cradle-to-cradle design of

materials, products and systems for promoting sustainability. Focus of these principles is
mainly on use of non–hazardous and renewable material, preventing waste, minimising
energy consumption and maximising energy efficiency, disintegration under natural
condition, avoiding ‘one-size-fit-all’ solutions, promoting dismantle for cyclic use and
promoting after life for material products and systems.
5.0 PROMOTING SUSTAINABILITY THROUGH CRADLE–TO–CRADLE APPROACH

Before describing the cradle-to-cradle approach, you are requested to go through the
following famous quotes from William McDonough:
a) “The Stone Age did not end because humans ran out of stones. It ended because it
was time for a re-think about how we live.”
b) ‘‘Waste equal food, whether it’s food for earth or for closed industrial cycle. We
manufacture products that go from cradle to grave. We want to manufacture them
from cradle to cradle.”
c) “If we think about things having multiple lives, cradle to cradle, we could design
things that can go back to either nature or back to industry forever.”
These quotes compel the designer and professionals to favour design based on cradle to
cradle approach.
When a designer opts for cradle-to-grave approach, then the life span of material or product
starts with its birth/creation and ends up to the point of disposal. The problem faced with
this design is if the product is not biodegradable then heaps of disposable products are
created. Many of the Indian cities are facing disposable problem for such products.
"File:Electrical and electronic waste Cluj-Napoca "File:Ewaste.jpg" by Txopi is licensed

1.jpg" by FlickreviewR is licensed under CC BY 2.0 under CC0 1.0
Figure 3 Cradle-to-grave design
In contrast to this, cradle-to-cradle approach ensures environment sustainability. ‘cradle-to-

cradle’ design ensures that material flows cyclically in appropriate, continuous biological or
technical nutrient cycles. All waste materials are productively re-incorporated into new
production cycle, fulfilling the concept “waste = food” as proposed by McDonough &

Braungart [2002]. For better understanding about waste=food watch the video available on
YouTube at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EyiweCa_0yU.
Cradle-to-cradle design approach is depicted diagrammatically in Figure 4. The biological

nutrients return to the organic cycle and are consumed by micro-organisms and other
creatures in the soil, whereas technical nutrients referred to those materials that are
considered as waste after their use, also becomes food for new and better material/product,
which is the basic principle on which nature works. This means the material, product or
system after completing its useful life-cycle turn into new products the value of which is
equal, if not greater than the old product. In other words, waste does not exist when the
biological and technical components of a product are designed by intention to fit within a
biological or technical cycle for re–marketing, re–manufacture, dismantling or re–purposing.
This can be explained with the help of an example.
CC BY-SA 3.0, File: Biological and technical nutrients (C2C).jpg, Created: 21 August 2012
Figure 4 Cradle-to-Cradle Design Approach
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example 1
Consider the product – the plastic bottle used for packaging of water, cold drinks, oils and
other liquids. Heaps and heaps of these used bottles are collected as waste material. This is
one of the major sources of environment pollution today. Instead of using one-time-use
plastics, there are other type of bottles that are made of bio-degradable materials that can

fully enter a new life cycle either back to nature or back into the design process as a new
product. These options need to be explored.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6.0 CRADLE–TO–CRADLE APPROACH VIS-À-VIS TECHNICAL EDUCATION SYSTEMS
For the cause of sustainability, it is high time that curriculum designers and teachers in the
technical education systems start thinking and guiding students to develop attitudes and
habits that limit consumption, minimise materialistic purchase (buy less and spend less), and
share resources (as discussed in the next lesson on 5Rs), when they are working on variety of
tasks in classroom, laboratory, during ‘Tech-Fests’, while undertaking various types of
projects and internships. Such sacrifices save the planet earth and make available the
resources which otherwise may go extinct.
The students should be continuously reminded and motivated to incorporate the ‘cradle-to-
cradle’ approach in the small and large projects or have some flavour of it in everything that
they do, not only in the institute, but at home and everywhere they go in order to render the
earth a safe place to live for the future generations to come.
Case of Designtex
A fabric that helps strawberries grow, with production methods that clean water
(Courtesy https://www.greenbiz.com/blog/2014/03/20/4-cradle-cradle-certified-product-
breakthroughs)
There is more concern lately about fashion and its impact on human health, the
environment and workers. Susan Lyons of the New York-based design firm Designtex
was ahead of the curve. In 1993, she decided to develop a collection of ecological
fabrics. At that time, no one knew exactly what a ‘green fabric’ should be.
A partnership then emerged among Designtex; William McDonough and his colleague,
Michael Braungart; and the Swiss textile mill Rohner to develop upholstery with
remnants that would not be considered hazardous waste. Braungart analysed more than
8,000 chemical formulations commonly used in textile production, then selected a mere
38 that he deemed safe for human and environmental health. These were the dyes and
process chemicals allowed to be used in the production of Climatex upholstery.
According to Designtex, optimising this chemistry changed the mill's water release,
which became cleaner than the incoming water. By producing new fabrics designed to
decompose safely, the mill saved scraps and turned them into felt, avoiding costly
disposal fees. Local strawberry farmers used this felt as ground cover for their crops.
Designtex has expanded its Climatex offering to some 20 styles and Climatex was
awarded Gold level C2C certification.

7.0 SUMMARY
It is seen in the above sections and also after watching the associated videos, that in the
‘cradle-to-cradle’ approach, the biological nutrients return to the organic cycle and are
consumed by microorganisms and other creatures in the soil, whereas technical nutrients
referred to those materials that are considered as waste after their use, also become food
for new and better material/products, which is the basic principle, on which nature works. In
educational and training institutions your role is to integrate the concept of sustainability
across courses and programmes in such a way that students are forced to think of
sustainable solutions, whenever they are involved in any activity related to curricular, co-
curricular or extra-curricular. This will help in changing the behaviour and attitudes of
individuals including those of colleagues, peers, teachers, staff and also that of producer and
consumer of products and services for exploring and accepting sustainable solutions.
ACTIVITY
View the video programme Cradle–to–Cradle by Michael Braungart and William
McDonough on YouTube link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EyiweCa_0yU. After
viewing the video programme list the ways in which as a technical teacher you can
promote ‘waste = food’ in your professional work and the variety of tasks/projects that
you may give your students in order to promote the concept of cradle-to-cradle in the
technical education system.
******
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] Gopichandran, R., Asolekar, S. R., Jani, O., & Kumar, D. (2016). Green energy and Climate
change. In An Integrated Approach to Environmental Management (p. 102). Hoboken, New
Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,.
[2] McDonough, W., & Braungart, M. (2002). Cradle to Cradle - Remaking the Way We Make
Things. New York: North Point Press.
[3] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple_bottom_line
[4] https://www.greenbiz.com/blog/2014/03/20/4-cradle-cradle-certified-product-
breakthroughs

L 18 DISCUSSION FORUM
Start a discussion on social media on some examples of ‘cradle-to-cradle’ approach.

APPENDIX A
Sustainability Principles
Anastas and Warner (1998) articulated the following principles and methodologies to
accomplish the goals of environmentally friendly and cost‐effective designs. These principles
are powerful enablers for sustainable futures because on one‐hand they address
optimization at molecular level and on other‐hand the principles address system level
reengineering. In other words, the key to achieving sustainability lies in the design of
molecules, systems, processes and product levels through logical integration of the 12 green
engineering principles (Gopichandran, Asolekar, Jani, & Kumar, 2016).
Principle 1. Designers need to strive to ensure that all materials and energy inputs and
outputs are as inherently Non-hazardous as possible.
Principle 2. It is better to prevent waste than to treat or clean up waste after it is formed.
Principle 3. Separation and purification operations should be designed to minimize
energy consumption and materials use.
Principle 4. Products, processes, and systems should be designed to maximize mass,
energy, space, and time efficiency.
Principle 5. Products, processes, and systems should be “output pulled” rather than
“input pushed” through the use of energy and materials.
Principle 6. Embedded entropy and complexity must be viewed as an investment when
making design choices on recycle, reuse, or beneficial disposition.
Principle 7. Targeted durability, not immortality, should be a design goal for products.
After useful use of a product to disintegrate under natural conditions.
Principle 8. Design for unnecessary capacity or capability (e.g., “one size fits all”)
solutions should be considered a design flaw.
Principle 9. Material diversity in multi component products should be minimized to
promote disassembly and value retention.
Principle 10. Design of products, processes, and systems must include integration and
interconnectivity with available energy and materials flows.
Principle 11. Products, processes, and systems should be designed for performance in a
commercial “afterlife”.
Principle 12. Material and energy inputs should be renewable rather than depleting.

L–19: Role of 5Rs for Sustainable
Development
Contributors
Dr. A.K. Sarathe

(Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering)
Dr. A.K. Jain

(Professor, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering)

Unit 5: Approaches for Sustainable Development L19: Role of 5Rs for Sustainable Development
Lesson – 19
Role of 5Rs for Sustainable Development
Learning Outcome: At the end of this lesson, you will be able to plan for the
management of the 5Rs: Refuse, Reduce, Reuse, Repair, and Recycle for
sustainable development to save this planet earth.
Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 3
2.0 CONCEPT OF 5Rs ......................................................................................................................... 3
3.0 REFUSE......................................................................................................................................... 4
4.0 REDUCE ........................................................................................................................................ 5
5.0 REUSE ........................................................................................................................................... 5
6.0 REPAIR .......................................................................................................................................... 7
7.0 RECYCLE........................................................................................................................................ 7
8.0 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................... 8
BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................................................................................... 8
AICTE–NITTT Module 2-Professional Ethics and Sustainability NITTTR, Bhopal Page 2

Lesson – 19
Role of 5Rs for Sustainable Development
1.0 INTRODUCTION
It is quite alarming indeed to see how the different types of wastes are piling up across the
cities, towns and villages all over the world. In order to save this planet earth from
hazardous effects of these wastes, it is high time, all people join hands and come together to
take some concrete actions to address this issue. Cities and towns are expanding and space
is becoming scarce to dump the refuse. It is the youth of this country, who must be made
aware of this issue first. No other than the technical teachers is one such group of people
who can and has the opportunity to influence the students whom they are teaching for 4
years of their stay on the college and university campuses. Therefore, in order to encash this
opportunity, it becomes essential that the teachers first understand about these 5Rs are and
other related aspects of these and only then, will be able to decide how to manage them.
Once the teachers are convinced, then the message could be passed on to the young minds
enmass, who would join the bandwagon to lend their helping hands to this noble cause of
managing them.
2.0 CONCEPT OF 5Rs

Bea Johnson (Johnson, 2016) one of the successful activists has been practicing ‘zero to
waste’ and the promoter of the concept of 5Rs for sustainable environment. The 5Rs stand
for Refuse (also called ‘Reject’), Reduce, Reuse (also called ‘Repurpose’, or ‘Rethink’), Repair,
and Recycle (also called ‘Recover’). These 5Rs need to be addressed and managed well for
sustainability.
Every year, lakhs of tons of wastes generated in various forms such as waste plastics, food
waste, wrappings, bottles, boxes, cans, furniture, clothing and many more. Abella asks
‘Where does it all go? Some 85% of our garbage is sent to landfills, where it can take from
100 to 400 years for things like cloth and aluminium to decompose. Glass has been found in
perfect condition even after 4,000 years in the earth!’ (Abella, 2019). So, the question is,
what should be done? Table 1 shows the time required to decompose some of the daily use
items.
As a technical teacher what should be our next move to tackle this problem? Not taking
action is also a sin. Sensitise the engineering students about this issue by asking this question
to them. Organise group discussions, seminars, debates amongst the students about
solutions of this problem. Old and new ideas will come up that could make a change at least
in some of the students. Therefore, what actions are to be taken is attempted to be
explained in this lesson.

Table 1
Time Required for Decomposition of Some Sample Items
S. Item Time S. No. Item Time

No.
1 Tissue paper 2- 4 weeks 8 Plywood 1-3 years
2 Banana peel 2- 4 weeks 9 Leather shoe 25-40 years
3 Paper bag 1 month 10 Thermocol cups 50 years
4 Newspaper 1.5 months 11 Rubber material 50-80 years
5 Cardboard 2 months 12 Plastic bottles 450 years
6 Cotton glove 3 months 13 Aluminium 200- 500 years
7 Orange peel 6 months
3.0 REFUSE
For environmental sustainability, the very first action to be taken regarding the use of
anything is Refuse (or Reject) or delay in procuring that thing which are not needed. If that is
not there in your life to start with, you’ll never have to worry about how to get rid of them,
or what to do when they are no longer fit for purpose. The best message that speaks louder
than words is ‘practice what you preach’. Therefore, the engineering teacher has to ‘walk-
your-talk’.
There is a difference between ‘want’ and ‘need’. Many things you may want but, it may not
be needed in your life, as it may finally end up in the trash bin. Always, ask the question to
yourself before buying anything, “Why am I purchasing this item?” or, “Do I want it or do I
really need it now?” or, ‘Can I delay it from buying as I already have an alternative for that
item’?
Refuse to buy or accept products that can harm you, your organisation and the environment.
For example, if you have a pen, do not buy a second pen till the current pen’s life is over.
Another example could be to stop using paper towels in the washrooms. Stop using plastic
bags and always have spare cotton bags. Following are some other examples:
a) Refuse chemical solvents and use alternatives that are water based.
b) Say no to plastics wherever you can avoid. Use paper bags or cloth bags.
c) Refuse to accept materials from your store with unnecessary packaging that you will
later have to pay for to dispose e.g. toothpaste inside a cardboard box and such
others.
d) Refuse the freebies that companies give away, if you do not need it.
e) Refuse to buy a second vehicle (scooter or car), if you can manage with one. Or, if the
public transportation is good, you can even avoid buying the first vehicle.

Think about everything and REFUSE what isn’t necessary or defer their procurement for
some time which may not be required later at all.
ACTIVITY 1
List some examples related to Refuse at your workplace.
4.0 REDUCE
For the cause of sustainability, as a technical teacher, the next step that you should take is to
propagate the concept of Reduce. Reduce is to limit the amount of waste you create in the
first place. This includes buying products with less packaging. Always ask the question to
yourself, “What is the minimum amount necessary for anything?” Why would you wrap a
pallet with 100 feet of stretch wrap if 80 feet will do the job? “Can I drink tea with half a
teaspoon full, instead of one teaspoon full of sugar or drink tea without sugar at all”? And in
the process, save your health as well. Reduce the amount of electrical energy you use and
save MONEY in the process.
Consume less of everything. When you go to the market, buy your food with no plastic
packaging. Avoid fast fashion and food waste. The quantity of electronic waste (E-waste) is
increasing day-by-day. Before buying a new electronic gadget, stop and think. When an
upgrade or new cell phone is launched in the market, think if you can continue with the
current cell phone. Not buying extra new things is good for you, good for your family, good
for the environment and you save a lot of money. Think what you can use less?
As technical teacher, think how you can inculcate this habit of ‘reduce’ in your students. First
you need to ‘practice what you preach’. Following this plan at regular intervals organise
activity or the other to remind the students about it. You could put up some cartoons or
posters in the class, in the department and at several other places. Another strategy could
be to show some relevant video clips time-to-time. Some debates, seminars and the like
could also be organised.
ACTIVITY 2
List some examples related to managing Reduce at your workplace.
5.0 REUSE
Reuse (also known as ‘Re–purpose’ or ‘Re–think’) means to use something again either for
its original purpose or to fulfil a different function (creative reuse) that could have been
normally thrown away (e.g. Glass jars for food, plastic bags and so on). This requires a bit of
thinking and creativity, but may not be all the time beautiful, but the purpose may be
served. Often, reuse helps to save time, money, energy and resources. In broader economic

terms, it could make quality products available to people and organisations with limited
means, while creating jobs and business activities that contribute to the progress of the
economy locally and or globally as well.
Avoid using 'one time use and throw' articles. Choose items that have a longer shelf life, that
can be repaired, and can be used again and again till its shelf life is over such as reusable
electric kettles, coffee cups, cutlery, water bottles, shopping bags and such others. Use your
tooth brush as a hair dye brush. Use torn clothes as foot mats, to clean shoes, as mops to
clean the floor and so on. Use coffee mugs with broken handles as vases for aloe-vera plants
and so on. Old bed sheets can be turned into small cotton shopping bags and handkerchiefs.
Wood crates would be used to make different types of wooden items, such as benches and
such others. Condensed water discharged by air conditioning units could be a good source of
distilled water. Old buckets could become flowerpots and so on. Use your imagination to
reuse before deciding at the end of product life.
Another way of reuse is to gift (Figure 1) to some

people or to some organisation who would gladly
continue to use it. For example, if you brought a
high-end computer for your work, you may gift your
still working old computer to some person or
organisation who will use it happily. Or you could
gift your old cell phone to some needy person and
so on. In this way, E-waste could also be reduced.
You may also donate your things to some school,
NGOs, non-profit organisations so that the under-
privileged are also benefitted. Figure 1 Example of Reuse. Small mobile
could be gifted
ACTIVITY 3
Organise some ‘reuse tech fests’ as a technical teacher every year in the college, to
spread the need and innovative techniques of reuse of various things.
Reuse has several advantages such as, reducing the same product being manufactured thus
saving energy and raw materials, less disposable things and also the cost to dispose them
off. Some old things may fetch more appreciable value because of better refurbishing.
Refurbished things are much cheaper leading to cost savings and hence it could become a
good business proposition creating jobs as well.
However, reuse has some demerits also such as sorting, cleaning and preparing of items take
time. Some special skills are required to establish the functional throughput of the things
when put to new uses. But when given to students, these demerits may even vanish
depending on the enthusiasm of the students.

6.0 REPAIR
If the above mentioned 3Rs are not possible with the things that are required, then repair
(figure 2) is the next option that should be taken up for a sustainable environment
protection to continue. The only hitch is that it may take some time to get the things
repaired. In earlier years, repairing of things was
quite common. Repair shops were quite common
in all cities, towns and villages. Most of the
mechanical and electrical and electronic items
were repaired and re-used thus reducing waste
and saving the environment. But, currently, when
more of one-time use items are being produced
Figure 2: Repair Work
more and more, such repair shops are becoming
less and less. However, the flip side is that, in this internet age there are several ‘do-it-
yourself’ websites which if wisely tapped and if people are positively prodded (guided step
by step), more citizens would repair the faulty items on their own and continue to use the
things. This practice or habit if propagated is not only good for the environment, but also
empowers people, and often saves money as well.
Every engineering student could be encouraged to harness the repair skills to some extent
for the cause of sustainability. For this to happen, the teacher needs to take some extra
efforts. Different types of 3-5-day training workshops could be conducted in the institute
such as, ‘electronic gadget repair’, ‘electrical gadget repair’, ‘water pump repair’ and so on.
This will spread the ‘repair culture’ in the community/society.
ACTIVITY 4
List some examples related to managing Repair at your workplace.
7.0 RECYCLE
Recycle (recover also comes in this category) means the breaking down of those things from
which raw materials emerge out for the manufacture of new products. It means that such
products go through a mechanical or chemical process to change their form. Recover is to
convert waste into resources (such as electricity, heat, compost and fuel) through thermal,
biological or some other means. However, this ‘R’ should be taken up only when the above-
mentioned 4Rs have been attempted. Following are some of the things, which can be re-
cycled.
a) Paper can be recycled up to seven times, but after that the fibres lose their strength.
b) Plastic can only be recycled a few times before it is frequently broken down and must
be sent to landfill.
c) Metal and glass can be broken down and recycled indefinitely.
d) food wastes into composted soil or as a food for a local farm.

e) All types of fabric dirty or otherwise.

f) All electronic items recover metals and other materials for reuse.
Recycling will help everyone to realise about all that you put into the trash bin and a chance
to rethink your future purchases.
ACTIVITY 5
List some examples related to managing Recycle at your workplace.
8.0 SUMMARY
The 5Rs: Refuse, Reduce, Reuse, Repair, Recycle, issues strictly in this sequence need to be
addressed and managed for sustainability. Earlier, there were only first 3Rs. Now the
remaining 2Rs are also considered for the cause of sustainability. The first 3Rs - refuse,
reduce, and reuse - are targeted for zero waste, which is all about limiting consumption in
order to stop exploiting the Earth’s resources. So, if the first 3Rs are not manageable, only
then you may go in for adapting the remaining 2Rs. ‘The remaining 2Rs- repair and recycle -
target the second goal, which is only consuming goods that can be fully recycled, either back
into the ecosystem itself, or back into the economy’(Johnson, 2016). If every citizen focuses
on taking limited things of everyday life, when things are purchased, keeping in mind this
hierarchy of the 5Rs, they will realise how much things that they really DID NOT need. This
way the waste produced can be drastically reduced. Making even a single change in your
life with regard to the ‘5Rs’ will make a big difference to the whole world.
ACTIVITY 6
Read the case given in Appendix A and justify to which of the 5Rs does the case belong
to.
*******
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] Tatiana Antonelli Abella (2013). Follow the Rs: Reduce, Replace, Reuse, Recycle, Recover,
Refuse and Reject, Rethink;
http://en.envirocitiesmag.com/articles/pdf/waste_management_eng_art2.pdf accessed on
27 August 2019
[2] Bea Johnson (2016) -Zero Waste Home: The Ultimate Guide to Simplifying Your Life; Penguin
Publishers
[3] The 5 Rs of Sustainability (2018) https://www.worthwhyle.com/blogs/news/the-5-rs-of-
sustainability
[4] www.life.se

Appendix A
Case of ‘Buy Nothing Project’
[Courtesy: Dr. Samuel N. Mathew Ph.D. former Director of National Institute of Speech & Hearing (NISH),
Trivandrum, Kerala]
Buy Nothing Project–Giveaway what you have and ask for what you want with no strings
attached. Few days back I saw a large plastic box kept on the front steps of our home in
Delaware, USA. It had some baby Abby’s (my granddaughter) clothes too small for her now. I
asked Mary, my daughter-in-law, why was it kept outside. She said it was meant for someone
and they will come and pick it up soon. Again, two days later, I again saw another box on the
front steps of our home again with a different set of stuff. I asked Mary, what this is for and she
said it is meant for someone else and they will come and pick it up. Then she explained that she
is part of the local “Buy Nothing Project Facebook Group” and explained how it works. To say
the least, I just admired the idea behind and the greatness of the hearts who started this
movement!!This was a classic example of sustainability. Following are some links.
https://buynothingproject.org/ and their Facebook page,
https://www.facebook.com/BuyNothingProject/.
This venture started as a small Facebook group formed by two women from Washington in 2013
to give away what they have freely to their neighbourhood families. Just an act of unconditional
giving. This has become a movement and has spread to over 15 countries worldwide with
hundreds of local groups. It is catching on like wild fire. No selling, bartering – just giving
between individuals who live nearby within a short driving distance. Very fascinating concept.
Giving is an act that stimulates everything good in both the giver and the receiver. In world of
selfish grabbing and racing to overtake others, giving is about being considerate of others and
willingness to share what we have.
After Airbnb and Uber, where common people are involved in sharing what each has for a price,
this is just free giving from the abundance of what you have with no strings attached. On the
website it reads “Buy Nothing Groups = Random Acts of Kindness All Day Long”. In each of the
US states there are large number of groups. In Delaware USA where we live (which is the one of
the smallest states in the US) there are 16 groups and the local group where Mary is a member
there are 294 members. In India, currently there are only 4 groups currently in Bangalore
Electronic City (68), Vizag (19), Thane, Mumbai (78) and Navi Mumbai (15) with a total of 180
members.
Coming back to our situation, Mary was giving away stuff she was not using anymore. In
addition, she described how one could borrow stuff for short periods. She got some heavy
winter clothing for the Mammoth Mountain trip from a neighbour, which she returned as soon
as she came back. She showed a child’s football goal post she got from the group. This whole
idea makes sense. In a world of consumerism, we all have so many stuffs that we do not need
any more and we just keep it because we spent money on it. We do not want to throw it away
in trash. This is one good way of making good use of it.
They have guidelines for starting a new group https://buynothingproject.org/start-a-group/. The

rules are all laid out very well to facilitate interaction in a very regulated civilised manner

DISCUSSION FORUM
Start a discussion on social media on some idea of yours to implement any one of 5Rs and ask
for suggestions from students/peers.

L–20: Development of Organisational
Culture for Sustainable Development
Contributors
Dr. Joshua Earnest

Professor of Electrical Engineering, NITTTR Bhopal

Professor (Assessment and Evaluation), NITTTR Bhopal
Dr. G. Janardhanan
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, NITTTR Chennai

Unit 5: Approaches for Sustainable Development L20: Development of Organisational Culture for Sustainable Development
Lesson –20
Development of Organisational Culture for Sustainable

Development
Learning Outcome: At the end of this lesson, you will be able to plan for the
developing a good organisation culture for sustainable development
Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 3
2.0 ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE AND ITS IMPORTANCE................................................................... 3
3.0 INDICATORS OF GOOD ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE .................................................................. 4
4.0 PRINCIPLES TO BUILD GOOD ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE ......................................................... 5
5.0 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................... 6
BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................................................................................... 6

Lesson – 20
Development of Organisational Culture for Sustainable
Development
1.0 INTRODUCTION
For sustainable development of the profession and society, there are several factors that
contribute to it, many of which have been discussed in the lessons that you must have
studied thus far. One more important factor contributing to the organisational culture is that
the culture at your workplace decides the way you interact with your employees. This
culture of the place where you work controls the way you behave with your colleagues, your
superiors, your subordinates, as well as with people outside the organisation. Organisation
culture refers to a group of values. Therefore, ‘the beliefs, ideologies, principles and value
systems that an organisation adopts in its policies and working can be defined as the
organisational culture’. Therefore, in this lesson you will see some of the aspects related to
the organisation that influence the sustainable development of any organisation.
2.0 ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE AND ITS IMPORTANCE

Every organisation is known for its culture. Defining the values and goals, indicates the
organisational culture. The organisational culture impacts everything as how your
organisation is perceived by the society and media, because it affects both the internal and
external identity of the corporate body as well as every employee from the lowest to the
highest level, working within it. This also means how the society perceives you as an
individual employee.
A good and strong organisation culture also increases loyalty among the employees.You will
not only contribute to your organisation’s culture, but also, promote it and live it internally
and externally, if the core values of your organisation match with your good core values. In
such a case, you and your colleagues will be advocates of your organisation culture. The
organisation culture cultivates a sense of belonging and commitment towards the
organisation and develops a sense of unity at the workplace. ‘How do you achieve this? One
way is to recognize good work. A culture that celebrates individual and team successes, that
gives credit when it is due, is a culture that offers a sense of accomplishment’ (Moseley,
2019). A good organisational structure will always be ready to adopt changes.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example 1
Two classic examples of a good academic organisation culture are Gujarat Technological
University (GTU) and Maharashtra State Board of Technical Education (MSBTE) in the
Western region in India In 2012 GTU implemented the Gujarat model of the Competency-
focused Outcome based Curriculum across the whole state in around 130 institutions. In
2017 MSBTE implemented the Maharashtra model of the Competency-focused Outcome

based Curriculum across the whole state in around 350 institutions. This happened when
others (and perhaps in the world) never thought of adopting such innovative experiments on
such a massive scale in one go. For further details you may visit their respective websites
provided in the bibliography.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Organisation culture builds the brand identity of the organisation. The more your clients
understand and identify with your brand, the more they'll want to take service from you.
Your clients would like to feel connected with your brand because it is your culture that will
forge this bond.
The strength of any educational institute is the faculty. Firstly, it is you as an individual
teacher who has to excel in a particular area as professional in your organisation. Suppose
your colleagues also excel in that area, then you as team can build a brand identity as a
cohesive group. This is a brand value that you have built and this could initiate a healthy
competition. Then it may happen that it will trigger the formation of more such constructive
cohesive groups because of you and your colleagues, thereby creating a brand image of your
organisation when seen by the society. Your institute will also start to excel to come up to
the brand value level as your cohesive group. This will naturally build a brand image of your
institute in the society which will not only benefit your institute, but also you as an
individual.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example 2
ISRO, DRDO, RBI are some examples of brand identity in the government sector. In the
private sector, the TATAs, L & T, Infosys and WIPROs are some examples. IIMs is another
example of one such group of institutions that have a brand identity of an educational
organisation. Although the MBA programme curricula of various institutes in the country are
similar to that of the IIMs, still the topmost priority of many MBA aspirants seek admission in
the IIMs due to their brand identity.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3.0 INDICATORS OF GOOD ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE
Organisational culture is also about living the organisation’s core values (Moseley, 2019).
Therefore, if the organisation values and your values are similar, then your espoused values
will be matching with your good values. However, if the company’s core values doesn’t
match your own, then the your so-called ‘core values’ that you profess, become meaningless
buzzwords, and other colleagues who work with you also know about it.
The core values of companies play a great role in image building of the organisation and of
the employees as well. A good organisation structure will reverberate across all aspects of
your work and your organisation’s mandate. For example, if your organisation is not honest

in its dealings as perceived by the society, it can also leave a question mark indirectly about
your truthfulness as an employee as well.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example 3
Companies like ‘TATAs’ and the ‘Eicher’ of India are some examples of having some good
core values. Their organisational culture have vowed that they will never give any bribe, let
alone even talk about it. Therefore, all ‘TATA employees always work with their head held
high’. When the Taj Hotel in Mumbai was attacked by terrorists, every employee and their
families and all concerned were suitably compensated by the TATA group as reported by the
media.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4.0 PRINCIPLES TO BUILD GOOD ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE

There could be several principles to develop a good organisational culture. Some of them are
discussed over here.
a) Link behaviours to organisation’s mandate especially the critical ones
Employees will ignore from an organisational culture when the message is unrelated
to day-to-day work. Therefore, convert the message which is understandable to them
and also inform them of the benefits and the pitfalls that need to be avoided.
Secondly, identify a few critical behaviours that are likely to have a maximum impact
when implemented.
b) Choose change agents who are capable, sincere and can deliver the results
Change agents or leaders who are well informed about the mandate of the
organisation and sincere should be given the opportunity to lead and train other
employees and build a good organisational culture. The leader should be able to
demonstrate the results of the efforts when building the organisation culture as
quickly as possible, otherwise the employees would disengage and become cynical.
c) If any new cultural direction is being introduced, it should be aligned as much as

possible with the existing one(CONWAY, 2019)
The current culture of any organisation cannot be changed suddenly for a new one.
Based on the cultural situations, all the concerned people in the organisation have to
be oriented regarding new ones which need to be adopted.
d) Use modern technology to build organisational culture.

Research has shown that the use of the modern-day digital technology platforms and
social media play great role in changing the attitudes, behaviours and mind sets as far
as organisational culture is concerned. Therefore, maximum use of these need to be
strategized.

ACTIVITY 1
List at least five attributes that best describe your organization’s culture. Spend a few
minutes thinking why each of those attributes are valuable to your people and the clients.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this lesson you have seen that an organisation culture with the right values will go a long
way for sustainable development not only of the organisation, but it will also positively help
every employee and other stakeholders who are connected to the organisation directly and
indirectly. The positive indicators and the principles of building a good organisation structure
have also been discussed.
*******
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] CONWAY, B. (2019, August 7). Retrieved from https://www.employeeconnect.com:
https://www.employeeconnect.com/blog/guiding-principles-for-building-a-successful-
organisational-culture/
[2] Moseley, C. (2019, May 03). 7 reasons why organisational culture is important. Retrieved
from blog.jostle.me: https://blog.jostle.me/blog/why-is-organisational-culture-important
[3] Engineering Diploma Curriculum NITTTR- MSBTE Model 2016
https://www.academia.edu/39003180/Engineering_Diploma_Curriculum_NITTTR-
_MSBTE_Model_2016
[4] http://msbte.engg-info.website/sites/default/files/aaa2pr/22324-2019-Winter-question-
paper%5BMsbte%20study%20resources%5D.pdf
[5] Outcome-based_Engineering_Diploma_Curriculum_-_2012_Gujarat_Experiment
https://www.academia.edu/12247760/Outcome-based_Engineering_Diploma_Curriculum_-
_2012_Gujarat_Experiment
[6] http://www.gtu.ac.in/Syllabus/New_Diploma/sem-5/Pdf/3350905.pdf

UNIT 8.1
INTRODUCTION TO INSTITUTIONAL MANAGEMENT
Contents Page No.

Broad Objective 3
Learning Outcomes 3
Introduction 3
8.1.1 Institutional Management 4
(A)Concept of an institution 4
 Characteristics of an Institution
 Institution Vs Organization
 Types of institutions
 What is management?
 Management as a process
 Management as an Activity
 What is Institutional Management?
 Components of Institutional Management
 Objectives of Institutional Management
(B) Importance of Institutional Management 8
 Aspects of Institutional management
 Management of Curriculum
 Management of Human Resources
 Management of Finances
 Management of Infrastructure
Practice Task 20
Feedback 21
8.1.2 Administration 22
(A)Concept of Administration 22
(B) Difference with Institutional Management 23
 Based on Functions
 Based on Usage/Applicability
Practice Task 24
Feedback 24
8.1.3 Institutional Management Process 25
1
 Planning
 Organizing
 Staffing
 Directing
 Controlling
Practice Task 29
Feedback 29
Conclusion 31
Bibliography 31
2
UNIT 8.1
Author: Dr Rakesh K Wats
NITTTR, Chandigarh
Broad Objective
The broad objective of this unit is to make the participants
aware about the importance of institutional management
and its scope in the smooth, efficient and effective running
of an educational institution.
Learning Outcomes
After going through this unit the learner will be able to :
 Define the concept of Institution, Management and institutional management and their
importance.
 Explain different aspects of institutional management and identify components of management in
each of them.
 Facilitate in management of curriculum implementation, Human resources, Finance and
Infrastructure in his own institution.
 Differentiate between institutional management and administration.
 Explain institutional management process.
Introduction
Institution is a fundamental form of social organisation to meet a broad social goal,e.g. an educational
institution like a college, university or deemed to be university.Management is a tool of getting work
from others for achieving the specified objectives through productive and optimum use of scarce
resources while institutional management helps in developing harmonious co-ordination amongst
different programs, activities, functions and people so that the institution as a whole becomes capable of
achieving its targets, goals and objectives effectively and efficiently. For the smooth running of an
institution, scientific principles of management play a very significant role. Be it the curricular or co-
3
curricular processes, optimisation of scarce resources like finance, competent humans or the adequate and
up-to date infrastructure, proper management and its defined processeshave a role to play.
In this unit, learners you shall understand the concept, need, importance and scope of institutional
management. You shall become aware about the broad difference between institutional management and
administration for the effective functioning of an institution. Understanding of the institutional
management process shall be another important input for you.
8.1.1 Institutional Management

To understand Institutional management, we need to understand the two terms independently, so we start
with
(A)Concept of an institution
The term institution has become widespread in the social sciences in recent years, reflecting the growth in
institutional economics and the use of the institution concept in several other disciplines, including
philosophy, sociology, politics, etc. The term has a long history of usage in the social sciences, dating
back at least to GiambattistaVico in his Scienza Nuova of 1725. However, even today, there is no
unanimity in the definition of this concept. (Hodgson, 2006)
A commonly accepted definition of institutions is that they are the formal and informal rules that organise
social, political and economic relations (North, 1990). They are the systems of „established and prevalent
social rules that structure social interactions‟ (Hodgson, 2006, p. 2).
“Institutions are the ways in which the value patterns of the, common culture of a social system are
integrated in the concrete action of its units in their interaction with each other through the definition of
role expectations and the organisation of motivation” (Parsons and Smelser, 1956)
Institutions operate in all spheres of life and can affect access to economic, legal, political, and social
rights and opportunities.
 Some common characteristics of an institution are as follows:

 Distinct purpose expressed in a goal or a set of goals- every institution has a particular
goal for which it has been incorporated for ex a school is formed to impart education to
students, a hospital to serve healthcare facilities to patients etc.
 People come and work together to achieve the institutional goal through a set of decisions
and work activities.
4
 A deliberate and systematic structure that defines and limits the behavior of its members
People often use the two terms synonymously but they are distinct.The term „institution‟ is
sometimes used to refer to organisations or associations and sometimes to designate a normal
principle that defines clusters of important behaviour, such as marriage or property.
An organisation is a group formed to meet a specific goal, e.g., a college or a hospital. An
institution, however, is not an actual group or association. It is a system of beliefs, norms,
values, positions, and activities that develop around a basic societal need. The concept of
institution is-abstract and is used to refer to a fundamental form of social organisation that
meets a broad social goal. In the present context however, institution will refer to an
educational institution imparting higher education like a college, university or deemed to be
university.
E.W. Burgess has given the following classification of institutions
 Cultural institutions for transmitting social heritage like family, school, church (religious
institutions).
 Economic institutions for organising of services of utility like bank, labour union,
commercial and industrial enterprises.
 Recreational institutions for satisfying human desire of enter-tainment, amusement and
play etc.
 Social control institutions for solving social problems of society and personality. (As
cited by GauriDushi in article Institutions: Definition, Types and Functions of
Institutions, http://www.preservearticles.com/sociology/institutions-definition-types-and-
functions-of-institutions/30474)
After understanding what is an institution, its time now to know
The term Managementis considered to be a universal phenomenon which is involved in every
sphere of life,be it the tangible ones like an educational institution or the intangibles like time
and stress.
5
According to Harold Koontz, “Management is an art of getting things done through and with
the people in formally organised groups. It is an art of creating an environment in which
people can perform asindividuals and can co-operate towards attainment of group goals”.
According to F.W. Taylor, “Management is an art of knowing what to do, when to do and see
that it is done in the best and cheapest way”.
The above quoted definitions clearly indicate that “management” is a tool of getting work
from others for achievingthe specified objectives through productive and optimum use of
scarce resources. It is generally believed that resources will always be scarce and it is the
responsibility of the head of the institution to manage these scarce resources in the most
effective and efficient manner, not compromising on the quality, yet achieving the goals and
objectives.
Management is a purposive activity. Every institution big or small, rural or urban is existing
to fulfill its objectives through 'management' E.g.: For one institution it may be admitting
quality students and for other it may be imparting quality education by recruiting quality
teachers.
Management, as a process, involves a series of inter-related functions which create, operate
and direct a purposive organisation through systematic, coordinated and co-operated human
efforts. According to George R. Terry, “Management is a distinct process consisting of
planning, organising, actuating and controlling, performed to determine and accomplish
stated objective by the use of human beings and other resources”. As a process, it has three
aspects:
 Social aspect- Since human is the most important factor among other factors,
management is concerned with developing relationship among people. It is the role of
management to make interaction among people – highly productive and useful for
achieving institutional goals.
 Integrating aspect–Bringing together human, physical and financial resources, so as to
achieve institutional objectives, is one of the important activities of management. Thus, it
is an important aspect of management to bring harmony between various factors.
 Continuingaspect–One of the major roles of management is the identification of
problems and finding their solution. As problems are part and parcel of the functioning of
any institution, finding solution and implementing them is a continuous activity for the
management of any institution.
6
Like many other activities performed by a human being, management is also an activity
undertaken by a manager while performing his role of accomplishmentof objectives by
directing the efforts of others. According to Koontz, “Management is what a manager does”.
In case of an educational institution, the manager would be the principal or anyHOD.
Management as an activity includes -
 Informational activities -This refers to those activitieswhich help in giving and

receiving information orally or in written form for the smooth, effective and efficient
functioning of the institution.
 Decisional activities -All types of managerial activities are based on some type decision.
Principals/HODsin an institution are continuously involved in decisions making of
different kinds since the decision made by one becomes the basis of action to be taken by
other. For ex the decision taken by the principal not to admit students below a particular
cut-off percentage will lead to the HODs working in admission procedure to admit only
those students that fulfill the said criteria and send back the others.
 Inter-personal activities - Management means achieving the goals through the
involvement of others where his inter-personal skills play a vital role.Principals/Directors
interact with their superiors as well as the HODs and faculty. For the smooth running of
the institution,they must maintain good relations with them. The inter-personal activities
include meeting with various HODs and faculty to understand their needs etc.

Institutional Management is a process designed to achieve an institution‟s objectives by using
its resources effectively & efficiently in a changing environment.Institutional management
helps in developing harmonious co-ordination amongst different programs, activities,
functions and people so that the institution as a whole become capable of achieving its
targets, goals and objectives effectively and efficiently.
 Components of Institutional Management:

Institutional management has two broad components:
 Organisation and management of curricular activities and
 organisation and management of co-curricular activities.
7
In the total programme of education, curricular and co-curricular activities occupy the central
position. Curricular and co-curricular activities are complementary to each other. These
activities help in developing integrated human personality. There was a time when the whole
purpose of the educational institution was conceived to be confined to the teaching of
prescribed syllabus. Other activities were regarded as additional.Participation in social and
sports activities or outside the classroom activities was looked down upon as a mere side
show. It was thought that these activities had no link with the actual teaching programme. But
in today‟s scenario, the role of co-curricular activities is considered to be complementary to
curricular activities in developing a total human being.As we know, curricular activitiesare
those activities which are organised in a classroom (e.g. teaching of different subjects by the
teacher/classroom teaching., practical work in the laboratory, workshop, library reading etc.),
while co-curricular activities include the activities having indirect reference to actual
instructional work undertaken in the classroom. Now a days, both theseactivities have equal
weightage in the life of a student in an educational institution.

 Achievement of the institutional objectives.
 Improvement in planning, organising and implementation of institutionalactivities,
processes and programmes.
 Ensure optimum utilization of human resources(teachers, non- teaching staff and
students)
 Enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of institutional infrastructural facilities.
 Enhance employees‟ job satisfaction
 Manage interpersonal conflicts effectively.
 Improve communication.
(B) Importance of Institutional Management
Institutional is becoming very important in today‟s scenario as it helps in understanding various

aspects of management at institutional level, like:
 Defining and describing roles and responsibilities of the educational manager
 Defining, describing and developing managerial skills.
 Understanding and facilitating educational planning at macro levels, its goals,
principles, approaches and procedures
 Understanding and facilitating institutional planning and educational administration.
8
 Facilitating in decision making, problem solving, communication and managing
information and building effective teams.
 Facilitating in planning of curricular and co-curricular activitiesvand preparation of
time-table.
 Helping in the maintenance of essential records, evaluating students‟ achievements.
 Helping in financing and budgeting of the institution.

 Management of Curriculum
 Management of Human Resources
 Management of Finances
 Management of Infrastructure
A “curriculum is aprogramme of activities by teachers and learners – so designed that

learners will, asfar as possible, achieve specific educational and other school
objectives”. Barrow (1984)
It may be stated that curriculum is anextensive concept which includes all planned
activities and subject courses which are undertaken in an institution. Planned
activities meanactivities relating to societies, clubs, committees, sports etc. These all
take place within a specific system which is constantly evaluated and aims to lead the
child to become a responsible citizen of the nation.
"Curriculum management is a structured set of activities designed to assess and

adjust the curriculum to the changing needs of students". Developing a perfect
curriculum that fulfills the needs of the students and facilitates the institution attain
its objectives is a difficult task. There are certain other challenges as well in
curriculum management.Firstly, as new research is published, you willhave to make
updates in curriculum content. Secondly, abnormal assessment scores will force you
to re-examinethecontent sequencing and assessment approach. Unavoidably, you will
be faced with 'curriculum drift'. For example the Changein IS building codes,
Company Law,1956 to be replaced with the Company Law,2013. Similarly, The
Goods and Sales Tax, 2017 to replace all the Indirect taxes that were levied earlier. If
9
these new topics are not incorporated in the curriculum then it is called a curriculum
drift. How can you ensure that a carefully designed curriculum adapts properly in the
changing educational scenario? You can do this by applying a structured set of
activities designed to assess and adjust the curriculum, in other words, with
curriculum management.
An effective curriculum management approach includes following activities:
1. Curriculum mapping-is the first and fore-most step inthe curriculum

management endeavor. It is a process in which structural elements of a
curriculum (phases, years, courses, sessions, etc) are tagged and linked with each
other as well as with learning outcomes and content areas. The most important
aspect of curriculum mapping is that it helps in giving an accurate presentation of
an institutional curriculum by transforming a series of documents and
experiences into a searchable database, without which all other steps in
curriculum management shall be of much less value.
2. Content & structure analysis–After the mapping of curriculum, analysis is

done to find whether the content is still relevant, and if the curriculum structure
supports the anticipated learning goals. Some of the common methods of doing
thisare:
Gap/redundancy analysis-a report of content gaps or redundancies in a

curriculum. For example, redundancy in curriculum exists when similar content
e.g. teaching a topic, “cement as a building material” is being taught in several
different course areas. While content gap in a curriculum comes when any one of
the eleven engineering graduate attributes remains under-represented in the
curriculum.
Teaching types analysis - a report providing an overview of the teaching types

and frequency of their use in the program. Often, this type of analysis report is a
part of an accreditation review, but can also be used to ensure whether content
is being taught most accurately by providing varied learning experiences to
students.
10
Sequencing analysis- a report presenting sequencing of topics throughout the
curriculum. In this tagging of learning outcomes or content areas as per Bloom‟s
taxonomy is analysed. Based on this, a report of the sequencing of content across
the content area is prepared.
To prevent curriculum drift, content & structure analysis play a significant role in
curriculum management as these help in identifying missing, inappropriate and
obsolete content which can be replaced with more appropriate one
3. Student assessment
The ultimate outcome of any curriculum is student assessment results. They act
as an important input to curriculum management process.Assessment results
provide a glimpse of curriculum problems which otherwise may not be visible
through other result areas.It is important to mention here that all the problems in
student assessment may not be curriculum problems. Some of the issues may be
linked with individual students, particular faculty or other non-curriculum things.
Systemic assessment problems (like missed/low results in a key content area;
over-performance in another area), may however, help inidentifying issues that
would have otherwise remained hidden.
4. Program evaluation
Another important aspect in curriculum management is program evaluation. It

provides a real time feedback about the curriculum to the faculty and staff.
However, it is important to understand that all program evaluation results may
not provide inputs about curriculum problems. For example, a poor teacher
evaluation is not necessarily a problem of curriculum management.
There are eight principles that guide the assessment of any curricular activity in
an institution. They are as listed below:
 Teachers need to be aware of their student's progress level.

 Students need to know about their learning progress.
 Assessmentis a bidirectionalphenomenon. On one hand it measures student‟s
achievement, on the other teacher‟s performance
11
 Assessment process should help in enhancing teaching effectiveness along
with intellectual and psychological growth of students.
 Assessment provides input data and evidence for students‟ attainment and
teachers performance
 Assessment is a continuous process. Continuous monitoringis required to
check the progress of the plans and activities implemented for promoting
desired behaviour
 Successful assessment process incorporates reflection and self assessment as
these help in developing in students necessary skills for assuming greater
ownership of their own learning.
 Facilitating student learning and assessing his progress in that learning are
the responsibility of a teacher and he is, or should be held accountable for the
same
5. Research, review, revise
This is the final step in curriculum management where the data collected from
content and structure analysis, student assessment results, and program
evaluation feedback is used to decide whether or not changes in curriculum are
needed. This is one of the main jobs of the curriculum committee and it is not to
be taken lightly. This may uncover many issues e.g. a deep-seated curriculum
issue found through low student assessment scores etc. These may require more
research for deciding how to proceed.
When the curriculum is finally drafted, ask the following questions:
 Relevance- Is the curriculum relevant in terms of content in the changing

environment.
 Utility- Will the knowledge or skills imparted to students enhance
long‐ term employment or make them employable in future.
 Social Responsibility- Does this curriculum make the students socially
responsible citizens of the nation who are aware of their social,
environmental and ethical responsibilities.
 Fundamental value of knowledge- Does the content have persistent cultural
implication?
12
 Critical thinking- does the content of the curriculumcompel the students to
think critically?
 Student Enrichment: Will the content enhance the inimitable experiences
and values of student life?
 Management of the Human Resources
Human resource is an increasingly broadening term that refers to

managing'humancapital', the people of any institution. It is a strategic function of
management that recognises the inter-linkage between talented and engagedpeople
andinstitutional success.
Human resource management is the process wherein the emphasis is on recruitment,

compensation, performance, training and development, motivation, communication
and providing directions to the people who work in an institution. According to
Dessler (2008)” the policies and practices involved in carrying out the people or
human resource aspects of a management position, including recruiting, screening,
training, rewarding, and appraising comprises of HRM”.
Human Resource of an educational institution comprises of faculty, teaching and

non- teaching staff, students and other elements such as parents, members of the
community, members of the governing body, etc.. The management of human
resource is of vital importance to achieve the educational objectives.
The management of two types of human resources is discussed in this section:
 Management of Student Support system

 Management of other human resources
1. Management of Student support system
Students incorporate an essential component of human resource of an

educational institution. They not only provide the financial resources that help in
running the institution but also are the future representatives of the institution.
13
Educational institutions are established to impart quality education, for which
they have to come up with programmes and courses of study, design and develop
curricula and learning outcomes, evolve suitable teaching-learning strategies, and
formulate the criteria of assessment and certification. The system and mode of
instruction of the institution has to be in conformity with its mission and goals.
There are various aspects of the programmes being offered by the institutions.
One aspect is, the extent of flexibility and autonomy exercised while deciding the
programmesand content and the second is being responsive to the needs of
society/country, like starting skill development courses to make the youth self
reliant. Thesemay vary from one institution to the other and each decides on the
programmes to be offered and their content. However, programmes from
variedinstitutions need to be comparable in terms of intensity of content,
standards of assessment and achievement so that equivalence of qualification
may be ascertained.
The instructional system should integrate all possible channels to enhance

learning like,classroom teaching, laboratory work, group work, projects, self
studyetc..This multiple media approach to instruction optimises learning
outcomes.
Effective management of student support in higher education is also dependent

on assessment of the learning component. Since teaching-learning is affected
over a long period oftime, educationists vouch for a system of continuous
evaluation of the learning outcomes rather than only a terminal assessment
system.
The important considerations in regard to student learning and its assessment are:
i) Appropriate content, structure and provision of flexibility in the choice of

content.
ii) Instructional procedures clearly spelt out.
iii) Well defined assessment procedure.
14
These points determine the learning contract between the student and
theinstitution and should therefore be conveyed to the student clearly and
objectively, before the student makes a choice.
The student support services normally provided by higher education institutions

can be categorized as follows:
• Provision of information about programs and courses, teachers and their

qualifications, admission procedure, teaching learning methods, assessment
procedures, criteria of assessment, awarding grades, procedures for setting
disputes about assessments, admissions, etc. about the teacher schedules, library
work, laboratory work, tutorial, examination schedules etc. This will help them to
gauge the academic rigour of any particular program.
• Provision for other curricular activities like sports and games, cultural and
social activities, community activities, group works, travels and competitions.
• Residential facilities available and participation in their management
• Participation in student association activities.
• Financial support provision like loans, scholarships to meritorious students etc
• Guidance and counseling services, including provision for placement of

successful students.
Management of student support services poses a big challenge for the

administrators and faculty of the educational institution.
2. Management of other human resources
Human resources in educational institutions include several people namely

faculty and, Principals, Vice Chancellors, Heads of Institutions, Heads ofDeptts.,
Heads/Directors of Research units, Deans, Directors of Higher Education
Department, Heads of Training Institutions, local and regional Administrators,
Educational Planners and Administrators at national level. Each of these
15
individuals requires different kinds of knowledge, skills and aptitudes to
discharge their duties well.
In order to be effective and efficient, an educational institution has to ensure that

there are right kind of people, in the right place and at the right time for carrying
out various jobs and services.For this purpose, human resource needs are to be
identified and assessed. Proper selection and recruitment proceduresare to be
followed. This must be in accordance with the guidelines of the statutory bodies
like UGC, AICTE, etc as the case may be. There are challenges like working
conditions, promotion prospects, training and development, transfers, motivation
and security, career development and so on. These are to be handled with
empathy and co-operation on one hand and sense of commitment and
accountability on the other hand.
 The Need to have Human Resource Management
Human resources management is a process of positive change linked to the

enhancement of the capacity of each individual in an institutional set up. It is a
strategic approach of selection, recruitment, motivation, training and
development and management of the institution's human resources which ensures
the achievement of the objectives of the institution. Similar to the managers and
CEOs of big corporate houses, the heads of educational institutions also apply
many familiar techniques of HRM such as manpower planning, selection and
recruitment, staff development and motivation, performance appraisal, etc. for
management of human resources. Institutional leaders must understand that:
1. People are an integral part of any institution as the latter cannot exist in
isolation. Without people an institution has no meaning. It is for the
administrators to understand that people constitute the central part of the
institution.
2. People working in the institution are considered to be resources because of

their special qualities and characteristics. Every individual be it the faculty, the
lab technician, the librarian or the office clerk have a contribution to make
towards the achievement of institutional goals. Thus, they cannot be treated like
16
material resources and there is a need to introduce humanistic values and human
approach to deal with them.
3. Since people are an asset, care must be taken to develop them from time to
time, keeping them up-to-date with the changing needs of the society. Moreover,
they must be rewarded, recognised and remunerated according to the guidelines
set by the government from time to time.
Thus, management of human resource in an institution, necessary to achieve its

desired goals successfully, can be achieved by following ways:
i) Selecting and retaining qualified talent through effective human resource

planning i.e. recruitment, selection, placement, compensation and promotion
policies.
ii) Developing and building required skill competency and capabilities through
training, orientation and performance appraisal, etc.
iii) Securing support and cooperation of employees through motivation,
participation, grievance handling, etc.
iv) Ensuring that the institution will have a team of competent and dedicated
employees in future.
 Management of Institutional Finances
Finances are considered as the life blood of any institution and accordingly its proper
management is one of the important aspects of institutional success as it is important to
understand that the basic purpose of any educational institution is to impart education to
the students which it is not possible without appropriate quantum of money.
Finance isthe science ofthe management of money and assets. It not only deals with
resource acquisitions but also its allocation. Presently,education is being provided
through different modes such as formal, non-formal,distance and online (e-learning). For
providing different levels of education through different modes a variety of physical
resources (buildings, equipment, materials) and human resources (teachers,
administrators and custodians) are needed. These resources cannot be without adequate
finance.
17
Therefore, money becomes very important for the survival of any system. Secondly, it is
not just the availability of money can solve all the problems but allocating this money to
various heads is equally important.
So, let us define educational finance as the management of money and assetswhen
physical and human resources are allocated for educational purpose. The next question
would be what are the various sources of finance.
 Contribution of Governmentand Household in Educational Financing
Government meets the institutional costs of education to a large extent up to

secondary level. In tertiary level, especially in technical and professional
education, the role of private players have increased significantly during the past
few years.
It will be pertinent at this point to examine the role of University Grants

Commission (UGC) as a funding body in higher education institutions. UGC
provides funds to colleges and universities for the development of higher
education and research. It receives grants-in aid from the Central Government
under both non-plan and plan heads. The non-plan grants are meant essentially to
meet the maintenance costs of the central universities, some deemed universities,
colleges of Delhi and some ongoing schemes of the UGC both in Central and
State universities. The plan grants are used for general development of every
university in terms of creating infrastructural facilities - construction of
buildings, purchase of furniture equipment for laboratories development of
libraries and other academic and administrative needs. UGC also provides plan
grants under special scheme programmes for promotion of quality, excellence,
teaching and research.
Generallya large amount of household investment especially in technical and

other professional education isfavoreddue to following three main reasons:
o Government does not have adequate budget to finance education

and thus households have to necessarily put in their resources for
their education, at least partly;
18
o It is believed by some that household expenditure, specifically
fees, would make children more serious about their studies, and
thus result in enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness of the
system
o Household expenditure reflects both ability to pay and
willingness to pay for education. It is argued that this thought of
people need to be fully exploited.
In fact, , dual system of education -public education system (usually considered

to be of poor quality) for the poor, and fee charging private education (of better
quality) for those who can afford, is mainly applicable up to secondary level.
However, in case of higher education, government subsidies are three fourths of
the total recurring expenditure, in the country as a whole. Fees from student,
endowments, and others meet the rest more or less in equal proportions. But in
therecent years, given the changing economic and educational policies, this
proportionseems to be rapidly increasing to significant levels in many
Universities.
 Contribution of Foreign Aid in Educational Financing

Foreign aid is one important source of finances for education. Its importance gets
enhanced in developing countries like India where public budgets for education
become very tight with the adoption of structural adjustment policies. A large
number of foreign aid projects especially in primary education and a few
especially for enhancing the quality of higher technical education (TEQIP) are
presently operational in the country with the assistance by several international
agencies, such as the World Bank, the Swedish International Development
Agency, the UNICEF, the European Economic Community,etc. Thus the external
aid is both bilateral flowing from countries, and multi-lateral flowing from
international- UN and other organisations.
In most colleges and universities over 90 percent of the expenditure goes towards
paying salaries of teachers and staff. Therefore, the institutions are not left with
many choices but to enhance the fees from students, leading to public ire, even
some of the dual mode universities have been resorting to distance education.
19
Thus, management of finance in today‟s scenario, when government contribution
to education is declining and the cost ofeducation continuously increasing, is one
of the most important difficult issues for any institutional manager.
 Management of Institutional Infrastructure

Physical structures required to run an institution are called infrastructure.Physical
infrastructure, in the context of education implies the teaching learning space and
equipments necessary for effective teaching-learning process. These include, classrooms,
libraries, laboratories, furniture, social space, IT network and other support needs, like
special provisions for disabled etc (Rose, G.M., 2006). It is important to understand some
basic concepts which determine the planning and management of physical facilities in
educational institutions.
Proper planning for management of these constituents of an institution is required and is
essential for the effective achievement of the institutional goals. Hence, management of
infrastructure both human and physical particularly in the context of Indian higher
education assumes tremendous significance. This is primarily because Indian higher
education has undergone expansion in terms of number of institutions, courses of study,
departments, teachers and students.
Practice Task
Q. I. Fill in the blanks
a) Kinds of institutions may be ____________ , _______ ,________ and _________
b) Management as an activity includes _________ , ____________ and __________ decisions.
c) In the total programme of education, _______and ___________ activities occupy the central
position.
d) "______________ is a structured set of activities designed to assess and adjust your
curriculum".
Q. II. Short answer questions
1. What are the objectives of Institutional management?

2. What are the various aspects of institutional management?
3. Name the two types of human resources in institutional management.
4. Name the various sources of institutional finances.
5. Briefly discuss the importance of institutional management.
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Feedback
A1 a) Cultural, Economic, Recreational and Social control
b) decisional, interpersonal and informational
c) curricular and extra-curricular
d) Curriculum management
AII. Short answers

1. Objectives of IM-
a. Achievement of the institutions‟ objectives.
b. To improve the planning, organizing and implementation of the institutions activities and
processes.
c. To ensure appropriate utilization of human resources (teachers, non- teaching and
students)
d. To enhance the efficiency and effectives of institutional infrastructural facilities.
e. To enhance job satisfaction among employees
f. To manage interpersonal conflicts, manage stress and use time effectively.
g. To improve interpersonal communication.
2. Various aspects of institutional management are:
a. Management of Curriculum
b. Management of Institutional Human Resources
c. Management of Institutional Finances
d. Management of Infrastructure
3.The two types of human resources in institutional management are:

a. Faculty (Teaching and non Teaching)
b. Students
4. The various sources of institutional finances are
a. Contribution of Government and Household
b. Contribution of Foreign Aid
5 Importance of IM:
a. It includes the study of various theories of management science which define and describe
the roles and responsibilities of the educational manager and develop managerial skills.
b. It includes the study of educational planning at macro levels, its goals, principles,
approaches and procedures. At a micro level it helps in understanding and facilitates:
Institutional planning and Educational administration.
c. It helps in decision making and problem –solving, communication and managing
d. It helps in planning of curricular and co-curricular activities, and preparation of time-table.
e. It helps in the maintenance of essential records, evaluating students‟ achievements.
f. Financing and budgeting of the institution.
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8.1.2 Administration
(A)Concept of Administration
The two terms management and administration have been used in different connotations by
different writers.
According to Theo Haimann, “Administration means overall determination of policies, setting of

major objectives, the identification of general purposes and laying down of broad programmes
and projects”, literally meaning activities of higher level including laying down basic principles
of an institution. According to Newman, “Administration means guidance, leadership & control
of the efforts of the groups towards some common goals”. On the other side, management
involves conceiving, initiating and bringing together the various elements; coordinating,
actuating, integrating the diverse institutional components while sustaining the viability of the
institution towards some pre-determined goals. In other words, management is an art of getting
things done through & with the people in formally organised groups.
In other words, management carries out the decisions taken by administration. The functions of
administration are legislative and largely determinative and those of management are executive
and largely governing. This view presents administration at a higher pedestal andmanagement at a
lowerpedestal.
Some other authors like Oliver Sheldon, Florance, Lansberg, and Haiman are also of the view that
administration involves decision-making and policy formulationwhile management deals with
executive and supervisory work. According to them administration is the process and agency
which is responsible for the determination of the aims for which an organisation and management
are to operate, and which gives general oversight to the continuing effectiveness of the total
operation in reaching the objectives sought. Management is the process and agency which directs
and guides the operations of an organisation in the realizing of established aims.
Another view is that administration and organisation are a part of management.Brech has
advocated this view. In his words, "Management is the generic termfor the total process of
executive control involving responsibility for effectiveplanning and guidance of the operations of
an enterprise. Administration is thatpart of management which is concerned with the installation
and carrying out ofthe procedures by which the programme is laid down and communicated and
theprogress of activities is regulated and checked against plans." The Europeanschool of thought
considered administration as a part of management.
22
Some authors are of the view that management and administration are usedinterchangeably and
there is no distinction between the two. In the words ofNewman, "Management or administration
is the guidance, leadership and controlof the efforts of a group of individuals towards some
common goods." Otherauthors such as George Terry, AlIen, Koontz and O'Donnell also feel that
boththe terms mean the same thing. In general practice administration is used more ingovernment
or other public organisations while management is used in the businessworld.
(B) Difference with Institutional Management

The difference between administration and management can be summarised under twobroad
categories viz. Functionsand Usage / Applicability
 Based of Functions
Basis Management Administration
Meaning Management is an art of getting things done Administration concerns formulation

through and with other people by directing their of broad policies, plans and
efforts towards achievement of objectives. objectives.
Nature Management involves execution. Administration involves major

decision-making.
Process Management decides who should do it & how it Administration decides what to do &
should be done. when to do.
Function Management is a doing function because managers Administration is a thinking function

get work done under their supervision. because plans & policies are
determined under it.
Skills Human skills and Technicalskills Human skills and Conceptual Skills
Level Lower level and Middle level function Top level function
23
Applicability It is broadly applicable to business/profit It is applicable to non-business /non

makingorganisations profitorganisations
Influence Manager‟s values, opinions, beliefs & Govt. policies, public opinion, religious
decisions of the managers influence beliefs, customs etc. influence the
management decisions decisions of administration
Status Paid Employees of the organisation are Owners of the enterprise who earn return
the constituents of management on investment & profits represent
administration.
Thus, management and administration terms are used interchangeably in the educational
institute parlance, which must be understood based on their principles and their
applicability for achieving the goals and objectives of the institution.
Practice Task
Q1 Differentiate between Management and Administration on the basis of usage.
Feedback
Applicability It is applicable to business concerns i.e. It is applicable to non-business concerns i.e.

profit-making organization. clubs, schools, hospitals etc.
Influence The management decisions are The administration is influenced by public

influenced by the values, opinions, opinion, govt. policies, religious
beliefs & decisions of the managers. organizations, customs etc.
Status Management constitutes the employees Administration represents owners of the

of the organization who are paid enterprise who earn return on their capital
remuneration (in the form of salaries & invested & profits in the form of dividend.
wages).
24
8.1.3 Institutional Management Process
This sub unit will briefly discuss the management process that involves the following
Planning
Organising
Staffing
Directing
Controlling
We have understood by now institutional management is a social process and involvesthe
responsibility for effective and efficient planning & regulation of the operations of an educational
institution towards the fulfillment of defined purposes. Management is a dynamic process and
consists of various elements and activities. These activities are common to most of the managers
despite difference of their levels.
Different experts have classified functions of management. According to George & Jerry, “There
are four fundamental functions of management i.e. planning, organising, actuating and
controlling”.
According to Henry Fayol, “To manage is to forecast and plan, to organize, to command, & to
control”. Whereas Luther Gullick has given a keyword ‟POSDCORB‟ where P stands for
Planning, O for Organizing, S for Staffing, D most widely accepted are functions of management
given by KOONTZ and O‟DONNEL i.e. Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing and
Controlling.
For theoretical purposes, we may separate the function of management but practically speaking
these functions are overlapping in nature i.e. they are highly inseparable. Each function blends
into the other &each impacts the performance of others.
25
 Planning
It is the basic function of management. It deals with chalking out a future course of action &
deciding in advance the most appropriate course of actions for achievement of pre-determined
goals. According to KOONTZ, “Planning is deciding in advance - what to do, when to do & how
to do. It bridges the gap from where we are & where we want to be”. A plan is a future course of
actions. It is an exercise in problem solving & decision making. Planning is determination of
courses of action to achieve desired goals. Thus, planning is a systematic thinking about ways &
means for accomplishment of pre-determined goals. Planning is necessary to ensure proper
utilization of human & non-human resources. It is all pervasive, it is an intellectual activity and it
also helps in avoiding confusion, uncertainties, risks, wastages etc.
 Organizing
It is the process of bringing together varied resources i.e. physical, financial and human resources
and developing fruitful relationships amongst them for the achievement of institutional goals.
According to Henry Fayol, “To organize a business is to provide it with everything useful for its
functioning i.e. raw material, tools, capital and personnel‟s”. Smooth running of an educational
institution involves identifying and providing human and non-human resources to the its
organisational structure. Organising as a process involves:
 Identifying activities.
26
 Classifying and grouping of activities.
 Assigning duties.
 Delegating authority and creating responsibility.
 Coordinating authority and responsibility relationships.
 Staffing
It is the function of manning the organization structure and keeping it manned. Staffing has
assumed greater importance in the recent years due to advancement of technology, increase in
size of business, complexity of human behavior etc. The main purpose o staffing is to put right
man on right job i.e. square pegs in square holes and round pegs in round holes. According to
Kootz&O‟Donell, “Managerial function of staffing involves manning the organization structure
through proper and effective selection, appraisal & development of personnel to fill the roles
designed un the structure”. Staffing involves:
 Manpower Planning (estimating man power in terms of searching, choosing the right
person and giving the right place).
 Recruiting, Selecting and Placing.
 Training and Developing.
 Fixing remuneration.
 Appraising Performance
 Promoting and transfering.
 Directing
It is that part of managerial function which actuates the organizational methods to work
efficiently for achievement of organizational purposes. It is considered life-spark of the enterprise
which sets it in motion the action of people because planning, organizing and staffing are the
mere preparations for doing the work. Direction is that inert-personnel aspect of management
which deals directly with influencing, guiding, supervising, motivating sub-ordinate for the
achievement of organizational goals. Direction has following elements:
 Leadership: Leadership is the process of influencing the actions of a person or a group
o to attain desired objectives. A manager has to get the work done with and
throughpeople. The success of an organisation depends upon the quality of leadership
shown
o by its managers.
27
 Motivation: Motivation is the work a manager performs to inspire, encourage andimpel
people to take required action. It is the process of stimulating people to takedesired courses of
action. In order to motivate employees, manager must provide acongenial working
atmosphere coupled with attractive incentives.
 Communication: Communication is the transfer of information and understandingfrom one
person to another. It is a way of reaching others with ideas, facts, andthoughts. Significantly,
communication always involves two people: a sender and areceiver. Effective communication
is important in organisations because managerscan accomplish very little without it.
 Supervision: In getting the work done it is not enough for managers to tell thesubordinates
what they are required to do. They have also to watch and control theactivities of the
subordinates. Supervision is seeing that subordinates do their workand do it as directed. It
involves overseeing employees at work
 Controlling
It implies measurement of accomplishment against the standards and correction of deviation if

any to ensure achievement of organizational goals. The purpose of controlling is to ensure that
everything occurs in conformities with the standards. An efficient system of control helps to
predict deviations before they actually occur. According to Theo Haimann, “Controlling is the
process of checking whether or not proper progress is being made towards the objectives and
goals and acting if necessary, to correct any deviation”. According to Koontz &O‟Donell
“Controlling is the measurement & correction of performance activities of subordinates in order
to make sure that the enterprise objectives and plans desired to obtain them as being
accomplished”. Therefore controlling has following steps:
 Setting standards of performance
 Measuring actual performance
 Comparing actual performance against the standard and
 Taking corrective actions to ensure goal accomplishment.
Systematic application of these functions of management can facilitate an education institution in the
achievement of its objectives.
28
Practice Task
a)The four fundamental functions of management are _________ , _______ , _________ and
__________ i.e. planning, organizing, actuating and controlling.
b) __________ deals with chalking out a future course of action & deciding in advance the most
appropriate course of actions.
c) The main purpose o staffing is to put _________ on ____________ .
d) “____________is the measurement & correction of ______________of subordinates in order to

make sure that the enterprise objectives and plans desired to obtain them are being accomplished”.
Q. II. Short answers
1) What does the acronym PODSCORB stand for?

2) What are the steps involved in controlling?
3) What do you understand by Organising? Discuss the organising process
4) Discuss briefly the elements of Directing.
Feedback
A. I. Fill in the blanks:
a) planning, organizing, directing and controlling

b) Planning
c) right man, right job
d) Controlling, performance activities
A II. Short Answers
1) PODSCORB stands for Planning, Organising, Directing, Staffing, Coordinating, Reporting and
Budgeting
2. Controlling has following steps:

(a) Setting standards of performance
(b) Measuring actual performance
(c) Comparing actual performance against the standard and
(d) Taking corrective actions to ensure goal accomplishment.
29
3. According to Henry Fayol, "To organize a business is to provide it with everything useful or its
functioning i.e. raw material, tools, capital and personnel".
It is the process of bringing together physical, financial and human resources and developing
productive relationship amongst them for achievement of organizational goals
Organizing as a process involves:
 Identification of activities.
 Classification of grouping of activities.
 Assignment of duties.
 Delegation of authority and creation of responsibility.
 Coordinating authority and responsibility relationships
4. Elements of directing are:

(a) Leadership: Leadership is the process of influencing the actions of a person or a group to
attain desired objectives.
(b) Motivation: Motivation is the work a manager performs to inspire, encourage and
impel people to take required action. It is the process of stimulating people to take
desired courses of action.
(c) Communication: Communication is the transfer of information and understanding

from one person to another. It is a way of reaching others with ideas, facts, and
thoughts.
(d) Supervision: Supervision is seeing that subordinates do their work

and do it as directed. It involves overseeing employees at work
30
Conclusion
Successful institutional management involves active participation of all the stakeholders by appropriately
applying the above basic managerial functions. These functions are interlinked and most managers use
them in combination or sometimes simultaneously to solve the problems facing theinstitutions. Thus, the
thorough understanding of the principles and practices behind these functions is a must for the triumph of
any institutional manager in today‟s fast changing and competitive scenario.
Bibliography:
1. Anyamele, S.C., 2004. Institutional management in higher education: A study of leadership
approaches to quality improvement in university management-Nigerian and Finnish Cases.
2. Carnegie, D., 2017. How to win friends & influence people. e-artnow.
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Simon and Schuster.
4. Dalton, M; Hoyle, DG & Watts, MW (2000). Human Relations. 2nd edition. United States of
America: South – Western Educational Publishing, 56-118p.
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Pvt. Ltd.
6. Geoffrey M. Hodgson (2006) What Are Institutions?, Journal of Economic Issues, 40:1, 1-
25, DOI: 10.1080/00213624.2006.11506879
7. Koontz, H., O'Donnell, C. and Weihrich, H., 1986. Essentials of management (Vol. 18).
NewYork: McGraw-Hill.
8. Kumar, S. and Dash, M.K., 2011. Management education in India: trends, issues and
implications. Research Journal of International Studies, 18(1), pp.16-26.
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USA: Harper and Row Publisher
10. North, D. (1990). Institutions, institutional change, and economic performance. New York:
Cambridge University
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Political Weekly, pp.3249-3258.
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Irwin, 350- 366p. Stoner, JAF and Freeman, R E (1994). Management. 5th Edition, New Delhi:
Prentice-Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.437-468p.
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14. Sinha N and Singh S, (2017) Institutional Management, OSN Academy
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Publishing Company Ltd., 208-222p.
16. Wadkar, A (2016). Life Skills for Success. New Delhi: SAGE Publications India Pvt. Ltd., 29 –
43p.
17. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.13518, General And Industrial Management, Fayol
Henri, Book Source: Digital Library of India Item 2015.13518
18. www.preservearticles.com/sociology/institutions-definition-types-and-functions-of-
institutions/30474
19. www.one45.com/curriculum/what-is-curriculum-
managementwww.slideshare.net/geminorumgem/concept-of-educational-management
20. www.yourarticlelibrary.com/educational-management/institutional-management-meaning-and-
components/63726
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http://www.preservearticles.com/sociology/institutions-definition-types-and-functions-of-
institutions/30474
Supportive learning resources: by Dr. Rakesh K Wats

Videos on
 Institutional Management- Concept and its importance
 Administration - Concept and its Difference with Institutional Management
 Institutional Management Process (Planning, Organising, Staffing, Directing,
Monitoring and Controlling) - An Overview
Web resources:
o Institutional Management to Missional Leadership
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UlcWYl7ZtkY
o Aspects of Institutional Management
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t1inVRr56-U
o Four Functions of Management Planning, Organizing, Leading

controlling https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KBfp4pzBIm8
32
UNIT 8.2
INSTITUTIONAL MANAGEMENT PROCESS:
INSTITUTIONAL PLANNING
Content Page No
Broad Objective 3
Learning Outcomes 3
Introduction 3
8.2.1 Planning: Concept and Importance 4
 Characteristics of Planning
 Importance of Planning
Practice task 8
Feedback 9
8.2. 2 Institutional Planning 10
 Objectives of Institutional Planning
 Need and importance of Institutional Planning
 Scope of Institutional Planning
 Prerequisites of an Institutional Plan
Practice task 16
Feedback 16
8.2.3 Types of Planning- Strategic and Operational 18
 Strategic Plans
 Tactical Plans
 Operational Plans
Practice task 21
Feedback 21
Conclusion 22
Bibliography 22
1
UNIT 8.2
Author Dr Rakesh K Wats
NITTTR, Chandigarh
Supportive team Ms. Kamakshi Malik
DAV College, Chandigarh
Broad Objective
The broad objective of this unit is to
make the learners aware about the
importance of institutional planning and
its scope in the smooth, efficient and
effective running of an educational
institution
Learning Outcomes
After going through this unit the learner will be able to:
1. Understand the concept of planning and its importance for an institution.
2. Identify the steps and characteristics of planning.
3. Appreciate the need, importance and scope of institutional planning in today‘s scenario.
4. Identify the pre-requisites for an effective institutional plan.
5. Understand the types of planning and their application in smooth running of an institution.
Introduction
Confucius, an eminent educationist has once said that, ―A man who does not think and plan long ahead,
will find trouble right at his door.‖ Today we are living in an uncertain, volatile and complex world
where, change is the only permanent thing. This has made the working of institutions not only difficult
but also challenging. To survive in such an environment and to achieve competitive advantage the mantra
that can help is- proper planning in an institution. This unit, broadly, covers concept, importance and
characteristics of planning. Important steps involved in planning, role and importance of institutional
2
planning, pre-requisites for an effective institutional plan also form the constituent of this unit. Types of
plans required for the smooth running of an educational institution are the important inputs of this unit.
8.2.1 Planning: Concept and Importance
We often use the word planning everyday for our activities to be done in the entire day. In other words it
is looking ahead and deciding on the future course of action. It is a systematic activity but exhaustive
program which determines when, how and who is going to perform a specific job. It is often said ―Well
planned is half done‖, thus highlighting the importance of planning in achieving success. While planning,
we consider the available & potential resources (like human and physical) of the institution to get
effective co-ordination and contribution. It is the basic management function which includes formulation
of one or more detailed plans to achieve balance between needs or demands with the available resources.
Urwick states, ―Planning is a mental predisposition to do things in an orderly way, to think before acting
and to act in the light of facts rather than guesses‖. Planning is deciding the best alternative among a
number of other alternatives, to perform different functions in order to attain predetermined goals.
Koontz & O‘Donell opine, ―Planning is deciding in advance what to do, how to do and who is to do it.
Planning bridges the gap between where we are, where we want to go. It makes possible, the things to
occur which would not otherwise occur‖.
 Characteristics of Planning: some of the most important features of planning are-
Fig. 8.2.1 Steps of planning in an institution
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 Planning is forward looking or futuristic-Planning is always done for the future,
involving, analysing and predicting the future using quantitative and qualitative techniques
helping the institution to adjust and face the challenges in future.
 Planning is goal-oriented-- Every institution has a set of goals and objectives that they
wish to achieve in the near future for which a sound planning is done. The goals established
should be of general acceptance otherwise individual efforts will go misdirected.
 Planning is an intellectual process-Planning is not a guess work but involves a number of
mental abilities like creative thinking, sound judgment and imagination. It is always based
on facts, figures, estimates, and exact calculations rather than anticipations.
 Planning involves choice & decision making- after setting the objectives, the assessment
of alternatives and choose amongst them, the best possible one, keeping in mind the
available resources and the environmental opportunities and challenges is done. Planning,
basically involves selecting the best amongst various alternatives.
 Planning is the primary function of management / Primacy of Planning- planning is the
basic or fundamental function of management that provides the platform for other functions
of the management, like organising, staffing, directing and controlling. The latter are
performed within the framework of the formulated plans
 Planning is a Continuous Process- Planning is a never ending function due to the dynamic
environment. Although, plans have a specific period like, five yearly, annual, biannual,
quarterly plan etc. but the process does not stop when it is implemented or executed. New
opportunities, concerns, challenges keep on emerging and they have to be tackled by
planning effectively.
 Planning is all omnipresent-Planning occurs at every level of management, in every
organization and in every sector like education, hospitality or healthcare etc. Although, its
scope may differ from one level to another and from one sector to other but planning is
definitely omnipresent. The top level may be more concerned about the holistic planning of
the organisation, whereas the middle level more specific in departmental plans and the
lower level plans the implementation of the same. For example, the principal or head of the
institution may plan what new courses to be introduced from the new session or new faculty
to be appointed, the head of the department may plan the time table, the seminars and
workshops to be held in the session while a teacher may plan how to complete the syllabi in
stipulated time period by way of lesson planning.
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 Planning is designed for efficiency- planning helps the institution in saving time, effort
and money and other physical resources by promoting adequate and optimum utilisation of
these resources.
 Planning is Flexible—as the future is uncertain and unpredictable thus planning must
include plans flexible enough to keep the chances of incorporating the on spot changes.
They should not be rigid and unalterable. Thus, plans must provide enough opportunity to
cope up with the changes like student‘s demand, industry needs, government policies etc.
 Planning facilitates management by objectives-
 The process of planning sets in motion with setting of objectives.

 It emphasises the reason for which various activities are to perform.
 Planning makes objectives more clear and specific.
 Planning helps in focusing the attention of faculty on the objectives or goals and once this
focus is developed the employees will stick to their plan.
 Planning compels the planners to prepare a blue-print of the courses of action to be followed
for accomplishment of objectives.
 Planning makes the institution more organised and disciplined.
 Planning minimizes uncertainties-
 Planning play a strong role in minimising the risk of various types of uncertainties
 Planning helps the management to anticipate future and prepare for risks
 Planning facilitates coordination-
 Planning invites various stakeholders of the institution to share common platform to give
their ideas and suggestions on issues related to the institution, hence integrate them for a
common reason
 It facilitates coordination and synchronisation of work, avoid duplication of efforts.
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 Planning improves morale of all stakeholders
 Planning team up all departmental heads, the faculty, the non teaching staff or the students
where every stakeholder is aware of the expectations of team from them
 This encourages them to show their best and work whole heartedly towards the achievement
of goals and objectives of the institution.
 Planning creates a healthy work environment and positive institutional culture that enhances
the morale of all stakeholders and brings them together.
 Planning facilitates controlling
 Planning cannot be successful if there is no control or vigil over the changing environment so
that the plans do not go haywire or become obsolete.
 Planning and controlling co-exist and are considered to be two sides of the same coin
 Planning provides competitive advantage

 An effective planning involves changing in work methods, quality, bringing technological
advancements, extension of work, redefining of goals, etc.
 Forecasting help the institution secures its future but at the same time it is able to estimate the
future motives of its competitors, which helps it in facing future challenges.
 Steps in Planning Process

Planning is an essential managerial function that requires a lot of time, effort and skills so that the
desired goal is achieved. There is no room for guessing, planning works with experience, logic and
rationality of the planner. While making an effective plan for the institution the following steps are to
be followed:
 Setting of goals and objectives
The goals and objectives provide a direction to the efforts and are the central part of the planning
process. The objectives should be clear, precise, easily understandable, and clearly communicable
to the planners so that they can act accordingly.
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 Developing the Planning Premises
 Premises are the assumptions about the environment in which plans are formulated and
executed. Premises determine where we have departed from the actual plan and the
reasons behind this deviation. This helps in identifying the potential obstacles and threats
in our planning so that steps can be taken to avoid them in future.
 Planning premises may be internal controllable (include capital investment policy,
management labor relations, philosophy of management, etc.) or external uncontrollable
(socio- economic, political and economical changes).
 Plans must be formulated by keeping in mind the limitations posed by the internal and
external premises.
 Assessing the alternatives and subsequently choosing the best-
 After the premises are developed the planner will assess all the possible alternatives.
 Every alternative will be evaluated by considering its advantages and disadvantages with
reference to the resources available and requirements of the institution.
 After objective and scientific evaluation of the alternatives, the best alternative is finally
chosen.
 Formulating derivative plans-
 Formulation of the secondary plans to support the basic plan.

 Secondary or derivative plans will flow from the basic plan and are meant to support and
accelerate the achievement of basic plans.
 Derivative plans include policies, procedures, rules, programs, budgets, schedules, etc.
For example, to fulfill the basic plan of imparting quality education to students the
institution will formulate the derivative plan of recruiting quality teachers.
 Ensuring support and participation-
 After the basic and derivative plans, faculty and the ones who have to implement these
plans are made to come on the same page by taking them into confidence
 Confidence can be attained by making them feel valued, let them participate in all
decision making activities.
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 According to Koontz, ‗plans have to be set in an atmosphere of close participation and a
high degree of concurrence‘.
 Participation enables employees to give their best to the plans. They are also motivated
to carry out the plan to the best of their ability.
 Follow up/Appraisal of plans-
 Reviewing and revising is important to assess and review the effectiveness of plan as
the environment in which institutions operate is volatile and uncertain that makes the
plan to adjust in existing situation. So, continuous reviewing and revising is
important.
 This can be done on the basis of feedback or information received from students,
faculty and other stakeholders concerned.
 The assessment of plans helps the management to rectify the deviations, if any and
modify the plan.
 Without a regular follow-up, there are chances that the plans may become obsolete
and insignificant. Moreover, appraisals ensure the implementation of plans in the
right direction and avoiding mistakes in the future planning.
Practice task
Q1. Fill in the blanks
a) ____________ are the assumptions about the environment in which plans are formulated and
executed.
b) Without a _____________ there are chances that the plans may become obsolete and insignificant.
c) Planning begins with ___________.
d) The plans derived for various departments which help in the achievement of main plan are called
__________ .
Q2. Short answers
a) Briefly state the steps of planning process
b) Mention any four characteristics of planning
c) What do you mean by premises?
d) Define derivative plans
8
Feedback
A. 1 Fill ups:
a) Planning Premises
b) A regular follow-up
c) Setting of objectives
d) Derivative plans
Q2. a) Steps of planning process are
1. Setting of goals and objectives
2. Developing the Planning Premises
3. Assessing the alternatives and subsequently choosing the best
4. Formulating derivative plans
5. Ensuring support and participation
6. Follow up/Appraisal of plans
b) Characteristics of planning are
1. It is goal oriented
2. It is forward looking and futuristic
3. It is present in all levels of management
4. It is an intellectual process.
Ans. c) Premises are the assumptions about the environment in which plans are formulated and executed.
The development of these premises determines where we have departed from the actual plan and the
reasons behind this deviation.
Ans. d) The plans derived for various departments, units, activities, etc., which help in the achievement
of main plan are called the derivative plans. These derivative plans include policies, procedures, rules,
programs, budgets, schedules, etc
9
8.2. 2 Institutional Planning
Planning in education is an extremely important activity as it forms the basis of all programmes of
quantitative and qualitative improvement in education. Without planning, an individual, a society, an
institute or a nation cannot prosper. Similarly, any educational institution, cannot achieve the targeted
goals unless it opts for proper planning.
Educational planning implies taking of decisions for future actions with a view to achieving
predetermined objectives through the optimum use of scarce resources. Institutional planning is a part of
educational planning. It is confined to a particular institution and functions keeping the goals of that
particular institution in mind. It ensures better and most favorable use of the resources which the
institution has or can have. It is the institution that knows best its needs and problems that have to be
solved. Hence, it is through institutional planning that an institution can attain welfare and development.
Institutional planning can be best explained in the words of M.B.Buch (1964) ―An institutional planning
is a programme of development and improvement prepared by an educational institution on the basis of
its felt needs and resources available and likely to be available, with a view to improve the formal
educational institutional program and practices constitutes a plan for an institution‖.
Institutional planning is an effective method to enhance the institutional mission of ensuring high quality
teaching, training of young generation with employable skills contributing in national development within
the framework of present institutional arrangement. Buch further states "Institutional planning is a (i) plan
for development as a whole (ii) plan for the improvement of the existing situation (iii) plan for felt needs,
necessity of the institution (iv) plan for an effort to make a balance between available resources and
planning (v) an effort to find out to be available resources (vi) a plan to be made without hampering the
educational programs and practices".

The institutional planning should be based on certain predetermined objectives. All activities planned
should ultimately help to achieve these ends. Depending upon the circumstances and needs of the
institution, the objectives may be short term and long –term.
Mr. J.P. Naik, Former Education Advisor, Government of India, has listed the following four
objectives of institutional planning: "Giving freedom to the teacher, making the good teacher
10
effective, involving every teacher in the formulation and implementation of institutional plans,
emphasizing what can be done here and now by mobilising our existing resources".
However, in general, aims and objectives of institutional planning are:
 On the academic side:

 Qualitative improvement
 Providing more amenities to teachers, students and local community
 Maintaining the educational standards, when students number increases and if the number
remain static then focus should be on the improvement
 Reducing and eliminating the incidence of wastage and stagnation.
 On the knowledge and skill side:
 Developing latest and up-to-date knowledge and skills
 Developing temperament for industrial processes and practices and
 Inculcating a liking for learning new techniques, gaining hands on experience on new
equipment and machines, craft work etc.
 On the attitude side:
 Promoting better students-teacher and teacher-parent inter personal relationships
 Inspiring the teachers to give their best to the pupils in particular and the institute in general.
 Developing a taste in the students for extracurricular activities like dramatics, athletics and
hobbies.
 Creating a feeling of belongingness to the institution in both the students, teachers and staff.
 On the economic side:
 Reducing the cost of education
 Optimum utilisation of existing resources
 Utilizing all the economic resources belonging to local community
 Procuring all types of grants viz. plan and non-plan, recurring and nonrecurring
 Exploring other sources of helps and donations like help from the philanthropic associations
as scholarships, teaching aids and institutional amenities etc.
 On the social side:
 National integration
 Cultural integration
 Emotional integration
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 On the political side:
 Developing democratic attitudes in faculty, staff and students

 Overall progress of the institution
All institutions have some plans; all the heads of institutions/principals make plans as to how to
maintain discipline in the institution and every teacher also plans. Planning may be routine
planning of the syllabus, time table, placement drive and examination etc. and it may not exist in
a definite or regular form and it may be repeated from term to term and from session to session
without any extra effort. Institutional planning undoubtedly improves the working of the
institution and makes it future ready thereby leading it to the path of progress.
 Provides direction to educational objectives

Institutional planning gives the right direction to the educational objectives of the country. The
direction of planning in the customary trend today, is from top to bottom. Institutional planning
recognises the contribution of administrators, teachers, parents, students, educationists and social
reformers in the process of planning of education in the country.
 Optimum utilisation of institutional resources

Every institution has limited resources be it human, physical and monetary resources. Institutional
planning helps the management to make optimum use of the existing resources by applying the
basic principles of organizing and controlling. As a nation, India has a great shortage of resources
with increasing needs and demands from every quarter. It is responsibility of every individual and
institution to systematically plan for the maximum utilisation of these scarce resource.
 Aligning institutional goals with national development

Educational planning must fit into the overall national planning for developmental purposes. Its
significance can be highlighted from the need for collective efforts of the people. In the words of
B.D. Nag Chaudhari, "Since the implementation of plans and programs is as important and vital
as plan formulation. Institutional planning has a special contribution to make in the national
development". Every institution must strive to align its objectives with the national objective of
education and development. For example, institutions must try to take up such courses which
inculcate skill development among students so that they can become employable and contribute
towards the nation's development with their expertise.
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 Encouraging and motivating every teacher
Institutional planning takes into confidence the faculty members and take their views before
implementing the plans. This makes them value their job and their institution. They are
encouraged to work for the excellence and overall development of the students and institution.
This is a win- win situation for both the teacher and the institution.

Institutional Planning covers every aspect of an institution be it planning for resources, curricular and
co-curricular activities, projects and programmes etc.
 Improvement of institutional campus/premises

 Construction, maintenance and repair of institutional buildings must be done from time to
time
 Library books, magazines, journals, instructional materials and audiovisual aids must be
maintained in the institution library
 Facilities like drinking water supply, sanitary, medical facilities etc. must be provided to the
faculty, staff and students
 Improvement of curricular activities

 The curriculum of each subject can be divided into small and comprehensible units.
 Use of the state of the art teaching techniques
 Transformation of teaching into effective learning
 Use of effective assessment tools for formative and summative assessment
 Arrangement of tutorial to deal with personalized teaching, discussions and doubt clearances
 Organization of seminars, workshops, conferences etc. to help students and faculty get the
hands on and up-to-date knowledge on recent trends.
 Faculty development programs like in-service training, refresher courses, and orientation
courses etc. for the up gradation of knowledge and skills amongst teachers and staff.
 Improvement of co-curricular activities

 Organization of physical activities like sports day, athletic meets etc. in the institution to
enhance physical health of students and teachers.
13
 Organization of literary activities like preparation of institution magazine, newsletter,
teaching aids and equipment.
 Social service projects like NSS, NCC to help in inculcation national responsibilities in
students
 Collaboration with local NGOs to make students socially responsible nationals
 Improvement of Investigation and Research activities

 Project works to be part and parcel of curriculum to improve the analytical skills amongst
students of higher education
 Teaching of courses like research methodology, application of tools, data analysis, scientific
writings etc.
 Encouraging post graduate students to pursue PhD, so as to supply technically competent and
skilled work force to research institutes and industry
 Research topics oriented towards the problems of industry, society and country in general

Buch (1968) has identified the following characteristics of an institutional plan. He states them as:
 Need-based- An institutional plan must be based on the needs and requirements of the staff,
students and other stakeholders of the institution. It may incorporate needs in the area of
institutional organisation, curricular and co-curricular programs, support services, etc.
 Intensifies Human Efforts- An institutional plan makes persistent efforts to involve more of
human efforts by utilising faculty‘s initiative, imagination and creativity. It should not just
depend on the financial and infrastructural support.
 Specific- Every institution has its own image and unique selling proposition (USP) in terms of its
goals and objectives. This must be highlighted while planning for development and improvement.
Thus, every institution needs to have its own unique and specific plan which makes it different
from others in the same business.
 Goal-oriented -An institutional plan is directed towards pursuing the national goal of attaining
excellence with fairness. This requires not only continuous improvement but also development of
an institution that may attain higher goals each time.
14
 Optimum Utilisation - Its major criterion is to utilize human, financial and other non-material
resources in a way which facilitates maximum benefits
 Flexible – An institutional plan must be flexible and open to alterations as demanded by changing
needs and situations.
 Two-fold focus - Each institutional plan has a two-fold focus: (a) improvement based on human
efforts and (b) development necessitating support and assistance of the management, community
and the government.
 Enhanced Motivation - Through its successful implementation with visible output, it should
motivate students, teachers, management and the community, create enthusiasm and a sense of
commitment and affiliation in these groups.
 Co-operative Endeavour - It should be prepared by participation and involvement of teachers,

parents, students, principal and the management in the planning process.
 Democratic Preparation - Its planning and implementation must involve the entire stakeholder
group; who share their opinions and ideas and this enhances their sense of dignity and worthiness.
 Duration of Plans - An institutional plan can be of a long-term plan for 10-15 years or it could
be of five years‘ duration coinciding with the national/state five-year plans. Within the broad
frame-work of long-term plan, an institution can prepare a number of projects or programs for a
shorter duration of one or two years.
 Relation with State and National Plans - An institutional plan should be prepared within the
State level and National level educational plans and need to reflect the National Policy on
Education. However, the institutional plan can be prepared in the spirit of educational plans, still
the institution can have the freedom to modify, change, add or reject them.
 Community Support - Community involvement in institutional planning is a pre-condition and

an absolute necessity as it ensures community support in the implementation of the plan and helps
in building a rapport between the institution and the community".
15
Practice task
a) ______________ is a programme of development and improvement prepared by an educational

institution.
b) An institutional plan must be based on the needs and requirements of _____________ .
c) Institutional planning is important as it leads to the _____________ of the institution
d) Depending upon the circumstances and needs of the institution, the objectives may be ___________
or ____________
Q2. Short questions
a) Define Institutional Planning?
b) What are the main prerequisites of an institutional plan?
c) What is the scope of institutional planning?
d) Give four points to discuss the importance of Institutional planning.
Feedback
Ans. 1. Fill in blanks
a) Institutional planning
b) the staff, students and other stakeholders of the institution
c) overall progress
d) short term or long –term
Ans.2 Short answers
a) Institutional planning is a part of educational planning and is confined to a particular institution and
functions keeping the goals of that particular institution in mind.
b) Prerequisites of an institution plan are
16
 It must be based on the needs and requirements of the staff, students and other stakeholders of
the institution.
 It should not just depend on financial and infrastructural support but consider human effort.
 It must be unique and specific which makes it different from others in the same business.
 It must be directed towards pursuing the national goal of attaining excellence with fairness.
c) Scope of inst. planning:
 Improvement of institutional campus/premises

 Improvement of academic facilities
 Improvement of co-curricular activities
 Investigation and Research
d) Importance of institutional planning

 Institutional planning undoubtedly improves the working of the institution and makes it future
ready thereby leading it to the path of progress.
 It provides direction to educational objectives and recognises contribution of administrators,
teachers, parents, students, educationists and social reformers in the process of planning of
education in the country.
 Institutional planning helps the management to make optimum use of the existing resources.
 It helps in aligning institutional goals with National Development
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8.2.3 Types of Planning- Strategic and Operational
Different types of plans may be adopted by institutions to supervise and direct institutional activities.
There are three most commonly used plans namely Strategic, Tactical and Operational Plans. All the three
are somehow interrelated as operational plans lead to the accomplishment of tactical plans, which in turn
lead to the accomplishment of strategic plans
Figure : Types of Plans
 Strategic Plans
A strategic plan is a summary of various steps to be taken keeping in mind the goals of the entire
institution, rather than the goals of individual units. It begins with formation of the institution‘s mission.
The plans look ahead for about five years or more and focus on progress of the institution in the years to
come.
The plans involved many stakeholders, hence an accord and synchronisation amongst them is needed.
e.g. A plan to introduce new technology will be effective only if all the faculty members understand its
importance. Top-level management develops the directional objectives for the entire institution, while
lower levels will develop attuned objectives and plans to achieve them. Top management‘s strategic plan
for the entire institution becomes the outline premise of activities for the lower level planning.
Some features of strategic plans are:
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 They determine the long term objectives of the institution and deal with allocating resources and
deciding on the alternatives to be chosen that best suit the interest of the institution and the
stakeholders.
 They are made by the top management as they deal with the holistic development of the entire
institution
 They are forward looking as they focus on what we are today and what we wish to be in future.
Thus, ideally they shall be effective if they are flexible enough to adjust to the changing needs
and aspirations of its stakeholders.
 These plans provide the framework and direction of planning at the lower level
 Tactical Plans
Tactical plans are the strategies that the head of the institution adopts to achieve the objectives set in
the strategic plan. A tactical plan is concerned with what the lower level units within each department
must do, how they must do it, and who is in charge at each level. Tactics means the way in which the
means needed to activate a strategy and make it work are decided. Tactical plans have narrower scope
and shorter time frame than strategic plans. These plans usually span one year or less because they are
considered short-term goals. Long-term goals, on the other hand, can take several years or more to
accomplish. Normally, it is the departmental responsibility to take the broad strategic plan and identify
specific tactical actions.
Some features of Tactical plans are:
 These plans are for a shorter time duration (time frame usually less than 3 years) and are
usually developed by departmental heads.
 These plans help in the implementation of strategic plans by defining activities to be
performed by various departments.
 These involve allocating resources and work among faculty of each department.
Operational plans are the ones developed for short term, may be even less than one year. The function
of these plans is to determine actions or activities to be performed so as to maintain strategic and
tactical plans. Thus, an operational plan is one that a faculty member uses to accomplish his or her job
responsibilities. Operational plan can be a single-use plan or a continuing plan.
 Single-use plans: These plans apply to the activities that have one time occurrence or those
that do not recur or repeat. For example, a lecture delivered in a class is a single-use plan
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because it deals with the who, what, where, how, and how much of a lesson to be taken in a
lecture.
 Continuing or ongoing plans: These are usually made once and maintain their value over a
certain period but undergo periodic reviewing to avoid it from becoming irrelevant or
obsolete.
Examples:
 A policy: "it is a past or current statement or series of statements which explain,
recommend or exclude a course of action or actions to be taken to run the institution.
These statements are usually written, but they could be oral".
It provides a broad guideline to head of institutions to follow while dealing with
important decisions. Typical human resources policies like faculty recruitment,
terminations, performance appraisals, pay increases, and discipline are all policy matters.
Policies are important because they help an institution establish rules and procedures that
can produce not only standards of quality for learning, but also expectations and
accountability.
 A procedure: it explains how activities are to be carried out. For example, most
institutions have procedures for purchasing books in the library or equipments in the
laboratory. This procedure will have steps to be taken at various levels. By defining
these steps and the sequence in which they are to be taken, procedures "provide a
standardized way of responding to a repetitive problem".
 A rule: it tells the faculty members or students what should be done and what not to be
done. Rules are ―dos‖ and ―don‘ts‖ statements put in place to promote the uniform
treatment and behavior of employees. For example, students who do not have 75%
attendance are barred from sitting in the final exam. This rule is uniform for all students
irrespective of their stream, year or department.
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Practice task
Q. 1 Short questions
a) Discuss the various types of plans
b) Define a policy and procedures
Feedback
Ans. a)There three types of plans
Strategic, Tactical and Operational Plan

 A strategic plan is a summary of various steps to be taken keeping in mind the goals
of the entire institution. Strategic planning begins with formation of the institution‘s
mission.
 Tactical plans are the strategies that the head of the institution adopts to achieve the
objectives set in the strategic plan. A tactical plan is concerned with what the lower
level units within each department must do, how they must do it, and who is in charge
at each level.
 Operational plans are the ones developed for short term, may be even less than one
year. The function of these plans is to determine actions or activities to be performed
so as to maintain strategic and tactical plans.
b) Policy -it is a past or current statement or series of statements which explain, recommend or
exclude a course of action or actions to be taken to run the institution. These statements are
usually written, but they could be oral.
Procedure it explains how activities are to be carried out. This procedure will have steps to
be taken at various levels. By defining these steps and the sequence in which they are to be
taken, procedures "provide a standardized way of responding to a repetitive problem".
21
Conclusion
Change and advancement of knowledge are inevitable in any society and to live up to the expectations of
the new needs, a futuristic approach to planning is very important. It is must for the efficient functioning
of an educational institute to plan to upgrade its all activities, curricular, co-curricular, R & D etc. to work
for developing the integrated human personalities. The Institutional Planning helps in meeting its
objectives by reducing duplicities of efforts, reducing uncertainties, increasing controls, providing
competitive edge. Effective planning always makes basis of an efficient institute.
Bibliography
2. Edgar F. Huse, Management, West Publishing Company, Minnesota, 1995.
3. Harold Koontz and Cyril O‘Donnel, Essentials of Management, Tata McGraw Hill, 2000.
4. L.A. Allen, Management and Organisation, Tokyo, McGraw-Hill, 1980.
5. MISHRA, V., PUNDIR, V., INSTITUTIONAL PLANNING: THE WORKING PRINCIPLES,
ZENITH International Journal of Multidisciplinary ResearchVol.1 Issue 6, October 2011, ISSN
2231 5780 avl at www.zenithresearch.org.in 241.
6. Planning and Management in Higher Education. Study material for the course of PGDHE.
IGNOU, New Delhi
7. Robert Albanese, Management toward Accountability and Performance, Richard D., Irwin,
Homewood, Illinois, 1990.
9. Stoner, JAF and Freeman, R E (1994). Management. 5th Edition, New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of
India Pvt. Ltd.437-468p.
11. http://www.preservearticles.com/education/what-are-the-main-aims-and-objectives-of-
institutional-planning/6687
12. http://www.shareyouressays.com/knowledge/what-are-the-important-characteristics-of-
13. https://www.tutorialspoint.com/management_principles/management_principles_types_plans.htm
14. http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/educational-management/institutional-management-meaning-
and-components. Institutional Management: Meaning and Components, Diksha Kashyap
22
15. http://ebooks.lpude.in/management/mba/term_1/DMGT402_MANAGEMENT_PRACTICES_A
ND_ORGANIZATIONAL_BEHAVIOUR.pdf
16. http://www.managementhelp.org/plan_dec/mbo/mbo.htm
Supportive learning material: by Dr. Rakesh K Wats

Videos on-
 Planning : Concept and Importance
 Importance of Planning in Institutions
 Types of Planning- Strategic and Operational
Web resources:
 An Overview of Institutional Planning
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eEqyh0r3WSw
 Institutional Planning by Peeyush Malhotra Gurdaspuria

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4PCByqocGdc
23
MODULE 3
Communication skills, Modes and Knowledge
Dissemination
Coordinator: Er.Amandeep Kaur , NITTTR Chandigarh
Duration : 8 Weeks
Unit Page No.
3.1 Classroom Communication : An Introduction 1
Prof. (Dr.) Paramjit Kaur Tulsi
Learning Outcomes
3.1.1 Introduction 2
3.1.2 Communication: Concept and Process 2-5
Practice Task 6-7
Feedback 8
3.1.3 Stages in Classroom Communication 9 - 10
Practice Task 11
Feedback 12
3.1.4 Communication : Skills and Purposes 13-14
Practice Task 15
Feedback 16
3.1.5 Principles of Effective Classroom Communication 17
3.1.5.1 Principles for Teachers 17-19
3.1.5.2 Principles for message design 19 – 20
3.1.5.3 Principles for selection of instructional methods and media 20-22
3.1.5.4 Principles for creating conducive learning environment 22
Practice Task 23
Feedback 24
References 25
Additional resources 25
Unit Page
No.
3.2.1 LISTENING 26
Contributor: Dr. Archana Singh & Amandeep Kaur
Learning Outcomes
3.2.1.1 Concept of Listening 27
3.2.1.2 Difference between Hearing & Listening 27
Practice Task 28
Feedback 29-30
3.2.1.3 Purposes of Listening 31-32
3.2.1.4 Process of Listening 32
Practice Task 33
Feedback 34
3.2.1.5 Types of Listening 35-36
Practice Task 37
Feedback 38
3.2.1.6 Principles of Effective Listening 39-40
Practice Task 41
Feedback 42
3.2.1.7 Development of Listening among Students 43
References 44
Videos 44
Unit Page No.
3.2.2 SPEAKING 45
Contributor: Prof.(Dr. )Paramjit Kaur & Dr. Archana
Singh
Learning Outcomes
3.2.2.1 Introduction 45
3.2.2.2 Speaking 45-46
3.2.2.3 Principles of Effective Speaking 46-52
3.2.2.4 Improving your Speaking Skills 52
Practice Task 53-54
Feedback 55-56
References 57
Videos 57
Unit Page No.
3.3.1 READING 58
Contributor: Ms. Suditi Jindal
Learning Outcomes
3.3.1.1 Concept of Reading 59-60
3.3.1.2 Purposes of Reading in Classroom 60-61
Practice Task 62
Feedback 63
3.3.1.3 Types of Reading 64-65
3.3.1.4 Stages of Reading 65
Practice Task 66
Feedback 67
3.3.1.5 Strategies of Effective Reading 68
3.3.1.6 Techniques and Practices to promote Reading in Classroom 68-69
Practice Task 70
Feedback 71-72
3.3.1.7 Helpful Tips for Effective Reading 73
References 74
Videos 74
Unit Page No.
3.3.2 WRITING 75
Contributor: Ms. Suditi Jindal
Learning Outcomes
3.3.2.1 Concept of Writing 75
3.3.2.2 Purpose of Writing 75-76
Practice Task 77
Feedback 78
3.3.2.3 Process of Writing in Classroom 79-80
3.3.2.4 Principles of Effective Writing 80-82
Practice Task 83
Feedback 84
3.3.2.5 Different Types of Writing activities in Classroom 85-86
3.3.2.6 Developing writing in Classrooms 86
Practice Task 87
Feedback 88
References 89
Additional resources 89-90
Videos 90
Unit Page No.
3.3.3 NON TECHNICAL WRITING 91
Contributor: Mr. Gurpinder Singh
Learning Outcomes
3.3.3.1 Introduction 91
3.3.3.2 Memorandum 91
3.3.3.3 Noting and Drafting 91-92
3.3.3.4 Meeting Procedures 93-95
Notice :Call for a meeting 93
Agenda of Meeting 93-94
Minutes of Meeting 94-95
3.3.3.5 Executive Summary 95
References 95
Unit Page No.
3.4 BARRIERS TO CLASSROOM COMMUNICATION 96
Contributor: Prof. ( Dr.) Paramjit Kaur
Learning Outcomes
3.4.1 Introduction 97
3.4.2 Teacher related barriers 98-100
3.4.3 Message related barriers 101-103
3.4.4 Instructional methods and media related barriers 103-104
3.4.5 Students/ Learners related barriers 104-106
3.4.6 Learning environment related barriers 107-109
Practice Task 110-111
Feedback 112
References 113

Unit Page No.
3.5 ACTIVE LEARNING 114
Contributor : Ms. Amandeep Kaur
Learning Outcomes
3.5.1 Concept of Active Learning 115
3.5.2 Major Characteristics of Active Learning 116
3.5.3 Elements of Active Learning 116
Practice Task 117
Feedback 118
3.5.4 Benefits of Active Learning 119
3.5.5 Requirement of create Active Learning Classrooms 119-120
3.5.6 Active Learning Techniques to achieve Learning Objectives at various 120

levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy
Practice Task 121
Feedback 122
3.5.7 Classification of Active Learning Techniques 123
3.5.8 Different Active Learning Techniques 123-125
Practice Task 126
Feedback 127-128
3.5.9 Barriers to Active Learning 129
3.5.10 Overcome barriers to Active Learning 129-130
References 131-132
Videos 132
Unit Page No.
3.6 ROLE OF MEDIA IN CLASSROOM 133
COMMUNICATION
3.6.1 MEDIA: CONCEPT, TYPES AND PURPOSES 133
Contributor: Prof. (Dr.) Paramjit Kaur
Learning Outcomes
3.6.1.1 Concept of Media 134
3.6.1.2 Types of Media 134-140
Practice Task 141
Feedback 142
3.6.1.3 Selection of Media 143-144
Practice Task 145
Feedback 146
3.6.1.4 Purposes Served by Media in Classroom 147
Practice Task 148
Feedback 149-150
References 151

Unit Page No.
3.6.2 DIGITAL MEDIA IN TEACHING LEARNING 152
Contributor: Ms. Amandeep kaur
Learning Outcomes
3.6.2.1 Introduction: Digital Media 152
3.6.2.2 Types of digital Media tools 152-157
Practice Task 158
Feedback 159-160
3.6.2.3 Advantages of using digital Media in classroom 161
3.6.4 Factors to consider while using digital Media in Classroom 161-162
Practice Task 163
Feedback 164
References 165
Videos 165
Unit Page No.
3.7 USE OF BOARD(WHITEBOARD/BLACKBOARD) 166
Contributor : Ms. Amandeep kaur
Learning Outcomes
3.7.1 Concept of Using Board in Classroom (White/Black) 167
3.7.2 Advantages of Using Board 168
3.7.3 Disadvantage of Using Board 168
Practice Task 169
Feedback 170
3.7.4 Factors for Effective Presentation by Using Board (White and Black) 171
3.7.4.1 Do’s Need to be followed while using board (White and Black) 171-173
3.7.4.2 Don’t Need to be followed while using board (White and Black) 173
3.7.5 Different Methods of Using Board (White board and Black board) 174
3.7.5.1 Teacher Centered Methods 174
3.7.5.2 Student Centered Methods 174-175
Practice Task 176
Feedback 177-178
References 179
Additional resources 179-180
Videos 180
Unit Page No.
3.8 FEEDBACK 181
Contributor: Ms. Amandeep kaur
Learning Outcomes
3.8.1 Concept of Feedback 182-183
3.8.2 Types of Feedback 183-184
Practice Task 185
Feedback 186
3.8.3 Four ‘W’s and one H of Feedback 187
3.8.3.1 Why to provide Feedback? 187-188
3.8.3.2 When to provide Feedback? 188
3.8.3.3 Who will provide Feedback? 188-189
3.8.3.4 What to provide in Feedback? 189
3.8.3.5 How to provide Feedback? 189-190
Practice Task 191
Feedback 192
3.8.4 Relationship between Assessment and Feedback 193
3.8.5 Obtaining and Providing Feedback 194
References 195
Videos 195-196
Communication Skills, Modes and
knowledge dissemination
Er.Amandeep Kaur, NITTTR Chandigarh
Duration: 8 Weeks Hours: 20
Unit S. No. Title Recorded By
3.V Introductory Video Ms. Amandeep Kaur
3.V.1 Classroom Communication – Part I : Concept

Unit 3. 1 Prof.(Dr.) Paramjit Kaur Tulsi
Classroom Communication – Part II :
3.V.2 Process and Purposes Prof.(Dr.) Paramjit Kaur Tulsi
3.V.3 Listening : Concept and Purpose

Prof.(Dr.) Archana Singh
Unit 3. 2
3.V.4 Types of Listening
3.V.5 Principles of Effective Listening
Prof. (Dr.) Archana Singh
3.V.6 Speaking : Concept and Purpose
Prof. (Dr.) Archana Singh
3.V.7 Principles of Effective Speaking
Ms. Suditi Jindal
3.V.8 Reading : Concept, Purpose and Types
Ms. Suditi Jindal

3.V.9 Reading Skills : Stages
Reading Skills : Strategies for Effective
Unit 3. 3 3.V.10 Ms. Suditi Jindal
Reading
Ms. Suditi Jindal
3.V.11 Writing : Concept, Purpose Writing Skills :
Ms. Suditi Jindal

3.V.12 Principles of Effective Writing Skills
Unit 3. 4 Prof.(Dr.) Paramjit Kaur Tulsi
3.V.13 Factors Affecting Classroom Communication: I
Prof.(Dr.) Paramjit Kaur Tulsi

3.V.14 Factors Affecting Classroom Communication: II
Unit 3. 5 3.V.15 Active Learning : Concept Ms. Amandeep kaur
3.V.16 Active Learning Cycle Ms. Amandeep kaur
3.V.17 Active Learning Techniques Ms. Amandeep kaur
3.V.18 Active Learning and LO’s Ms. Amandeep kaur
3.V.19 Media – Introduction and Types Ms. Amandeep kaur

Unit 3. 6
Ms. Amandeep kaur
3.V.20 Why to use Media in Classrooms ?
Ms. Amandeep kaur
Unit 3. 7 Introduction, Merits and Demerits of Using
3.V.21
Board
Ms. Amandeep kaur

3.V.22 Dos’ and Don’ts for Using Board
Ms. Amandeep kaur
3.V.23 Feedback : Concept and Purpose
Ms. Amandeep kaur
Unit 3. 8 3.V.24 Types of Feedback
Ms. Amandeep kaur

3.V.25 How to provide Feedback
Ms. Amandeep kaur
3.V.26 Role of Feedback Assessment
UNIT 3.1
Classroom Communication:
An Introduction
“As long as there is communication, everything can be solved”

(Robert Trujillo)
1
3.1 Classroom Communication: An Introduction
Learning Outcomes
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
- Explain the concept of communication
- Enlist the various elements in communication
- Explain the relationship among various elements of communication
- Explain the various stages in classroom communication
- Enlist the purposes of four basic communication skills
- Explain principles of effective communication
3.1.1 Introduction
Communication is an integral part of any teaching learning process and its effectiveness is
one of the factors, which determines to a large extent the degree to which the learning
outcomes will be achieved. The primary objective of instructional communication is to
achieve learning outcomes in the cognitive domain namely those concerned with developing
remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating and creating abilities. It also
helps in building affective relationships with students (Mottet et al., 2006). The process of
classroom communication is affected by a multiplicity of factors pertaining to teachers,
students, message, instructional methods and media and learning environment (Tulsi, 2000).
But, very few of us understand the nature of communication and make deliberate attempt to
improve its effectiveness. Weimann and Backlund (1980) has rightly remarked that
“communication skills are acquired through training and can be improved with practice and
require conscious knowledge and strategic judgement”. Evidence indicates that by improving
communication skills, individuals can have more effective and satisfying communication
experience.
3.1.2 Communication: Concept and Process
The term communication comes from the latin words communis (common) and Communice
(to share). According to Schramm “when we are trying to communicate we are trying to
establish a commonness with someone”. For communication to be shared, it is not enough
to transmit symbols from one individual to another. It is also necessary for the message to
have some relevance for the participants. Participant should share enough common frame
of reference so that message has some sense or significance.
Please try to answer the question ‘Who is a mother’. Some of your responses may be -she is
loving, affectionate, first teacher, caring, understand the child without him/her saying
anything, nurturing etc. Or you might have thought that she is a person who gives birth to a
2
child. There are two meanings of the same word-one based on your experience and another
the standard meaning. Standard or dictionary meaning is referred to as denotative meaning
and the meaning you attach to words based on your experience is referred to as connotative
meaning. When the receiver interprets the words as intended by the sender, the message is
completely or rightly understood. Communication ought to be effective. So, communication
can be defined as sharing of meanings between the sender and the receiver.
Communication thus, is a process by which meanings are exchanged between two or more
persons through the use of some symbols that both or all of them understand.
According to Devito (1978) “Communication refers to the act, by one or more persons, of
sending and receiving messages, distorted by noise within some context, with some effect
and with some opportunity for feedback”. Little (1987) defines it as “Human Communication
is the process by which information is passed between people by means of previously
agreed symbols, in order to produce a desired response”.
The communication act, includes the following elements:
 Communication Context: Communication always takes place within a

context. At times, this context may not be obvious and at times, it may stand
out boldly. The context of communication has four dimensions:
- Physical (Where the communication is taking place-the room, hallway or
park?)
- Social (Who are involved in communication? What status relationships exist
between them? What roles the people play? What are the norms and the
culture of the society in which they communicate?)
- Psychological (Is the environment characterized by formality or informality,
friendliness or unfriendliness etc.?)
- Temporal (At what time of the day and history the communication takes
place?)
These dimensions interact with each other; each influences and is influenced by the others
to determine the nature and content of communication.
 Source/Sender: A person or thing or event, which provides verbal or non-verbal clues to

which someone can respond. When the source is a person, it is also called a sender.
 Receiver: A person who interprets a message sent by a source.
 Message: A set of verbal or non-verbal cues sent by a source. Messages can be spoken
or written words, gestures, movements etc. They cannot have meaning apart from the
persons involved in sending and receiving process.
3
 Symbols: A symbol is something that represents something else. It can be verbal or
non-verbal. Words are symbols, the flag is a symbol, and certain uniforms, gestures and
objects are symbols.
 Channel: A channel is the means used to convey the stimuli. The most common
channels are visual and auditory and other channels utilize tactile (touch), gustatory
(taste) and olfactory (smell) senses. In simple words, channel can be audio, visual or a
combination of the two.
 Encoding: Encoding is the process of selecting symbols to express the idea or feeling
the source wishes to communicate.
 Decoding: It is the process by which the receiver translates the symbols provided by the
source.
 Feedback: It is the response a receiver gives to sender as a result of sender's message.
This information may be used to adapt, adjust or change subsequent messages.
 Noise: Noise is anything that distorts or interferes with the message. It can be external
(screeching or passing cars, hum of an air-conditioner, distracting mannerism etc.) or
internal (headache, fatigue, unpleasant past experience, prejudices and biases etc.)
4
Figure 3.1.1. Shows the relationship among various elements.
CONTEXT
NOISE
CHANNEL
MESSAGE
SENDER(T) RECEIVER(S)
ENCODING DECODING
FEEDBACK
NOISE
FIG 3.1.1: Elements in the process of communication
In classroom communication, these elements will include: teacher (the primary sender of
messages), message, students (the primary receiver of messages), encoding, decoding,
Instructional methods and media, feedback and learning environment. Role reversal takes
place in class. Students when they clarify doubts, pose questions or supplement information
become the senders of information and are involved in encoding and transmission of
message; while the teacher becomes the receiver and is involved in decoding and provides
feedback to the sender of the message.
5
Practice Task
1. The purpose of communication in classroom situation is to:
 Enable students achieve the learning outcomes

 Establish rapport with students
 Facilitate the understanding of the subject matter
 All of the above
2. Which of the following are the elements in the process of communication?
 Sender
 Message
 Receiver
 All of the above
3. The process of encoding refers to:
 Selection of media
 Selection of symbols
 Selection of message
 Selection of sources of information
4. Which of the following elements help the sender to adapt and modify subsequent messages?
 Feedback
 Message
 Medium
 Noise
5. Which of the following is NOT an example of audio-visual medium?
 Book
 Video film
 Television
 Motion picture
6. The nature and content of communication is affected by:
 Psychological context
 Psychological and Social context
 Psychological, social and Physical context
 Psychological, social, physical and temporal context
7. Which one of the following is an example of external noise?
 Anxiety among students

 Students talking to each other
 Tiredness of teacher
6
 Fear among students
8. Which one of the following is NOT an example of internal noise?
 Disturbance in medium
 High level of anxiety
 Lack of confidence
 Worry
7
Feedback
Item No. Answer
1. d
2 d
3 b
4 a
5 a
6 d
7 b
8 a
8
3.1.3 Stages in Classroom Communication
Typical acts of classroom communication involve five distinct stages (Cole and Chan, 1987):
 Formulation of message
 Encoding of message
 Transmission of message
 Decoding and interpretation of message
 Feedback and evaluation
i. Formulation of message: The very first stage is formulation of message. The

curriculum document provides the breadth and scope of various topics in the course
and also specifies the learning outcomes for the course. Teacher tries to collect
material from various sources including books, reference books, journals etc. and then
try to sift and organize the ideas. Its purpose is to create clear and meaningful
messages. Both logical and psychological sequencing of ideas is done at this stage.
ii. Message encoding: Encoding refers to selecting symbols to transmit ideas to

students. Symbols can be verbal or non-verbal and many a times combination of both
verbal and non-verbal symbols are used by teachers. Research in the area of twenty
first century students indicates that students prefer visual learning style than the verbal
learning style. Teacher thus, needs to prefer pictures, diagrams, videos etc. than the
verbal message
iii. Message transmission: Message need to be transmitted through a channel and these days a
variety of channels are available. One can use audio channel, visual channel or combination of
both. Multiplicity of channels can be used to cater to individual differences in the class and to
supplement the message
iv. Message decoding and interpretation: Decoding refers to translating the symbols
and deriving meaning out of them. Receiver tries to interpret the symbols so as to
make sense out of them. He/she also tries to relate it to what he /she already knows.
v. Feedback and evaluation: Based upon his/her interpretation of the message or

messages, student tries to respond to the sender and thus provides feedback. Teacher
based upon the feedback tries to adapt, modify and design subsequent message. As
communication is an interactive process, ample opportunities need to be created for
obtaining and providing feedback to students.
9
An interactive model of classroom communication (Cole and Chan, 1987) has a particular
application for classroom teaching and learning. In most classroom interactions, role reversal
takes place. Teacher, the primary sender of the message becomes the receiver of the
message when a student takes up the role of a sender. This situation arises in the classroom,
when a student clarifies a doubt, poses a question or tries to supplement the information or
express his/her views on the message.
10
Practice Task
1. The stages in classroom communication includes:

i) Encoding of message
ii) Transmission of message
iii) Formulation of message
iv) Decoding of message
v) Feedback and evaluation
The correct sequence of stages is:
a. (i)- (ii)- (iii)-(iv)- (v)

b. (ii)-(iii)-(iv)-(v)-(i)
c. (iii)-(iv)-(v)-(i)-(ii)
d. (iii)-(i)-(ii)-(iv) –(v)
11
Feedback
1. The correct sequence of stages in classroom communication is: (d)
12
3.1.4 Communication Skills and Purposes
The four basic skills in communication are:
 Speaking
 Listening
 Reading
 Writing
These are essential skills for an effective communicator. A teacher, before going to class,
reads the subject matter, writes notes, develops instructional media, writes exercises, tasks
etc. for students, while in class speaks, writes on board, listens to students’ questions,
feedback etc. Likewise, students are involved in all the four skills-reading, writing, speaking,
and listening. Each one of these skills serves important purposes in classroom
communication (Table 1.1).
Table 1.1: Purposes served by Communication Skills in Classroom Communication
Skill Purposes
Speaking • Explain, state, describe---

- Give instructions
- Ask questions
- Supplement information
- Provide or obtain feedback
- Maintain discipline
Listening - Understand the content of communication

- Understand the feelings
- Respond and provide feedback to speaker
- Motivate the speaker to continue
- Build relation
Reading - Broaden perspective

- Understand content
- Refresh and update knowledge
- Develop judgement, critical thinking
13
- Understand task, activities, assignments
- Evaluate tasks, activities, assignments etc.
Writing - Express thoughts or feelings

- Give instructions
- Instructional material, assignments, tasks etc.
- Provide feedback
- Evaluate performance
- Take notes to remember
14
Practice Task
State any two purposes each of the four communication skills.
Communication Skill Purposes served
Speaking 1
Listening 1
Reading 1
Writing 1
15
Feedback
Compare your answers with the purposes written in Table 1.
16
3.1.5 Principles of Effective Classroom Communication
Effectiveness of classroom communication depends on five major factors namely teacher,
student, message, instructional methods and media, and learning environment (Tulsi, 2000).
These all factors interact among themselves to determine the effectiveness of classroom
communication. Teachers can play an important role in increasing the effectiveness of
instruction by improving themselves, the organization of message, the selection of
appropriate methods and media, and creating conducive learning environment in the class.
Teacher Student
Learning Classroom Message

Environmen Communication
t
Instructiona Instructiona
l Media l methods
Fig. 1.2 Factors affecting classroom communication
The principles of effective classroom communication are discussed in this section under the
following four headings:
 Principles for Teacher

 Principles for Message Design
 Principles for Selection of Instructional Methods and Media
 Principles for Creating Conducive Learning Environment
3.1.5.1 Principles for teachers

Teacher should:
i. Develop a realistic self-concept and the perception about the world around:
This would require critical analysis of one's own strengths and weaknesses,
acceptance of the reality, efforts to realize one's potential. Teacher should view the
world as worth living. Realistic self-concept and optimistic view of world helps the
17
teacher in being confident, open and enthusiastic and thus increase the effectiveness
of communication.
ii. Operate from I am OK, You are OK life position: The best life position to operate
is I AM OK, YOU ARE OK (Eric Berne) or the win-win situation for both the
individuals. When an individual operates from this life position, one is able to give
due regard to the other individual and is able to maintain cordial relations with others
and thus communication remains effective.
Individuals operating from I AM OK, You Are Not OK life position, may adopt an
authoritarian stance and individuals operating from I Am Not OK, You Are OK,
become too docile or individuals operating from I Am Not OK, You Are Not OK, may
think that both are helpless. In case, the other individual shares the same
perceptions, communication will continue otherwise under these circumstances,
communication breakdown will take place. But in case, an individual has any hidden
agenda, communication breakdown will occur and spoil the relationships.
iii. Develop proficiency in the subject matter: Desire to acquire knowledge is

must for the teacher. In the words of Mahatma Gandhi
"Live as if you were to die tomorrow
Learn as if you were to live forever"
Teacher should make every effort to remain current in his/her subject area. This can
be achieved through independent reading, participation in short -term courses,
attending classes of proficient teachers/ experts, discussing subject related issues
and problems with other colleagues or seniors or on blogs, attending Massive Open
Online Courses etc. This will help in boosting the confidence of the teacher.
iv. Understand the learners: Communication needs to be pitched to the level of
students. Teacher should accept the fact that no two individuals are alike and thus
cannot be treated in the same manner. He/she has to cater to the needs of individual
student. Teacher should try to collect as much information about the learners'
18
characteristics as he/she can. Information needs to be collected about the previous
knowledge, learning styles, cognitive styles, motivation, interests, personality etc.
v. Develop effective communication skills- both verbal and non-verbal:
Communication skills can be acquired through training and practice. A teacher can
record his own audio and analyze the same for identifying the strengths and
weaknesses in the spoken language. Video recording in the classroom situation can
help the teacher to analyze both verbal and non-verbal behaviour. He/she should
remain open to the feedback from colleagues, superiors and students. A teacher can
thus improve communication skills by attending training in communication skills,
listening to news and experts, imitating role model, practicing communication skills
and remaining open to feedback from others.
vi. Have knowledge of pedagogy and andragogy: Knowledge of pedagogy and/or
andragogy is required of all teachers. It helps the teachers to plan, organize, deliver
and evaluate instruction based upon the sound principles of teaching learning and
thereby promote learning among students.
vii. Flexibility in approach: Teacher should have enough flexibility in his/her approach
so as to adapt or modify instruction on the basis of the feedback from students.
viii. Be free from biases and prejudices: Teacher should treat students as equals and
not give any preferences to students on the basis of gender, caste, creed or colour.
3.1.5.2 Principles for message design

The message should:
i. Have clearly specified learning outcomes: Learning outcomes should be clearly
stated and should satisfy the criterion of being SMART i.e. learning outcome should
be:
 Specific
 Measurable
 Achievable
 Realistic
 Time Framed
ii. Be relevant to the outcomes: Content selected should be adequate enough to

ensure attainment of learning outcomes and there should not be any irrelevant
information.
19
iii. Be properly sequenced: Sequencing of content matter should be done keeping in
view the logical and psychological principles of learning. The hierarchy in-built in the
subject should be maintained and it should be seen that content is organized from:
 Simple to complex
 Easy to difficult
 Concrete to abstract
 Known to unknown
 Observation to reasoning
iv. Use language comprehendible to the learners: The language of the message
should be simple and comprehendible to the learners. Technical jargon should be
avoided.
v. Use appropriate symbols: Symbols used in the message should be technically
correct and standardized.\
vi. Integrate relevant exercises, tasks etc.: Include a number of exercises and tasks
in the message for giving adequate practice to the learners and ensuring
understanding of applicability of the learnt concepts, principles, procedures etc. The
exercises selected should be of varying difficulty level and involve the learners
meaningfully.
vii. Make generous use of examples and non-examples: Examples from the daily life
and world of work should be used to facilitate understanding of the applicability of
content in different settings and thus ensuring greater transferability of the learnt
materials.
3.1.5.3 Principles for selection of instructional methods and media:

Teacher should:
i. Select relevant and appropriate methods and media: The methods and media
should be relevant to the learning outcomes, content, context and should be
appropriate to the level of learners. Active learning strategies (Think-pair share, Triad
group, Peer Review Jig saw etc.) need to be preferred. Instructional methods that
can be used are given in Table 3.1.2.
20
Table 3.1.2: Instructional Methods
Large Group Small Group Methods of Individualized Methods of
Methods of Instruction Instruction
Instruction
Lecture Group discussion Case study
Brainstorming Project work
Seminar Computer assisted
Project work instruction
Case study Tutorials
Role play
Demonstration
Tutorials

The various media available to the teacher are given in Table 3.1.3.
Table 3.1.3: Types of Instructional Media

Type of Media Examples
Print Textbooks, laboratory manuals,
Graphic workbook, student guide, teachers' guide
Still pictures, Photographs, slides etc
etc. Charts, posters, graphs, diagrams etc.
Audio Still pictures, slides, filmstrips
Motion pictures Audio cassettes, radio
Video- films 16mm, 35mm, 70mm motion pictures
Computers Video- films
Specimens, models Multi-media packages etc.
Realia Specimens, 2D&3D Models
Real objects, machinery, equipment etc.
The teacher, in order to cater to the individual differences among learners and avoid
monotony, should use a variety of methods and media. The quality of media in terms
of its visibility, legibility, finish, colours, printing, etc. should be judged before its use.
ii. Integrate media in teaching- learning: Media should not be used in isolation. Say
for example a video- film is used in class to describe the manufacturing processes; it
should either be followed by a discussion or some quick assessment of students'
21
understanding. Or students can be given a list of questions and they try to find
answers to those questions from the video.
3.1.5.4 Principles for creating conducive learning environment

i. Class size: Classes should not be overcrowded. The class size should not be more
than forty in order to generate interaction between teacher and student and among
students. It really becomes difficult for the teacher to manage a large class and pay
attention to each learner as well ensure involvement of each learner.
ii. Ensure proper seating arrangement in the class: Minimum essential distance
should be maintained between the teacher and the students and among students.
Each student should be able to interact with the teacher and other students. Furniture
should be comfortable and in proper condition. In addition, there should be proper
light and ventilation arrangements in the class.
iii. Build rapport with the students: Teacher should know each and every student in
the class by name and be friendly with students. He should try to give due respect to
the individuality of student. He should have positive attitude towards students.
iv. Encourage co-operation and collaboration among students: Teacher can assign
group activities and pair bright students with average or poor students to promote
cooperation and collaboration.
v. Provide Feedback: In the class, teacher should ask questions frequently and
provide opportunities to students to raise questions and put forth their point of views.
This will help the teacher in modifying and adapting his instructional approach as per
the needs of learners.
vi. Encourage experimentation: Teacher should encourage experimentation of new
ideas and techniques by the students. Creativity should be encouraged rather than
curbed. Problems having more than one solution need to be posed in the class. This
will help in free flow of information in the class.
vii. Provide reinforcement: Teacher should reinforce the desired communication
behaviour of learners through praise, appreciation, rewards, social recognition etc.
viii. Provide non-threatening environment: Teacher should encourage students to
share their views and should be receptive to varied opinions. There should not be
fear of punishment Prior information regarding schedule of activities, tests,
assignments etc. should be provided to learners in order to avoid any unnecessary
anxiety on the part of learners.
The principles discussed above, if taken into consideration by the teachers, can
considerably improve the classroom communication and thus effectiveness of instruction
in classroom.
22
Practice Task
1. Lack of subject knowledge is a:
a. Teacher related factor
b. Student related factor
c. Message related factor
d. Media related factor
e. Environment related factor
2. Which of the following message related factors can affect effectiveness of classroom
communication?
a. Information overload
b. Relevance
c. Accuracy of symbols
d. All of the above
3. Which is NOT the principle of sequencing content of communication?
a. Concrete to abstract
b. Easy to difficult
c. Known to unknown
d. Reasoning to observation
e. Simple to complex
4. Teacher can cater to individual differences in class by use of:

a. Audio aids
b. Visual aids
c. Audio-visual aids
d. Multiplicity of aids
23
Feedback
S. No Answer
1 a
2 d
3 d
4 d
24
References
 Weimann, J. M. & Backlund, P. (1980) Current theory and research in communicative
competence. Review of Educational Research, 50:1, PP 185-199
 Cole, PG and Chan, LKS (1987). ‘Teaching Principles and Practices'. New York; Prentice
Hall.
 Devito, JA (1987). `Communicology: An Introduction to the study of communication'. New
York: Harper and Raw Publishers, Inc.
 Little, Peter (1987). `Communicating At Work, London: Pitman Publishing.
 Tulsi, PK (2000) `Barriers to Classroom Communication' Journal of Engineering Education,
Vol. XIII, No. 3, PP.21-33.
 Mottet, T. P., Richmond, V. P., & McCroskey, J. C. (Eds.). (2006). Handbook of instructional
communication: Rhetorical and relational perspectives. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Additional Resources
 Communication Skills. https://www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/communication-skills.html
 Dixon, Tara and O’Hara, Martin. Communication Skills. www.practicebasedlearning.in
 Effective Communication Skills: MTD Training. http://promeng.eu/downloads/training-
materials/ebooks/soft-skills/effective-communication-skills.pdf
 Hargie, Owen(Ed), (2006) The handbook of communication skills.
 https://www.worldcat.org/title/handbook-of-communication-skills/oclc/80015144/viewport
 Keidar, Daniella(2005) Classroom Communication:Use of Emotional Intelligence and Non-
Verbal Communication in Ethics Education at Medical Schools. The International Center for
Health, Law and EthicsFaculty of Law, University of Haifa, Israel, .The UNESCO Chair in
Bioethics. http://www.unesco-chair-
bioethics.org/?mbt_book=classroom-communication%EF%BC%9Ause-of
emotional-intelligence-and-non-verbal-communication-in-ethics-education-at-
medical-school
 Khattak, Hamid Rafiq, Yaqoob, Sara and Basri, Rabia COMMUNICATION SKILLS MODULE
http://retawprojects.com/uploads/communication_skills_module.pdf
 Module 1: Introduction to Effective Communication.
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/109104030/Module1/Lecture1.pdf
 Team FM (2013). Effective Communication. www.free-managementebooks.com
 Wrench Jason S. , Richmond, Virginia Peck and Gorham, Joan(2009) Communication Affect
& Learning in the Classroom. https://www.slideshare.net/auregarcia/free-ebooks-
communication-affectandlearning-in-the-classroom-jan2012
25
UNIT 3.2
Listening & Speaking
“Teaching is Listening, Learning is talking”

(Deborah Meier)
3.2.1 Listening
3.2.2 Speaking
26
3.2.1 LISTENING
Learning Outcomes
After reading this unit, you will be able to
• Explain the Concept of Listening

• Differentiate between hearing and listening
• Explain various purpose of Listening in Classrooms
• Explain the process of Listening
• Apply the principles of Effective Listening
• Explain the factors that promote active listening in classrooms
3.2.1.1 Concept of Listening
There are four basic skills of communication i.e speaking, Listening, Reading and writing and
research in the area of Communication clearly indicate that we spent most of our time on
listening. In this unit we are going to understand the principles of effective listening. As a
teacher also in our classrooms, we are using listening and speaking skills the most.
Listening is the process of receiving, constructing meaning and responding to a spoken or a
non-verbal message (International Reading Association,1995).
Most of the teachers replace lectures with group discussions; learning activities, games and
a multitude of other approaches to learning via interactive technology, but still lecture thrive
as a mode of communication that majorly involve listening skill. Listening in classroom
happens when students are able to understand what is being said. After listening the lecture
attentively, their mind starts making sense and they (students’) become active participants of
learning.
3.2.1.2 Difference between Hearing and listening
Most of the time, we are surrounded by sounds and our brain automatically responds to all
the sounds without any effort is known as Hearing. On the other hand, listening is when we
are able to recognize the different sound. The purpose of listening is to interpret the pattern
of the sounds, understand the meaning expressed by the speaker. Listening also requires
attention, focused effort and motivation of the listener. We do not always listen at our best,
but yes there are ways by which we can train ourselves for effective listening.
27
PRACTICE TASK
1. Define listening.
2. Differentiate between hearing and listening.
28
29
FEEDBACK
1. Listening is the process of receiving, constructing meaning and responding to a

spoken or a non-verbal message.
2. Hearing is a passive process whereas listening is an active process. Hearing is when

the sound falls on our ear drum that is something which is happening all the time and
in fact, not one sound but several sounds will be falling on our ear drums at one time.
For effective listening, we need to analyse sounds. Listening is about understanding
them, inferring meaning out of them, interpreting them and then responding to them.
30
3.2.1.3 Purposes of Listening
The purpose of listening is not only grasping the surface meaning of the message that
prompted the person to speak. The effective listener has to ask questions to listen actively
and make sure that he/she comprehend its meaning correctly. Students while listening in
classroom note the tone, inflection of voice and non-verbal expression. The purposes served
by listening are as follows.
i. Understand the content of communication: The major purpose served by

listening in classroom is important to make students understand the
information delivered by the teacher Students are always interested in what
the teacher is saying, why he/she is saying.
In classroom when the students are trained to listen effectively, they will focus
on the information presented in classroom. They are not only able to identify
the words used in a lecture but also are able to understand their complex
meaning. Due to active listening only, they are able to remember the
information and take notes.
ii. Understand the feeling
“When I listen and understand, I give the best gift I can to someone”.
;
When interaction happens there are two different messages that flow in classroom.
One is the content of the lesson what is literally said and other part is the feeling or
emotions behind the words. Being a good listener we require both intellectual and
emotional involvement. When the students’ social and emotional needs are being
met, they feel confident, grateful, inspired and peaceful. The process of listening will
become more effective if teacher obtain and provide feedback in classroom.
iii. Motivate the speaker to continue: In classroom students are already

motivated to some degree. They are predetermined and they know there is a
need to come and listen or learn from the teacher because it helps them to
achieve their goals. Once student makes eye contact with the teacher, ask
questions for clarification, engage in useful discussion; it motivates the
teacher to continue.
31
iv. Build Relation:
“The most basic of all human needs is the need to understand and be
understood. The best way to understand people is to listen to them”
Ralph Nichols
In classroom a relationship of trust developed among teacher and students
can be due to empathetic listening only.
3.2.1.4 Process of Listening
The process of listening is well explained in HURIER Model. In this model, the listening
process is divided into number of stages. These are:
i. H – Hearing
ii. U – Understanding
iii. R – Remembering
iv. I – Interpretating
v. E – Evaluating
vi. R - Responding (Brownell, J. 1996)
(For Further Details please refer to the Video on “Principles of Effective Listening”
by Dr. Archana Singh”)
32
PRACTICE TASK
1. Explain briefly the term HURIER.
33
FEEDBACK
1. HURIER is an Acronym used to define the different stages in the process of listening.
The term HURIER presented as:
H = Hearing
U = Understanding
R = Receiving
I = Interpretating
E = Evaluating
R = Responding
34
3.2.1.5 Types of listening
The different types of listening in Classrooms can be categorized as follow:
i. Active Listening: Active listening /Comprehensive listening requires the listeners

to provide feedback by way of restating and paraphrasing what they have heard in
their own words. The goal of repetition is to confirm what the listener has heard and
to confirm understanding of both the parties e.g. when the teacher asks questions
during the lecture and students are able to respond this means they are actively
involved in the process of learning.
ii. Critical Listening: Critical listening involves reasoning and a systematic way of
thinking. Most of us take messages just by considering the face value, even if we do
not agree with the message. Students are exposed to many kind of messages, out of
which some messages convey academic information, institutional rules, instructions
and warning. While all the messages are not for every student sitting in classroom
but they have to hear to those messages and then evaluate the usability of the
messages.
The purposes served by critical listening are
- Able to relate new ideas with the older ones

- Be open to new ideas
- Uncovering assumptions given by the speaker
- Rely on Reason and common share
- Take notes
iii. Empathetic Listening

“Empathetic listening provides emotional support for the speaker similar to as when a
psychiatrist listens to a patient or when a sympathetic ear to a friend in distress.”
(Stephen, Lucas,1998)
The primary goal of empathetic listening is to help the speaker in some way.
Sometimes the help is personal at other times, the help to achieve academic goals. In
a classroom, it is not always easy to empathise with your students’ viewpoints due to
personality clashes or character differences. The status gap between teacher and
students can also become an obstacle for empathetic listening.
The teacher is a role model and students are looking for the guidance. Hence the
teacher must listen them patiently and try to understand their viewpoint, which
35
enhance students’ self-respect and natural friendliness towards the teacher which
promotes communication. The teacher need to be attentive and alert but no need to be
involve emotionally with them.
Other type of Listening that can be used in classroom are Appreciative Listening,
(Go to Video Link for further details https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JLJq6L-
OO7I&feature=youtu.be).
36
PRACTICE TASK
1. Explain different types of Listening.
37
FEEDBACK
1. The different types of listening in Classrooms can be categorized as follow:
i. Active Listening
Active listening requires the listeners to provide feedback by way of restating and
paraphrasing what they have heard in their own words. The goal of repetition is to confirm
what the listener has heard and to confirm understanding for both the parties.
ii. Critical Listening
Critical listening involves reasoning and a systematic way thinking. The purposes served by
critical listening are:
- Able to relate new ideas to the older ones

- Be open to new ideas
- Uncovering assumptions given by the speaker
- Rely on Reason and common share
- Take notes
iii. Empathetic listening
In a classroom, it is not always easy to empathise with your students’ viewpoints due to
personality clashes, character differences. The status gap between teacher and students
also become obstacle for empathetic listening.
The teacher need to be attentive and alert but no need to be involve emotionally with them.
The teacher is a role model and students are looking for the guidance. Teacher must listen
them patiently and try to understand their viewpoint, which enhance students’ self-respect
and natural friendliness towards the teacher.
iv. Appreciative listening
38
3.2.1.6 Principles of effective listening
Somebody who is not paying attention neither remember nor respond and somebody who's
doing all these three things is a better listener. Different principles of effective listening are
as follows:
i. Stop Talking
“If we were supposed to talk more than we listen, we would have two tongues and one
ear” (Mark Taiwan)
Stop talking and give full attention, whether or not you like the speaker, whether or not
you like the subject, just pay attention, that's the first thing that you can do. If you pay
attention, you have already crossed the first two stages that is of hearing and of
understanding.
For effective listening, it is important to maintain eye contact with the speaker.
Otherwise, it gives a signal that you are not interested in the topic or not with the
speaker.
ii. Pay attention to the message delivered not on the physical look, artifacts (dress,
jewellery, accessories etc.).
iii. Pay attention to what is being said: It requires deliberate effort on the part of the
listener. Listen to the tone. Volume and tone both add to what someone is saying. A
good speaker will use both volume of voice and tone to their advantage to keep an
audience attentive. In Classroom, tone and volume of voice also helps in certain
situations.
iv. Do not colour your perceptions with your biases and prejudices (Try to be
impartial): Everybody has a different way of speaking – some people are for example
more nervous or shy than others, some have regional accents or make excessive arm
movements. Focus on what is being said and try to ignore styles of delivery otherwise
meaning of the message would change. Do not become irritated and do not let the
person’s habits or mannerism distract you from what the speaker in really saying.
The purpose of listening is to understand the meaning of the message. A good listener
always reacts slowly and thoughtfully whether he/she is agreeing or not.
A teacher needs to consider all these principles of effective listening while dealing with
students’ in classroom.
39
v. Empathize
“Only the wearer knows where the shoe pinches”
Put yourself in the place of the speaker. Listen for what is being said and try to
understand the feelings behind what is being said in other words, listen for both the
content and feelings behind the content.
vi. When the Content is difficult : We stop absorbing the information which really
contain difficult content. Effective listeners accept it as a challenge, condition
themselves accordingly and grasping the meaning of what is being said.
vii. Understand the fundamental aspects of the speech and use the differential
between the speed of thinking and the speed of speaking. Listen for the total
message: We all talk at a speed four times lesser than we speak (Speed of Speaking is
about 400 words per minute). Brain has a lot of time to wander off which is a
psychological problem. Sometimes because of past experience, some egos or personal
eccentricities, we become avoiders and do not listen to the whole message that is being
said. Students who are effective listeners summarizing notes for the lecture, designing
mind map for the content covered, trying to construct meaning, associate relationships,
and also evaluate the lecture.
viii. Ask question and seek clarification, if you are unable to understand or you have a
doubt.
ix. Choose to find the subject useful.
x. Learn to avoid emotional words that trigger negative responses.
xi. Do not interrupt the speaker in between the sentence: Sometimes speaker takes
time to formulate what to say and how to say it. Be patience and never interrupt or finish
a sentence for someone.
xii. Do not create distraction for others too.
xiii. Adjust attentiveness: By considering these principles one can become effective
listener. The teacher can also promote Listening by using various Verbal and Non
Verbal means.
In Classroom if the teacher considers all the principles of effective listening
he/she will be considered as effective listener.
40
41
PRACTICE TASK
1. Explain the principles of effective listening.
42
FEEDBACK
Principles of effective listening
Somebody who is not paying attention neither remember nor respond and somebody who's
doing all these three things is a better listener. Different principles of Effective Listening are
as follows:
i. Stop Talking
ii. Pay attention to the message delivered not on the physical look, Artifacts (dress,
jewellery, accessories etc.).
iii. Pay attention to what is being said.
iv. Do not colour your perceptions with your biases and prejudices (Try to be impartial).
v. Empathize
vi. When the Content is difficult
vii. Understand the fundamental aspects of the speech and use the differential between
the speed of thinking and the speed of speaking. Listen for the total message
viii. Ask question and seek clarification, if you are unable to understand or you have a
doubt.
ix. Choose to find the subject useful.
x. Learn to avoid emotional words that trigger negative responses.
xi. Do not interrupt the speaker in between the sentence.
xii. Do not create distraction for others too.
xiii. Adjust attentiveness.
43
3.2.1.7 Development of listening among students
In classroom, teacher needs to provide students with an introduction and any necessary
prior knowledge about what they are going to listen during the lecture. The teacher must
have some appropriate examples that fits with the subject matter. The teacher can develop
the habit of listening by:
i. Asking question
Sometimes students are pretending that they are listening. To check their attentiveness and
level of understanding, the teacher needs to ask questions, ask them to summarize, ask for
their opinion and even ask indirect or open ended question to develop higher order thinking.
ii. Give assignments
Effective listening can also be promoted by linking it with assignment say for example, allow
the students to use class notes in a class test. In written examination the teacher can also
ask question that require students to apply, what they have learned during lectures.
iii. Encourage them to take notes
During lecture, the students must take notes. Research illustrates that students who merely
listen will remember a fraction of information shared. However, the students who take notes
will remember more and have record of what was said.
iv. Engage them in useful discussion
The teacher must clearly explain and elaborate if required the muddiest points of a lecture,
also encourage them with positive feedback. Another way to improve their listening is to
engage them in listening an informative video, expert lecture, an opinion or entertainment for
a purpose.
v. Use student centred instructional strategies such as think pair share, jigsaw, and
fishbowl method of discussion also promotes listening. In classroom good listening increases
understanding and knowledge of content, use of logic and persuasions also increase.
44
References
• International Listening Association, 1995

• Brownell, J. (1996) Listening: Attitudes, Principles, and Skills. Boston
• Miller, P. W. (2005a). Body language in the classroom. Techniques, 80(8), 28‐30.
• Miller, P. W. (2005b). Body language: an illustrated introduction for teachers. Munster:
Patrick W. Miller and Associates
 Purdy, M. (1997) What is listening? In M. Purdy and D. Borisoff (eds.) Listening in Everyday
Life. A Personal and Professional Approach. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.
Watch Videos
 Communication Skills, listening by Dr. Paramjit Kaur Tulsi, NITTTR Chandigarh, published
on You Tube on Feb 17, 2014. Available at
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fZbLITYxDIc&t=2554s
45
3.2.2 SPEAKING
‘People speak with the vocal organs but communicate with the whole body’.
(Abercrombie, 1968)
Learning Outcome
After reading the Unit, you will be able to:
 Explain the importance of speaking

 Explain the concept of speaking
 Enlist three factors that impact the effectiveness of speaking
 Apply the principles of effective speaking
3.2.2.1 Introduction
Arindham Choudhary has rightly remarked, “You can never succeed with people without
mutual trust and understanding. Effective communication skills could just be the
difference between success and you”. Communication has assumed great importance in
life. People who are effective communicator lead a smooth life, enjoy good interpersonal
relations and are more successful in career. In teaching-learning situation, communication
plays an important role. Every activity of a teacher involves an element of communication.
Teachers make use of all the four communication skills. Before going to the class, they
prepare for the class and are involved in reading and writing and while in class, they are
involved in speaking, listening and writing. And at times, in class they may be involved in
reading also.
Speaking and listening are parts of oral communication and go hand in hand. If a teacher
uses expository learning strategies such as lectures, he/she is speaking most of the time
and if active learning strategies are used, students are involved in speaking more than
listening. Research in the field of communication indicates that higher the effectiveness of
communication, greater is the chance that instructional objectives or learning outcomes will
be achieved.
3.2.2.2 Speaking
Speaking involves use of a language, and use of a language involves knowledge of its
vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation and expression. The effectiveness of speaking depends
upon the following three factors:
 Verbal content
 Tonal quality
 Non-verbal behaviour
46
Table 3.2.1 shows the impact of these three factors on the effectiveness of speaking.
Verbal content 7%
Tone of the voice/ Tonal quality 38%
Non-verbal Behaviour 55%

Table 3.2.1: Impact of factors on effectiveness of speaking
In other words, it can be said that what you say, how you say it and what non-verbal
behaviour accompanies what you say determines the effectiveness of your speaking. The
impact of non-verbal behaviour and tonal quality is more than the impact of verbal content.
One can say that verbal content is only the tip of the iceberg; the remaining iceberg is non-
verbal communication. Thus, teachers need to pay attention to their speaking skills to ensure
students understand the subject/course and are able to achieve the learning outcomes.
3.3.2.3 Principles of Effective Speaking
When a person speaks, his or her whole personality comes into play. Receiver not only
interprets the words but also interprets tonal quality, and person’s facial expression, gestures,
body posture etc. and give meaning to the intended message. More the congruence
between verbal and nonverbal communication, greater is the effectiveness of communication.
Non-verbal communication can be broadly classified into:
 Kinesics (facial expression, gestures, body postures, eye contact)

 Paralanguage (mode, volume, pitch, rhythm, articulation, pronunciation)
 Artifacts (clothing, jewellery, cosmetics, tattoos, piercing, hairstyle)
 Chronemics (time)
 Proxemics (space)
The following principles, when taken into consideration, can improve the effectiveness of
speaking in a classroom situation.
I. Know thy Subject and the objectives

Knowing one’s subject is a precondition to effective communication. If you
have thorough understanding of the subject, the flow and continuity will be
there in communication. You will be able to give adequate explanation, relate
subject to daily life and to other subjects, and clarify doubts of students. If you
are clear about what your students will be able to do at the end of instruction,
you will be in a position to select and organize the content in an appropriate
47
manner and will be in a position to explain and support with relevant examples
in the class.
48
II. Know thy Learners
Effective Communication needs to be pitched to the level of the students. It is
thus essential to know age, interest, background, previous attainments,
learning styles of the students. If you understand your students, you will be in
a position to select appropriate content, language, examples, media etc. and
facilitate understanding on the part of your students. For example, if your
students are not proficient in English, may be you can use mixed language to
make them understand so that they can express themselves.
III. Organize the Message
Message ought to be well organized. Depending on the subject matter,
choose appropriate sequencing of subject matter. It can be topical sequencing,
journalistic sequencing, or chronological sequencing or concept maps can be
developed. Topical sequencing refers to arrangement of content under
headings and subheadings. Journalistic sequencing can be used when the
content is amenable to answering questions such as what happened, where it
happened, when it happened, why it happened, what were the consequences
of happening etc. Chronological sequencing refers to following a timeline.
Dealing with historical development requires chronological sequencing of
content. Always try to organize the content matter from simple to complex,
easy to difficulty, concrete to abstract, known to unknown and from
observation to reasoning to enable the students to understand the message.
IV. Operate from I am OK, You are OK Life Position
V. The best life position to operate is I AM OK, YOU ARE OK or the win-win
situation for both the individuals. When one operates from this life position,
one is able to use appropriate words, tonal quality, and give due regard to the
other individual and thus is able to maintain cordial relations with others. But
in case, an individual operates from any of the other three positions or in other
words has any hidden agenda, communication breakdown will occur and spoil
49
the relationships. Individuals having hidden agenda may adopt an
authoritarian stance or become too docile or may think that both are helpless.
In case, the other individual shares the same perceptions, communication will
continue otherwise under these circumstances, communication breakdown
will take place
VI. Maintain Eye Contact with Students
VII. While speaking, maintain eye contact with your students. Eye contact should
be distributed in the class. Sometimes address the frontbenchers, other time;
address students sitting in the middle rows and sometimes address students
sitting in the last rows in the class. When you maintain eye contact, it is
motivating for the students and they pay attention to what is being said.
Avoidance of eye contact may result in lack of attention, discipline problems
or boredom. If you maintain eye contact with class, you can obtain tonnes of
non-verbal feedback.
VIII. Facial Expression

Face is the index of mind and you express feelings through your facial expression.
Remain calm and relaxed and have a pleasant smile on your face. But in case, you are
angry then your facial expression should exhibit anger rather than a smile. Otherwise,
the purpose will be defeated.
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IX. Gestures
Gestures lend support to verbal content. When you say very small, large or
big or you want to say right or left, you automatically use appropriate gestures.
When you indicate direction, you point out finger in that direction. So use
appropriate gestures in class.
X. Posture
Your posture depicts enthusiasm or laziness. Adopt erect posture which is
indicative of dynamism.
XI. Use Conversational Mode
XII. You can use whispering, can be soft, can use conversational mode or be loud
or you can use yelling. But, both whispering and yelling are to be avoided. In
case, you use whispering, you are unnecessarily arousing anxiety or curiosity
51
among other students in class. And if you yell, you have no control over
language or your facial expression. As a teacher, try to remain within being
soft to loud. When a student is in problem or facing a difficulty, be soft. When
there are large numbers of students or they are distant, you can be loud.
XIII. Be Audible
Audio signals will be interpreted only when they reach the audience. Make sure that you
are audible to all the students in the class. If you are unable to reach all the students,
use public address system.
XIV. Pronunciation and Articulation

Pronunciation and articulation go hand in hand. Better the articulation better is the
pronunciation. Many of the commonly used words are wrongly pronounced. Some of the
wrongly pronounced words are: generally, secretariat, flower, restaurant, year, oven and
chosen. Our mother tongue has an impact on the pronunciation of English. But, practice
leads to perfection. The more you practice speaking English; the better will be the
pronunciation.
XV. Check your rate of delivery

A human ear can discern about 200 words per minute. The rate of delivery in the
classroom should remain within 90 to110 words per minute. If you are dealing with
simple easy material, the rate of delivery can be little faster and if you are dealing with
complex difficult material, the rate of delivery can be slower.
XVI. Vary Your Pitch

Try to bring in variation in your pitch to arouse and sustain interest. Otherwise, there will
creep in monotony and boredom.
XVII. Use Pauses at Appropriate Places

Use pauses at appropriate places to convey the meaning you intend to convey. If pause
is wrongly used, the meaning of the sentence may change.
XVIII. Dress
It is rightly said,’ When you meet a person, you judge him by his clothes. When you
leave a person, you judge him by his heart’. ‘First impression is the last impression’.
When you dress according to the situation, you feel more confident. So dress formally
when going for a class.
52
XIX. Always keep the accessories (mobile phone, key chains, cosmetics, jewellery
etc.) limited. They become factors of distraction in communication
XX. Silence
Teacher can use silence to his/her advantage. Silence may allow the teacher to
reorganize his thoughts. Silence may give time to students to reflect on what has been
said. It may signal agreement or disagreement. It may signal that some serious matter is
coming up.
XXI. Avoid Verbal Virus

Some of us are in the habit of using a word or a phrase very frequently in our speech
though it has no meaning. For example, right, you see, you know, actually, you
understand, yes, OK etc. These are filler words and have no meaning. These words
when used frequently distract the audience. So, try to eliminate these words from your
repertoire.
XXII. Appropriate use of time (Chronemics)

Chronemics refers to the time dimension in communication. At what time of the day or
history, communication is taking place. Whatever is being communicated, is it relevant to
the context. For example, teaching students steam engines in detail, when you talk about
bullet trains may not be perceived as meaningful. Or talking about black and white TV in
the era of coloured TVs may be treated as out-dated. All theory classes are normally
scheduled in the morning and practical classes are scheduled in the afternoon The
simple reason is that students need to pay deliberate attention in lecture classes and
they get actively involved in learning by doing in practical classes.
XXIII. Appropriate use of Space (Proximity)

You might have come across the statement ‘Please maintain a distance’ or ‘come closer’.
Going too near or too far from the receiver can adversely affect the communication. An
appropriate distance needs to be maintained. When talking to a single student in a face-
to-face situation, a minimum distance say of arms length is to be maintained. The larger
the group, the distance between you and your students would increase. Another point is,
53
if intimacy between the two individuals increases, the distance decreases. In case, you
want to communicate to only one student, you will go nearer to that student.
XXIV. Free Yourself from Biases and Prejudices

When you interact with others having biases or prejudices on the basis of caste, creed,
colour, sex, religion or socio-economic background, you unnecessarily indulge in undue
criticism, negative feedback or show unfavorable attitude towards others. This has an
adverse effect on your relationships. Prejudices and biases lead to ineffective
communication between the teacher and the student. While speaking to students, treat
them on equal footing. Leave your prejudices and biases if any outside the classroom.
One should try to interact with people keeping aside one’s biases and prejudices to deal
with them objectively and in a fair manner.
XXV. Provide time for Assimilation, Obtain and Provide Feedback

You should give time to student to grasp the message and then assure yourself of
student’s understanding by posing questions, assigning small tasks or problem solving
activities to students. Obtaining and providing feedback is essential to improve
effectiveness of communication. Feedback should be immediate, specific, task related,
accurate and corrective.
3.3.2.4 Improving Your Speaking skills
You can follow any of the two strategies to improve your speaking skills. These strategies
are:
• Choose a role model

• Listen him/her
• Imitate the role model
• Practice-Practice-Practice
OR
• Record your voice

• Obtain feedback from others
• Be open to feedback from others
• Analyse your strengths and weaknesses
• Try to eliminate your weaknesses
• Practice-Practice-Practice
The more you practice speaking, the better will

be your speaking skills.
54
Practice Task
1. Facial expression is an example of:

a) Chronemics
b) Kinesics
c) Paralanguage
d) Proxemics
2. Which one of the following is an example of paralanguage?
a) Eye contact
b) Body Posture
c) Gestures
d) Rate of delivery
3. Gestures should be:
a) Culturally relevant
b) Support the content
c) Natural
d) All of the above
4. While teaching complex content matter, the rate of delivery should be:
a) Fast
b) Normal
c) Slow
d) Very slow
5. When a student is unable to respond to the question a teacher has posed, which one of the
following modes of communication should be preferred by the teacher.
a) Conversational
b) Soft
c) Whispering
d) Yelling
6. Which of the following modes of communication need to be avoided in social situation?
a) Loud and conversational
b) Soft and Loud
c) Soft and conversational
d) Whispering & yelling
7. The rate of delivery in classroom should be between:
a) 70-90 w.pm
b) 90-110 w.p.m
c) 110-120 w.p.m
55
d) 120-140 w.p.m
8. In order to ensure understanding by the students, teacher can make use of:
a) Pause
b) Questions
c) Tasks
d) All of the above
9. While talking to a large group, minimum distance to be maintained is:
a) 0-2 ft.
b) 2-4 ft.
c) 4-8 ft.
d) 8-12 ft.
10. Practical classes can be scheduled in the afternoon because students are:
a) Active
b) Actively involved
c) Tired
d) Less interested in theory
11. Too much use of irrelevant words or filler words in speech should be avoided as they act as:
a) Activators
b) Distractors
c) Motivators
d) Pacifiers
56
57
Feedback
Question/Item Answer
1 b
2 d
3 d
4 c
5 b
6 d
7 b
8 d
9 d
10 b
11 b
58
References
 Mayers, C.A. and Meyers, M.T. (1978) ‘Communicating When We Speak’. New York:
McGraw Hill Book Co..
 McAuley J.G.(1979). ‘People to People’. California: Woods worth Publishing House Co. Inc.
 Cole, PG and Chan, LKS (1987). ‘Teaching Principles and Practices’. New York; Prentice
Hall.
 Devito, J,A. (1987). ‘Communicology: An Introduction to the Study of Communication’. New
 Little, Peter (1987). ‘Communicating At Work, London: Pitman Publishing.
 Del Polito, CM. (1997). ‘Interpersonal Communication’. California: Cumming Publishing Co.
 Rozokies, Laurie (1999). The Complete Idiots Guide to: Public Speaking (2nd Edition). New
York Penguin Group.
 Choudhuri, Arindham (2001). ‘Count your Chicken Before They Hatch. Media: Vihar
Publication Pvt. Ltd.
 Chandermouli. N. (2012). Decoding Communication. Trust Research Academy.
 Pease, Allan, (2014). Body Language. India: Manjul Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.
 Team FME. Effective Communications (Communication Skills). www.free-mamagement-
ebooks.com. ISBN 978-1-62620-962-6
 Verbal Communication. Chapter4. https://www.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-
binaries/59343_Chapter_4.pdf
 Effective Speaking. https://www.skillsyouneed.com/IPS/effective-speaking.html
Video
 Oral Communication Video Recorded Lecture by Dr. P.K Tulsi, Professor Education and
Educational Management Department, NITTTR, Chandigarh Published on You Tube on May
5, 2013.
59
UNIT 3.3
Reading & Writing
“Either write something worth reading ÖR do something worth writing”

(Ben Franklin)
3.3.1 Reading
3.3.2 Writing
3.3.3 Non-Technical Writing
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3.3.1 READING
Learning Outcomes
After reading this Unit, you will be able to
- Explain the concept of reading

- Describe various purposes of reading in the classroom
- Enlist various types of reading
- Describe different stages of reading
- Explain different strategies for reading
- Explain various techniques and practices of encouraging reading in the classroom
3.3.1.1 Concept of Reading
“First, however, I think it is imperative that I define what I mean by reading. I should like to
suggest that reading, in the adult sense, means comprehension and understanding of fairly
complex concepts and ideas by means of a single reading, or without the need for
compulsive, habitual, or excessive rereading. By any standard, I believe that reading means
much more than mere pronunciation of words or of what is referred to as “word calling””.
(Anderson, John R.,1959)
Reading is an important component of communication skills. It is the means of stimulating a

response in a written communication model. All spheres of life personal, professional, and
academic, rely upon reading to disseminate information and knowledge.
Scientific research has established that reading is a complex process that requires
proficiency in five foundational reading skills, which collectively determine the ability to read.
These five competencies are:
i. Phonemic Awareness
Phonemic awareness is the ability to hear and utilise the sounds in spoken words. It also
includes the understanding that spoken words are composed of sequences of speech
sounds, for example, /dr/ /a/ /g/ is “drag”.
ii. Phonics
Phonics involves comprehending the association between letters and individual speech
sounds (phonemes).
61
iii. Fluency
Fluency involves reading words quickly and accurately, and with correct phrasing and
intonation, so that reading sounds like spoken language. Fluent readers read effortlessly,
enabling them to focus on comprehending what they read.
iv. Vocabulary
A strong oral vocabulary is vital for the development of reading fluency and comprehension.
It also exerts a positive influence on one’s ability to speak and write.
v. Comprehension
Comprehension means to derive meaning from what one has read by associating it with
what one already knows, and further contemplating about what has just been read, until it is
assimilated. This is the envisioned outcome of reading instruction.
Science has also determined that systematic and explicit instruction is the most effective
approach in teaching the above-mentioned foundational skills. Systematic instruction refers
to a carefully planned sequential approach, where skills and concepts are taught in a very
specific order. Explicit instruction implies the presentation and imparting of these skills in a
direct way to the learners. Students are given clear objectives and exhaustive practice
opportunities to master each new skill. Repeated review is also an essential part of this
process.
3.3.1.2 Purpose of Reading in the Classroom
There are many purposes that a reader intends to fulfil from reading. In most cases, the type
of reading carried out by a reader is dependent upon the goal it intends to meet. The
following can be enumerated as various purposes of reading:
- getting information,
- gaining knowledge,
- developing a perspective,
- deriving pleasure, and
- learning the language.
The knowledge that is imparted in a classroom is not only through the oral medium, that is,
lectures delivered by the teacher, but also through written notes and textbooks. In order to
derive maximum benefit from classroom discourses, the students should be adept at
combining the notes with the lectures.
62
A technical student must possess strong reading skills to be able to conduct literature review
for conducting research experiments, and writing research papers, thesis, lab reports,
technical reports, and responses to questions in a written evaluation. Furthermore,
enhanced reading skills enable a student to read and understand the review of her/his work
given in the form of comments by the teacher or an editor/reviewer of a thesis.
Additionally, reading efficiently helps a student to keep herself/himself up to date with the
latest findings and knowledge in the field of study, around the world, without actually
travelling from her/his place to the place of the latest knowledge.
63
PRACTICE TASK
1. What are the five foundational reading skills/competencies?

2. Describe the purpose of reading in the classroom.
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FEEDBACK
1. The five reading skills/competencies are:
- Phonemic Awareness
- Phonics
- Fluency
- Vocabulary
- Comprehension
2. The following can be enumerated as various purposes of reading:
- Getting information
- Gaining knowledge
- Developing a perspective
- Deriving pleasure
- Learning the language
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3.3.1.3 Types of Reading
Consequently, a reader chooses to read a text in the following manner:
1. Skimming: Skimming is a reading technique in which a reader quickly reads a piece

of text to develop a clear idea about the text. A reader generally looks at the title,
introduction, sub-heading, diagrams, and figures to garner partial but accurate,
understanding about a composition. She/he then quickly reads the text to ascertain
the gist of it. Skimming is usually used to read newspapers, messages, and emails.
In order to enhance a reader’s competency in skimming, an instructor can give time-
bound reading exercises.
2. Scanning: Scanning is the practice of reading a composition quickly to find a specific
information like a phrase, diagram, or table of statistics. It helps to add depth to one’s
knowledge and information about a topic or concept. A reader can practice scanning
by looking out for key-words, often repeated words or phrases, definitions, examples,
figures, and highlighted text.
3. Extensive Reading: Extensive reading involves a reader reading a wide variety of
books. It is usually practiced as a general reading habit for pleasure. The benefits of
extensive reading should not be overlooked, especially when it is devoid of any
specific goals. Extensive reading helps to overcome a reader’s hesitation and dislike
for reading. A learner can be encouraged to read compositions of his/her choice to
hone his/her reading skills and also overcome the aversion to reading. This can then
be applied to reading in a formal sphere.
4. Intensive Reading: Intensive Reading is a practice in which readers read a piece of
text with specific tasks and goals in mind. Intensive reading requires high
concentration and well-developed comprehension for the language and the theme of
the content. In order to sustain intensive reading for larger texts, immense practice is
required. Learners should be encouraged to take up easier exercises of intensive
reading, gradually scaling up to more difficult ones.
5. Critical Reading: Critical reading is critical analysis of what one reads. This type of
reading does not have to be negative in nature, but it depends heavily upon weighing
each argument, fact, and course of action suggested by the writer, on the possible
merits and demerits of each. Critical reading is the precursor to critical writing.
6. Analytical Reading: Analytical reading is a specialised branch of reading. It involves
reading in an impersonal manner so as to avoid personal misinterpretation. This
allows the reader to infer the writer’s intent and purpose of writing. Classroom
assignments like book-reports, papers, and review of essays are tools for developing
66
and honing analytical reading. Some standardised examinations like scholastic
aptitude tests evaluate analytical reading skills.
7. Plodding: Plodding refers to the act of slow and unenthusiastic reading. Such a
reading does not lead to the fulfilment of any goal. It also induces a dislike for reading.
8. Word by Word Reading: This type of reading is practiced by a reader when she/he is
unfamiliar with the language and/or the content of the composition. The reader takes
time to read, pronounce, and associate words with their meanings. Such a reading
may be practiced by readers in the initial stages of learning a language or a subject.
3.3.1.4 Stages of Reading
There are various stages of reading and an understanding of these stages can help a
student to identify the reason for issues in reading and overcome them. The following can be
outlined as the different stages of reading:
1. Decoding: This involves the conversion of writer’s words into meanings understood
by the reader.
2. Comprehension: This is the next level of understanding wherein larger blocks of text
are understood, and ideas and information in the composition are comprehended.
3. Evaluation: This stage involves analysis of the text that has been read as either being
useful or useless. The text is checked for accuracy, value, and authenticity. It is
classified as being worthy of retention or discard.
4. Application and Retention: The information that has been accepted as useful is
retained. It is also applied to practical concepts and used for personal gain.
5. Fluency: This is the final stage of reading wherein a reader develops a systematic
process of reading new text, classifying and retaining information garnered from
reading, and applying it for use. The reader acquires comfort and proficiency in
reading, and peruses different genres and types of compositions to enhance
knowledge and information.
67
PRACTICE TASK
1. Enlist different types of reading.

2. Describe various stages of reading.
68
FEEDBACK
1.The different types of reading are:

- Skimming
- Scanning
- Extensive Reading
- Intensive Reading
- Critical Reading
- Analytical Reading
- Plodding
- Word by Word Reading
2.The following can be outlined as the different stages of reading:
- Decoding: This involves the conversion of writer’s words into meanings understood
by the reader.
- Comprehension: This is the next level of understanding wherein larger blocks of text
are understood, and ideas and information in the composition are comprehended.
- Evaluation: This stage involves analysis of the text that has been read as either being
useful or useless. The text is checked for accuracy, value, and authenticity. It is
classified as being worthy of retention or discard.
- Application and Retention: The information that has been accepted as useful is
retained. It is also applied to practical concepts and used for personal gain.
Fluency: This is the final stage of reading wherein a reader develops a systematic process
of reading new text, classifying and retaining information garnered from reading, and
applying it for use. The reader acquires comfort and proficiency in reading, and peruses
different genres and types of compositions to enhance knowledge and information.
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3.3.1.5 Strategies for Effective Reading
There are three known strategies for reading. These are discussed hereunder:
1. Mapping: Most of the readers or students are visual learners. It is apt for them to extract
information from a written text in a graphic form for ease of understanding and retention.
While mapping, a reader uses a map or a diagram to show the central idea or theme of
the text. One can draw lines away from the main idea to show subordinate or secondary
ideas in the text. One should also present other important terms and phrases from the
text, on the diagram.
2. KWL Charts: The purpose of a KWL chart is to define specific goals from one’s reading.
It comprises of three columns on a sheet of paper. The first column is filled up with
information that a reader KNOWS about a particular text or composition. The next
column outlines WHAT the reader intends to learn from the reading of the text. Finally,
the last column contains all the information that the reader has LEARNT from the
reading of the text. It is advisable to present information in the columns as a list.
3. SQR3: It is a strategy of reading wherein five steps are involved to ascertain the
information gained during the process of reading. Before one begins to read a piece of
text, one should SURVEY it. A reader can read titles, headings, sub-headings, captions
under diagrams and tables, introductory and concluding paragraphs, and summary.
While one is surveying the text, one should ask QUESTIONS about the intent of the
writers, turn headings into questions, and ponder over the questions at the end of the
text, if any. One should then begin READING the text and try to find answers to
questions that one raised initially. A reader should then RECITE what she/he has just
read. RECALLING a recently read text helps to assimilate the learning from reading.
Finally, a reader should REVIEW her/his progress from the reading process. Referring
to the notes in the margins and notebook to ascertain the level of learning.
3.3.1.6 Techniques and Practices for Encouraging Reading in Classroom
The students should be encouraged to accept and make a text that they are reading, as their
own. There are many methods to achieve this aim, but the intention should be to have a
dialogue with the reading material. Hence, they should be coaxed to underline, make notes
in the margins, put post-it flags, among other things, while reading a piece.
The teacher should read small blocks of a difficult or new text, at a time. It should then be
followed by highlighting new words, jargon, exploring their meanings, giving a visual
representation to the new vocabulary, and then finally a discussion on what has been read.
70
Once a sufficient piece of the reading material has been thus read, the teacher can then
encourage the students to summarise what has been read till then. The discussion should
allow the inclusion of various interpretations of the same pieces of text, and the reasons for
accepting or rejecting a particular interpretation.
Learners usually apply the ‘schema’ theory while reading a piece of text. This theory states
that readers make use of their prior knowledge of a particular concept to the new text that
they are reading about the topic. This theory comprises of top to bottom and bottom to top
approach to reading. Hence, when students read in the natural flow, i.e., top to bottom they
will use their previous knowledge and anticipate and predict the text. However, when they
read from bottom to top, they are hindered from anticipating, thereby being compelled to
read the actual words and discern complete meanings.
Furthermore, reading skills should not be practiced in isolation. The teacher must attach
other activities and skills with the reading activity to make it efficacious. One can give
assignments like making a presentation based on reading, writing an essay, article, or report
based on a reading exercise. This assigns more value to the activity of reading and makes it
purpose driven.
The students should also be encouraged and guided to read from various sources. Thus, in
addition to the academic text books, the learners can be directed to read about the same
concepts through award-winning blog-posts, magazines and journals, and research articles.
This adds variety to their reading and reading through variety.
Finally, the comfort and readiness of a teacher to read goes a long way in making the
learners comfortable and adept at reading. The teacher can set a good example for the
students by reading to the students, at every opportunity available. The students will also
pick up a thing or two about reading when the teacher shares her/his own challenges and
their overcoming, with the students.
71
PRACTICE TASK
1. Explain the main strategies that are put to use for reading.
2. Describe the various practices through which reading can be encouraged in the
classroom and among the students.
72
FEEDBACK
1. The three known strategies for reading are :
- Mapping: Most of the readers or students are visual learners. It is apt for them to
extract information from a written text in a graphic form for ease of understanding
and retention. While mapping, a reader uses a map or a diagram to show the central
idea or theme of the text
- KWL Charts: The purpose of a KWL chart is to define specific goals from one’s
reading. It comprises of three columns on a sheet of paper. The first column is filled
up with information that a reader KNOWS about a particular text or composition. The
next column outlines WHAT the reader intends to learn from the reading of the text.
Finally, the last column contains all the information that the reader has LEARNT
from the reading of the text.
- SQR3: It is a strategy of reading wherein five steps are involved to ascertain the
information gained during the process of reading. Before one begins to read a piece
of text, one should SURVEY it. A reader can read titles, headings, sub-headings,
captions under diagrams and tables, introductory and concluding paragraphs, and
summary. While one is surveying the text, one should ask QUESTIONS about the
intent of the writers, turn headings into questions, and ponder over the questions at
the end of the text, if any. One should then begin READING the text and try to find
answers to questions that one raised initially. A reader should then RECITE what
she/he has just read. RECALLING a recently read text helps to assimilate the
learning from reading. Finally, a reader should REVIEW her/his progress from the
reading process.
2. The students should be encouraged to accept and make a text that they are reading, as
their own. They should be coaxed to underline, make notes in the margins, put post-it
flags, among other things, while reading a piece. The teacher should read small blocks of
a difficult or new text, at a time. It should then be followed by highlighting new words,
jargon, exploring their meanings, giving a visual representation to the new vocabulary,
and then finally a discussion on what has been read. Once a sufficient piece of the
reading material has been thus read, the teacher can then encourage the students to
summarise what has been read till then.
Learners usually apply the ‘schema’ theory while reading a piece of text. This theory
states that readers make use of their prior knowledge of a particular concept to the new
73
text that they are reading about the topic. This theory comprises of top to bottom and
bottom to top approach to reading.
Furthermore, reading skills should not be practiced in isolation. The teacher must attach
other activities and skills with the reading activity to make it efficacious. One can give
assignments like making a presentation based on reading, writing an essay, article, or
report based on a reading exercise.
The students should also be encouraged and guided to read from various sources. This
adds variety to their reading and reading through variety.
Finally, the teacher can set a good example for the students by reading to the students,
at every opportunity available.
74
3.3.1.7 Helpful Tips for Effective Reading
-Get your eyes checked. Often, very slow reading is related to uncorrected eye
defects.
-Get rid of the habit of pronouncing word, if you have, as you read. If you sound out
words in your throat or whisper them, your reading rate is slowed considerably.
-Find out what you want to know, and for that you need to cut through and assess
what is to be skipped from reading.
-Your reading rate should vary according to your reading purpose.
-It is always important to stress on qualitative not quantitative reading.
- Cultivate a positive attitude towards reading.
-Don’t give up reading in the first 10–15 minutes itself.
-While reading, new ideas and concepts will come to your mind and the same may be
added in the margin.
-Fix some amount of time daily, exclusively for reading, and over a period of time it
will become a practice.
-Always keep a pen/ pencil handy while reading.
- Read the whole paragraph before highlighting or underlining a statement.
- Engage your senses by reading out loud occasionally.
- Mark a check on the margins for important portions while reading.
- Explain what you read.
-Pay attention to the table of content in order to make a choice of things to be read.
-Pay attention to the summary words like therefore, as a result, in conclusion.
- Use highlighters or underline/circle key phrases in a book.
- Mark words that you do not know to enhance your vocabulary.
-Learn and revise the ways to read effectively.
75
References
 Anderson, John R. (1959) , “Reading Skills of College Entrants.” The Clearing House,
vol. 34, no. 1, PP. 15–19. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/30195670.
 Yule, George, Oxford Practice Grammar (2006), Oxford University Press.
 Teaching English © British Council (2015),”Teaching Reading and Writing Reading
skills “, Retrieved from https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/unit-4-reading-skills
 Barber Susan(2016),” 6 Techniques for Building Reading Skills—in Any Subject” ,

Retrieved from https://www.edutopia.org/article/6-techniques-building-reading-skills-
susan-barber.
 Rhalmi Mohammed (2017), “How to teach reading skills Introduction”, Retrieved from
https://www.myenglishpages.com/blog/how-to-teach-reading-skills/#concept.
 “SQ3R reading method”, Study guides and strategies, Retrieved from
http://www.studygs.net/texred2.htm
Videos
 Reading Skills by Dr. Sunil Dutt, Professor Education and Educational
Management Department, NITTTR, Chandigarh. Published on You Tube on
7th July 2014. Available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d5HcT8O-
OAI&t=31s
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3.3.2 WRITING
Learning Objectives
- Explain the concept of writing

- Describe various purpose of writing in the classroom
- Explain the process of writing in the classroom
- Explain principles of effective writing
- Enlist types of writing activities in the classroom
- Apply strategies to develop writing in the classroom
3.3.2.1 Concept of Writing
Definition of writing: Michigan State University defines writing skills as, ‘Writing is a form of
communication that allows students to put their feelings and ideas on paper, to organize
their knowledge and beliefs into convincing arguments, and to convey meaning through
well-constructed text. In its most advanced form, written expression can be as vivid as a
work of art.’
Writing Skills are an essential part of communication skills, thereby becoming a mark of a
well-developed personality. In today’s age of globalisation, the conduct of daily business in
organisations both big and small, has made the documentation of all communication a
necessity. Well-enhanced writing skills have thus become an essential component of the
portfolio of all employees. Many sale deals, important collaborations, and schemes of
loans and grants, do not see the light of the day because of ineffective and faulty
communication. Writing skills acquire a greater significance for academia as its knowledge
and experience are evaluated through the written word like thesis, reports, and essays.
Hence, it is vital to write correctly and articulately.
3.3.2.2 Purpose of Writing
The purpose of every writing should be to communicate and communicate without any
discrepancy. The reader of the text should understand the text in the exact manner as
intended by the writer. This onus lies with the writer, and it becomes even more difficult if
the writer of the text is unavailable to complement the written word with the oral word and
the expressions of nonverbal communication.
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A technical student is required to write many academic compositions during their learning
phase. These compositions can include essays, research papers, technical reports, and
even answers in an assessment. Furthermore, as soon as these students pass out of their
institutions, they begin search for a job. It is at this time that they need to know how to
write an effective résumé and a correct email/letter. Additionally, as a part of the roles and
responsibilities of their job, these students who are then fresh recruits will have to possess
strong business/official correspondence skills. Thus, the relevance of possessing well-
developed writing skills for technical students is immense.
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PRACTICE TASK
1. Define writing.
2. Explain the relevance of writing skills for technical students.
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FEEDBACK
1. Writing is a form of communication that allows students to put their feelings and ideas
on paper, to organise their knowledge and beliefs into convincing arguments, and to
convey meaning through well-constructed text. In its most advanced form, written
expression can be as vivid as a work of art.
2. A technical student is required to write many academic compositions during their

learning phase. These compositions can include essays, research papers, technical
reports, and even answers in an assessment. Furthermore, as soon as these students
pass out of their institutions, they begin search for a job. It is at this time that they need
to know how to write an effective résumé and a correct email/letter. Additionally, as a
part of the roles and responsibilities of their job, these students who are then fresh
recruits will have to possess strong business/official correspondence skills. Thus, the
relevance of possessing well-developed writing skills for technical students is immense.
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3.3.2.3 Process of Writing in Classroom
This process can be divided into three parts, namely: Pre-writing, Focusing of Ideas and
Writing, and Reviewing and feedback.
i. Pre-writing Stage
In this stage the students can be encouraged to deliberate upon and discuss as many
aspects of the concept or theory to be written about, as possible for them. The students
can also make mind-maps and concept-maps to express in a concise manner, all the
knowledge that they possess on a particular topic. Mind-maps which are pictorial
representation of various elements of a concept and their inter-relationships, is the first
amalgamation of knowledge on a topic. After discussions among each other and the
teacher, and research on the topic, the students can then make much more elaborate
diagrammatic explanations in the form of concept-maps. Hence, mind-maps usually state
all the information that students possess at the initial stage of learning, and concept-maps
depict all the knowledge collected and assimilated by students after a thorough research
and survey. These techniques can also be employed in writing a technical report or a
research paper.
ii. Focusing of Ideas and Writing
In this stage the students are encouraged to write as quickly and as much as possible for
them. They pay little heed to syntax, grammar, and vocabulary. The intention in this stage
is to retain and give concrete shape and form to the ideas in the mind about a topic. The
focus here is on the content; if it is coherent, complete, concrete, correct, and considerate
towards the reader. The teacher should participate as a sounding-board with the students
during this stage. S/he should read small portions of compositions, as they are being
written down and make suggestions regarding the content.
iii. Reviewing and Feedback
After having written the first draft of any composition like a report, the students should take
a break from it, say, for a couple of days if time permits them. They should then return to it
and read and review it with a fresh mind. Review should also be sought from peers, new or
ignorant readers of the concept/theory, and experts. The teacher should finally review the
composition and give a feedback on it. It has been observed when reasons accompany a
suggested change, the acceptance of the modification is higher, and also the student
becomes aware of the error and does not repeat it as many times as previously.
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Hence, teaching or instruction on a topic can be considered complete by a teacher when a
written exercise pertaining to the topic has been conducted in the classroom by the
teacher. This imparts better awareness and knowledge of the concept/theory to the
students, thereby improving their performance in written evaluation of the topic.
A helpful way of giving feedback to the compositions of the students is by employing the
five
W’s and one H approach. The teacher can ask the students ‘what’ is the purpose of their
composition, ‘who’ will read it, ‘why’ have they written or included something in a piece of
text, ‘where and when’ address the determining factors for the readership. The question of
‘how’ can bring out the answer to the vital question of method/ medium of communication
in a written composition.
While writing a feedback, it is useful for the teacher to keep in mind the following important
curtseys of communication:
- Be empathetic, sensitive, and appreciative of the composition, even if it is not up to

the mark
- Bring examples from other sources of text as to what is acceptable and relevant
when pointing out errors
- Put questions to students as one would in a conversation, in order to clarify doubts
about the content
- Respond only to the task and not the other aspects of it that are not in the purview of
evaluation, for example: respond on the technical report about a phenomenon and
not the phenomenon itself, while evaluating writing skills
It can thus be concluded that writing is not everybody’s cup of tea, but success in an
academic course and professional life both, depends to a great extent upon the writing
skills of an individual. Hence, the teacher should inculcate and nurture strong writing skills
in its students, in addition to knowledge of the core subject. The more the students or any
learner, involves her/himself in reading and writing for pleasure, the better is the progress
in writing skills.
3.3.2.4 Principles of Effective Writing
A written document carries greater authority and thus higher responsibility. Therefore, it is
essential to hone to perfection one’s writing skills. The steps involved in strengthening
writing skills are:
- A thorough knowledge of the grammar of the language
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- A rich bank of vocabulary
- Reading voraciously
- Regular practice
- Review of one’s work
One should maintain a regular routine of practicing grammar exercises to avoid

adulteration of the language due to wrong usage in one’s area of operation. A skilled writer
also requires the correct and apt word at the right place. A rich vocabulary cannot be
developed after reading a dictionary. A dictionary should be used as a reference book to
know the meanings of the words read in a context. The best way to enhance vocabulary is
to read a wide variety of books and absorb from them new words, phrases, and
expressions. Semantics within a context is helpful in grasping the different forms of usage
of a word. Another technique to sharpen writing skills is to take up every opportunity to
write, write anything and everything.
This allows one to overcome the inhibition about one’s writing. The more one practices,
the better one becomes. It is also a valuable practice to get one’s work reviewed by an
expert and by an average member of the readership. The feedback allows for the scope
for improvement in content and technique of writing.
A few helpful tips for improving one’s writing skills are:

- One should prepare a rough draft of the document, as the first step.
- One should pay adequate attention to the form of the document, the audience, the
purpose, and the style of writing.
- Rules of grammar and syntax should be followed.
- One should be careful about spellings. Words that are often confused as they are
homophones like there and their, should be spelt correctly. Even spell-check software
overlooks such mistakes.
- It is advisable to project an enriched vocabulary, but one should be careful to avoid
verbosity. The language should be plain but correct. Certain phrases and words like
prepositional phrases, idioms, adjectives, and adverbs should be used sparingly.
- One should avoid using colloquial words and phrases in formal documents.
- Active voice conveys a better and clearer thought process as compared to passive
voice. Furthermore, sentences written in active voice are crisper and shorter. Hence,
active voice should be preferred to write sentences.
- One’s language should be gender neutral. This helps to avoid unnecessary and
inappropriate prejudice against the writer by the readers.
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- One should write as often as possible. It is also advisable to use correct spellings and
grammar even while writing messages on social networking sites and mobile-phone
applications. A practice can easily become a habit.
- Speakers whose first language is English, generally tend to use contractions while
writing. This practice may be considered inappropriate for non-native English users.
The popular opinion is that contractions like ‘don’t’ are more apt for informal
communication. These should be avoided in formal communication.
- One should pay special attention to the uses of the apostrophe. A small stroke placed
incorrectly can change the entire meaning.
- One must include and act upon the feedback one receives on one’s writing from
experts, peers, and subordinates. This makes one’s writing correct and
comprehensible for a larger audience.
- One must practice rules of grammar on a regular basis, as there are many sources for
adulteration of language.
- Reading work related to one’s area of study or occupation keeps one updated with the
latest developments in the field and the jargon associated with it. It is also a good
practice to read informal texts like blog-posts, on one’s technical subjects of work or
- interest, to learn how a common person writes about and understands complex
concepts.
- Reading different texts enhances and widens one’s sensibility about a language.
It is pertinent to add that writing is a skill that becomes better with practice. One must write
a few hundred words every day to improve one’s writing.
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PRACTICE TASK
1. What is the process of writing in the classroom?

2. Explain the principles of effective writing.
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FEEDBACK
1. This process can be divided into three parts, namely: Pre-writing, Focusing of Ideas and
Writing, and Reviewing and Feedback.
During pre-writing stage the students can be encouraged to deliberate upon and
discuss as many aspects of the concept or theory to be written about, as possible for
them. While focusing of ideas and writing stage, the students are encouraged to write
as quickly and as much as possible for them. They pay little heed to syntax, grammar
and vocabulary. After having written the first draft of any composition like a report, the
students should take a break from it, say, for a couple of days if time permits them.
They should then return to it and read and review it with a fresh mind. Review should
also be sought from peers, new or ignorant readers of the concept/theory, and experts.
The teacher should finally review the composition and give a feedback on it. Thus,
these are the main stages in the process of writing in a classroom.
2. One should maintain a regular routine of practicing grammar exercises to avoid

adulteration of the language due to wrong usage in one’s area of operation. A skilled
writer also requires the correct and apt word at the right place. A rich vocabulary
cannot be developed after reading a dictionary. A dictionary should be used as a
reference book to know the meanings of the words read in a context. The best way to
enhance vocabulary is to read a wide variety of books and absorb from them new
words, phrases, and expressions. Semantics within a context is helpful in grasping the
different forms of usage of a word. Another technique to sharpen writing skills is to take
up every opportunity to write, write anything and everything.
This allows one to overcome the inhibition about one’s writing. The more one practices,
the better one becomes. It is also a valuable practice to get one’s work reviewed by an
expert and by an average member of the readership. The feedback allows for the scope
for improvement in content and technique of writing.
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3.3.2.5 Different types of writing activities in classroom
i. Taking notes – The students should be encouraged to write swiftly while taking down
notes. They should be directed to take down notes in rough fist either as a short-hand (if
they know the language) or in their own short language. They should then be asked to
transfer the notes at a later time to a fair notebook. This allows for reinforcement of
classroom learning.
ii. Writing handout – Students should be advised to pick a key-word around which the
hand-out should be written. They should then list out all the words related to this topic that
they have heard in the class and read in their text-books. In adherence to these main words
the students should write a hand-out which is brief. It should answer the 5 W questions –
What, Why, Who, When, and Where- and 1 H question- How.
iii. Writing a laboratory experiment – A laboratory experiment in written is a shorter

version of writing a technical report. It just does not have a table of contents as a technical
report has. A laboratory experiment comprises of parts in the following order: Title,
Introduction, Main Body, Conclusions, Recommendations, Appendices. It is much briefer
than a technical report, however, all the other principles of writing a technical report are
applicable. Hence, refer to the content on technical report.
iv. Writing an email – Writing an email requires consideration of the recipient for choice of
the level of language, courtesy to the receiver, correctness, concreteness through facts and
figures, conciseness for easy understanding, clarity for high responsiveness, to achieve
completeness in the email.
v. Writing technical report – A technical report has the following parts in the order: Title,
Summary, Introduction, Body, Conclusion, Recommendation, Appendices.
vi. Writing a project proposal – a project proposal is an elaborate composition that

justifies the research statement on the basis of its uniqueness and novelty. It forms the
basis of a relevant research project. Hence, it should adhere to all norms of propriety,
concreteness, correctness, and clarity in the written form. The writer/researcher should be
able to convey her/his conviction, passion, and justifiability in proposing a research project
through this document.
vii. Writing research paper /article - it is a very elaborate exercise and is dealt in detail in
further reading resources listed at the end of the notes. Research paper is essential to
highlight the new research to which a researcher dedicated a number of years of her/his life.
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It is also very vital for other researchers in the field. A research paper follows the
established form and structure.
viii. Answering a test in writing - evaluation of a student’s understanding of a concept is

conducted through the written response to questions in a test. Answers should be relevant
to the question, to the point, inclusive of all the key-words, and cohesive.
3.3.2.6 Developing writing in classrooms
The teachers face a challenging task of improving the writing skills of their students while
imparting knowledge about the core subjects.
Writing is a solo activity, and as such not very attractive for young students. Writing is a
longer process as compared to speaking or listening, hence it is avoided by both the
students and the teachers. Many of our course-books do not require or include classroom
writing as a means of learning a particular topic. However, almost all of our evaluation is
based on marking a written piece of text by the student. It is for this reason that students
should be encouraged to write in the class itself.
Writing in a group after a brain-storming session on a topic, helps to overcome and cull the
hesitation that many students have for writing. This practice also addresses the inability of
many students to write, as they do not write on a daily basis. The following technique can
be of help in inculcating sound writing skills in students, through classroom activity.
An effective method to introduce writing skills in the class and enhance them, is when the
teacher removes herself/himself from the end-user or recipient stage of the communication
or writing model, and gets involved in the process of the communication or writing itself.
The students benefit more and the teacher as well, when the teacher acts as a catalyst in
the procedure of writing a report, an essay, or an answer, sought as an assignment. The
teacher in this case, does not respond to the written composition of the students like an
evaluator but as a reader.
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PRACTICE TASK
1. How can a teacher work on writing skills of students in the classroom?
89
FEEDBACK
1. An effective method to introduce writing skills in the class and enhance them, is when
the teacher removes herself/himself from the end-user or recipient stage of the
communication or writing model, and gets involved in the process of the communication
or writing itself.
The students benefit more and the teacher as well, when the teacher acts as a catalyst in
the procedure of writing a report, an essay, or an answer, sought as an assignment. The
teacher in this case, does not respond to the written composition of the students like an
evaluator but as a reader.
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References
 Wren, P.C., and H. Martin (1936), “High School Grammar and Composition”, revised
by N.D.V. Prasad Rao, Published by S. Chand & Company, New Delhi.
 Raimes A (1983), Techniques in Teaching Writing, Published by Oxford University
Press.
 Krashen SD (1984), Writing: Research, Theory and Applications, Published by
Oxford: Pergamum Press.
 Kroll B (1990), Second Language Writing: Research Insights for the Classroom,
Published by Cambridge University Press.
 White R V and V Arndt (1991), Process Writing, Published by Harlow: Longman.
 Hedge T (1998), Writing, Published by Oxford University Press, Available online at
http://www.bbc.co.uk/skillswise/english.
 Yule & George (2006), Oxford Practice Grammar, Published by Oxford University
Press.
 Murphy & Raymond (2007), Essential Grammar in Use”, 3rd edition, Cambridge
University Press, New Delhi.
 Bright, J.S. (2012),” Improve Your Idioms and Phrases”, Goodwill Publishing
House, New Delhi.
 “How to write a good abstract for a scientific paper or conference
presentation(2011)”,Indian J Psychiatryv.53(2),Retrieved From
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3136027/
 Iftanti Erna (2016),”Improving students’ writing skills through writing journal articles,
DOI: 10.21274/ls.2016.8.1.1-22, Retereived from https://www.researchgate.net/
publication/312347125_IMPROVING_STUDENTS'_WRITING_SKILLS_THROUGH
_WRITING_JOURNAL_ARTICLES
 Beth A. Fischer and Michael J. Zigmond ,” COMPONENTS OF A RESEARCH
ARTICLE”, retrieved from http://www2.gsu.edu/~bioslp/Sci_Methods_
Neuro/ComponentsofaResearchArticle.pdf .
 “Components of a Research Paper”, retrieved from
https://cirt.gcu.edu/research/developmentresources/tutorials/researchpaper .
 “Scientific papers”(014) ,Scitable by Nature Education. Retrieved from
https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/scientific-papers-13815490 .
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 Gillett Andy “Using English for Academic Purposes For Students in Higher
Education (UEFAP)”, Web link: http://www.uefap.com/vocab/vocfram.htm
 Coxhead Averil ,” Academic Word List”, Victoria University of Wellington, Web link
https://www.victoria.ac.nz/lals/resources/academicwordlist
Videos
 Jindal Suditi,” Ready to Write – I”, Published on You Tube on Aug 12,
2018.Web link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ERKlGQM4Ihg&t=74s
 Jindal Suditi,” Ready to Write – II”, Published on You tube on Sep 3, 2018
Web link https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCDIWOTakOdnf12PmKcRxc-
w?view_as=subscriber
 Writing Workshop, MIT Open CourseWare, Published on Jan 30, 2014.Web link
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G7p3lFMmDiQ
 Writing Professional emails in English ,Georgia Tech Language Institute
Published on Feb 18, 2016. Web link
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bs2pF6apxA4
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3.3.3 NONTECHNICAL COMMUNICATION
Learning Objectives
- Describe various forms of nontechnical writings at institute level

3.3.3.1 INTRODUCTION
As a faculty in technical institution, we are not only involved in the process of
technical writing, there are certain administrative responsibilities also, we need to
perform. Faculty while handling the positions in various committees constituted at
institute level is involved in taking notes, preparing drafts, writing memorandums,
organizing meetings, writing executive summary of various events that are common
in use. This unit will provide you all the brief overview of all these types of writing.
3.3.3.2 Memorandum (Memos)

The word memorandum is derived from Latin language which in its initial full form –
memorandumest - means it is to be remembered and in short form called as Memo.
A memo is a short piece of text, whose main function is to record important
information and is used for internal communication in an organization. Memos are
not formal as letters. Now a day in organization instead of Memos, the email is used.
If emails are being used, the initial section with sender, receiver, data and subject
line is integral to the email format.
3.3.3.3 Noting and Drafting
i. Notes
Notes are written remarks recorded on a paper under consideration to facilitate its
disposal. It should consist of precis of previous paper, the statement or analysis of
the questions requiring decision, suggestions on the course of action or orders
passes thereon. The name, designation and telephone number of officer signing a
note should invariably be typed or stamped with a rubber stamp below the signature
which should be dated. In recording the date, the month and the year should also be
indicated along with the date.
Ii. Drafting
A draft is the rough copy of a communication to be issued from an organization and

drafting is the process of preparing this rough copy.
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Draft-When to be prepared?
- Except when the line of action on a case is obvious, a draft of the
communication proposed to be sent out will be sent out will be prepared after
orders have been passed by the competent officer indicating the terms of the
reply to be sent.
- A Branch Officer or a higher officer who has formulated his ideas on a case
may himself prepare a draft and authorise its issue or submit it to the next
officer for approval, as the case may be. In other cases, a draft will be
prepared by the office.
Wording of a Draft
A draft should convey the exact intention of the orders passed. The language used
should be clear, concise and incapable of misconstruction. Lengthy sentences,
abruptness, redundancy, circumlocution, superlatives and repetitions whether of
words, expressions or ideas, should be avoided. Communication of some length of
complexity should generally conclude with a summary. A draft should have the
needed stimulus to have the expected response from the addressee.
3.3.3.4 MEETING PROCEDURE
At institute level the faculty will often be called upon to write Notice, agenda and
minutes of meeting. These forms of communication have certain established
conventions and it is necessary to know them to be able to discharge academic
responsibilities effectively. The meeting procedure is communicated in a following
manner.
i. Notice- Call for a meeting

ii. Agenda
iii. Minutes of Meeting
i. Notice- Call for a meeting
Usually the rules of procedure of every institute clearly state the notice period
required for calling a meeting (both meeting for governing bodies and departmental
meeting etc.). if the institute do not have prescribed rules, then the person in charge
must ensure that notice reaches to all the members within a reasonable time before
the meeting.
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The day, date, time, place of meeting and the issues/item to be discussed, if finally
decided. If the number of items to be discussed in the meeting are less then
mentioned them in the notice itself, otherwise they should be listed in a separate
sheet and attached to the notice as Annexure.
ii. Agenda
Agenda is the plural of agendum. Agenda is the list of items that dealt in a meeting. It
is to be drawn in consultation with the Head (At department level), Director (At
institute level), and Chairman (At governing body level).
At the meeting the items are addressed in the order in which the agenda is made
when the agenda is given as an annexure to a notice or circulated separately it
contains the following elements.
a) Name of the institution and the date of circulation.

b) The day, date, time and place of meeting.
c) The list of agenda items to be transacted.
d) The background information, if any.
e) Signature of the Head.
Generally, the first item on every agenda is the confirmation of the minutes of the
previous meeting; and the last item any other item any other matter with the
permission of the chairman.
Other items are usually arranged in their order of importance and routine matters put
towards the end. Each item in numbered.
In some institution the agenda items are also enlisted along with the time. This helps
the members to keep to the schedule and to cut down meaningful and irrelevant
discussions.
Further, the members get an, idea of how much time they will have to spend at the
meeting. It is however, difficult to always estimate precisely the amount of time
needed for the disposal of an item.
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iii. Minutes of Meeting
Minutes are records of discussions and decisions taken at the meeting. The minutes
are generally written by the administrative (in charge)/Section which sponsor or
holds the meeting.
Minutes are clear, concise, accurate and well organized. Summary minutes usually
contain the main points of discussion, the conclusion reached, the recommendation
made, and the course of action needs to be followed by the members and groups.
For writing the minutes of meeting, one need to
- Make notes during the meeting

- Soon after the meeting is over, prepare draft of the minutes
- Before finalization, show these minutes to the chairman of the meeting.
If during writing, any doubt is there, check it up with other members who attended
that meeting.
In the minutes of meeting, the following items generally included:
- The name of the institute unit.

- The data, time and place of meeting.
- The number of the meeting if it is in series for e.g 4th Board Meeting.
- Name of the members present in the meeting, special invitee/expert/external
and members.
- Record of transactions.
- Signature of the secretary and chairman of the meeting.
Often the minutes are circulating among all the members, if they do not suggest any
amendment or suggestion, the minutes are approved by the chairman. If there is any
amendment or suggestion after making the changed seeking the approval only the
chairman will sign.
3.3.3.5 Executive Summary
The executive summary provides an overview of an information from a large

document. It may be the only part of the document that audience reads, so it must
always be concise, clear and presents the main points in a formal tone and written
specifically for target audience by reading executive summary the reader draw
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conclusion and recommendation. While writing the information must support
objectives and include essential information from the body of content it summarises
and the function it serves.
References
 Mohan, K & Banerji; M (1990), “Developing communication skill. Delhi;

Machmillian India Ltd. 83-255pp.
 Vilanilar, JV (2000), “More effective communication in A manual for
professionals, New Delhi: Response books – a division of sage publication,
98-134pp.
 Lougheed Lin (2002), “Business correspondence”, Longman.com.
 Muthuswamy Brinda Sanjeev (2018), “Swamy’s manual on office procedure”,
Swamy Publisher (P) Ltd.
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UNIT 3.4
Barrier to Classroom
Communication
“Communication works for those who works at this.”
(John Powell)
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3.4 Barriers to Classroom Communication
Learning Outcomes
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
 Explain teacher related barriers in classroom communication

 Explain the message-related barriers in classroom communication.
 Explain the instructional methods and media related barriers in classroom
communication.
 Explain the student-related barriers in classroom communication.
 Explain the learning environment related barriers to classroom communication.
3.4.1 Introduction
Effectiveness of classroom communication depends on five major factors namely teacher,
students, message, instructional methods and media and learning environment. These
factors, if do not possess the right kind of qualities or attributes create hindrances in the
process of communication and thus decrease its effectiveness. On the basis of barriers to
communication discussed by Wehrich and Koontz (2005); Cole and Chan (1987), Devito
(1978) and Michael and Jones (1973), the barriers to classroom communication can be
grouped under the following:
 Barriers related to teacher

 Barriers related to message
 Barriers related to instructional methods and media
 Barriers related to students
 Barriers related to learning environment
Barriers to Classroom
Communication
Teacher Related Learning

Environment related
Message Related Student/Learner Related
Methods and Media

Related
Fig. 3.4.1: Barriers to classroom communication
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3.4.2 Teacher Related Barriers
Fig 3.4.2. Depicts the teacher-related barriers to classroom communication. These
Include:
Teacher Related Barriers
Unrealistic Self Concept

Lack of Confidence
Inadequate Knowledge Inappropriate Handling

and Skills of Instructional
Methods and Media
Inaccurate Perception of Inability to Build

World Rapport with
Learners/Students
Lack of Motivation Biases and Prejudices
Lack of Understanding Inability to Understand

of Learners others’ point of view
Inability to Understand Inappropriate use of

Individual Differences Non-verbal
Communication
Inappropriate use of
Verbal
Communication
Fig 3.4.2.: Teacher related barriers to classroom communication
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Teacher related barriers to classroom communication include the following:
I. Unrealistic Self-Concept: “The self-concept is ‘who the person is’ and

encompasses the individual’s values, attitudes, and beliefs about self and the
environment. It colours the perceptions and subsequent behaviour that arise
from these basic attitude and beliefs about the self” (Pietrofessa et al. 1980).
A teacher who is having negative self-concept will not be open, reject
feedback contrary to his/her beliefs and will not be willing to change. This
leads to difficulties in communication.
II. Inadequate Knowledge and Skills: The communication in classroom
becomes ineffective, if a teacher lacks knowledge and skills, related to the
subject he/she is teaching and pedagogical skills. Both are essential for
effective communication.
III. Inaccurate Perception of World: If a teacher perceives the world around him
not worth living or useless, he will sound pessimistic and lack enthusiasm and
zeal essential for classroom communication. Such teacher will be unable to
motivate learners for learning and develop unfavourable attitude among them.
IV. Lack of Motivation: Lack of motivation to teach, explore, acquire more
knowledge or to communicate, on the part of the teacher will restrict him to
participate actively or encourage student participation in teaching-learning
process and adversely affect communication.
V. Lack of Understanding of Learners: A teacher who lacks knowledge about
his learners will be unable to pitch his lesson as per the needs of the learners
i.e. cognitive styles, learning styles, pervious knowledge, motivation etc.
VI. Inability to Understand Individual Differences: A teacher who fails to
understand individual differences among learners will not be motivated to use
variety of instructional methods and media and he/she will not be able to cater
to individual differences in class. All learners may not be able to achieve
learning outcomes. The effectiveness of communication decreases.
VII. Inappropriate Use of Verbal Communication Skills: Generalized
comments such as ‘you are not worth’ or ‘the subject is difficult’ or ‘subject is
of no use’ in today’s context will have adverse effect on the communication
especially that of the students. Inability to use appropriate language,
pronunciation, syntax, grammar etc. acts as barriers to effective
communication in classroom.
102
VIII. Inappropriate Use of Non-Verbal Communication Skills: Inappropriate use
of facial expression, eye-contact, gestures, postures, proximity, artefacts etc.
act as barriers in communication process. For example, a teacher with stern
face and who maintains distance from learners will not be able to establish
rapport with them and the communication will thus not be open and learners
will hesitate in asking questions, clarifying doubts or providing feedback to the
teacher.
IX. Inability to Understand Others Point of View: If a teacher fails to accept
view point of others, he/she creates a very closed environment which restrict
learners from actively participating in classroom.
X. Biases and Prejudices: Biases and prejudices w.r.t class, creed, gender,
colour etc. adversely affect communication. A teacher who is biased may
ignore a student or group of students in class or may indulge in undue
criticism of students.
XI. Inability to Build Rapport with Students: Lack of rapport between the
students and teacher leads to restricted communication without concern for
each other and feedback.
XII. Inappropriate Handling of Instructional Methods and Media: If a teacher
lacks competence to handle instructional methods, media and techniques, his
communication will be ineffective and he will not be able to achieve the
intended leaning outcomes.
XIII. Lack of Confidence: Lack of confidence in himself, subject or handling
instructional methods, media and techniques act as barrier to effective
communication. A teacher who lacks confidence in himself may become very
authoritarian or restrict himself in communication or maintains distance form
learners.
103
3.4.3 Message Related Barriers:
Message related barriers include
I. Lack Clarity of Learning Outcomes: If learning outcomes are not stated in

the beginning of the class, students will not know as to what is expected of
them at the end of instruction or why should they learn a particular topic. The
necessary expectancy level is not aroused among learners and they will not be
adequately motivated to learn. Another difficulty in communication will be
reflected in selection of content which may not match the learning outcomes.
104
Message Related
Barriers
Lack Clarity of Lack of Exercises

Objectives Activities etc.
Inappropriate use of Overcrowded

Language Symbols etc.
Lack of Example
Irrelevant Information
Analogies, Metaphors
Technical Jargon Heavy Emphasis on Text
Lack of Supporting
Materials
Fig 3.4.3. Message related barriers to classroom communication
III. Inappropriate Sequencing of Content Matter: Sequencing of content matter

without taking into consideration the logical hierarchy of concepts, or principles
or psychological principles of learning i.e. known to unknown, easy to difficult,
simple to complex, observation to reasoning, concrete to abstract makes
learning a difficult process and act as barrier to effective communication. For
example, without clarifying the concept of foundation, you cannot explain the
types of foundation that is deep and shallow foundation. Or without clarifying
the concept of stress and strain, you cannot derive the relationship between the
two.
IV. Inappropriate Use of Language and Symbols: The message designed using
difficult language, not comprehendible to learners, and symbols with which
learners are not familiar or are technically inaccurate or are not standardized
ones, create hindrance in communication process.
105
V. Irrelevant Information: Message that contains irrelevant pieces of information
fails to sustain the necessary motivation and interest of the learners and inhibit
them from attending, listening and comprehending the message.
VI. Technical Jargon: If a message contains technical jargon and learners are not
made familiar with it beforehand, acts as a barrier to communication by
reducing interest and motivation of learners.
VII. Heavy Emphasis on Text: Too much dependence on text makes the message
boring.
VIII. Lack of Supporting Material: Supporting materials include student guides,
instructional or job sheets, workbooks, set of instructions etc. If a message is
not accompanied by appropriate support material to guide or to direct learners
as to how to go about learning the message or does not provide opportunities
to practice and monitor their own progress, it creates hindrances in the process
of communication.
IX. Lack of Examples, Analogies and Metaphors: Lack of use of examples from
daily life and world of work, analogies and metaphors in message makes it
difficult for the learner to learn it meaningfully and participate actively in
classroom communication.
X. Lack of Exercises and Activities: Message if not accompanied by relevant
exercises or activities does not provide an opportunity to teacher to assure
himself of learners’ understanding and sustain learners’ interest and motivation
and to actively involve them in teaching-learning process thus making
classroom communication ineffective.
3.4.4 Instructional Methods and Media Related Barriers
Fig 3.4.4. shows the barriers related to instructional methods, media and techniques.
Instructional methods and

Media Related Barriers
Inappropriate Selection of Lack of Integration of

instructional methods & Media in Teaching-
Poor Quality of Media Too Much Dependence on

Media
Emphasis on Conventional
Media 106
Fig3.4.4. Methods and media related barriers to communication
Barriers related to instructional methods, media and techniques include the following:
I. Inappropriate Selection: Instructional methods, media and techniques

selected if irrelevant to learning outcomes, nature of content, context or size
of the class act as barriers and make the communication ineffective.
II. Poor Quality of Media: Poor quality of media creates hindrances in the
process of communication. Say for example, transparencies being used by
teacher are overcrowded, font size is small or contain too many colours or the
quality of audio or video in video film being used is poor will cause
communication difficulties.
III. Emphasis on Conventional Instructional Methods and Media: Too much
emphasis on lecture method and use of power points lead to boredom,
monotony and lack of interest among learners, making the communication
ineffective.
IV. Too much Dependence on Media: Too much dependence on any one type
of medium without proper synchronization leads to ineffective communication.
V. Lack of Integration of Media in Teaching-Learning: Lack of integration of
media in teaching-learning makes its use irrelevant and confuse learners and
thus cause problems in communication. Video film shown in the beginning or
end of class without explaining the rationale for its use or without any follow
up activities may create confusion among learners.
3.4.5 Students/Learner Related Barriers
Students/learner related barriers are shown in Fig 4.5 and are explain below.
I. Unrealistic Self-Concept: Self-concept affects participation in or withdrawal

from certain academic tasks in educational institutions. Students who do not
feel they will succeed, who may be self-conscious ad want to avoid
embarrassing failure experience will not venture into pursuits that raise doubts.
Communication is adversely affected by unrealistic self-concept.
II. Inaccurate Perception of World: If the learners view world to be not worth
living, they will become pessimistic and lack needed zeal and enthusiasm to
107
participate in classroom communication or will always show unfavourable
attitudes.
III. Lack of Previous Knowledge and Skills: Lack of previous knowledge and
skills required to learn new knowledge and skills creates problems in
classroom communication. Learners fails to acquire new knowledge and skills
and relate it meaningfully to what they already know as well as fail to actively
participate in classroom.
108
Students/Learners
Related Barriers
Unrealistic Self Concept Inappropriate Attitude,

Biases and Prejudices
Inaccurate Perception of Inability to Relate New

World Knowledge with Already
Existing Knowledge
Lack of Previous
Knowledge and Skills Lack of Essential Skills
Lack of Intelligence,
Aptitude, and Interest Impairment/Sensory
etc. Deprivation
Lack of Motivation Inability to Attend
Fig.3.4.5 Student/Learner Related Barriers in Classroom communication

V. Lack of Intelligence, Aptitude, and Interest etc.: A minimum level of
intelligence, aptitude and interest essential to be successful in a particular
discipline or subject if not possessed by the learner(s) make the classroom
communication ineffective.
VI. Lack of Motivation: Motivation to learn new information/knowledge and skills
or to communicate adversely affect communication process.
VII. Inability to Attend: If learners do not pay necessary attention to the task in
classroom, the communication fails.
VIII. Impairment/Sensory Deprivation: Impairment or any sensory deprivation in
the learner restricts his participation in classroom communication.
109
IX. Lack of Essential Skills: Lack of essential skills such as notes taking,
listening, reading, analysis, synthesis, and learning to learn skills make
communication process in classroom difficult for both teacher and students.
X. Inability to Relate New Knowledge with Already Existing Knowledge:
Meaningful learning does not take place if a student fails to relate new
knowledge with already existing in his mind. Communication thus, does not
yield the desired learning outcomes and students are not able to retain new
learning.
XI. Inappropriate Attitude, Biases and Prejudices: If a learner possesses
unfavourable attitude towards teacher, subject, class fellows/peers,
institutions or life, or is biased or prejudiced will have problems in
communication, relating with people and accepting others viewpoint.
3.4.6 Learning Environment Related Barriers:
Fig.3.4.6 shows the learning environment related barriers to classroom communication
Learning Environment
Related Barriers
Over Crowded Classes Lack of Heath Competition
Improper Seating Lack of Cooperation

Arrangements
Poor Ventilation, light etc. Lack of Feedback
Too much or too little Prejudices, Biases,

Distance Between Teacher- Inappropriate Attitudes
Lack of Facilities Lack of Experimentation
Lack of Rapport between Fear of

Teacher and Student Punishment/Criticism
Lack of Freedom
Fig 3.4.6. Learning environment related barriers to classroom communication
110
I. Over Crowded Classes: Overcrowded classes make it difficult for the
teacher to pay attention to all the learners and cater to their individual needs
and thus affects communication adversely.
II. Improper Seating Arrangements: It leads to discomfort to the learners,
problems in maintaining eye contact with teacher or peers or problems of
access to teacher or other learners and thus restrict free flow of ideas among
learners or between teacher and learners. Teacher may fail to check the
activities or exercises being performed by students, if there is no space to
reach the learner in the class.
III. Two little or too much Distance between Teacher and Student and
among Students: Too little or too much distance creates communication
difficulties. If distance between teacher and student is too much, students
have difficulty in relating to the teacher and openly participating in classroom
communication. On the other hand, if distance is too little, student feels
threatened that his personal space is being encroached upon and he restrains
himself from interaction.
IV. Lack of Essential Facilities: Lack of facilities such as proper
chalkboard/board electricity points, media etc. in classroom may act as
barriers in communication.
V. Lack of Rapport between Teacher and Student and Among Students: It
makes classroom environment closed in which students restrain themselves
from participation, clarifying their doubts or expressing their own viewpoints.
VI. Strict Rules and Regulations or Too Much Leniency: Both are
unfavourable for effective communication. Strict rules and regulations create
fear and students will not freely open up, while too much leniency creates
discipline problems.
VII. Lack of Freedom: Learning environment that restrict individual’s freedom to
participate or express his view point or experiment is not conducive for
effective classroom communication.
VIII. Fear of Punishment/Criticism: Learning environment characterized by fear
of punishment and criticism discourages students to be frank and open and
participate freely in classroom communication process.
IX. Lack of Experimentation: Lack of opportunities to experiment, innovate or
create again hinders the process of communication.
111
X. Anxiety Producing: Learning environment that causes anxiety among
learners hinders the process of effective communication. Students are
restricted in their communication. Sometimes they may withdraw themselves
or may not participate in classroom communication.
XI. Lack of Feedback: If the element of feedback is missing in the learning
environment, it hinders the process of communication. Imagine a situation in
which feedback regarding students’ performance or students’ feedback
regarding instructional effectiveness is missing. The communication will either
be ineffective or breakdown at one point.
XII. Lack of Co-operation: Teacher-student cooperation and cooperation among
students if lacking, will lead to break-down of the communication.
XIII. Lack of Healthy Competition: Lack of healthy competition among students
may lead to complete breakdown of communication among students or
groups.
From the above, it is clear that a multiplicity of barriers can exists in the
classroom communication, which can either make it ineffective or decrease its
effectiveness. These barriers need to be eliminated from teaching-learning
situation in order to increase the effectiveness of classroom communication.
112
PRACTICE TASK
Below are given 13 statements/questions. For each statement/question, four alternates are
provided. Encircle the alternative which completes the statement/answers the question.
1. Unrealistic self-concept is a:
a. message related barrier
b. teacher related barrier
c. student related barrier
d. both (b) and (c)
2. Lack of previous knowledge on the part of learners leads to:

(a) inability to interpret new information
(b) relate new information with pervious learner
(c) difficulty in understanding new information
(d) all of the above
3. Inability on the part of teacher to pitch the lesson to the level of learners is the result
of:
(a) lack of subject information
(b) overload of information
(c) inability to understand learner
(d) lack of proficiency in handling used
4. Incorrect perception of world adversely affects the:

(a) ability to understand
(b) ability to remember
(c) ability to recall
(d) enthusiasm and zeal
5. Inability to use analogies and metaphors makes it difficult for:

(a) teachers to explain
(b) teacher to remember
(c) student to learn meaningfully
(d) student to interact among themselves
6. Lack of clear statement of learning outcomes results in:

(a) lack of arousal of expectancy among student
(b) inappropriate selection of content
(c) inappropriate selection of method
7. Lack of practice leads to:

(a) inability to transfer knowledge to other situations
(b) inability to relate to other subjects
(c) lack of motivation
113
(d) lack of imagination
8. Lack of use of standard symbols results in:

(a) difficulty in interpretation
(b) difficulty in explanation
(c) difficulty in instruction
(d) difficulty in interaction
9. Improper seating arrangement to as example of:

(a) message related barriers
(b) physical barrier
(c) teacher related
(d) student related barriers
10. Poor quality of Power Points is on account of:

(a) small font size
(b) too much information on one slide
(c) irrelevant images
11. Inability to maintain eye contact with other individual may be on account of:
(a) lack of confidence
(b) poor self-control
(c) lack of self-esteem
(d) poor self-concept
12. Which of the following is NOT a barrier to effective communication?

(a) one-way communication
(b) feedback
(c) inability to maintain eye contact
(d) poor quality media
13. Which of the following is NOT an example of psychological barrier?

(a) anxiety
(b) distrust
(c) lack of motivation
(d) technical jargon
114
Feedback
Question No. Answer
1. d
2. d
3. c
4. d
5. a
6. d
7. a
8. a
9. b
10. d
11. a
12. b
13. d
115
References
 Michael, SR and Jones, HR (1973)., ‘Organizational Management; Concepts and Practices’.

New York: In text Educational Publishers.
 Peitrofessa, J., and Others, Counselling: Theory Research and Practice, (1978), Randcnally
College of Commerce, Chicago.
 Cole, PG and Chan, LKS. (1987). ‘Teaching Principles and Practices’. New York; Prentice
Hall.
 Devito, JA. (1987). ‘Communicology: An Introduction to the study of communication’. New
 Tulsi, PK (2000) ‘Barriers to Classroom Communication’ Journal of Engineering Education,
Vol. XIII, No.3, pp.21-33.
 Wehrich, Heinz and Koontz, Harold (2005). Management: A Global Perspective. New Delhi:
McGraw Hills.
 Radhika Kapoor. Barriers to Effective
Communicationhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/323794732_Barriers_to_Effective_
Communication
 Study Material-1,Lesson 2 IMPORTANCE AND BARRIERS OF COMMUNICATION
https://sol.du.ac.in/mod/book/view.php?id=1354&chapterid=1096
116
UNIT 3.5
Active Learning
“Learning is not a spectator sport. Students do not learn much just by sitting in
class listening to teachers, memorizing pre-packaged assignments, and
spitting out answers. They must talk about what they are learning, write about
it, relate it to past experiences, apply it to their daily lives. They must make
what they learn part of themselves.”
(Arthur W. Chickering and Zelda F. Gamson M ,1987)
117
3.5 ACTIVE LEARNING
Learning Outcomes
After reading this Unit, you will be able to:
- Explain the Concept of Active Learning.

- Enlist various Characteristics of Active Learning.
- Enlist elements of Active learning.
- Explain various benefits of Active Learning.
- Analyze various requirements to create Active Learning Classroom.
- Enlist various active learning strategies to achieve learning objectives at various levels
of Bloom’s taxonomy.
- Explain various types of Active Learning strategies.
- Identify the barriers to create Active Learning Classroom.
- Describe the strategies for reducing the barriers to active learning classrooms.
3.5.1 Concept of Active Learning

Silberman, M. in 1996 defined Active learning as a process that aims to make the students’
active participants and fully engage them in the process of learning
(Bonwell, C.C. & Sutherland, T.E. 1996).
Active learning strategies are those that engage students to perform activities /tasks which
helps to develop higher order thinking skills. Some of the other terms that are also coined
with the term active learning are students’ – centered or learner centered learning, inquiry
based learning, problem based or discovery learning and experiential learning. Research
clearly demonstrate that skill cannot be learned by listening to it, by reading about it or not by
seeing others performing it. These activities can be designed to increase the academic
engagement not only in classroom but out of the classroom also. The teacher needs to
provide opportunities to practice these skills so that they become proficient.
(Hermin & Toth, 2006)
Thus by using various active learning strategies the teacher is not only construct the
knowledge and understand the content fully but also focus on the development of various
skills among students’. These strategies also help them (Students’) to explore their own
value and attitudes.
118
3.5.2 Major Characteristics of Active Learning
Research suggested many strategies that helps the teacher to design variety of
activities/tasks. The major characteristics of active Learning are:
- Students’ involvement is more as compare to teacher centered classrooms.
- Students’ motivation is increased.
- There is great emphasis placed on developing skills among students rather than only on
information transmission. By using these strategies higher order thinking skills can be
developed.
- The immediate feedback is provided to the students by the teacher.
3.5.3 Elements of Active Learning

Active learning strategies are ranging from very simple to more complex. Active learning is,
in short, includes exercises to promote active listening, written exercises such as note taking,
to more complex group exercise that develop understanding of the content, students
construct their own mind maps for the content covered and confront with their self-made
assumptions/misconceptions.
(Echevarria, vogt, and Short ,2004)
All the active learning strategies involve four different elements for their successful
completion and these are described as follows:
 Reading: Active learning strategies such as case study method of teaching helps the
students to comprehend written or printed material/information.
 Writing: Active learning strategies such as note taking enable the Students’ to
communicate information in written form.
 Listening: Active learning strategies such as Think-pair-share develop active learning
skills among students and develop their understanding for messages from a variety of
speakers.
 Speaking: Active learning strategies such as fish bowl discussion enable the students
to express their ideas, task as situation demand.
(Chickering and Gamson, 1987)
119
PRACTICE TASK
1. Define the term active learning.
2. Enlist the different elements of active learning strategies.
120
FEEDBACK
1. Active learning is a processes that aims to make the students active participants in learning
and fully engage them in the process of learning.
2. Different elements of active learning strategies are:
- Reading
- Writing
- Listening
- Speaking
121
3.5.4 Benefits of Active Learning
 Some of the active learning strategies as compare to the traditional lecture method not
only develop the critical thinking skills but also promote mastery over the content.
 The use of active learning strategies while teaching provide opportunities for the
development of communication skills such as reading, writing, listening and speaking.
 Active learning strategies also help to cater the needs of students’ based on their
learning styles.
 Group based activities benefitted academically weak students’ when they are being
taught by their own peers and good students’ also get deeper understanding that comes
from peer teaching.
 Active learning motivates the students’, increase their creativity and curiosity.
3.5.5 Requirements to Create Active Learning Classrooms
The two basic assumptions are there which derives Active learning:
- To learn one must be actively involved.
- Every individual has different style of learning. (Meyers and Jones, 1993)
The following steps needs to be consider to create an active learning classroom and is a
cyclic process known as Active Learning cycle. These are:
- Attainment of initial learning

- Conception of goals
- Tricks for receiving goals
- Inquiry and expedition
- Verification and synthesis
- Evaluation of learning
In Active Learning classrooms, the teacher must
- Clearly state the learning outcomes of the activity/ task assigned and time allotted for
the completion of the task.
- All the instructional material must be ready and handy.
- The selection of active learning strategy for teaching must be according to the defined
learning outcomes and nature of the content.
122
- Always start with simple strategy such as one-page lecture summarization, note taking
etc. In the initial phase of the semester, the teacher may plan to introduce these
strategies to students.
- Carefully design the evaluation criterion and pass this information to the students too.
In active learning classrooms the students are doing something in a meaningful way and
applied their learning in some context. Some of the active learning techniques demand
seating arrangement in groups which favor group discussion and peer learning without any
competition.
3.5.6 Active learning strategies to achieve learning outcomes at various levels

of Bloom’s taxonomy
Active Learning strategies engage the students’ in variety of tasks that allow them to do
analysis, synthesis, evaluate and to be actively involved (Echevarria, vogt, and Short, 2004).
Many active learning strategies can be used to design of the learning outcomes (Bloom, B.
1956) that involve students’ in practicing and reflecting about what they are doing are given
in the table 3.5.1 below:
Table 3.5.1: Various active learning strategies for different levels of Bloom’s
Taxonomy
Levels of Bloom’s Active Learning Strategies
Taxonomy
Remembering One minute paper, Note taking, Muddiest point, One page lesson
and understand summarization, Demonstration ,Venn diagram
(Knowledge and
Comprehension)
Application Think pair share, Concept mapping, Image analysis, Role play,
Simulation, Practice based exercises, ,Projects, Reciprocal
questioning, Numbered head together, Visioning and Futuring
Analyse Structured problem solving, Fish bowl discussion, Think pair

share, List pros & cons, Application based exercises, Peer
review
Evaluation Case studies, Projects, Simulation, Critiques, Visioning &
(Synthesis) Futuring, Problem and Project based learning, Concept map
Creation Project based learning
123
124
PRACTICE TASK
1. Enlist the different steps involved in Active learning cycle.
125
FEEDBACK
1. The following steps need to be followed while designing active learning classroom:
- Attainment of initial learning

- Conception of goals
- Tricks for receiving goals
- Inquiry and expedition
- Verification and synthesis
- Evaluation of learning
126
3.5.7 Classification of Active Learning Strategies
The teacher must carefully select active learning strategies by considering their own comfort
level and command on these strategies. The active learning strategies are divided into three
different categories. These are:
- Individual techniques
- Cooperative techniques
- Collaborative techniques
The explanation of different active learning strategies is enlisted in the literature (For details
kindly go through video on “Active Learning Cycle” and the references mentioned in the table
3.5. 2 below along with the strategies covered).
3.5.8 Different Active Learning Techniques
Table 3.5.2: List of various active learning strategies and their references.
REFERENCE TECHNIQUES
- Clarification pauses
Faust, J.L., & Paulson, D.R
- One-minute paper
(1998)
- Muddiest (or clearest point)
“Active Learning in College - Affective response
Classrooms”, Journal on - Student response to a demonstration
Excellence in College - Daily or weekly journal
Teaching, 9(2), PP 3-24 - Reading quiz
- Question and answer
- The fish bowl
- Quiz / Test question
- Work at board (Blackboard Sharing)
- Concept mapping
- Visual lists
- Role playing
- Panel discussions
- Debates
- Games
127
- Jigsaw group projects
P.A, Mabrouk, ed.( 2007), - Problem sets

“Active Learning : Models from- Laboratories and projects
the analytical sciences”, ACS, - Jigsaw
Symposium series 970, - Peer editing
Chapter 4, PP. 34-53, - Peer led team learning
Washington, DC : American
Chemical Society.
“Active learning in - Interactive Lectures

classrooms” - Problem solving, demonstration, Proofs and
Stories
Prepared by Michelle Schwartz,
- case study method
Research Associate, For the
- Short lectures framing discussion period
Learning & Teaching Office,
- Concept mapping
retrieved from
- Visioning and Futuring
http://www.ryerson.ca/It/taga/in
- Modelling analytical skills
dex.html
- Pro & Con grid
- Quotations
- One-minute paper
- Muddiest point
- Fish bowl
- Student summary of another student’s answer
- Drill review pains
- Jigsaw group projects
- Panel discussion
- Role playing
- Debates
128
“Center for Teaching - One-minute paper
Excellence”, VCU, Accessed - Student summary of another’s answer
on July 14, 2016 - Focused listing
http://www.vcu.edu/cte/resourc- Stage setting
es/active learning.html - Stage setting-II
- Mini cases
- Visioning & Futuring
- Picture making
- Recalling prior material
- Socratic method
- Finger signals/flash cards
- Everyday phenomena
- Think, Pair, Share
- Note taking
- Team troubleshooting
- Name your own poison
- Send a problem
- Drill review pains
- Panel discussion details
- Role-playing exercises
- Philosophical chains
- Explaining written material
- Thinking aloud pain problem solving (TAPPS)
- Concept maps
- Minutes
- Jigsaw
- One sentence summaries
“Speaking of teaching”,  A change in Lecturing

Stanford University Newsletter Questioning and discussion
on teaching Fall 1993, Vol. 5,  Role plays and case studies
No. 1, Produced by the Center
for Teaching & Learning
129
PRACTICE TASK
1. Differentiate between Cooperative and Collaborative active learning strategies.
130
131
FEEDBACK
1. Difference between Cooperative and Collaborative active learning strategies are given
below:
Cooperative Learning Collaborative Learning
Structured group ideal size 3-4 student Any situation in which group can work
together
Group works toward common goal such as There is the belief that students already
positive interdependence, individual have the necessary social skills, and that
accountability, heterogeneous grouping they will build on their existing skills in order
to reach their goals.
Students receive training in small group
social skills.
Activities are structured with each student Students organize and negotiate efforts
having a specific role. themselves.
The teacher observes, listens and The activity is not monitored by the
intervenes in a group when necessary. instructor. When questions are directed
towards the teacher, the teacher guides the
students to the information needed.
Students submit work at the end of class for Students retain drafts to complete further
evaluation work.
132
3.5.9 Barriers to Active Learning
- There is always pressure to cover more and more material, so students-activities taking up
classroom time-seems wasteful.
- Getting your students’ involved in classroom activities also require them to regularly assess
their own degree of understanding and skill at handling concept or problems in specific
discipline
- Initial preparation time is more for devising active learning strategies.
- Sometimes students resist non- lecture approaches and faculty do feel that they lose the
command over the students.
- Sometimes Implementation in large class size is difficult to achieve
- The lack of materials or equipment needed to support active learning can be a barrier to the
use of some active learning strategies
3.5.10 Overcome Barriers to Active Learning
With respect to the commonly reported obstacles, the following should be noted:
- The use of active learning strategies reduces the amount of available lecture time that can
be devoted to content coverage.
- Faculty who regularly use active learning strategies typically find other ways to ensure that
students learn assigned course content (e.g., using reading and writing assignments, go
through their classroom examinations, etc.)
- Recycle old lectures;” will not necessarily take any more time than that needed to create
thorough and thoughtful new lectures.
- Teaching does not result in equal amount of learning; this can be seen clearly in the painful
disparity between what we think we have effectively taught, and what students indicate they
have learned on the examination papers that we grade. With explicit instruction in how to
actively participate and learn in less-traditional modes, students soon come to favor the new
approaches.
- Large classes can be divided into small group for discussion activities, writing assignments
can be read and critiqued by students instead of the faculty, etc.
- Asking students to summarize in writing the material they have read or to form pairs to
evaluate statements or assertions does not require any equipment.
133
The following are the behaviours promote student learning:
- Appropriate use of humour.

- Praising student performance.
- Engaging students outside of the classroom.
- Appropriate level of self-disclosure.
- Encouraging students to talk.
- Asking questions about student viewpoints or feelings.
- Following up on topics raised by students even if not directly related to class material.
- Referring to “our” class and what “we” are doing.
(Gorham ;1988)
Teaching cannot be reduced to formulaic methods and active learning is not merely having
students who are active in class. The teaching strategies and students learning activities
must be carefully selected to support students’ achievement of the lesson content.
134
REFRENCES
 Bloom, B., Engllehart, E., Furst, W.H., and Krathwohl, d., eds (1956), Taxonomy of
educational objectives (cognitive domains) New York: David Mckay .Co.
 Alder, M.J. (1982) The Paideia Proposal: An education Manifesto. NY. Macmillan.
 Erickson, Stanford C. (1984) Essence of Good teaching, Ist ed. San Francisco _ Jossey-
Bass
 Arthur W. Chickering and Zelda F. Gamson (1987), “Seven Principles for Good Practice,”
AAHE Bulletin 39: 3-7, March
 Gorham, J. (January, 1988). “The relationship between verbal teacher immediacy behaviors
and student learning. Communication Education, 37 (1), 40-53.
 Charles C. Bonwell and James A. Eison (1991), Active Learning: Creating Excitement in the
Classroom, ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No. 1. Washington, D.C.: The George
Washington University, School of Education and Human Development.
 Bonwell, C. C., & Eison, J. A. (1991). Active learning: Creating excitement in the classroom
(ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No. 1). Washington, DC: Association for the Study of
Higher Education.
 Meyers, C., and Jones, T. (1993). Promoting active Learning: Strategies for the College
Classroom. San Francisco: Jossey Bass
 Stanford university newsletter on teaching fall (1993), Vol. 5, No. 1,” Active learning: Getting
students to work and think in the classroom” Speaking of Teaching Fall 1993 produced
quarterly by the Centre for Teaching and Learning.
 “Speaking of teaching”, Stanford University Newsletter on teaching Fall (1993), Vol. 5, No. 1,
Produced by the Center for Teaching & Learning.
 Matthews, Roberta S.; Cooper, James L.; Davidson, Neil; Hawkes, Peter. (1995)” Building
bridges between cooperative and collaborative learning.” PP 34-4.
 Bonwell, C.C. & Sutherland, T.E. (1996). Using active learning in college classes: A range of
options for faculty. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
 Bonwell; C (1996), Building a supportive climate for active learning. The national Teaching
and Learning Forum, 6(1), 4-7.
 Silberman, M. (1996). Active learning: 101 strategies to teach any subject. Boston: Allyn and
Bacon.
 Faust, J.L., & Paulson, D.R (1998) “Active Learning in College Classrooms”, Journal on
Excellence in College Teaching, 9(2), PP 3-24
 McKeachie, (1998) Teaching Tips; Strategies, research and theory for college and university
teachers, Houghton-Mifflin.
135
 Millis, B.J., and Cottels, P.G. (1998). “Co-operative Learning for Higher education faculty,
Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press.
 Wilbert k. & McKeachie, (1999) Teaching Tips; Strategies, research and theory for college
and university teachers, Houghton-Mifflin Company, Boston, M. A.
 Echevarria, J., M.E, Vogt, and D. Short (2004).” Making content comprehensible for English
language learners”,2nd Edition. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
 Hermin, M., and Toth, (2006).” Inspiring active learning: A complete handbook for teachers,
Alexandria, VA: Association for supervision & Curriculum development”. ASCD.
 P.A, Mabrouk, ed. (2007), “Active Learning: Models from the analytical sciences”, ACS,
Symposium series 970, Chapter 4, PP. 34-53, Washington, DC: American Chemical Society.
 Felder, Richard and Rebecca Brent, (2009) “Active Learning: An Introduction.” ASQ Higher
Education Brief. 2(4)
 Mulcahy C.M. et.al. (2015), Pedagogy, Praxis & Purpose in education by Routledge, Taylor
& Francis.
Additional resources
 “Center for Teaching Excellence”, VCU, Accessed on July 14, 2016
http://www.vcu.edu/cte/resources/active learning.html
 “Active learning in classrooms ”Prepared by Michelle Schwartz, Research Associate, For the
Learning & Teaching Office, retrieved from http://www.ryerson.ca/It/taga/index.html
Videos
Kaur Amandeep ,Active Learning, Published on June 26,2017 on You Tube
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lEnZi-tMsl0&t=575s
***
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UNIT 3.6
Role of Media in Classroom

Communication
“We need technology in every classroom and in every student and teacher’s
hand, because it is the pen and paper of our time, and it is the lens through
which we experience much of our world.”
(David Warlick)
3.6.1 Media: Concept, types and purposes

3.6.2 Digital Media in Teaching Learning
137
3.6.1 Media: Concept, Types and Purposes
After reading this Unit, you will be able to:
Learning Outcomes
- Explain the concept of media

- Enlist various types of media
- Compare the characteristics, advantages and disadvantages of various media
types
- Explain the factors to be considered in selection of media
- Explain the Importance of media in classroom
- Describe the uses of media in classroom
3.6.1.1 Concept of Media

Media especially information and communication technologies have radically changed the
way in which people communicate and connect with each other.21st century learners are
considered to be more tech savvy and express themselves on social media through images
and pictures. Media can play an important role in classroom communication by enhancing
the effectiveness and in turn assessing achievements of learning outcomes. The word media
is plural of word medium and represents channel of communication and it refers to anything
that carries information between a source and a receiver (Dewdney & Ride, 2006, Flew,
2004, Heinich, 1996). More specifically, it has been defined as physical means of
communication i.e. Printed, graphic, photographic, electronic, mechanical or other means of
arresting, processing and re-constituting experience for the learners. Media in classroom is
the effective way to present instructions to students’.
Communicating effectively involves use of oral, written, and nonverbal communication skills
for multiple purposes and integrating technology in the process of communication. Various
types of Media are used in classroom for delivering instruction, to achieve learning outcomes.
The use of media in teaching learning can help the teacher in gaining attention, arousing and
sustaining motivation level of students, presenting information, delivering instruction to
students.
3.6.1.2 Types of Media
Kemp and Smellie (1989), classified media into the following categories:
- Printed materials (textbooks, manual, teacher’s guide, student’s guide, information
brochure etc.)
- Overhead Transparencies
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- Audio recordings
- Slides and Filmstrips
- Multi-image presentations
- Videotape Recordings and Videodiscs
- Interactive Learning Media
Another broad classification of media can be:

- Printed media (Books, reference material, manual, instructional sheets etc.)
- Non printed media
- Projected Media- Slides, PowerPoint presentations, videos etc.
- Non projected Media – chalks, models, relia etc.
The explanation, purposes, advantages and disadvantages of some selected instructional
media are given in table 6.1.1:
Table 3.6.1.1: Media in classroom communication

Media Purpose Advantages Disadvantages
PRINTED MATERIALS To attain objectives in - Provides common body of - Bars learners to

1.1 TEXT BOOK: Text book is cognitive and affective information arranged in a think, to do their own
normally based on a domain logical order organization and to
predetermined course of To cater to individual - Helps in individualization arrive at their
study or syllabus. It is differences of instruction independent
characterized by its To promote independent - Chapter summaries, conclusions
selective and systematic study questions to be answered - May promotes rote
organization of essentials, and associated learning learning
coherence and sequence activities guide for - Not interactive
among those essentials and studying of information.
effort at simplification to - Economical, as can be
the degree that suits the used and reused.
intended - Students without reading
problems can acquire
information quickly and
efficiently.
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1.2 HAND-OUT: Handout may To motivate Learners - Easy to prepare - Require production
contain: To reinforce the - Facilitates detailed notes- - Non interactive
- Summary of the subject information taking
matter to be dealt To develop study habits - Act as guide for further
- Supplementary information To evaluate Learners reading
- Instructions for conducting - Provide structure to
experiment, operating a learning
machine etc.
- Assignment for learners
- Reference materials
1.3 WORK BOOK: It is text To evaluate Learners - Provide structured - Costly because
produced for use by an To identify gap for Learning experience to requires production
individual Learner as a remedial instruction Learners - Non-interactive
study guide-cum-exercise To provide practice to the - Encourages individual
book. It usually incorporates learner practice
exercises, problems,
practice material etc.
1.4 MANUAL: Manual To prepare Learners to - Provides step-by-step Not interactive

contains complete perform experiments or guidance to learners for
information on a group of tasks performing an experiment
experiments or tasks as to or a task
be learnt by the learner. - Learner can learn on his
own
GRAPHIC MATERIAL: It conveys information in - Easy to construct - Small size

Graphics are the condensed and - Easy to comprehend - Require accurate
combination of symbols, summarized form - Focus attention of reading skills on the
words, pictures and drawing To help in focusing learners part of the learner
that summarize significant attention - Economical
information and ideas. It To provide better visual
consists of: perception to learners
To evaluate learners
GRAPH: A graph is a visual Line graph is particularly
presentation of numerical useful in plotting trends
data. Graphs can be: and relationships
- Line graphs Bar graph provide direct
- Bar graphs comparison quantitative
- Circle or pie graph data at specified intervals
- Pictorial graph of time
Circle graphs are useful
in comparing parts of a
whole
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Simplified drawings give
graph realism and
interest appeal
CHARTS: A chart is a - Facts, figures and - Simplicity - Small size

combination of pictorial, statistics are used to - Economical - Problem of storage
graphic, numerical or verbal show relationships. - Easy to prepare
materials designed to - Information is - Aid to memory
present a clear visual summarized.
summary of an important - To show continuity in
process or set of process
relationships. - Development of
structures is shown.
Charts can be: - It stimulate Imaginative
- Outline and Tabular chart thinking and increase
- Time-line charts motivation level of
- Tree or stream charts students.
- Flow or organization charts
- Technical Diagrams
- Process Diagrams
POSTER: A poster is a - Very catch and hold the - Vivid and attractive Small size
combination (Visual) of bold attention of students - Economical
design, color and message. - To reinforce a significant - Present single idea
idea in the minds of the - Easy availability
Learners
- To develop appropriate
attitudes
MAPS AND GLOBES: - To provide location data - Easily available - Symbols used in
- MAPS: A map is a flat - To facilitate independent - Give an accurate and maps and globes
representation of some or all study reliable information have little or no
of the earth’s surface - To provide better visual relationship to reality
- GLOBE: It is a spherical perception to students - Requires special
model of the earth skills to read and
interpret maps and
globes
2.5 PICTURES: A flat picture is - To introduce and - Easy availability - Small size
a still, opaque motivate students for - Easy to prepare - Lack of depth
representation of a scene or study of new topics - Economical - Lack of motion
object-such as photograph, - To develop ability to - Make inaccessible
drawing, painting or contrast and compare accessible to learners
textbook illustration - To develop skills of
inferring continuity
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- To stimulate creative
expression
- To supplement verbal
information
TRANSPARENCIES, To present verbal - Easy to prepare - Require equipment

SLIDES AND FILM information. - Easy to handle for projection
STRIPS: To show progressive - Economical - Their use require
3.1 TRANSPARENCIES: It is a development of a theme - Under full control of training in operating
piece of triacetate or plastic To stimulate student teacher OHP
sheet (cellophane) of attention - Flexibility in use - Problem of storage
10’x10’ with image area of Progressive disclosure - Teacher can maintain eye
7½ ‘x ½ ‘ approximately of the content is contact with Learners
possible
SLIDES: A slide is a film To present visual - Easy to prepare - Slides are expensive
transparency contained in information - Economical - Their preparation
either a 2”x2” or 2½ “x2½” To teach a skill - Flexibility in use demands knowledge
50 x 50 mm Useful for individual and and skill in
group instruction photography
To generate discussion - Require equipment
in the class for projection
FILMSTRIPS: A filmstrip is For sequential - Relatively inexpensive - Sequence is fixed

a sequence of related still development of topic - Simple to operate - Lack of motion
pictures imprinted on a strip Can be used at a - Relatively trouble free - Difficult to prepare
of transparent 35 mm film desired pace - Require equipment
To provide individual for projection
and group instruction - Audio tapes are to
To teach a skill be produced for
To stimulate imagination individualized
instruction
AURAL AIDS: RADIO, To communicate verbal - Simple to operate - Applicable only when
TAPE, RECORDINGS ETC. information, interviews, - Facilitate independent subject matter does
discussions by eminent learning not require personal
experts interaction and
To provide feedback to visual presentation
improve language skills,
discussion techniques
and interview
techniques
MOTION PICTURES – To attain cognitive, - Provide true-to life - Development of skill
142
FILM psychomotor and experiences require repetitive
A motion picture film is affective objectives of - Depict motion and showing of film
simply a long strip of film learning continuity - Require special
containing a sequence of To help recreate real or - Bring accessible to physical facilities
still photograph, each of imagined events, classrooms - Require expensive
which is called a frame. actions or processes projection equipment
Images can be produced in that have occurred that - Difficult to prepare
numerous films sizes may possibly occur or - Require training on
namely 70 mm, 35 mm,16 that may not be capable the part of teacher to
mm or 8 mm of occurring in real life. operate associated
To evaluate students equipment
To hold attention of
learner and maintain
interest
Enhance retention
To provide individual
and group instruction
VIDEO PROGRAMMES: In addition to the above, - Provide true-to-life - Production involves

Video tape system, enlisted uses for motion experiences expensive
including video cassettes, is pictures, it can be used - Depict motion and equipment
replacing the use of films, in as a medium and as a continuity - Use in classroom
classrooms. Though ½ inch teaching learning tool. - Bring inaccessible to requires special
reel to reel equipment is classrooms physical facilities.
popular for inexpensive and - Used for independent
convenient local production learning
work, the ¾ inch video - Easy to handle
cassettes has become
nearly a standard for
distribution and utilization of
videotapes for presentation
of motion picture
COMPUTER SOFTWARE: To present information, - Promote independent - Very expensive

Computer programme for programmed materials learning - Requires lot of
instruction is a sequence of and visual illustrations - Allow self-pacing training and
carefully constructed items To evaluate learners - Easy to operate experience
which leads a student to To provide remedial - Allow self-pacing
mastery of a subject with instruction - Easy to operate
minimum error Learner can move at his - Allows learning in
own pace simulated situation without
risks
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SPECIMENS, MODELS To provide opportunities Permits direct Small size
AND EXPERIMENTAL for in-depth study observation and study
KITS To provide opportunities
8.1 SPECIMENS: Specimens for making comparisons
are objectives that are and generalizations
representative of a group or
class of similar objects
MODELS: A model is a To enhance instruction - Prepared at a reasonable - Time consuming

recognizable three To help in learning, cost - May mislead the
dimensional likeness or concepts, principles, - Makes inaccessible learner as for as size
representation of a real structures etc. accessible to the learners of real object,
thing To help in equipment etc. is
understanding concerned
inaccessible and
abstract ideas
EXPERIMENTAL KITS: To help in - Compact - Requires

Consists of a package that understanding various - Promotes independent resources
permits conducts of a concepts and principles learning
number of experiments
MOCK-UPS: A mock-up To train learners in - Provide real-life - Time consuming

may be defined as a full those areas which experience without risk in - Requires lot of
scale operating model involve risks. simulated situation resources
where students can work To enable learner, - Active involvement of
directly for specific training understand the learner
and analysis. problems without risking
his life of assets or
equipment
To train learners in
cooperative activities
REALIA: To enable learner to - Results in effective - Difficult to acquire

It means the real things develop basic concepts, learning - They may be too
objects, or processes principles or - Easy availability complex, too heavy,
procedures. - Economical too costly or too
Provide firsthand dangerous to use.
experience to the
learner
Sources: Boric, 2002, Kemp, 1998, Mehran, 1992, Chandra, 1989, McCartney, 1973.
144
PRACTICE TASK
1. Define Media
2. Name three printed media that can be easily used in classroom.
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FEEDBACK
1. Media is a channel of communication, that carries information between a source and a

receiver.
2. Different Printed Media are:
- Text book
- Handout
- Workbook
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3.6.1.3 Selection of Media
Once the teacher has specified the objectives, decided learning activities and select
instructional method, the next step is to select appropriate media. Selection of media is an
important decision and a number of factors are to be taken into consideration The following
factors need consideration in selection of media:
I. Nature of the Learning Task

The nature of the learning task is given by the objectives or learning outcomes.
Objectives may fall in the cognitive, affective or psychomotor domains.
Learning activities involving various types of experiences are designed for
achieving the objectives. Each medium has its own àttributes’ i.e. capabilities
to show symbolic representation, motion, colour, simultaneous picture and
sound etc. Some media lend themselves better than other for achieving the
desired objectives. A media of instruction, therefore, must be selected on the
basis of its potential for achieving a stated objective.
II. Mode of Teaching/Learning

The mode of teaching/learning i.e. large group interaction, small group
interaction and independent study for individual student is another factor to be
considered in the selection of media. For example, the use of chart may not
be appropriate for presentation to a large group because of the constraints of
visibility by the learners, particularly those seated in the rear of the classroom.
III. Learner Characteristics

There are variations among learners in respect of their age, cultural
environment, past experiences, physical, mental and emotional make-up,
goals, needs etc. Furthermore, different learners have different `learning
styles’. Learners’ characteristics, therefore, merit consideration in selection of
media. Learners benefit from those media which match their individual
`learning styles’. However, it might not be feasible or economical to provide
enough parallel media packages for each lesson.
IV. Cost and Technology Resources

The media selected must be within the budget and technology resources
available.
147
V. Practical Factors
Some of the practical factors to be considered in the selection of media are:
 The range of viewing and hearing distance for the use of the media.
 Ease of ìnterrupting’ media to permit learner response and provide feedback.
 Availability of class-room facilities such as suitable furniture, power sockets, curtains
etc. to permit the use of different media.
 Teacher support for obtaining required hardware and software, setting it up in the
class room and returning it after use.
 `Back up’ or `Stand-by’ facilities available in case of failure of equipment, power etc.
 Teacher competence for operating required hardware.
148
PRACTICE TASK
1. Explain the factors need to consider while selecting media for classroom use.
149
FEEDBACK
1. Different Factors that effect that need to be consider while using media in classroom are:
 The range of viewing and hearing distance for the use of the media.
 Ease of ìnterrupting’ media to permit learner response and provide feedback.
 Availability of class-room facilities such as suitable furniture, power sockets, curtains etc. to
permit the use of different media.
 Teacher support for obtaining required hardware and software, setting it up in the class room
and returning it after use.
 `Back up’ or `Stand-by’ facilities available in case of failure of equipment, power etc.
 Teacher competence for operating required hardware.
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3.6.1.4 Purposes served by Media in Classroom
In classroom media can be used by teacher and student both. Teacher can encourage the
students to read print material, show them any educational video and clip which help the
students to understand the content. In classrooms media can also be generated by the
students. Now a day’s the students can create videos, write blogs, and are active
participants of various social networking sites such as twitter, Instagram, WhatsApp which
they are also using for academic purpose. Various purposes served by media in classroom
are:
- Gain attention of learners.
- Arouse and sustain motivation of learners.
- Enhance involvement of learners in classroom activities or development of learner.
- Reinforce learner.
- Enhance interaction among learners.
(Locatis, C.N. & Atkinson 1996, Heinichet.al,1996, Mohan et.al,2001)
151
PRACTICE TASK
1. Explain the significance of media in classroom.
152
153
FEEDBACK
1. Some of the advantages of using media in classrooms are as follows:
- Media enhance the effectiveness of communication if it is properly designed, skillfully
produced and effectively used have great influence on teaching learning
- It increases interest, hold attention and clarify ideas.
- It reinforces the concepts, increase memory, add tone and also save times.
- The additional support of media in classroom enhance learning.
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References
 Leedham, J., Gibson, T & McArtney T. (1973). Educational Technology: A first Look. Bath
UK: Pitman Publishing.
 Sampath, K et al. (1981), ‘Introduction to Educational Technology’. New Delhi: Sterling
Publishers Pvt. Ltd., ISBN: 9788120731394.
 Smellie Don C. Kemp Jerrold E. (1989) “Planning, Producing, and Using Instructional Media”
Harper & Row; 6Rev Ed edition, NY, ISBN-13: 978-0060435929.
 Locatis, C. N. & Atkinson, F. D. (1990). Media and Technology for Education & Training.
Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing company.
 MEHRA, V. (1992). Instructional System Design an Innovation in Educational Technology.
Delhi: S. S. Publishers
 Heinich, R. et al. (1996). Instructional Media and Technologies for Learning. New Jersey:
Prentice Hall, inc.
 Wisker. C & Brown, S. (1996). Enabling Student Learning: System and Strategies. London:
Kogan Page.
 Chandra, A., Shah, A & Joshi, U. (1998). Fundamentals of Teaching Home Science. New
Delhi: Sterling Publishers, Private Limited.
 Kemp, J. E. & Daylon, D. K. (1998). Planning and Producing Instructional Media New York:
Harper & Row Publishers.
 Mohan, T. et al. (2001). Communicating Theory & Practice Australia: Thomson,
 Dewdney, A. & Ride, P. (2006). The New Media Handbook. London & New York: Routledge.
 Flew, T. (2009). New Media an Introduction. Oxford University Press.
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
 J.Shilpa (2014),” New media technology in education -a genre of outreach learning”, Global
Media Journal-Indian Edition, Sponsored by the University of Calcutta, Vol. 5/No. 1,ISSN
2249 – 5835.
 “The importance of media in classroom”,Retreived on 6/9/2018 from
https://us.corwin.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/6635_tileston_9_ch_1.pdf
***
155
3.6.2 DIGITAL MEDIA IN TEACHING LEARNING
Learning Outcomes
- Explain the concept of Digital media

- Enlist various types of Digital media tools
- Explain the Importance of digital media in classroom
- Explain the factors to be considered while using digital media in classroom
3.6.2.1 INTRODUCTION: Digital Media
In the current age of globalization, digital media is becoming extremely important to prepare
the students of 21st century (Center for Digital Education,2007). Technologies such as
internet facility, web conferencing, social media such as facebook, twitter, blogs and wikis
and other educational devices are the factors that change the role of teachers in educational
environment. Keeping in view, the current scenario of technical education system, it
demands the new trends in teaching about the concepts of engineering and technology
which can help the learners to be a technocrat with good understanding of subject matter
and friendly to use various digital media tools.
Digital media includes any format or devices used to convey content using signals in simple
terms the electronics ways to capture, process, store and communicate the information
(Jankowska ,2004). It is referred to as accessing, storing, managing, retrieving, creating and
communicating digital information.
3.6.2.2 Types of Digital Media Tools
Media integration is consistently referred to as a relatively new phenomenon in education.

Although complete media integration is not yet commonplace in classroom throughout the
country due to the lack of infrastructure resources and knowledge about different ICT tools
that are available to the teacher now a days.
Literature suggested different classification of digital media tools. Lim and Tay in 2003,
classified media into the following categories:
I. Communicative tools
These tools allow the students to communicate with the teacher and peers outside
the physical classrooms. These tools are most suitable for the activities that require
some time to think before giving the response (Chen, Hsu and Hung,2000).
156
II. Informative tools
The tools are considered as a passive collection of information. Tools and
information resources of the existing internet resources are the example of
informative tools (Chen, Hsu and Hung, 1999).
III. Situating Tools
Multi used domain, virtual reality and simulation are involved in situating tools that
helps to increase student’s ability to use the concepts of the discipline in real practice
(Phillips, 2004).
IV. Constructive tools
The tools that helps to create text, graphics, videos, virtual realities.
V. Collaborative tools
These are the tools that provides flexibility of one to one communication, one to
many communication or many to many communications mainly in online learning
environment (Lee, 2002).
Digital media tools i.e Information and communication technologies have brought revolution
in every aspect of life including education. The range of alternatives available include (Refer
Table3. 6.2.1):
Table 3.6.2.1: Various media tools and their uses

S. No. Media tools Uses
Information Providers
1. TedEd(Podcast) Variation of TED Talks that offers shorter animated clips of
subjects such as science, technology, social studies, etc. A
platform where different communities can collaborate.
https://ed.ted.com
2. YouTube No. of videos based lectures, recorded academics talks are
available on YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com
3. Slide share Slide Share is a hosting service for professional content
including presentations, infographics, documents, and videos.
https://www.slideshare.net/
Classroom interaction Tools
4. Edmodo Edmodo is where teachers and students communicate, maintain
calendars and posts any information.
https://www.edmodo.com
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5. Google+ The site has best graphics & themes, and provide opportunity to
have interactions among students and teachers by generating a
circle on their own to connect.
https://accounts.google.com
6. Teacher Tube A free community platform to share instructional content and
videos of all sorts of started from very basics to more
complicated work.
https://www.teachertube.com
7. Sgrouples Users can create their own group and share information.
Information shared within the group not for everyone.
https://twitter.com/sgrouples
8. Class Dojo Class Dojo is a classroom communication app used to share

reports between parents and teachers. Teachers track student
behaviour and upload photos or videos. The gamification style
system teaches developmental skills through real-time feedback.
https://www.classdojo.com
9. WordPress On WordPress teachers can set up a web of communication and

lessons with their students. Teachers can use it to create their
own blogs to inspire students.
https://wordpress.com
Social Networking Media
10. Facebook Separate accounts have been created by teacher and students
to connect with each other for academic purposes.
https://www.facebook.com
11. Twitter Twitter is being used for academic purpose by pasting quotes for
the students to increase their motivation level and also serve as
a reminder tool to pass / remind information.
https://twitter.com
12. Instagram The features of Instagram like photos and effects available for
them, the students are sharing academic photos such as posters
to present in conference, create pictorial presentations also.
https://www.instagram.com
13. Blog Using blogs teachers can put lessons, links, and also promote
writing skills among students by giving them such assignments.
https://www.blogger.com
14. Skype Skype promote and develop virtual connections among
academic communities. Most of the time it is used to do video
conferencing.https://www.skype.com/en/
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15. Myspace A largest social networking site in the world. It offers an
interactive, user-submitted network for personal profiles, blogs,
groups, photos, music, and videos.
https://myspace.com/
16. Labroots Lab Root is a social networking site that allows peers, students
to interact with each other majorly technical professionals,
engineers’ and scientists. The site is a precious tool which
provides information.
https://www.labroots.com/
Research Information Sharing
17. Academia.edu The main purpose is to share research in various fields.
www.academia.edu/
18. Research Gate Platform to collaborate for research ad share research
information/result globally.
https://www.researchgate.net/
Interaction with Professional
19. LinkedIn Information about the world of work can easily be assessed with
the help of this professional platform where students can also
apply for jobs by posting resumes.
https://www.linkedin.com/
20. edConnectr A visual mapping engine that save valuable time and energy of
educators by narrows down certain criteria helps them to find
like-minded educators.
https://twitter.com/edconnectr?lang=en
Video/Audio Media Preparation
21. Vimeo based There are no. of video making tools available which helps the
tool students to create video of their projects, role plays, etc.
https://vimeo.com/blog/category/video-school
22. Pinterest Pinterest allows the teachers to create their pages for classes by
using different themes available on that.
https://www.pinterest.com
23. Prezi Prezi is a presentation software. Instead of explaining slide by
slide, conversational presenting can be achieved using a single
space.
https://prezi.com/
24. PowToon Animated videos and animated presentations can be created by
using this cloud-based software. https://www.powtoon.com/
159
25. Podcast podcast is a " digital recording of a radio broadcast or similar
program, made available on the internet for downloading to a
personal audio payer." in other words, it is a digital audio file that
is created, shared and heard. Podcast can also be in the form of
videos streamlined online, however, video podcast is known as
vidcast or vodcast. (You can check different Podcast that can be
easily used in education on the link below
(https://www.opencolleges.edu.au/informed/features/50-
educational-podcasts-you-should-check-out/)
26. Web based VR technology has delivered an effective means through which
virtual reality digitisation and audio-visual aids can be more effectively
tools harnessed to address current requirements of education and
required outcome. http://virtualrealityforeducation.com/resources/
Visualisation tools
27. Visualisation Fusion Charts
tools
Chart.js
Leaflet
NVD3
D3.js
Evaluation tools
28. Online Plickers

Evaluation Tools
Google forms https://www.plickers.com/
https://docs.google.com/forms
Media Preparation
29. Writing tools One note, Scrivener
30. Online board Trello https://twitter.com/trello

Hubspot https://www.hubspot.com
Blackboard https://www.blackboard.com/index.html
31. Online learning - Swayam- https://swayam.gov.in/
platform
- NPTEL- https://onlinecourses.nptel.ac.in/
- MOOCs- http://mooc.org/
- Edx - https://www.edx.org/
- Coursera- https://www.coursera.org/
- Udacity - https://in.udacity.com/
- Udemy - https://www.udemy.com/
- Khan academy - https://www.khanacademy.org/
- Skillshare - https://www.skillshare.com/
160
- Harvard University - https://online-learning.harvard.edu/
- Ted - https://ed.ted.com/
- Alison - https://alison.com/
- Future learn - https://www.futurelearn.com/
- Web Development - https://digitaldefynd.com/best-free-web-
development-course…/
- Digital Marketing - https://digitaldefynd.com/best-free-digital-
marketing-cert…/
- ios app development - https://digitaldefynd.com/best-ios-app-
development-course-…/
- Open Learn - http://www.open.edu/openlearn/
- Future Learn - https://www.futurelearn.com/
- Tuts Plus - https://tutsplus.com/

- Open Culture - http://www.openculture.com/
161
PRACTICE TASK
1. Define Digital Media

2. Name three Digital Media tools that can be easily used in classroom.
3. Match the following:
Column I Column II
A. Podcast 1. Facebook
B. Social Media 2. Google Form
C. Evaluation tool 3. Slide Share
D. Animated videos 4. TedEd
E. Presentation Software 5. Powtoon
162
163
FEEDBACK
1. Media is a channel of communication that carries information between a source and a

receiver.
2. Different Digital Media tools are:
- Google Forms
- WhatsApp
- You tube
3.
Column I Column II
A. 4
B. 1
C. 2
D. 5
E. 3
164
3.6.2.3 Advantages of using Digital Media in Classroom
- The digital media tools could be used for storage of information, online interaction,
collaborative learning and improvement of interest in learning, Communication
without boundaries, research, information catalogues and innovation in the new
world.
- Due to the connectivity available by using different media tools regardless of time
and space the information can be spread to the large audiences at a speedy rate.
- The social media such as YouTube, twitter and Facebook can be easily used for
creating a discussion in the classroom. These are the fastest way of finding
information that might be of great value for all students.
- The blogs/Wikipedia can be utilized to encourage creative writing and to enrich
grammar skills. The blogs are also employed as project life cycle management tools
as well as collaborative document building.
- Animation and simulations enhanced understanding and create information in
various forms.
(Heinchi et al.1996, kemp and daylon, 1998, Kemp & Smellie, 1989)
3.6.2.4 Factors to Consider while using Digital media in Classroom

Digital media could play a vital role in education and help both teacher and students
to maximize their knowledge. Some of the factors that needs to be consider while
using media in classrooms are:
- Media enhance the effectiveness of communication if it is properly designed, skillfully
produced and effectively used have great influence on teaching learning. Ethical use
of media must be kept into consideration.
- Media give students something new, but not all of teachers know how to implement it
correctly, so sometimes media disturb learning process instead of helping students
to achieve learning goals.
- Always start small, teacher can use PowerPoint Presentation, may be find one video
to show. When teacher and students both are comfortable then expand the use of
media
- The media is used to enhance learning, so carefully integrate media in classroom.
Initial impact of usage need to be evaluated after collecting feedback.
165
- Most of the students use digital media for personal purposes and not for learning. So,
the role of teacher is not just to define or dictate ideas, generate or assign contents,
but also to help every learner to construct learning path
- Computer mediated communication such as email, blogs, wikis do not have the
capacity to support social and affective interaction because they lack the ability to
process ambiguous content.
- Use media as per the demand of the content and what are the expectations of
students. Present material under the best possible environmental conditions.
Nonverbal cues increases speaker –listener interactions so people prefer face to
face communication for complex task as compare to online interaction.
- In India there is an increase of ‘digital gap or knowledge” between those who have
the knowledge as well as access of the media and those who have no knowledge
and access of media. Before introducing media teacher must know how to use it.
166
PRACTICE TASK
1. Explain the limitations of digital media usage in classroom.
167
FEEDBACK
 Training Is required which helps the teachers to properly plan their class by
integrating media
 If the teacher fails to help learner to decide their learning goals students can use
media for nonacademic purposes.
 For complex task and content there is a need to plan more interaction on online
learning environment.
 Lack of resources and digital literacy is a major issue to integrate media in
classrooms in India.
168
References
 Clark, R. E (1983). Reconsidering research on Learning with media. Review of Educational
Research, 53 (4), 445-459.
 Smellie Don C. Kemp Jerrold E. (1989) “Planning, Producing, and Using Instructional Media”
Harper & Row; 6Rev Ed edition, NY, ISBN-13: 978-0060435929.
 Locatis, C. N. & Atkinson, F. D. (1990). Media and Technology for Education & Training.
Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company.
 Clark, R.E (1994). Media will never influence learning. Educational Technology Research
and Development, 42 (2), 21-29.
 Heinich, R. et al. (1996). Instructional Media and Technologies for Learning. New Jersey:
Prentice Hall, inc.
 Kemp, J. E. & Daylon, D. K. (1998). Planning and Producing Instructional Media New York:
Harper & Row Publishers.
 Flew, T. (2009). New Media an Introduction. Oxford University Press.
 Blair N. (2012). Technology integration for the new 21st century learner. Principal, 91 (3), 8-
13 Retrieved from http://msorgel.pbworks.com/w/file/fetch/77869535/Tech%20 Article%209
doc.
 Bansal, D. & Dhananjay Joshi, T. (2014). A study of Students experiences of whatsapp
mobile learning. Global Journal of Human Social science Research, 14(4).
 Dambal, A., Nimbal, N. Kalsad, S.T., Rajeshekhar, R.K., Bhavne, A., Pise, G., Dhadeti, S.
(2015). Perceptions of Interns towards a module for teaching medical ethics using android
smartphone application whatsapp.
 Gambari, A.I., Yusuf, H.T., & Balogun, S.A. (2015). Effectiveness of Power point
Presentation on students, cognitive achievement in Technical drawing, Malaysian online
Journal of Educational Technology, 3(4), 1-12. Lim, C.P., & Tay, L.Y (2003)
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
 Yousif Abdelraheem Ahmed, Mohammed Ahmed Abdelrahman (2015),” Electronic Social

Media in Teaching: Usages, Benefits, and Barriers as Viewed by Sudanese Faculty
Members”, American International Journal of Social Science Vol. 4, No. 5; ISSN 2325-4149
(Print), 2325, Center for Promoting Ideas, USA.
 Chawinga Winner Dominic (2017), “Taking social media to a university classroom: teaching
and learning using Twitter and blogs” International Journal of Educational Technology in
Higher Education, DOI 10.1186/s41239-017-0041-6.
Videos
• Muller Derek, Physicist, Filmmaker and Television Presenter, How is Social Media
Transforming the Future of Education? World Government Summit ,Published on Feb 9,
2016 on youtube.com
• Dutta Maityree, Media tools for teaching Learning, Published on May 27,2018 on You tube ,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oiBhxnBDtvk
***
169
UNIT 3.7
Use of Board
(Whiteboard/Blackboard)
“The inventor or introducer of the system deserves to be ranked among the

best contributor to learning and science, if not among the greatest benefactors
of mankind.”
(Krause, D.A)
170
3.7 USE OF BOARD (WHITEBOARD/BLACKBOARD)
Learning Outcomes
- Explain the concept of board (white/black).

- Assess the advantages of using board effectively.
- Assess the disadvantages of using board only as a classroom instructional medium.
- Explain how board can be effectively used in classroom.
- Explain various methods of using the board in the classroom.
3.7.1 Concept of Using Board in Classroom (White/Black)
Even today when the teacher can use many visual aids like smart boards, LCD projector,
board (whiteboard/blackboard) still remains the most widely used instructional medium in
classroom. It helps the teacher to present written and visual ideas, has had a profound
impact on pedagogy since ages (Avenia T.2012). Despite the new technology and devices
used in the field of education till date it remains irreplaceable. Being teachers, we all agree
that it helps us for making instructions concrete and understandable.
There is no much difference in principles or factors for using either white or blackboard that
must be followed by the teacher to make a presentation effective. The available literature for
the chalkboard also supports the effective utilization of the whiteboard.
(Author’s viewpoint)
As the board (whiteboard/blackboard) usually available in every classroom teacher should

plan and practice board presentations in the same way they plan and practice the use of
other teaching aids.
Definition
A whiteboard is a non- electronic variation of the traditional “rewriteable” classroom

blackboard but is white instead of black and of a material that can be written on with
coloured makers known as dry erase markers.
171
3.7.2 Advantages of Using Board
“The inventor or introducer of the system deserves to be ranked among the best contributor
to learning and science, if not among the greatest benefactors of mankind.
(Krause, D.A 2000)
In 21st century the use of various teaching aids and media such as blogs, discussion boards
and smart boards are increased but yet classrooms still thrive when stripped down to the
basic chalk/marker and a board (white board / black board).
The advantages of using this visual aid are:
- Board whether whiteboard /blackboard is easily available at very low cost which is also
simple in use, require minimum maintenance, flexible to use and very economical
educational Technology. (Baratram, A.W., 1981)
- The teacher can develop his/her lesson at a pace the students’ can understand and also by
considering the type of the content i.e. verbal pattern, diagram, numerical problem etc.
- The board (white board / black board) eliminate the urge to feed information forcefully. The
teacher can present any information to students’ any time they demanded as well as if
he/she thought it is required.
- For students, board (white board / black board) is a mean of self-expression and self-
participation.
- While using the board teacher can obtain immediate feedback from students by analysing
their body language and by asking questions to the students. It also Increases the rate of
interaction between teacher and students
- By sketches, diagrams, outlines it is easy to clear confusing verbalism and also help the
teachers to present information. (C Karan Fuson, T Stephen Smith, 1996)
3.7.3 Disadvantages of Using Board
- The teacher is the only source to provide the information.

- The traditional boards (white board / black board) do not allow the information to be stored.
Only those students are benefitted who are present in the class.
- Board (whiteboard/blackboard) must not be the only aid used by teacher, some other
teaching aids also need to be used depending upon the nature of the subject.
- Sometimes it is not possible for the teacher to take care of individual needs of the students.
172
PRACTICE TASK
1. Define Board (White/Black).
2. Enlist advantages and disadvantages of using board (whiteboard/blackboard) in classroom.
173
FEEDBACK
1. A whiteboard is a non- electronic variation of the traditional “rewriteable” classroom

blackboard but is white instead of black and of a material that can be written on with
coloured makers known as dry erase markers.
2. The advantages of using this board (White/Black) are:
- Board whether whiteboard /blackboard is easily available at very low cost which is also
simple in use, require minimum maintenance, flexible to use and very economical
educational Technology.
- The teacher can develop his/her lesson at a pace the students’ can understand and also by
considering the type of the content i.e. verbal pattern, diagram, numerical problem etc.
- It eliminates the urge to feed information forcefully. The teacher can present any information
to students’ any time they demanded as well as if s/he thought it is required.
- For students, board (white board / black board) is a mean of self-expression and self-
participation.
- While using the board teacher can obtain immediate feedback from students by analysing
their body language and by asking questions to the students. It also Increases the rate of
interaction between teacher and students
- By sketches, diagrams, outlines it is easy to clear confusing verbalism and also help the
teachers to present information.
The disadvantages of using board (White/Black) are:
- The teacher is the only source to provide the information.

- The traditional boards (white board / black board) do not allow the information to be stored.
- Only those students are benefitted who are present in the class.
- Board (whiteboard/blackboard) must not be the only aid used by teacher, some other
teaching aids also need to be used depending upon the nature of the subject.
- Sometimes it is not possible for the teacher to take care of individual needs of the students.
174
3.7.4 Factors for Effective Presentation by Using Board (White board/ Black board)
Following principles/factors, if taken into consideration by teachers while working on board

(whiteboard/blackboard) would improve the effectiveness of the instruction in the classroom.
3.7.4.1 Dos’ Need to be followed While Using Board (Whiteboard/Blackboard)
i. Preplanning
- While preparing lesson plan the teacher need to decide what type of content can be best
presented by using which teaching aid. (Jadhav, V.S. et.al ,2010)
- Collect everything need for the board such as marker/chalk and duster. There must be
specific place where markers / chalk and duster can be kept.
- Keep the board clean. If the board (whiteboard/blackboard) is not clean properly, it is
possible that the information is not visible to all the students especially who are sitting in the
last row.
- It should be placed on the surface that is well lighted and the entire surface should be in
complete view even for the students who are sitting in the last row of the class.
- The board should be mounted on an appropriate height within the reach of the teacher and
visible to the students.
ii. Organisation of board space
Lesson Outcomes Title of topic Business area
1.
2. Additional
Information
3.
For e.g. Any
4. Woking area
Formula
“Develop one point at a time”.
175
iii. Writing on board (whiteboard/blackboard)
The qualities required in writing are legibility, speed and beauty. In developing legibility
consider the following aspects:
(a) Style of writing

- Writing material need to be simple and brief. Precise statements are more effective than
writing long sentences. Avoid spelling mistake.
- Keep incidental work separate from the main record. Organize the work into topics and use a
heading for each. Highlight important statements and enclose formulas/equations in
rectangle.
(b) Shape
- Keep your lettering as simple as possible and legible. Use capital letters where appropriate,
but remember that the words written in lower case are easier to read.
(c) Lettering Size

- For determining the appropriate size of letters capital and small, count paces to rear most
seat. Size of capital letters in minimum i.e. height should be four times the distance in
number of paces from the rearmost seat while it should be two and a half times the distance
for small letters.
- A letter 1-inch-high can be clearly seen at a distance of 25 feet. Appropriate size for capital
letters is 40 mm and the size of the running letter should be 22.5 mm. Use different colours
for writing.
(d) Spacing
- For increasing the legibility of handwriting, give proper space between words and lines
- Do not overcrowd the board with too much of subject matter. A few important points make a
vivid impression.
- Remove distracting material from the board so that students can concentrate on the material
being presented at that time.
- Spacing between the two written lines should be two third of the height of the capital letters.
- Write horizontally. It is better to write in small letters and leave reasonable space between
them than to write larger and have two rows of writing practically touching each other.
(e) Speed
176
- Speed is essential for good co-ordination of the board (whiteboard/blackboard) work and oral
exposition but not at the price of legibility.
(f) Sketching on board

- Complicated figures can be shown to the students by using different teaching aid e.g. with
help of power point presentation and one can also provide handout to the students
- Develop the diagrams as the lesson develops
- While developing figure/writing, it is desirable that the teacher should explain or narrate.
- Draw the diagram to explain essential principles and make it as simple as possible. For
drawing horizontal draw left to right and for drawing vertical line draw from top to bottom.
- Label the diagram neatly and dimension them properly.

(Barat Ram, A.W, 1981)
(g) Posture and Movement

- Always stand up straight. Facing the board squarely and work at eye level. To keep you
writing horizontal move while writing.
- The whole arm should be move freely from the shoulder. If only a wrist movement is used it
will result in small lettering. Work with your forearm keeping wrist rigid.
(h) Clean the board
At the end of your lecture, make sure to clean the board (whiteboard/blackboard) so as to
avoid inconvenience on the part of next teacher, clean the board properly.
3.7.4.2 Do Not Need to be followed While Using Board
- Do not use abbreviation that is not being commonly used.

- Avoid the use of extreme corner of the board for writing content.
- Do not turn your back to the student while writing is over. Stand on one side and explain the
content to the class.
- While drawing something it is permissible to look at the board because teacher is not able to
explain the content.
- Do not use double lines or underline for headings.
177
3.7.5 Different Methods of Using Boards
Board (whiteboard/blackboard) is regarded as a medium to be used by the teacher and

students both. Some of methods of using board are as follows:
3.7.5.1 Teacher-Centred Methods
This method is best to use when any new information given to the students that need to be
explicit and clear. Till date, in India most of the classrooms have been organized with
students sitting in rows with the teacher at front using board (whiteboard/blackboard) to pass
instruction to direct learning and ensuring disciplined classroom. The different method used
by the teacher for these types of instructions are:
I. Solve then explain method (Teacher centred approach): The teacher will solve
the problem on the board (whiteboard/blackboard) along with the explanation. In this
method the teachers can also integrate the technology to make students understand
the content fully.
(C. Karen Fuson, T. Stephen Smith, 1996).
II. Sequencing method: The solution of the problem need to be given in sequence
rather than the whole content presented in one go.
III. Verbal Summary notes: The teacher present the key points of the topic in writing
and develop the content explanation verbally in classroom.
(Barat Ram A.W., 1981)
3.7.5.2 Students’ centred method
Since from 1970’s teachers began to experiment with more innovative and experimental
style of teaching. Teacher can give more control to the students’ over what happened in
classroom.
In 21st century, the different teaching methods can be used with traditional board
(whiteboard/blackboard) that can facilitate the collaborative learning environment where
students’ plays an active role and use the board (whiteboard/blackboard), both in problem
solving and for the explanation of the work to each other. These student centred teaching
methods by using board (whiteboard/blackboard) are:
I. Brainstorming: By using the board the teacher can call students to generate a large
number of ideas quickly. It actively engages the students in the learning process and
178
encourage full participation as one person ideas sparks off ideas for others. The
teacher can use board (whiteboard/blackboard) for the brainstorming sessions for the
class.
II. Mind map /Concept map: To increase the rate of interaction and to engage the
students’ actively in the process of teaching learning the faculty can choose many
collaborative techniques such as mind mapping/concept mapping.
III. The teacher can call group of students to use board (whiteboard/blackboard)
for concept mapping also which will help the students to organise their
thought visually. It facilitates the teacher to identify prior knowledge, a
breakdown in understanding of different components of a topic or area of
improvement.
179
PRACTICE TASK
1. What are the various parameters teacher needs to consider while using the board in
classroom?
2. Enlist various teacher centered methods of using the board (Whiteboard/ Blackboard).
180
181
FEEDBACK
1. Preplanning
2. Organization of board space
3. Writing on board
- Style of writing
- Shape
- Lettering Size
- Spacing
- Speed
- Sketching on board
- Posture and Movement
- Clean the board
2. The different method used by the teacher are:
i. Solve then explain method (teacher centred approach): The teacher will
solve the problem on the board (whiteboard/blackboard) along with the
explanation. In this method the teachers can also integrate the technology
to make students understand the content fully.
ii. Sequencing method: The solution of the problem need to be given in
sequence rather than the whole content presented in one go.
iii. Verbal Summary notes: The teacher presents the key points of the topic
in writing and develop the content explanation verbally in classroom
182
References
 A.W. Bartram, Unesco Expert (1981), “The Chalkboard, A link between the teacher and the
learner, A training document, Training document of Institute of Education, UNRWA-Unesco.
 Menon, P.N, (1992) “Skills in delivering theory lesson (Use of Board)”, Handout Induction
programme for beginning teachers held at TTTI, Chandigarh.
 C Karen. Fuson and Stephen T. Smith (1998), North-western University, “The Chalkboard,
paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association”,
San Diego.
 Krause, D.A (2000), “Among the greatest benefactors of mankind”: What the success of the
chalkboard tells us about the future of computers in the classroom. The journal of Midwest
Modern Language Association: Computers and the Future of the Humanities, 33(2), 6-16.
 Carroll, R., (2006) “Using Technology to Improve the Traditional Chalk and Talk Lecture”
Proceedings of the 2006 Midwest Section Conference of the American Society for
Engineering Education.
 Jadhav V.S. et.al. (2010), “A Comparative Study of Blackboard Teaching with Powerpoint
Teaching in Third Year Medical Students”.
 Avenia, T. (Artist). (2012). Chalkboard Presentation Title Card (Image File)
Avenia, T. (Artist). (2012). Chalkboard Word Art (Image File)
 Barlow Tim (2012), “The end of Talk and Chalk”, Journal of Teaching Science, Volume 58,
No. 1 PP 54-57, and Retrieved on http://mrbarlowtiles, wordpress.com/2008/04/chalk-and
talk.
 Conway Christopher (2013), “That Old Chalkboard Mojo, retrieved on 31st May (2017) from
http://www.insidehiered.com /views/2013/04/01 essay-teaching-value chalkboards view
exclusive AAVP compensation survey data.
 Mikics David (2015), “Digital Learning is-a-vis Chalk & Talk learning”, Brainfeed Magazine
 Callanan J., (2015) “Whiteboard Use in Teaching”, CS 597, Computer Science Department,
Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago.
 Henry David, “Using Large Whiteboards to Facilitate Group Learning helps”, white boarding
your way to great student discussions, retrieved on 12 October, 2017 from Physics Ed.
Buffalo state. Edu/Pubs/Elem – white boarding.
 Jadhav V. S et.al (2016) ,” Comparative Study of Blackboard Teaching with PowerPoint

Teaching in Third Year Medical Students” International Journal of Current Medical and
Applied Sciences, , 11(1); 17-21.
183
 Qamhieh N, Benkraouda M. & Amrane N. (2013),”The Use of Blackboard in Teaching
General Physics Courses “(2013) International Educational Research (ISSN: 2141-5161) Vol.
4(8) pp. 569-573,DOI: http:/dx.doi.org/10.14303/er.2013.091,Available online@
http://www.interesjournals.org/ER
 Carroll Douglas R. (2006),” Using Technology to Improve the Traditional Chalk and Talk
Lecture” Proceedings of the 2006 Midwest Section Conference of the American Society for
Engineering Education
Videos
 Classroom Management 8: Using the Board, lrnteach english,Published on Aug 6,
2012https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=82YMaq1JbA0
 Using the board in ELT,Dylan Gates,Published on Jul 31, 2017,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Eb5AgCDP5vM&t=114s
184
UNIT 3.8
Feedback
“The single biggest problem in communication is the illusion that it has taken
place.”
(George Bernard )
185
3.8 FEEDBACK
“Just the right amount”
(Shute, 2008)
Learning Outcomes
- Explain the concept of feedback

- Enlist various types of feedback
- Explain four ‘W’s and one ‘H’ of feedback
- Explain the relation between Assessment and Feedback
3.8.1 Concept of feedback

In the process of Communication, the final and most important component is feedback. It is
the response given by the receiver to the sender. In order to decide effectiveness of
communication the sender needs response of the receiver. The feedback tells the sender
many things such as, whether the message is received successfully or not, whether the
choice of medium/channel was appropriate etc. If the appropriate feedback is given by the
receiver to the sender then the sender can modify, remodel his strategy of communication.
In educational institutions, the communications are more effective where feedback is applied.
With feedback, it is possible to judge to what extent the communication is getting through. It
also provides an opportunity for questioning which leads to clarification. It helps the students
as well as the teachers to maximize their potential by identifying their strength and areas for
improvement, and identify actions needs to be taken to improve performance.
Feedback can be normal in terms of summative evaluation but also provided on day to day
basis as a part of formative evaluation. When the learners and teachers do not receive an
adequate feedback in respect of their performance, it increases the uncertainty at their part.
Feedback is a term that has several definitions, it can relate to many issues and is used for
many purposes. The focus of this module is on education and research defines the
feedback in this context are as follows:
“Information that students have about their performance with the intention of guiding them in
acquiring desired attitudes and skills”.
(Westberg & Hilliard, 2013; Hattie & Timperley, 2007)
186
Taras, 2013 mentioned that feedback ultimately is what one needs in order to learn, a key to
learning. It is “a product that is presented to the learner by someone”. In simple terms, the
feedback is simply a judgement about the performance of the other.
The teacher’s job is to make ensure that students learn the way they are meant to learn.
When the teacher helps the students and shows his/her expertise, teacher is giving the
feedback that is critical to effective teaching and learning process.
3.8.2 Types of feedback
The feedback is broadly divided into two types:
i. Intrinsic feedback: Individual receives feedback from within about quality of performance
during process of completing activity.
ii. Extrinsic feedback: Information supplied about the performance of an individual by other
agents or persons about the appropriateness or accuracy of performance.
Examples of Extrinsic feedback are teacher telling students that their answer is correct,
incorrect or needs improvement, very good to very poor depending upon the nature of
learning objectives, task and process.
187
Forms of Extrinsic Feedback: Extrinsic feedback can take many forms. They are
depicted in Table 3.8.1.
Forms of feedback Description of feedback
Positive Negative
Positive and
negative feedback - Give information to an individual- Informs students of their incorrect
about correct aspects of students’ or inappropriate performance
performance
Reinforcement and Reinforcement Punishment
punishment
- Strengthens particular behavior or- Weakens particular behavior or
response response
Intended and non- Intended Non-intended
intended feedback
- Feedback received by the- Receiver of the feedback has
students is interpreted in the different perceptions from that
same way as sender wanted to intended by the sender
convey
Evaluative and non- Evaluative Non-evaluative
evaluative feedback
- Involves implicit or explicit value- Based on objective and factual
judgements about an observed criteria
performance
- Can be expressed in a non-verbal
mode.
Corrective feedback - Includes in addition to feedback, ways to correct errors
(Source: Cole & Chane, 1987)
Table 3.8.1: Different Forms of Extrinsic Feedback
188
PRACTICE TASK
1. Define Feedback.
2. What are the different types of Feedback?
189
FEEDBACK
1. Information provided to the students about their performance with the intention of guiding
them in acquiring desired attitudes and skills.
2. The feedback is broadly classified as:
i. Intrinsic Feedback
ii. Extrinsic Feedback
Different forms of extrinsic feedback are:
- Positive and Negative feedback

- Reinforcement and Punishment Feedback
- Intended and Non intended Feedback
- Evaluative and Non Evaluative Feedback
- Corrective Feedback
190
3.8.3 Four ‘W’s and one ‘H’ of feedback
Feedback is about validity; what students’ have done. There are many strategies that how
the feedback can become effective. The major parameter needs to be focused while using
feedback are:
- Why to provide feedback?

- When to provide feedback?
- Who will provide feedback?
- What to provide in feedback?
- How to provide feedback?
The explanation of these parameters are given below:
3.8.3.1 Why to provide feedback?
At Institute level mainly the feedback is provided to students’, teachers and administrators.
Following are the reasons why the feedback is being provided:
a) Feedback to students – Students must have feedback about the quality of the work they
have produced along with the clarification they require. The purpose of giving feedback is
given in Table 8.2.
Explain the students what they have done Clarify their doubts , inform, describes
Identifies strengths and weaknesses Diagnosis, differentiates, remediates
Help students to move forward Motivates, empowers, liberates
Assists in evaluation of programme Monitor, maintain standards.
(Source: University of reading, 2000)
Table 8.2: Purpose to provide feedback to students
As a result, it provides a
- basis for maintaining or improving performance
- forum for assessing need and planning additional experiences.
b) Feedback to teachers – Immediately, after the class when teacher collect the feedback
provided by the student he/she can reflect on whether the learning objectives are achieved
or not, what can be the best instructional media / method to be used while teaching. Teacher
come to know about the effectiveness of the teaching.
191
c) Feedback to administration – The feedback collected at institute level helps to maintain and
monitor standard which assists with evaluation of the programme.
3.8.3.2 When to provide Feedback?
For feedback to be effective for students, it must result into improvement in the quality of
work submitted and taken them from that point to the next level. The timing and function that
will be served by providing feedback needs to be taken into account. The feedback will be
effective only if:
- When it is provided to the students’ immediately after the completion of the task.
- The feedback must be given only after the students have made genuine attempt to complete
the task.
- When the students are engrossed in figuring out a difficult task, feedback should be delayed,
but frequent. Feedback related to task can be provided which guide the students to
complete the task (however, this does not mean to provide all the guidance which create
ease for them to complete the task).
- Sometimes, for difficult task early feedback can also be provided to students which helps in
better understanding
- For formative evaluation, the feedback provided to the students must be free from any
judgement and the purpose is to modify the thinking and behavior. It also helps, the teacher
to make decision about instructional delivery and can alter instructions if required.
- For summative evaluation, the feedback need to be provided along with the final grades /
scores of the student.
The factors that influences the way, feedback is provided is totally dependent upon the
amount of the feedback, type of task assigned and number of students. If the class size is
large, the feedback to the group can be provided immediately using oral mode and time
consideration is also taken into account for providing feedback to the individual student.
3.8.3.3 Who will provide feedback?
The feedback can be provided by –
a) Teacher to individual student – Individual feedback can be given based on particular

qualities of a students’ work and is maximum utilized by the students. Sometimes, when the
teacher tries to avoid some of the ego issues, the feedback can be provided individually in
private.
192
b) Teacher to group of students’ – Group feedback is a regular part of instruction. The group
feedback is provided:
- For performance based activities, when the students are working in groups.
- For revision on a specific task.
- When returning the work submitted by the student.
- To develop understanding for the readiness objectives of the class/lectures.
c) Self-feedback by the student

Self-generated feedback by the student might lead to reinterpretation of the task, setting up
goals again, identify tactics for improvement and using appropriate strategies. It might
influence subsequent self-regulation of the student, when according to feedback they are
ready to revise his/her knowledge domain, beliefs.
d) Peer Feedback
Peer feedback is not a peer review for evaluation. This type of feedback encourages the
students to become more introspective and reflective. It provides growth, assistance,
guidance, recognition and encouragement.
3.8.3.4 What to provide in feedback?
The feedback provided to the students must be relevant appropriately and according to the
task assigned. The decision to provide what type of feedback will depend on nature of the
task, activity structure (individual or group), level of performance. For providing the quality
feedback, following parameters need to consider:
- Feedback helps the students to acquire ‘Learning to Learn Skill’. The quality feedback
provides information about the task, in-depth analysis which present detailed errors.
- Feedback about the task needs to be more specific and timely. It must also taken into
account the current understanding and ability level of the student. It must provide the
information that facilitate the process of learning.
- The effective feedback always related to the achievement of learning objectives in particular
which helps the students to progressively develop the task in hand.
3.8.3.5 How to provide feedback?
There are three different modes that can be used to provide feedback. These are as
follows:
193
a) Oral feedback that is given orally and often in interaction with people (Brookheart, 2006).
That is more instant and influential (Clark, 2003), but it is difficult to record and may be for a
short period. Whenever, the teacher provides oral feedback he/she must have clear
judgement about how the student receive it.
b) Written feedback, Word choices should be more respectful of students as individuals and
position them as active agents of their own learning (Johnston, 2004). Much of the formal
feedback, is written and also helps to maintain a formal record of progress. The written
feedback can be given to individual students and to the group of students also. The factors
to consider while providing written feedback are:
- The message must be clear to all the students in specific tone. The purpose of feedback is
to improve the quality of work or other behavior characteristic, nor accepting the poor quality
of the work.
- The feedback must be descriptive; not to short or not too broad, just in the right amount.
- The message must convey the same meaning as intended by the teacher.
c) Non-verbal feedback, according to the definition, the non-verbal communication is based

on Learned, shared systems of acts we do, that we deem to be symbolic (Epstein & Rafi,
2004).
In the classroom situation, sometimes action speaks louder than words. The teacher can
also provide feedback with physical act of communication like body movements, expressions
and postures. Sometimes, no feedback is also feedback in itself, it would indicate
disagreement or non-acceptance of idea.
194
PRACTICE TASK
1. What are the different parameters need to consider while providing feedback to students?
2. What are the different modes, a teacher can use to provide feedback in classrooms?
195
FEEDBACK
1. For providing the quality feedback, following parameters need to consider:
- Feedback helps the students to acquire ‘Learning to Learn Skill’. The quality feedback
provides information about the task, in-depth analysis which present detailed errors.
- Feedback about the task needs to be more specific and timely and also taken into account
the current understanding and ability level of the student. It must provide the information that
facilitate the process of learning.
- The effective feedback always related to the achievement of learning objectives in particular
which helps the students to progressively develop the task in hand.
2. The different modes of feedback are:
- Oral feedback
- Written feedback
- Nonverbal feedback
196
3.8.4 Relationship between assessment and feedback
Feedback and assessment are closely related. The major purpose of the feedback is to
improve the performance level of students. In higher education the assessment of student
performance can be formative, summative, or both.
In formative assessment, feedback to students is provided in terms of their strength and

weaknesses so that they can improve their performance. It also provides information to
teachers about where students are experiencing difficulties and where to focus their teaching
efforts.
Summative assessment is any assessment which counts forwards the final grade/mark
including both final examinations and formally assessed assignments. Assessments are
considered both formative and summative when the work contributes to the final mark/grade
and when there is also the opportunity for students to improve their performance. The type
and amount of feedback will vary depending upon whether it is formative or summative. The
following are the key principles for teachers to consider when providing assessment
feedback to students:
- Format of the feedback must be in line with method of assessment.

- While providing feedback, learning objectives must be taken into account.
- The transparent system of assessment need to be followed.
- The students and teachers must agree and clearly know the criteria for assessment.
- The institute must follow the criteria prescribed by the university / board.
Reflection on assessment allow teachers to review the appropriateness of the method of

assessment being used and effectiveness of the feedback that they have provided. It can
also be very useful for students’ too because it facilitates personal development through
reflective learning and self-regulation.
197
3.8.5 Obtaining and Providing Feedback
Table 3.8.3: Summarizes the type and mode need to be used to provide and obtain quality feedback
TABLE 3.8.3: OBTAINING AND PROVIDING FEEDBACK
Task Providing Feedback Type of Feedback Obtaining Feedback Type of Feedback

Oral Written Non-verbal Summative Formative Oral Written Non-verbal Summative Formative
Assignment   --  --  -- --  
(practical
guide)
Seminar       --   -
Written Tests   --     -- -- 
Tutorial   -- --      
Practical          
Work
Group  --   --  --  -- 
Discussion
Project Work          
198
References
 Cole, PG & Chan, LKS (1987), Teaching Principles and Practice, published by Prentice Hall,
New York, pp 241-289, ISBN 07248 11893
 Tunstall, P & Gipps, C. (1996), Teacher feedback to young children in formative assessment:
A typology British Educational Research Journal, 22, 389-404.
 University of Reading (2000), Guide to policy & Procedures related matters, Section
6 :Programme related matters, http://www.reading.ac.uk/web/files/quality support/feedback
to students. Pdf accessed on 17.11.2016.
 Allington, R.I., (2002), What I’ve learned about effective reading instruction from a decade of
study exemplary elementary classroom teacher, Phi Delta Kappan, 83, 740-747.
 Clarke, S. (2003). Enriching Feedback in the primary classroom. London: Hodder and
Stoughton.
 Johnston, P.H. (2004). Choice words: How our language affects children’s Learning.
Portland, ME: Stenhouse.
 Brookhart, S.M (2006), Formative assessment strategies Johnson, P.H. (2004), Choice
words: How our language affects children learning, Portland, M.E Stem house
 Hattie, Timperley H. (2007), The Power of Feedback, Review of Educational Research, Vol
77, No. 1, PP, DOI- 10.3102/003465430298487, PP. 81-112.
 Fonseca, T. Murphy, T. (2017). Avoiding the Feedback Monsters, using behavioral insights
to develop a strong feedback culture, Deloitte University Press, 1-16.
Additional resources
• Westberg Jane, Jason, Hilliard (2001), ‘Fostering reflection and providing feedback- helping
others learn from experience, published by springer publishing company, ISI.
• Shirley Clart (2003), ‘Enriching Feedback in the Primary Classroom’, Published by Hodder &
Stougton, London ISBN-10: 0340872586.
• Stephen Merry, Margaret Price, David Carless, Maddalen Taras (2013), ‘Re-conceptualizing
Feedback on Higher Education, developing dialogue with students’, published by Routledge,
e-book ISBN 9781134067558.
• Epstein; Richard L. (2014), ‘Conventional gestures: meaning & methodology, published by
SO Corro, NM Advanced Reasoning, ISBN – 9781938421259.
Videos
• Gates Bill ,” Teachers need real feedback” ,Published by TED on May 8, 2013.Available on
YouTube link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=81Ub0SMxZQo
199
• Neill paula o ,” Giving and receiving Feedback”, Published by Academy for Advancing
Leadership - AAL on Jun 3 , 2010 .Available on Web link
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L1CjetPDEww
• “Effective Feedback animation”, Published by AITLS on Apr 18, 2017. Available on You tube
link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LjCzbSLyIwI
200
MODULE 4
Instructional Planning and Delivery
Unit 4.4.1
Curriculum Analysis for
Session Planning
L1 Curriculum Analysis 1
L2 Mapping for Curriculum Analysis 27
L3 Strategies for Teaching Elements of
Content Analysis 39
L4 Learning Principles and Events of
Instruction 50
Unit 4.4.1: Curriculum Analysis for Session Planning L1: Curriculum Analysis
L1: Curriculum Analysis
Contributors

Associate Professor, Department of Vocational Education
and Entrepreneurship Development
&
Dr. A. K. Jain
Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
&
Dr. Joshua Earnest
Professor, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Editor: Dr. D. S. Karaulia, Professor of Computer Science and Engineering
Module 4- Instructional Planning and Delivery NITTTR, Bhopal Page- 1

Learning Outcomes: At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
LO 1. Correlate various types of outcomes for analysing a course curriculum.
LO 2. Prepare a course plan for a selected course.
LO 3. Explain the need for session planning considering the session learning
outcomes and pre requisite knowledge and skills of the learners.
LO 4. Interpret session learning outcomes using taxonomy table for identification of
contents to be covered during the session.
Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................. 3
2.0 AIMS, GOALS AND OBJECTIVES V/s PEOs, POs and COs ...................................................................... 3
3.0 CURRICULUM ANALYSIS OF A COURSE ............................................................................................... 4
4.0 INSTRUCTIONAL PLANNING ................................................................................................................ 6
4.1 Course Planning .................................................................................................................................. 6
4.2 Session Planning ................................................................................................................................. 7
5.0 SESSION LEARNING OUTCOMES AND ITS ANALYSIS ............................................................................ 9
6.0 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................................... 11
7.0 REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................................... 11

1.0 INTRODUCTION
This Lesson 1 is on ‘Curriculum Analysis’ of Module 4 ‘Instructional Planning and Delivery’. As

a teacher, you will be engaged in teaching-learning activities on daily basis. Whether it is
classroom, laboratory or workshop situation, systematic instructional planning, its
implementation and improvements, based on feedback, are the essential elements for
effective instruction. By now you must have a clear understanding of curriculum, its
development stages and domains of learning. The domains of learning are categorized as
cognitive, psychomotor and affective domain and each one has its taxonomy. Also, you have
developed sample learning outcomes in different domains. These learning outcomes are the
backbone of the programme curriculum. In this lesson the focus is on Curriculum Analysis of
a Specific Course, so as to understand the relationship between Programme Outcomes,
Course Competency, Course Outcomes, Unit Outcomes, Practical Outcomes and Affective
Domain outcomes. How to arrive at subject matter comprising of topics, sub-topics, practical
activity, project work etc. by analyzing these is also discussed in this lesson. Such an analysis
of course curriculum will help you in planning and implementation of sessions in effective
and efficient manner.
2.0 AIMS, GOALS AND OBJECTIVES V/s PEOs, POs and COs
A scientifically developed curriculum addresses requirements of curricular aims, goals and

objectives. Nel Noddings (Noddings, 2003) specifies that aims, goals, and objectives can be
thought of as hierarchically ordered educational purposes which are arranged in descending
order of generality. Nel Noddings further clarifies that vagueness of statements of aims and
goals can be an advantage. It invites ‘aimstalk’ (Noddings, 2003), and that discussion is
essential to a value-laden enterprise such as education. Further, educators/planners need to
assess not only specific student outcomes but also what we as educators are doing, what we
offer, and why. Thus, alignment between aims, goals and objectives is essential.
•General and broad Programme

Aim/s statement •General and broad
Educational Objectives
(PEOs) statement
Goal/s •Broad and narrow statement as Programme •Broad and narrow statement
compared to aim Outcomes (POs) as compared to PEO
Course Outcomes
•Specific •Specific
Objectives (COs) and Learning
statements Outcomes (LOs) statements
Figure 1: Alignment between Aims, Goals and Objectives versus PEOs, POs and COs

In today’s era of Outcome Based Education, the terms that are used in Programme
Curriculum are Programme Educational Objectives (PEOs), Programme Outcomes (POs) and
Course Outcomes (COs) instead of aims, goals and objectives respectively. The same has
been depicted in the Figure 1. In majority of course curriculum, that are redesigned on
Outcome Based philosophy, PO–CO matrix is included which depicts the correlation between
the Course Outcomes and Programme Outcomes by indicating 1, 2, 3 or -. Here 1 indicates
low, 2 indicates medium, 3 indicates high and ‘–‘ indicates no correlation. POs for Under
Graduate Engineering Programme and Engineering Diploma Programme have been fixed by
National Board of Accreditation (NBA). List of same is given in Annexure A.
Table 1 PO–CO Matrix for Course ‘A’ (UG Engineering Programme)
PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 P05 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 P010 PO11 PO12
Competency 3 3 2 3 2 3 3 2 2 3 2 3
CO1 3 2 1 1 1 1 2 3 2 1 1 2
CO2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2
…CO5 2 3 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 1 1 3
(CO1 to CO5) 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 3 2 2 1 2
Legend 1 indicates low, 2 indicates medium, 3 indicates high and ‘– ‘indicates no correlation between the
respective COs and POs
3.0 CURRICULUM ANALYSIS OF A COURSE
AICTE has published the ‘model curriculum’ in January 2018, with the presumption that,
every teacher in universities or affiliated institutions knows ‘how’, ‘why’ and ‘level of
complexity’ of selected topic at the time of teaching. However, in a typical Indian university
with a large number of affiliated colleges, course teacher and examiner are generally
different persons. This situation necessitates the curriculum designer to provide elaborate
course curriculum. (example of course curriculum is given in Annexure B). This will enable all
stakeholders (especially the teacher, examiner and student) to comprehend and interpret
the curriculum in ‘letter and spirit’ to fulfill the course competency, course outcomes and
learning outcomes in cognitive, psychomotor and affective domains. The relationship
between these is depicted in Figure 2 (Earnest, 2019) . As a teacher you have to interpret the
course curriculum and establish linkage between these and arrive at the activities to be
performed by students for achievement of outcomes. The Figure 2 clearly indicates that
Programme Outcomes as specified by NBA, are outcomes at macro level, whereas course
competency and the course outcomes are at the meso level and learning outcomes in three
domains (cognitive, psychomotor and affective domain) are at the micro level.

Macro level Programme Outcomes (PO)
Course 1 (say Elements of Electrical Engineering)
Meso level Competency for Course 1 (say Elements of Electrical Engineering)
CO 1 CO 2 COn
LO 1 (C/P/A)* LO 2 (C/P/A) LO n (C/P/A)
Micro Level
Topic 2.1 Topic 2.2 Topic '2.n'
Practical Activity Project Work Other Activities
*C/P/A – Cognitive Domain/Psychomotor Domain/Affective Domain 2

Figure 2: Procedure for Course Curriculum Analysis
2
Thus, the curriculum of each course needs to be analyzed from course outcome levels to the
subject matter comprising of topics, sub- topics, practical activity, project work, and other
activities. Constructive alignment between course outcomes and subject matter need to be
ensured while analyzing any curriculum. For proper analysis of course curriculum you need
to develop expertise in following areas:
a) Formulate course outcomes which are at higher taxonomic levels in cognitive,
psychomotor and affective domain.
b) Analyse each course outcome and formulate specific learning outcomes in Cognitive,
Psychomotor and Affective domain (C/P/A) at different taxonomic level.
c) Prepare Taxonomy Table comprising of cognitive process dimension and knowledge
dimension and place the specific learning outcomes in appropriate cell. (Refer
Annexure C).
d) Identify the factual knowledge, conceptual knowledge, procedural knowledge and
Metacognitive knowledge that is required for the learning outcomes (Anderson &
Krathwohl, 2001). (Refer Annexure C).
e) Identify the practical outcomes and relevant affective domain outcomes that need to
be developed.
f) Based on these outcomes the topics, sub-topics, practical activity, project work and
other activities will emerge out.

A brief summary of revised Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive domain, Dave’s taxonomy of

psychomotor domain, Krathwohl’s taxonomy of affective domain and guidelines for
formulating outcomes is given in Annexure C.
A sample curriculum for the course ‘Elements of Electrical Engineering’ (MSBTE) is given in
Annexure B. You need to go through the same for establishing alignment between course
competency, course outcomes, practical outcomes (psychomotor domain), Unit Out comes
(cognitive domain), affective domain outcomes, topics, sub-topics, practical and project
work.
4.0 INSTRUCTIONAL PLANNING
The instructional planning also includes course planning and sessional planning.
4.1 Course Planning
Once you carry out curriculum analysis and establish an alignment between course
competency, COs, LOs in three domains, with topics, sub-topics, practical activity, project
work and other activities, the first step in planning is completed. This is then followed by
preparation of course plan which includes total number of sessions required for the selected
course, their sequence, time required, instructional method/s required, print and non-print
media requirement, equipment required, learning activities and assessment tools. A sample
format for course plan is given in Table 2
Table 2 Course ‘A’ Plan
S. Session Date and Instructional Print, Non– Learning Assessment

No. Details Time Methods Print Media and Activities tools
(Lecture, required Equipment
Tutorial) Required
1
2
3
4
5
6
After preparing the course plan, session wise plan is to be prepared for each session
identified in column no. 2 of Table–2 Course Plan. Sessions could be related to theory,
tutorial, practical activity, project work, visit and industrial training.
ACTIVITY
Prepare a course plan for selected course in the given format. Use the format given in
Table 2. Discuss it with your peers and submit the same in your journal.

4.2 Session Planning
Session wise planning is one of the crucial steps as this plan is to be implemented in the
appropriate place whether it is classroom, laboratory, workshop or field. For preparation of
session plan two stages need to be clearly defined:
a) Current status of students (i.e. pre requisite knowledge and skills available with the
target group) and
b) Final destination to be achieved (what you expect student to achieve at the end of
the session i.e. Session Learning Outcomes).
After analyzing the two stages as mentioned above, you have to prepare plan/s for
achievement of learning outcomes. The same is shown in Figure 3.
Plan 3
Plan 1
Prerequisite knowledge & Session Learning
skills Outcomes to be achieved
Plan 2
Plan 4
Figure 3: Gap Between Prerequisite Knowledge and Skills and Session Learning Outcomes
For preparation of session plan, you need to focus on the following:

a) Why to teach? (Purpose and Importance)
b) Where to teach? (Location – Classroom, Laboratory, Workshop, Field)
c) When to teach? (Time and sequence)
d) Whom to teach? (Target Group, student characteristic)
e) What to teach? (Session Learning Outcomes and content coverage)
f) How to teach? (Instructional Method and media to be used)
g) How to assess whether outcomes are achieved or not?
To a large extent answer to these questions are available in course curriculum and in the
course plan developed by you. Detailed analysis of ‘What to teach’? ‘How to teach’? and
‘How to assess’? is further needed for preparing detailed session plan. Suggested format of
session plan is given in Exhibit 1. This is discussed in detail in Lesson 15- Concept, format and
process of preparing classroom session plan.
Now you have to finalize Session Learning Outcomes and analyse the same using the
taxonomy table. This will help you in finding out answer to the question ‘What to teach?’.

Exhibit – 1
Session Plan Format
a) Name of Teacher: ………………………………………………………………………....
b) Name of programme:
c) Semester:
d) Course Code and Title
e) Unit Number with Title …………………………………………………………………………...............
f) Topic: ………………………………………………………………….……………….................................
g) Session Duration: ……………………………………………………………………..
h) Relevant Course Outcomes: ……………………………………..………………
i) Session Learning Outcomes:
- ………………………………………………………………………….................................
- ………………………………………………………………………….................................
j) Entry level knowledge and skills of students
- ………………………………………………………………………….................................
- ………………………………………………………………………….................................
k) Equipment required in Classroom/ Laboratory/ Workshop
- ………………………………………………………………………….................................
- ………………………………………………………………………….................................
l) Instructional media required
• List of media available
- ………………………………………………………………………….................................
- ………………………………………………………………………….................................
• List of media to be prepared
- ………………………………………………………………………….................................
- ………………………………………………………………………….................................
m) Instructional strategy and methods to be used
S. Teaching Points Teacher’s Student’s Time in Media to

No. Activity Activity minutes be used
1 Introduction
2 Development
3 Consolidation

5.0 SESSION LEARNING OUTCOMES AND ITS ANALYSIS
The steps indicated below helps you in formulating Session Learning Outcomes (SLO).
a) Select a course curriculum and prepare course plan as discussed in point 4.1.
b) Select a session from the course plan. This session could be lecture, tutorial or
practical related.
c) Identify the knowledge and skills, attained by the students prior to the selected
session.
d) Formulate the session learning outcomes that are specific, student oriented, start
with action-oriented verb, measurable and observable, achievable, realistic and time
bound.
For a session of 45-60 minutes duration, two to four session learning outcomes are
sufficient. If a course curriculum includes the introductory unit, where the terms and basic
elements are introduced to the learner, then for such sessions few session learning
outcomes may be formulated at lower level, followed by higher level learning outcomes.
To have holistic picture of ‘What to teach?’ now let us take an example. In order to decide
what all to include in the session, first formulate the session learning outcomes followed by
its analysis so that you can decide the subject matter that needs to be covered.
Example 1: Session Learning Outcome (SLO)1 Explain the working principle of induction
motor.
This learning outcome primarily falls under cognitive domain. Using the Taxonomy Table
given in Annexure C, try to place SLO1 in appropriate cell of taxonomy table. The session
learning outcome ‘Explain the working principle of induction motor’ can be placed at the
intersection of Understand column and Conceptual Knowledge row as the verb ‘Explain’
indicates learning at ‘Understand, level and ‘working principle’ is related to conceptual
knowledge. This means that student has already achieved the related Remember Level
outcomes which might cover types of induction motors, name of different parts,
constructional details, IS Codes of Induction Motor, application and advantages. These now
become the part of pre-requisite knowledge and skills that is required in order to achieve
the SLO1.
As a teacher you also have to decide about the subject matter related to factual, conceptual,
procedural and metacognitive knowledge that is to be covered during the session as shown
in Table– 3

Table 3 Placing Session Learning Outcome in appropriate cell of Taxonomy Table
The Knowledge The Cognitive process Dimension

Dimension
1. Remember 2. Understand 3. Apply 4. Analyse 5. Evaluate 6. Create
A. Factual
Knowledge
B. Conceptual SLO1
Knowledge
C. Procedural
Knowledge
D. Metacognitive
Knowledge
a) Factual Knowledge (include knowledge of terms and elements). Factual knowledge

that is required for above session include - North and south pole of magnet, force,
electromagnetism, magnetism, Capacitor, EMF, Friction, velocity, acceleration,
synchronous speed, slip and slip speed. Few of these terms and elements are already
known. Accordingly, you will make an attempt to recall this during the session, by
asking questions, examples, using images etc. The new terms will however be dealt
with in detail during the session.
b) Conceptual Knowledge (include classification, categories, principle, theory, model
and structures). The conceptual knowledge that is required for above session include
- Magnetic field, Fleming’s right Hand rule, Induced EMF and Current, Len’s Law,
Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction, Fleming’s Left Hand rule, line frequency,
rotor frequency, rotor torque, right hand thumb rule, rotating magnetic field in stator
winding, working of single phase induction motor and 3 phase induction motor,
capacitor start and capacitor run etc. Some of these may already be known to
students and this foundation may be used to explain the application of these in
context of working of induction motor.
c) As SLO1 is placed at intersection of ‘understand’ level and ‘conceptual knowledge’,
this indicates absence of procedural and metacognitive knowledge. A brief
description about procedural and Metacognitive knowledge is as under.
d) Procedural knowledge deals with ‘knowledge of how’ to do something. It involves
series of steps, knowledge of skills, algorithms, techniques and methods which are
collectively known as procedures. It also addresses to knowledge of the criteria that
is used to determine when to use various procedures. At lower taxonomy level the
steps related to procedure are followed in fixed order, however at higher level, at
times, learners take decision about which step to perform next.
e) Metacognitive is often defined as ‘thinking about one’s thoughts’. It involves
deliberate, planful, and goal-oriented mental process, applied to one’s thoughts and
experiences. The thinking process is tied to a person’s own internal mental
representations of that reality. Usually learners develop their own Metacognitive

strategies based on their interaction with the learning material. During the initial
stages and at lower taxonomy level you may suggest such strategies which are widely
in use.
Thus, analysis of session outcomes helps you to identify the level of learning together with
the subject matter that is to be dealt, during the session.
6.0 CONCLUSION
In this lesson the systematic procedure to analyse a typical course curriculum to establish
the linkages between Programme Outcomes, Course Competency, Course Outcomes,
Practical Outcomes, Affective Domain Outcomes and Unit Outcomes was discussed to
understand their linkage with the subject matter. With this holistic picture you are required
to prepare a course plan and there after a session plan. While preparing session plan,
session learning outcomes are formulated and analysed, to arrive at the subject matter, that
is to be covered during the session.
********
7.0 REFERENCES
(n.d.). Retrieved from MSBTE: https://msbte.org.in/portal/curriculum-search/
Anderson, L. W., and Krathwohl, D. R. (2001). A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and Assessing,
Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Pearson Education.
Earnest, J. (2019). SWAYAM MOOCs Course on Fundamentals of Curriculum in Engineering

Education,. In Unit 3.3 Course presentation Pattern in Outcome Based Curriculum 2019.
SWAYAM.
Mehra, C. (2019). Swayam MOOCs Course on Learning and Instruction. Lesson 3.4.3 Taxonomy of
Cognitive Domain. SWAYAM.
Affective Domain. SWAYAM.
Psychomotor Domain. SWAYAM.
NBA. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.nbaind.org/accreditation-documents.aspx
Noddings, N. (2003). Aims,Goals and Objectives. Retrieved April 2019, from www.yashada.org:
https://www.yashada.org/yash/egovcii/static_pgs/TC/Aims_Goals_Objectives.pdf

Annexure A
For Undergraduate Engineering Programme
PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs) Engineering Graduates will be able to:

1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering fundamentals, and an
engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex engineering
problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and
engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and design system
components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate consideration for the public
health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research methods
including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to
provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern engineering
and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities with an understanding of
the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess societal,
health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional
engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering solutions in
societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable
development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms of the
engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in diverse
teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the engineering
community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write effective reports and
design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the engineering and
management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team, to manage
projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in independent
and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

Engineering Diploma Programme
PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs) Engineering Diploma Graduates will be able to:

1. Basic and Discipline specific knowledge: Apply knowledge of basic mathematics, science and engineering
fundamentals and engineering specialization to solve the engineering problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify and analyse well-defined engineering problems using codified standard
methods.
3. Design/ development of solutions: Design solutions for well-defined technical problems and assist with the
design of systems components or processes to meet specified needs.
4. Engineering Tools, Experimentation and Testing: Apply modern engineering tools and appropriate
technique to conduct standard tests and measurements.
5. Engineering practices for society, sustainability and environment: Apply appropriate technology in context
of society, sustainability, environment and ethical practices.
6. Project Management: Use engineering management principles individually, as a team member or a leader
to manage projects and effectively communicate about well-defined engineering activities.
7. Life-long learning: Ability to analyse individual needs and engage in updating in the context of
technological changes.

Annexure B
Maharashtra State Board of Technical Education (MSBTE)
I – Scheme
II – Semester Course Curriculum
Course Title: Elements of Electrical Engineering

(Course Code: ...................)
Diploma Programme in which this course is offered Semester in which offered

Digital Electronics, Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering, Industrial
Second
Electronics, Instrumentation Engineering and Computer Engineering,
Information Technology
1. RATIONALE
An engineering technologist is expected to have some basic knowledge of electrical engineering as they have to
work in different engineering fields and deal with various types of electrical machines and equipment. Hence, it
is necessary to understand magnetic circuits, AC fundamentals, polyphase circuits, different types of electrical
machines, their principles and working characteristics. This course deals with the basic fundamentals of
electrical engineering and working principles of commonly used AC and DC motors and their characteristics.
The basic concepts of electrical engineering in this course will be very useful for understanding of other higher-
level courses.
2. COMPETENCY
The aim of this course is to help the student to attain the following industry identified competency through
various teaching–learning experiences:
• Use electrical equipment in various applications.
3. COURSE OUTCOMES (COs)

The theory, practical experiences and relevant soft skills associated with this course are to be taught and
implemented, so that the student demonstrates the following industry-oriented COs associated with the
above-mentioned competency:
a) Use principles of magnetic circuits.
b) Use single phase AC supply for electrical and electronics equipment.
c) Use three phase AC supply for industrial equipment and machines.
d) Connect transformers and DC motors for specific requirements.
e) Use FHP motors for diversified applications.
f) Use relevant protective devices/switchgear for different requirements.
4. TEACHING AND EXAMINATION SCHEME
Teaching Scheme Total Credits Examination Scheme

(In Hours) (L+T+P) Theory Marks Practical Marks Total Marks
L T P C ESE PA ESE PA
4 - 2 6 70 30* 25 25 150
(*): Under the theory PA, Out of 30 marks, 10 marks are for micro-project assessment to facilitate integration of
COs and the remaining 20 marks is the average of 2 tests to be taken during the semester for the assessment of
the UOs required for the attainment of the COs.
Legends: L-Lecture; T – Tutorial/Teacher Guided Theory Practice; P - Practical; C – Credit, ESE - End Semester
Examination; PA - Progressive Assessment.

5. COURSE MAP (with sample COs, PrOs, UOs, ADOs and topics)
This course map illustrates an overview of the flow and linkages of the topics at various levels of outcomes
(details in subsequent sections) to be attained by the student by the end of the course, in all domains of
learning in terms of the industry/employer identified competency depicted at the centre of this map.
Topic 5.3 MCB, MCCB,

ADO 6b - Practice
ADO 6a - Follow safe ELCB: operation and
good housekeeping
practices general specification
Topic 4.1 Working Topic 3.4 Phase & line

principle, classification, UO 6a – Describe the current & voltages in star
& delta connected balanced
voltage, current & given type of switching
system
transformation ratio or protective device
PrO 10 –Identify UO 3d - Calculate the

UO 4 a – Explain the current and power of the
switches, fuses, MCB,
working principle of given 3-phase balanced
MCCB and ELCB
the given type of system
transformer
CO (f) –Use protective

CO (c) - Use three phase
PrO 5 - Determine devices/ switchgears for
AC supply for industrial
voltage and current specific requirement
equipment and machines PrO 4 – Balanced star
ratio of 1-phase and delta load
transformer connections to get the
required voltage and
CO (d) - Connect
Competency
current
transformers and Use electrical
DC motors equipment in CO (a) - Use
various principles of UO 1d –Interpret
PrO 9 – Reverse the
applications. magnetic circuits the B-H curve and
direction of rotation of
Universal motor hysteresis loop for
the given material
CO (e) - Use FHP
motors for diversified
applications CO (b) - Use single phase AC PrO 1 - Determine
supply for electrical and permeability of
electronics equipment magnetic material
UO 5a - Explain
the operating principle by B-H curve Topic 1.6 - B-H
of the given type of curve and
PrO 2 - Determine
FHP motor Hysteresis,
parameters of AC
waveform using CRO Hysteresis loop
.
and loss
Topic 5.2 Universal motor: UO 2d - Calculate the

principle of operation, parameters of the Topic 2.2 - Instantaneous value,
reversal of rotation given quantities cycle, amplitude, period,
frequency, RMS and peak value
Legends
UO in Cognitive ADO - Affective Domain

CO - Course Outcome PrO through Practicals Domain Outcome Topic
Figure 1 - Course Map
6. SUGGESTED PRACTICALS/ EXERCISES

The practical in this section are PrOs (i.e. sub-components of the COs) to be developed and assessed in the
student for the attainment of the competency.
Approx.
S. Unit
Practical Outcomes (PrOs) Hrs.
No. No.
Required
1 Determine the permeability of magnetic material by plotting its B-H curve. I 02*
2 Determine frequency, time period, peak value, rms value, peak factor and form II 02*

Approx.
S. Unit
Practical Outcomes (PrOs) Hrs.
No. No.
Required
factor of a sinusoidal A.C. waveform on C.R.O. Part I
3 Determine frequency, time period, peak value, rms value, peak factor and form II 02
factor of a sinusoidal A.C. waveform on C.R.O. Part II
4 Find the phase difference between voltage and current on C.R.O. for resistive, II 02
inductive and capacitive circuits. Part I
5 Find the phase difference between voltage and current on C.R.O. for resistive, II 02
inductive and capacitive circuits. Part II
6 Connect balanced star and delta load connections to get the required voltage III 02*
and currents. Part I
7 Connect balanced star and delta load connections to get the required voltage III 02
and currents. Part II
8 Determine voltage and current ratio of single-phase transformer. IV 02*
9 Operate the DC shunt motor using 3-point starter. IV 02
10 Operate the DC shunt motor using 4-point starter. IV 02
11 Reverse the direction of rotation of single-phase induction motor. V 02*
12 Reverse the direction of rotation of Universal motor. V 02
13 Identify switches, fuses, switch fuse and fuse switch units, MCB, MCCB and VI 02
ELCB.
14 Connect the switches, fuses, switch fuse and fuse switch units, MCB, MCCB and VI 02
ELCB in a circuit. Part I
15 Test circuit using series lamp and multimeter. VI 02*
16 Use the earth tester. VI 02
17 Use the insulation tester. VI 02
18 Use different types of digital clamp-on meters VI 02
Total 36
Note
i. A suggestive list of PrOs is given in the above table. More such PrOs can be added to attain the COs and
competency. A judicial mix of minimum 12 or more practical need to be performed, out of which, the
practical marked as ‘*’ are compulsory, so that the student reaches the ‘Precision Level’ of Dave’s
‘Psychomotor Domain Taxonomy’ as generally required by the industry.
ii. The ‘Process’ and ‘Product’ related skills associated with each PrO is to be assessed according to a suggested
sample given below:
S. No. Performance Indicators Weightage in %

1 Selection of suitable component, apparatus/instrument 20
2 Preparation of experimental set up 10
3 Setting and operation 10
4 Safety measures 10
5 Observations and Recording 10
6 Interpretation of result and Conclusion 20
7 Answer to sample questions 10
8 Submission of report in time 10
Total 100
The above PrOs also comprise of the following social skills/attitudes which are Affective Domain Outcomes
(ADOs) that are best developed through the laboratory/field-based experiences:
a) Follow safety practices.
b) Work as a leader/a team member.
c) Follow ethical practices.

The ADOs are not specific to any one PrO, but are embedded in many PrOs. Hence, the acquisition of the ADOs
takes place gradually in the student when s/he undertakes a series of practical experiences over a period of
time. Moreover, the level of achievement of the ADOs according to Krathwohl’s ‘Affective Domain Taxonomy’
should gradually increase as planned below:
• ‘Valuing Level’ in 2nd year
• ‘Organization Level’ in 3rd year.
• ‘Characterization Level’ in 4th year.
7. MAJOR EQUIPMENT/ INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED

The major equipment with broad specification mentioned here will usher in uniformity in conduct of
experiments, as well as aid to procure equipment by authorities concerned.
S. PrO.
Equipment Name with Broad Specifications
No. S. No.
1 Single Phase Transformer: 1kVA, single-phase, 230/115 V, air cooled, enclosed type. 1,5
2 Single phase auto transformer (Dimmerstat) - Single-Phase, Air cooled, enclosed model, 1,2,3,5
Input: 0 ~ 230, 10 A, Output: 0 ~ 270 Volts
3 CRO – 20 MHz, Dual channel 2,3
4 Three phase Auto Transformer -15 kVA, Input 415 V, 3 phase, 50 Hz, Output 0-415 V, 30 A 4
per Line, Cooling air natural
5 Loading Rheostat - 7.5 kW, 230V, 3 phase, 4 wire, Balanced load. (Each branch having equal 4
load), Load: Wire Wound Fixed Resistors
6 Lamp Bank - 230 V 0-20 A 5
7 DC shunt motor coupled with DC shunt Generator 6,7
8 Single phase Induction motor – ½ HP, 230 V, 50 Hz, AC supply 8
9 Universal motor -1/4 Hp 9
10 Digital Multimeter - 3 1/2 digit Commo
11 DC and AC Ammeters: 0-5-10 Amp n
12 DC and AC Voltmeters: 0-150-300 V
13 Tachometer: Non-contact type, 0-10000 rpm
14 Rectifier: solid state, Input- 415 V, 3-Phase, AC, Output – 230 V DC regulated, 20 Amp
8. UNDERPINNING THEORY COMPONENTS

The following topics/subtopics should be taught and assessed in order to develop UOs in cognitive domain for
achieving the COs to attain the identified competency. More UOs could be added:
Unit Unit Outcomes (UOs) Topics and Sub-topics

(in cognitive domain)
Unit – I 1a. Describe the salient features of the 1.1 Magnetic flux, flux density, magneto motive
Magnetic given type of circuits. force, magnetic field strength, permeability,
Circuits 1b. Apply Fleming’s left-hand rule and reluctance
Lenz’s law to determine direction of 1.2 Electric and magnetic circuits
induced EMF in the given circuit. 1.3 Series and parallel magnetic circuits
1c. Explain the given type(s) of induced 1.4 Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction,
emf. Fleming’s right hand rule, Lenz’s law
1d. Interpret the B-H curve and 1.5 Dynamically and statically induced emf, self
hysteresis loop for the given and mutual inductance
material. 1.6 B-H curve and hysteresis, hysteresis loop and
hysteresis loss.
Unit– II 2a. Describe the salient features of the 2.1 A.C. and D.C. quantity, advantages of A.C.
AC given type of power supply. over D.C., Single phase A.C. sinusoidal A.C.
Fundamentals 2b. Represent the given AC quantities by wave: instantaneous value, cycle,


phasors, waveforms and amplitude, time period, frequency, angular
mathematical equations. frequency, R.M.S. value, Average value for
2c. Explain the response of the given sinusoidal waveform, Form factor, Peak
pure resistive, inductive and factor
capacitive AC circuits with sketches 2.2 Vector representation of sinusoidal A.C.
2d. Calculate the parameters of the quantity, Phase angle, phase difference,
given circuit. concept of lagging and leading – by
2e. Calculate impedance, current, power waveforms, mathematical equations and
factor and power of the given AC phasors
circuit. 2.3 Pure resistance, inductance and capacitance
in A.C. circuit
2.4 R-L and R-C series circuits
2.5 Impedance and impedance triangle
2.6 Power factor and its significance
2.7 Power – active, reactive and apparent,
power triangle
Unit– III 3a. Describe the salient features of the 3.1 3 phase system over 1 phase system
Polyphase AC given type of AC power supply. 3.2 3-phase emf generation and its wave form
Circuits 3b. Explain the concept of symmetrical 3.3 Phase sequence and balanced and
system and phase sequence of the unbalanced load
given AC supply. 3.4 Phase and line current, phase and line
3c. Distinguish the characteristics of the voltage in star connected and delta
given type(s) of star (or delta) connected balanced system
connections with sketches. 3.5 Current, power, power factor in a 3-phase
3d. Calculate the current and power of balanced system
the given three phase balanced 3.6 Star and delta connections
system.
Unit-IV 4a. Explain the working principle of the 4.1 Transformer: Working principle, emf
Transformer given type of transformer. equation, Voltage ratio, current ratio and
and DC 4b. Distinguish the construction of the transformation ratio, losses
given type of transformer. 4.2 Auto-transformer – comparison with two
Motors
4c. Describe the construction and winding transformer, applications
working of the given type of DC 4.3 DC motor construction - parts its function
motor. and material used
4d. Select relevant type of DC motor for 4.4 DC motor -Principle of operation
the given application with 4.5 Types of D.C. motors, schematic diagram,
justification. applications of dc shunt, series and
compound motors
Unit –V 5a. Explain the working principle of the 5.1 FHP: Schematic representation, principle of
Fractional given type of FHP motor. operation and applications of: split phase
Horse Power 5b. Select relevant FHP motor for the Induction motor, capacitor start induction
given application with justification. run, capacitor start capacitor run and
(FHP) Motors
5c. Describe the procedure to connect permanent capacitor motors, shaded pole
the given type of FHP motor for the motors
given application with sketches. 5.2 Universal motor: principle of operation,
5d. Describe the procedure to connect reversal of rotation and applications
stepper motor for the given 5.3 Stepper motor: types, principle of working
application with sketches. and applications
Unit-VI 6a. Describe the features of the given 6.1 Fuse: Operation, types
type of protective device. 6.2 Switch Fuse Unit and Fuse Switch Unit:


Protective 6b. Select the relevant protective device Differences
Devices and for the given application with 6.3 MCB, MCCB and ELCB: Operation and
Switchgear justification general specifications
6c. Select suitable switchgear for the 6.4 Earthing: Importance of earthing, factors
given situation with justification. affecting earthing
6d. State the I.E. rule related to be 6.5 Methods of reducing earth resistance, I.E
applied for the given type of rules relevant to earthing
earthing with justification.
Note: To attain the COs and competency, above listed UOs need to be undertaken to achieve the ‘Application
Level’ and above of Bloom’s ‘Cognitive Domain Taxonomy’.
9. SUGGESTED SPECIFICATION TABLE FOR QUESTION PAPER DESIGN
Unit Unit Title Teaching Distribution of Theory Marks

No. Hours R U A Total
Level Level Level Marks
I Magnetic Circuits 10 02 04 04 10
II AC fundamentals 10 02 04 04 10
III Polyphase AC circuits 08 02 04 04 10
IV Transformer and DC motors 14 04 04 06 14
V Fractional Horse Power (FHP) motors 12 04 04 06 14
VI Protective Devices and Switchgear 10 02 04 06 12
Total 64 16 24 30 70
Legends: R=Remember, U=Understand, A=Apply and above (Bloom’s Revised taxonomy)
Note: This specification table provides general guidelines to assist student for their learning and to teachers to
teach and assess students with respect to attainment of UOs. The actual distribution of marks at different
taxonomy levels (of R, U and A) in the question paper may vary from above table.
10. SUGGESTED STUDENT ACTIVITIES

Other than the classroom and laboratory learning, following are the suggested student-related co-curricular
activities which can be undertaken to accelerate the attainment of the various outcomes in this course:
Students should conduct following activities in group and prepare reports of about 5 pages for each activity,
also collect/record physical evidences for their (student’s) portfolio which will be useful for their placement
interviews:
a) Market survey regarding commonly used electrical equipment which are not covered in the curriculum.
b) Prepare power point presentation or animation for showing working of DC or AC motors.
c) Undertake a market survey of different domestic electrical appliances based on the following points:
i. Manufacturers
ii. Specifications/ratings
iii. Salient features
iv. Applications.
11. SUGGESTED SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES (if any)

These are sample strategies, which the teacher can use to accelerate the attainment of the various outcomes in
this course:
a) Massive open online courses (MOOCs) may be used to teach various topics/sub topics.
b) ‘L’ in item No. 4 does not mean only the traditional lecture method, but different types of teaching
methods and media that are to be employed to develop the outcomes.

c) About 15-20% of the topics/sub-topics which is relatively simpler or descriptive in nature is to be

given to the students for self-directed learning and assess the development of the COs through
classroom presentations (see implementation guideline for details).
d) With respect to item No.10, teachers need to ensure to create opportunities and provisions for co-
curricular activities.
e) Guide student(s) in undertaking micro-projects.
12. SUGGESTED MICRO-PROJECTS

Only one micro-project is planned to be undertaken by a student that needs to be assigned to him/her in the
beginning of the semester. In the first four semesters, the micro-project is group-based. However, in the fifth
and sixth semesters, it should be preferably be individually undertaken to build up the skill and confidence in
every student to become problem solver so that s/he contributes to the projects of the industry. In special
situations where groups have to be formed for micro-projects, the number of students in the group should not
exceed three.
The micro-project could be industry application based, internet-based, workshop-based, laboratory-based or

field-based. Each micro-project should encompass two or more COs which are in fact, an integration of PrOs,
UOs and ADOs. Each student will have to maintain dated work diary consisting of individual contribution in the
project work and give a seminar presentation of it before submission. The total duration of the micro-project
should not be less than 16 (sixteen) student engagement hours during the course. The student ought to submit
micro-project by the end of the semester to develop the industry-oriented COs.
A suggestive list of micro-projects is given here. Similar micro-projects could be added by the concerned
faculty:
a) Magnetic circuits: Each batch will collect B-H curves and hysteresis loops for various types magnetic
and non-magnetic materials from internet. Based on the permeability and shapes of the curves, each
student will decide the suitability of each material for different applications.
b) Magnetic circuits: Each batch will prepare a coil without core. Students will note the deflection of
galvanometer connected across the coil for: movement of the North Pole of permanent magnet
towards and away from the coil (slow and fast movement), movement of the South Pole of permanent
magnet towards and away from the coil (slow and fast movement). Students will demonstrate and
prepare a report based on their observations.
c) AC fundamentals: Each batch will visit a nearby sub-station or industry and observe the arrangement
for power factor correction/improvement. Each batch will prepare a report based on their
observation.
d) Polyphase circuits: Each batch will observe the three-phase power distribution panel in their own
Institute/Commercial complex/mall etc. and draw single line diagram and prepare a report.
e) Transformer: Each batch will visit nearby pole mounted sub-station and prepare a report based on the
following points:
i. Rating: kVA rating, primary and secondary voltage, connections
ii. Different parts and their functions
iii. Earthing arrangement
iv. Protective devices
f) Fractional horse power (FHP) motors: Each batch will select a FHP motor for a particular application
(assume suitable rating). They will visit local electrical market (if the market is not nearby you may use
the Internet) and prepare a report based on the following points:
i. Manufactures
ii. Technical specifications
iii. Features offered by different manufacturers
iv. Price range
Then select the motor which you would like to purchase. Give justification for your selection in short.

g) Each batch will visit Institute workshop and prepare a report which includes the following points:
i. Different types of prime movers used, their specifications and manufacturers
ii. Method of starting and speed control
iii. Different protective and safety devices used
iv. Maintenance
h) Each batch will select any one electrical device/equipment which is not included in the curriculum and
prepare a short power point presentation for the class based on the following points: construction,
working, salient features, cost, merits, demerits, applications, manufacturers etc.
13. SUGGESTED LEARNING RESOURCES
S.
Title of Book Author Publication
No.
1 Basic Electrical Engineering Mittle and McGraw Hill, New Delhi,
Mittal ISBN: 978-0-07-0088572-5
2 Electrical Technology Vol – I Theraja, B. L. S. Chand and Co., New Delhi,
ISBN: 9788121924405
3 Electrical Technology Vol – II Theraja, B. L. S. Chand and Co., New Delhi,
ISBN: 9788121924375
4 Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering Saxena, S. B. Lal Cambridge University Press, New
Delhi, ISBN: 9781107464353
5 Basic Electrical and Electronics Jegathesan, V. Wiley India, New Delhi,
Engineering ISBN: 97881236529513
14. SOFTWARE/LEARNING WEBSITES

a) Scilab
b) SIMULINK (MATLAB)
c) PSIM
d) P-SPICE (student version)
e) Electronics Workbench
f) www.nptel.iitm.ac.in
g) www.onlinelibrary.wiley.com

Annexure C
A. Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of Cognitive Domain
(Cognitive Process Dimensions and Knowledge Dimension)

View the video programme on Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of Cognitive Domain Part 1, 2 and 3.
Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of Cognitive Domain is two dimensional. The two dimensions of this taxonomy are
Cognitive Process Dimension and Knowledge Dimension and is represented by Taxonomy Table as shown in
Table A.
Table A – Taxonomy Table
The The Cognitive Process Dimension

Knowledge
Dimension
1. Remember 2. Understand 3. Apply 4. Analyse 5. Evaluate 6. Create
Retrieve Determine the Carry out Break Make Put
relevant meaning of or use a material judgments elements
knowledge instructional procedure into its based on together to
from long-term messages, in a given constituent identified form a
memory including oral, situation. parts and criteria and novel,
written and detect how standards. coherent
graphical the parts whole or
communication relate to make an
one another original
and to an product.
overall
structure or
purpose.
a.
Factual
Knowledge
b.
Conceptual
Knowledge
c.
Procedural
Knowledge
d.
Metacognitive
Knowledge
a. Factual Knowledge includes knowledge of terminology and knowledge of specific details and elements
b. Conceptual Knowledge includes knowledge of classifications and categories, knowledge of principles and
generalizations and knowledge of theories, models, and structures
c. Procedural Knowledge includes knowledge of subject-specific skills and algorithms, knowledge of subject-
specific techniques and methods, and knowledge of criteria for determining when to use appropriate
procedures
d. Metacognitive Knowledge includes strategic knowledge, knowledge about cognitive tasks, including
appropriate contextual and conditional knowledge and self-knowledge.

B. Dave’s Taxonomy of Psychomotor Domain
Dave’s Taxonomy of Psychomotor Domain comprises of five level viz. imitation, manipulation, precision,
articulation and naturalisation the same is depicted in Figure A below.
Naturalization: At this stage the response is automatic,

natural and involves negligible thinking. The individual
creates new ways of manipulating materials and
controls out of understandings, abilities & skills
developed. Precise actions are performed “without
thinking” and action become natural. Example:
Produce a given job on the lathe by manipulating the
lathe controls automatically on the basis of materials
removed and sound produced during machining.
Articulation: At this stage an individual is involved in an even
higher level of precision. The skills sets are so well developed that
the individual can modify movement patterns to fit special
requirements or to meet a problem situation. The major focus is in
coordinating a series of actions, achieving harmony and internal
consistency. Example: Produce variety of jobs on a lathe to the
required specification in specified time limit.
Precision: At this stage the skill has been attained. Proficiency is indicated
by a well-coordinated, smooth, accurate performance, requiring a
minimum of energy. The overt response is complex and performed
without hesitation. Example: Produce the given job to the required
specification.
Manipulation: The individual continues to practice a particular skill or sequence and
being able to perform certain actions by following instructions and practicing. The
response is complex as compared to imitation. Example: Operate a given equipment
using operational manuals.
Imitation: First stage in learning a practical skill. Imitation includes repeating and copying an
act that has been demonstrated or explained, and it includes trial and error until an
appropriate response is achieved. Example: Operate a machine/equipment step by step by
observing the instructor.
Figure A: Dave's Taxonomy of Psychomotor Domain

C. Krathwohl’s Taxonomy of Affective Domain
Krathwohl’s Taxonomy of Affective Domain comprises of five levels viz. receiving, responding, valuing,
organization and characterization. Same is shown in Figure B below.
Characterisation by
a value or value
Organisation complex
•Conceptulization of •Generalised set
Valuing •Characterisation
a value
•Acceptance of •Organisation of a
a Value value system
Responding •Preference for
• Acquiescence in a value
responding •Commitment
• Willingness to respond
Receiving •Satisfaction in response
•Awareness
•Willingness to receive
•Controlled or selected attention
Figure B: Krathwohl's Taxonomy of Affective Domain
Module 4- Instructional Planning and Delivery NITTTR, Bhopal Page 24

Annexure D
GUIDELINES FOR FORMULATING LEARNING OUTCOMES
While formulating learning outcomes following guidelines need to be adhere to.

a) Learning outcomes should describe in clear and specific terms what the learner is able to do, on completion
of instruction, unit, course, programme etc. In other words, learning outcomes at class room instruction
level (classroom instruction usually last for 45-60 min.) are narrow and specific. As we move from unit to
course and further to programme, scope and context of learning environment increases and thus time
required for achieving the learning outcome increases. As a teacher it is expected that you develop skills in
formulating learning outcomes at different levels of taxonomy. You may develop this skill by practice.
b) The basic thumb rule for formulating learning outcomes is; Learning outcomes must be ‘S3MART’ where
S3MART stands for:
S3 Start with action-oriented verb, Student oriented and Specific
M Measurable and observable
A Achievable (with in the given time frame)
R Realistic
T Terminal in nature or Time-bound.
c) If necessary, condition of performance (condition may be facilitating condition or limiting condition) and
criteria of performance are also specified in learning outcomes.
Some examples of facilitating and limiting condition are given below.
i. Using steam table, calculate………. (Facilitating condition)
ii. Given the samples, identify………. (Facilitating condition)
iii. Given the cooling curve for pure iron, name the different types of lattice structure. (Facilitating
condition)
iv. Estimate dimension of given object without using measuring instrument. (Limiting condition)
v. Solve the given mathematical problem without using calculator. (Limiting condition)
The criteria of acceptable performance is specified in terms of quantity, quality, time, etc.
Some examples of condition of performance are given below:
i. Give two examples and two non-examples for…..
ii. Submit the given Multiple-Choice Question Test comprising of 30 questions within 20 minutes.
iii. Prepare a cover page for Annual Report with no spelling mistake using MS Word 2013
d) Avoid use of question words, like what, how, why, where, etc . in learning outcome
statements.
i. Incorrect Example- Explain, how the given steam turbine works.
ii. Correct Example- Explain the working of a given steam turbine.

ASSIGNMENT
Select a learning outcome from your course curriculum and analyse it with the help of
Taxonomy Table. Identify the cognitive level dimension and knowledge dimension for the
same. List out the topics and subtopics for the same.

Unit 4.4.1: Curriculum Analysis for Session Planning L2: Mapping for Curriculum Analysis
L2: Mapping for Curriculum Analysis
Contributors
Dr. Sandip S. Kedar

Associate Professor, Department of Electronic Media
&
Associate Professor, Department of Vocational Education
and Entrepreneurship Development

L2: Mapping for Curriculum Analysis
LO 1. Explain the need and importance of curriculum analysis at micro-level
LO 2. Explain methodology of curriculum analysis.
LO 3. Create a map for treating the topics to develop learning outcomes.
Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 29
2.0 NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF CURRICULUM ANALYSIS AT MICRO-LEVEL.................................. 29
3.0 COMPONENTS OF CURRICULUM ANALYSIS .............................................................................. 30
3.1 Facts........................................................................................................................................... 30
3.2 Concepts .................................................................................................................................... 31
3.3 Principles ................................................................................................................................... 31
3.4 Procedures................................................................................................................................. 32
3.5 Applications ............................................................................................................................... 32
4.0 METHODOLOGY OF CURRICULUM ANALYSIS............................................................................ 33
5.0 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................. 36
6.0 REFERENCES .............................................................................................................................. 37

L2: MAPPING FOR CURRICULUM ANALYSIS
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Curriculum document is a blue print of all the activities of various stake holders including
mainly teachers, students and administrators. It provides information to its stake holders
about PEO (Program Educational Objective), POs (Program Outcomes), competency to be
developed through each course, COs (Course Outcomes), PrOs (Practical Outcomes), UOs
(Unit Outcomes), ADOs (Affective Domain Outcomes), courses to be taught/ learned,
appropriate instructional media to be selected, practical, micro-project and main project
activities, industrial training, co-curricular and extra-curricular activities, students’
assessment scheme, and so on. Teachers and students are the main stakeholders of the
curriculum document. You have already learned in first lesson about the analysis of
curriculum. Such an analysis makes teacher aware about his or her instruction related
activities.
Planning for implementation of each course curriculum is an important activity every

teacher has to perform at the start of every semester or year. Sequencing of content and
synchronization of theory and practical classes is part of this planning process. From
instructional planning point of view, analysis of the curriculum content is the next important
stage. Spray diagram and concept map are the effective tools for conducting curriculum
analysis at micro level or topic level. In this lesson, need and importance of curriculum
analysis, use of spray diagram, concept map and process of writing concept attributes for
the identified concept/ principle included in the topic has been discussed.
2.0 NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF CURRICULUM ANALYSIS AT MICRO-LEVEL

Curriculum/content analysis at micro-level is a technique of breaking bigger chunks of
curricular items into smaller components in an objective and systematic way. These
components are then arranged in a proper sequence. As per Banthiya (Banthiya, 1999)
Content analysis is a technique of objectively and systematically identifying concepts,
principles, procedures, and skills for topics in different courses. When the content analysis is
made available, or, teacher analyses the content for a topic/course; important ‘teaching
points’ become available to the teacher, and it becomes easier for the teacher to ensure that
the students attain the desired learning outcomes.
Curriculum analysis at micro-level or topic level helps the teacher to:

a) Identify the learning outcomes
b) Know what is to be taught to make the students to learn
c) Decide how much and up to what extent he/she has to teach
d) Identify facts, concepts, principles, procedures and applications and their sequence.
e) Select appropriate methods and techniques of teaching and plan teaching keeping in
view the learning hierarchies found in the content analysis.

f) Decide various instructional resources to be developed, procured or collected

g) Plan and arrange for the resources needed, in advance
h) Collect examples and non-examples related to the topic
i) Design suitable laboratory experiences and demonstrations
j) Design relevant assessment tools.
3.0 COMPONENTS OF CURRICULUM ANALYSIS

The process of curriculum/content analysis is like inverted funnel
(Figure 1). We can consider main topic as input to the funnel
from top, which gets divided into topics, sub-topics, and sub-sub
topics. These all bifurcated content forms the components of
content analysis.
Consider an example from day-to-day life. An engineer examines

any machine for its fault and tries to analyse the probable causes
of the failure or fault. He collects information about the machine
Figure 1: Inverted funnel from the operator and diagnose the probable causes of fault. He
analogy of content analysis checks all the mechanical and electrical systems. Based on the
observations and collected information he solves the problem.
Similarly, in educational setup, considering the learning needs of the students, teacher need
to analyse the content (i.e. the topics and sub-topics) to decide about various activities and
treatment to be given the content for better implementation of the instruction. Content
analysis is a process of identifying facts, concepts, principles (rules, laws), procedures and
applications supporting learning.
3.1 Facts
While teaching any topic, teacher informs students about some places, events, functions
that are known to be true or which we accept as true. These are usually indisputable
statements. Such information is termed as verbal information or facts, which is part of the
factual knowledge. Therefore, fact is any knowledge acquired through the medium of
language, and which is readily available in our memory. For example, Earth is a big magnet
with North and South Poles, Solar eclipse occurs when moon covers sun on new moon day,
the United Nations declared 21 June as the International Yoga Day.
Learner usually acquires verbal information or fact by verbal association, like naming an
object. For example, when teacher shows a Vernier Caliper to the students and tells them its
name, they associate the visual and its name, and record it in their memory. Students can
recognize it as Vernier caliper next time when they see it. Teacher can teach content such as
symbols for chemical elements, electrical symbols and color codes in this manner.

3.2 Concepts
A concept is a class of stimuli, which has common characteristics. It is an abstraction or idea
that permits the learner to classify a variety of related phenomena into a convenient
meaningful category (Banthiya, 1999) A concept can be ‘concrete’ or ‘abstract’. Concrete
concepts are those, which can be seen, touched, smelt or heard. These are the concepts,
which can be felt by our physical senses. For example, a computer system or a laptop, a
smart mobile, flower, chair, microphone, electric motor, lathe machine, speakers, these all
could be seen, touched, smelt or heard.
Abstract concepts are those, which cannot be sensed by our physical senses. We can only
perceive their effects. For example, heat, pressure, current, gravitational force. These are all
abstract concepts, which cannot be seen, but their effects are perceived. 'Electric current'
cannot be seen or touched but when it flows through a conducting material, we can see its
effects in the form of light, running of a motor, heating of a coil, and so on.
3.2.1 Attributes of Concepts

Teacher may identify and explain any concept by its characteristics or attributes. Thus, an
attribute is a distinguishing feature of a concept and it varies from concept to concept.
Learner need to understand general characteristics and distinguishing features of the
concept. For example, Attributes of electric machines could be described as follows.
a) They use electromagnetic forces.
b) They are electromechanical energy converters. An electric motor converts electricity to
mechanical power while an electric generator converts mechanical power to electricity.
c) These machines may have rotating or linear moving parts.
d) The rotating electric machine is different from a transformer, which is also an energy
converter, changing the voltage level of an alternating current, having no moving parts.
ACTIVITY
Select a topic from a course curriculum and identify two abstract and two concrete
concepts. Write at least two attributes for each.
3.3 Principles
A principle (which includes rules or laws) is a statement of relationship between two or more
concepts. These are universally accepted statements and called generalizations. These are
expressed in the form IF-THEN. They represent cause effect relationships also. For example,
Induction motor and transformer are the electric machines, which work on the principle of
electromagnetic induction. It is the process in which an electromagnetic force is induced in a
closed circuit, due to changes in the magnetic field around the circuit.
The teacher needs to identify various principles, rules and laws, in the topic and explain
them with examples and non-examples as well as situations where principle is applicable

and situations where it is not applicable. Learning of concepts and principles is very
important in education in general and technical education in particular. Such learning
enhances the ability of the learners to solve problems in various situations.
Example of law: Newton’s first law of motion (also called Law of Inertia) states that 'An
object at rest stays at rest and an object in motion stays in motion with the same speed and
in the same direction unless acted upon by an external force'. This statement shows
relationship between different concepts such as object in motion, speed, direction, external
force, etc.
Example of rules - Fleming’s right hand rule, Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule, Right-hand Thumb
Rule, and so on.
3.4 Procedures
Procedures are generally a standardized way of doing certain operations, which is an
integration of concepts, rules, laws and principles. Teacher must identify these procedures
and teach accordingly. For example,
• Procedure for using standard tables, charts, graphs etc.
• Procedure for designing certain components, structures etc.
• Standard test procedures according to BIS standards
• Procedure to pour concrete in forms and vibrating it.
• Procedure to start an engine
• Procedure to operate a machine.
The procedures are understood and followed best when the students are made to follow
them in some planned situations or assignments.
3.5 Applications
Transfer of learning to a new situation is an important element of learning. Student can
solve a new problem by applying the knowledge of concepts, rules, laws or principles. For
example,
• Ohm’s law can be applied to know current, when voltage and resistance are known.
• Design of machine component, or a structure can be made following certain rules.
• Right hand thumb rule can be used to determine direction of current and magnetic
field in a current carrying conductor.
• Principle of four bar mechanism is used in various machine designs.
• Based on the principles, laws, rules learned by the students, they may discover a new
relationship or principle while dealing with a completely new situation or problem.
Through the activity of problem-solving students learn higher order principles and
other concepts on their own.

4.0 METHODOLOGY OF CURRICULUM ANALYSIS

Whenever we select a topic from a course for curriculum/content analysis, it is advisable to
identify the highest level of learning outcomes for the students. Such learning outcomes
guide us in deciding the depth and scope of the topic. The subject matter/content can be
divided into its various constituent components. For doing so, spray diagram and concept
map are very much helpful. While developing a spray diagram, main topic can be written in
an oval shape at the centre of an A3 size sheet (42 cm x 29.7 cm). The topic is then
bifurcated and extended into number of sub-topics, sub-sub-topics up to facts, concept
levels. A spray diagram can be developed in any word processing software or by using a
Google Drawing Tool. Figure 2 is an example of such a spray diagram. Thick lines in this spray
diagram indicate direct relationship between the topics and dotted lines indicate indirect
linkages. As a teacher if you prepare such a spray diagram on each topic, this will help you in
deciding the scope and depth of the topic, logical sequencing of the content, formulating
learning outcomes, planning for effective delivery of the content, designing media and
learning resources, formulating questions for formative as well as summative assessment,
deciding laboratory experiences to be given to the students, deciding topics for micro-
projects and for self-learning.
Spray diagram can also be used to map concepts. Novak (Novak, J. D. & A. J. Cañas, 2008)
defined concept maps are graphical tools for organizing and representing knowledge. They
include concepts, usually enclosed in circles or boxes of some type, and relationships
between concepts indicated by a connecting line linking two concepts (Figure 3). Words on
the line, referred to as linking words or linking phrases, specify the relationship between the
two concepts. Proposition is combination of two or more concepts connected using linking
words or phrases to form a meaningful statement.
The concept map such as shown in Figure 3 can be developed using software available
online. One of such free software is CmapTools (IHMC, 2019). Teachers as well as students
can use this software for developing concept maps. These could be stored on cloud and
shared to the world through this software.
Concept map could be developed considering learning outcome placed at the top and then
developing related concepts, laws, principles to achieve that learning outcome. One such
example is shown in Figure 4

Figure 2: Spray Diagram of topic on Induction Motor (Kedar, 2012)

Figure 3 Concept Map of topic on Induction Motor (Kedar)
Figure 4: Concept map based on Learning Outcome (Kedar)

Based on the concept map developed, identify various characteristics or attributes of every
concept you need to explain in the class. This will facilitate you to decide about the teaching
method, teaching strategy, instructional media and assessment criteria to be used.
The strengths of concept maps (Novak, J. D. & A. J. Cañas, 2008) are many:
• Concept maps are not only used as a learning tool but also as an evaluation tool.
• They are effective in identifying both valid and invalid ideas held by students.
• They facilitate meaningful learning and serve as a kind of template or scaffold to help to
organize knowledge and to structure it.
• Concept maps are visual representation of knowledge and our brains have a remarkable
capacity for acquiring and retaining visual images. They not only permit utilization of the
knowledge in new contexts, but also the retention of the knowledge for long periods of
time.
• Many researches have shown that our brain works to organize knowledge in hierarchical
frameworks and that learning approaches that facilitate this process significantly
enhance the learning capability of all learners.
Note- Now you are expected to complete the Assignment
5.0 CONCLUSION
For effective instructional planning and delivery of the content in an instructional
environment, analysis of the topic becomes the foremost activity the teacher needs to do.
By analysing the course content, the teacher can identify facts, concepts, rules, laws,
principles, procedures, applications in the course; formulate learning outcomes; decide the
content sequence; decide about the instructional media required; plan for laboratory and
project work and decide about the assessment strategies. Development of different types of
spray diagrams as discussed here helps the teacher to conduct content analysis
systematically using visual representation of the knowledge.
You may use open source software available online for developing spray diagrams and
concept maps. It is recommended to develop concept maps on every topic in the course
which will help you to effectively plan and implement the instructional delivery.
*******

6.0 REFERENCES
Banthiya, N. K. (1999, July 3). Module 7 Development of Curriculum for a Subject/ Programme. UK-
REC Project on Development of Competency-based Self Learning Module. Bhopal, Madhya
Pradesh, India: TTTI, Bhopal.
IHMC. (2019). CMAP. Retrieved from Florida Institute for Human & Machine Cognition (IHMC):
https://cmap.ihmc.us/
Kedar, S. S. (2012). Effectiveness of Different multimedia designs with respect to achievement of

engineering students with differing learning styles. NITTTR, Bhopal, Electronic Media. Bhopal:
S. S. Kedar.
Novak, J. D. & A. J. Cañas. (2008). The Theory Underlying Concept Maps and How to Construct and
Use Them. Institute for Human and Machine Cognition. IHMC CmapTools . Retrieved April 02,
2019, from http://cmap.ihmc.us/docs/pdf/TheoryUnderlyingConceptMaps.pdf

ASSIGNMENT
Select a topic from your course curriculum and prepare a concept map using open source
software like CmapTools.
DISCUSSION FORUM
Discuss the benefits of concept map for the topic analysis.

Unit 4.4.1: Curriculum Analysis for Session Planning L3: Strategies for Teaching Elements of Content Analysis
L3: Strategies for Teaching Elements of

Content Analysis
Contributors

Associate Professor, Department of Vocational Edu.
& Entrepreneurship Development
&
Dr. Sandip S. Kedar
Edited by: Dr. Joshua Earnest, Professor, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

L3: Strategies for Teaching Elements of Content Analysis
Learning Outcomes: At the end of this lesson, the teacher trainee will be able to:
Learning outcomes: At the end of this lesson, the you will be able to:
• Explain the need for different teaching methods and teaching strategies.
LO 1 Explain the need for different teaching strategies.
• Differentiate between deductive and inductive teaching strategies
LO 2 Differentiate between deductive and inductive teaching strategies
• Select relevant teaching strategies for achievement of learning outcomes in
LO 3 Select relevant teaching strategies for achievement of learning outcomes
cognitive, psychomotor and affective domain.
in cognitive, psychomotor and affective domain.
Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 41
2.0 TEACHING METHODS AND STRATEGIES ............................................................................................. 41
3.0 STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING DIFFERENT TYPES OF SUBJECT MATTER ................................................. 43
3.1 Strategies for Teaching Factual Knowledge ........................................................................................ 43
3.2 Strategies for Teaching Conceptual Knowledge ................................................................................. 44
3.3 Strategies for Teaching Procedural Knowledge .................................................................................. 46
3.4 Strategies for Teaching Metacognitive Knowledge ............................................................................ 46
3.5 Strategies for Teaching Psychomotor Skills ........................................................................................ 47
3.6 Teaching Strategies for Affective Skills .............................................................................................. 48
4.0 CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................................................... 49
5.0 REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................................... 49

L3: Strategies for Teaching Elements of Content Analysis
1.0 INTRODUCTION
After completing the curriculum analysis and content analysis, now you have a clear
understanding about the subject matter/content that needs to be dealt with, their
interrelationship and dependency by preparing the spray diagram/concept map. You know
that teaching-learning experiences aim to accomplish the course outcomes, which is a
combination of cognitive, psychomotor and affective domain outcomes. To develop these
effectively, you need to adopt a variety of teaching strategies and methods, which are
relevant to the nature of subject matter that is to be delivered. You might have experienced
that although many teachers have in depth subject matter knowledge, but when it comes to
deliver this to the students, they simply pass on this information without considering the
pedagogical aspects. This ultimately leads to a situation that in-spite of having a
knowledgeable teacher, student is disinterested and demotivated in the class. Thus, as a
teacher what you teach and how you teach are inextricably linked. In this lesson a working
definition of the terms 'teaching (instructional) method (or technique)' and 'teaching
(instructional) strategy', and their proper selection for achievement of learning outcomes in
different domains are discussed.
2.0 TEACHING METHODS AND STRATEGIES

Review of literature on instructional design indicates that terms such as teaching methods,
instructional methods, instructional techniques are synonymously used. In this lesson term
teaching method/s is used which is defined as 'an arrangement of learning events adopted
by teacher to facilitate learning to occur in students' (Banthiya, 1999). A number of teaching
methods, lecture, tutorial, demonstration, laboratory, project, seminar and others can be
used in technical education, the details of which are given in Unit 2.
At times during the teaching learning process you may use more than one method in
combination. In such situation instead of teaching method, term teaching strategy is used.
The term ‘strategy’ is borrowed from the military usage, where strategy is the science and
art of ‘planning' and directing large operations for military movements of a campaign to
achieve the specified aim. Similarly, in classroom and other locations you have to plan and
direct various teaching-learning events in such a way that outcomes of session are achieved.
Thus, teaching strategy is defined as 'the science and art of planning and directing use of
teaching-learning events for achieving outcomes using appropriate teaching method(s)'
(Banthiya, 1999). The symbolic representation of teaching strategy is given in Figure 1.

Teaching strategy
Teaching
Method 1
Teaching Teaching
Method 5 Method 2
Teaching Teaching
Method 4 Method 3
Figure 1: Symbolic representation of teaching strategies
Now try to recapitulate how your teachers taught you about current, voltage, resistance,
food chain etc. At times, during their sessions they might have given you the related
definitions, explanations, examples, non-examples, analogy, case study, anecdote, shown
real object, model etc. Or they might have asked you to work in group, visit to laboratory,
observe a phenomenon and present your view point on the same. All these represent the
teaching strategies selected by them depending upon the content type.
It is therefore essential that for ensuring learning to happen, you need to make appropriate
match between content to be taught and teaching strategies to be adopted. The researches
carried out in the area of education technology highlight the need for variety of teaching
methods. Few findings of these researches in support of this are given below:
a) Using all the five senses (hearing, sight, taste, touch, smell) in the learning process will
maximise learning. At least two senses i.e. hearing and seeing can be used in most of the
learning situations. Also, sense of touch can be used in many situations relevant to
engineering.
b) Span of effective attention of the learner is limited to 15- 20 minutes during the learning
process. Use of more than one teaching method in combination brings in variety, breaks
monotony and provides stimulus variation there by enhancing the amount of learning.
c) Due to individual differences, the learners develop different learning styles. Methods of
teaching should as far as possible match with learning styles of students.
d) Achievement of learning outcomes in different domains requires the use of different

mental processes, physical processes and learning conditions as mentioned below:

• Cognitive learning outcomes include factual, conceptual, procedural and meta
cognitive knowledge at remember, understand, apply, analyse, evaluate and create
levels.
• Psychomotor learning outcomes include manual or physical skills required for
manipulative performance.
• Affective learning outcomes include attitudes, interests, values or motivational
behaviors.
It is therefore, essential that different teaching strategies be used matching to learning
outcomes in different domains.
3.0 STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING DIFFERENT TYPES OF SUBJECT MATTER

You might be aware of a common saying - 'Theory without practice is sterile; practice
without theory is blind.' Thus the ‘know’ and ‘do’ part go hand in hand for achievement of
learning outcomes. As a teacher your role is to achieve a right balance between
content/subject matter (know part), teaching strategies (do part) and the student learning.
Student Teaching
Learning Strategies
(Outcome) (Do)
Content/Subject
Matter (Know)
The same is depicted in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Need for relevant teaching strategies for achieving learning outcomes
3.1 Strategies for Teaching Factual Knowledge

Facts always remain as facts, and are the building block for conceptual knowledge and
procedural knowledge. Factual knowledge covers the facts, knowledge of terminology also
referred as concept (e.g. velocity, friction, rock, etc.), knowledge of specific details and
elements (e.g. parts of IC Engine, lathe machine, etc.). Proper understanding of factual
knowledge related to different courses provides a strong foundation. These act as the
building blocks within a discipline and are required for application, analysis and problem
solving. Factual knowledge that is frequently used, needs to be memorised (e.g.

Multiplication table, atomic number of an element, etc.), and those not used frequently may
be referred from books and other sources (start button of automatic car may be identified,
referring manual).
Memorising factual information improves speed and accuracy. For example, students who
memorise multiplication table and value of ‘π’ can quickly solve a given mathematical
problem or numerical problem.
Combination of lecture method, in-class and laboratory demonstration, industry and field
visit may be helpful in imparting factual knowledge. Along with these, following strategies
are useful for imparting factual knowledge:
a) Use of mnemonics (this helps in memorising). For example, Name of colors in color
spectrum as in a rainbow can be memorised using mnemonic VIBGYOR- Violet,
Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange, Red.
b) Highlight pattern, relationship or tips for remembering (multiplication table of 9
using number from 0 to 9 in one column and reverse numbering 9 to 0 in another
column).
c) Use charts and graphical display with proper textual matter and color coding.
d) Provide ready to refer list (e.g. List of formulae, equations etc.), glossary of terms,
acronyms and tables for reference.
e) Use analogy when using any new terminology such as voltage, current, heat etc.
f) Use examples and non-examples for clarification of a particular concept. For
example, ‘Fish’ is a concept and its characteristics include jawless, cold blooded,
vertebrate animal living in water having fins, permanent gills and scales. The different
varieties of fishes are small fish, large fish, odd shaped fishes etc. The non-example in
this case is ‘Dolphin’. Dolphins are mammals, warm blooded and breathe through
lungs.
ACTIVITY
Suggest strategies for memorising and recalling factual knowledge.
As a teacher and also as a student you might have developed creative ways of
memorising and recalling factual knowledge in your content area. Describe the same in
4-5 lines. Also specify how it will help the learner. Save a copy of the same in your e
journal as a part of your teaching – learning portfolio.
3.2 Strategies for Teaching Conceptual Knowledge

Conceptual Knowledge is the interrelationship among the basic elements within a larger
structure which enable them to function together. It includes knowledge of classifications
and categories, knowledge of principles and generalizations, knowledge of theories, models,
and structures (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). Concept is a basic element and has certain
characteristics. For example, diode is a concept. As variety of diodes are available, they can

be classified or categorised based on certain characteristics. Thus, conceptual knowledge, is

a head of concept and learner is expected to differentiate, compare or contrast between
different types within the same class or categories (say diode). Also, conceptual knowledge
includes principles, law, theories and models, which actually exhibit relationship between
two or more concepts. Example Kirchhoff’s Law, Theory of relativity, Fleming’s right hand
rule, Genetic Model (DNA) etc.
As a teacher you have to use your creativity while teaching conceptual knowledge. This is
the heart of any subject matter and needs to be understood in depth by students. The
challenge is to ensure students involvement during learning process, so that they are in a
position to apply the same in real world and solving problems. You can design deductive
(direct) or inductive (indirect) teaching strategies/approaches for imparting this.
Deductive teaching strategies begins with rules or principles and then proceeds to deduce
consequences or resulting phenomena. This is the most favored teaching strategy in higher
education, particularly in mathematics and engineering courses. Using this you can cover a
large quantity of material in a short amount of time simply by lecturing and presenting
derivations.
Inductive teaching strategies provide opportunities for learners to explore observations and
then infer the governing principles from them. (Hesket, Farrell, & Slater, 2003).
Depending upon the type of conceptual knowledge i.e classifications, categories, principles,
theories, models etc. following strategies can be used.
a) State, explain, give examples, non-examples, assumptions, constraints and provide
situation to apply the conceptual knowledge in varied situation (deductive approach).
b) Design planned observation of relevant phenomenon and interweave probing
questions for channelizing student thinking, so that they themselves derive the
relationship that justify the occurrence of phenomenon (inductive approach).
c) Use analogy, demonstration, laboratory experiments and in-class discussions of
experimental observations.
d) Promote the culture for writing reflective journals, blogs and graphic organizer etc.
ACTIVITY
Select a concept/ principle you want to teach in the class. Given an opportunity, which
teaching strategy- inductive or deductive you would like to choose. Mention two reasons
to support your selection.
You may go through the research paper on ‘An Inductive Approach to Teaching Courses in Engineering’ by
Robert P. Hesket, Stephanie Farrell, and C. S. Slater. https://peer.asee.org/an-inductive-approach-to-
teaching-courses-in-engineering.pdf to understand the use of inductive and deductive approach.

3.3 Strategies for Teaching Procedural Knowledge

Procedural knowledge focuses on how to do something, methods of inquiry and criteria for
using skills, algorithms, techniques and methods (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). This is
applicable for both cognitive and psychomotor skills. Focus here is to follow series of steps
either in linear or non-linear way, depending upon the activity. For example, differentiation
and integration require series of steps (mental processing), whereas setting up an
equipment requires to perform physical steps (psychomotor). Acquiring a skill without
understanding the various concepts, rule, principle etc. related to the skill could result in
students’ acquiring knowledge that is of limited use. For example, if students are skilled at
solving linear and quadratic equations, but do not understand the distinctive characteristics
of these equations or when to use a specific type of equation, they are missing the critical
knowledge that is necessary. As a teacher you need to focus on the following while teaching
procedural knowledge.
a) Display the steps to be followed. This could be in written form, flow diagram, or
pictorial.
b) Develop student guide for ready reference of the procedures, incorporating to do
checklist.
c) Demonstrate the step by step procedure, highlighting critical points.
d) Provide opportunity to students to carry out the steps.
e) Provide immediate feedback.
f) Use video programmes, simulation where ever possible.
3.4 Strategies for Teaching Metacognitive Knowledge

Metacognitive knowledge is knowledge of cognition in general as well as awareness and
regulation of knowledge of one’s own cognition (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). Knowledge
of cognition means what students know about their own knowledge (self-awareness), and
regulation of cognition refers to what students can do with this knowledge to better control
their learning. Regulation of cognition involves planning, monitoring and evaluation of
learning (Dori, Mevarech, & Baker, 2018). A brief description of these is given below:
a) Planning involves goal setting, clear understanding of present knowledge and skills,
time required, identifying other resources and activities that are essential to achieve
the goals.
b) Monitoring includes self-testing or self- assessment with respect to plan. Through
monitoring, individual can control the learning process and can incorporate
necessary changes with respect to activities, resources, time etc. that are essential
for achieving the goal.
c) When students evaluate their learning, they may ask themselves, what peers would
think about their work. If they were to carry out a similar learning activity, they might

consider planning differently and review their strategies in order to improve their
performance (Schraw et al. 2006; Vrugt and Oort 2008).
As a teacher ample opportunities are available with you to develop metacognitive
knowledge in classroom, laboratory, project work, solving real life problem, and many more.
Focus on the following for developing metacognition.
i. Design variety of learning tasks relevant to your course curriculum for students
where they may approach the task in variety of ways.
ii. Encourage students to communicate their thinking process/ approach for the given
task with peers and teacher using brief write up, spray diagram, concept map, flow
diagram, graphical representation etc. They may decide their own format or you can
suggest the broad guidelines.
iii. For purposeful engagement of students, always motivate them to submit their
tentative plan, how they plan to approach the task, steps decided to solve the
problem, student's own reflection and evaluation on the output or the result,
suggestions for further improvement.
iv. Educate students to evaluate their own work using rubrics.
As students become aware of how they learn, they will use these processes to efficiently
acquire new information, and consequently, become more of an independent thinker.
3.5 Strategies for Teaching Psychomotor Skills

For professionals, practical skills which include use of equipment, machines, tools, devices
are indispensable. Utmost care needs to be taken, while teaching practical skills for quality
outcomes. In today’s high-tech environment, students have number of options for learning
practical skills. They may quickly access internet and see the relevant you tube videos, use
virtual lab resources and simulations, use help options and many more. This is ‘quick fix’
approach, as they can have these at their will. Quality of you tube videos which are available
in abundance does not ensure that skill learning is as per recommended procedure. So, as a
teacher it is your responsibility, to brief the students in advance regarding:
a) the correctness of related factual and conceptual knowledge,
b) procedures to be followed,
c) critical aspects to be considered while
learning skills for ensuring quality
outcome.
Miller’s Pyramid (Allery, 2009) help you in
deciding the teaching strategies that are
relevant for an identified skill. Whenever
Figure 3: Miller's Pyramid
students learn a new practical skill, they move
from the base level to the top. At lower level you have to make the student understand
about the related factual and conceptual knowledge, that are essential for demonstration of

the skill under your guidance to the final step of performance. Following steps will help you
in teaching practical skills.
a) Make the student aware of factual knowledge related to practical skills (example of
practical skill - setting up a microscope). Here show them the different parts of the
microscope, name of different parts, terminology used (focus, type of lens, focal
length).
b) Explain them the function of different parts and the working principle.
c) Demonstrate the steps to be followed for setting up the microscope.
d) Provide opportunity to the students to practice the steps in phased manner under
your guidance.
e) Provide feedback to students highlighting where correction is required at different
stage.
f) Provide opportunity to demonstrate the complete skill. After demonstration provide
feedback.
g) Plan for phased withdrawal so that student develop confidence to perform
independently.
h) Provide opportunity for practice of new skills so as to achieve accuracy and precision.
i) Make them aware of precautions to be taken, importance of housekeeping,
cleanliness and use of safety gadgets (example: Use of fire extinguisher)
3.6 Teaching Strategies for Affective Skills

A good teacher always tries to integrate affective domain outcomes with cognitive domain
and psychomotor domain so as to develop the emotional aspect such as empathy, care,
enthusiasm, motivation, belongingness towards the task, peer, people, and feelings of liking,
disliking, interest etc. in the students. The affective dimension of learning is important, as it
is critical in acquiring and developing cognitive and psychomotor domain outcomes. If you
critically observe the students actions and reactions in the classroom and laboratory you will
find, they are exposed to emotional component such as listening and responding to
teacher’s instruction, attending classes regularly, submitting work on time, acceptance or
rejection by team or group, controlling negative emotion such as anger, motivating self and
others, valuing other’s point of view etc. By carefully planning your sessions and associated
activities these can be achieved. Following guidelines will help you in integration of affective
dimension of learning.
a) Establish classroom and laboratory procedures/rules that support affective domain
outcomes.
b) Encourage students to adhere to procedure/rules like timely submission of assigned
task, punctuality, professional ethics etc.
c) Provide opportunities for them to develop as independent thinkers and problem
solvers.

d) Provide opportunities for taking initiative, to be a leader and effective member of

team, participate in discussions, volunteer for tasks, contribute information/creative
substance for bulletin board and college magazine.
e) Plan and implement role play exercises.
f) Design rubrics incorporating affective learning dimension and make students aware
of the same.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this lesson, detailed description about strategies for teaching different elements of
content analysis such as factual knowledge, conceptual knowledge, procedural knowledge,
meta cognitive knowledge, psychomotor skills and affective skills is given. This will help you
in carrying out the instructional planning in effective manner. As a teacher your role is to
achieve a right balance between the content/subject matter, teaching strategies and the
achievement of learning outcomes by students.
5.0 REFERENCES
Abell, S. K., & Volkmann, M. J. (2006). Seamless Assessment in Science: A guide for Elementary and
Middle School Teachers. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Allery, L. (2009). How to Teach Practical Skills. Education for Primary Care, 58-60.
Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (2001). A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and Assessing - Á
revision of Bloom's taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Pearson Education.
Banthiya, N. K. (1999). REC Module 2 'Devise Teaching Strategies and Select Teaching Methods'.
Bhopal, India: TTTI, Bhopal.
Dori, Y. J., Mevarech, Z. R., & Baker, D. R. (2018). Cognition, Metacognition, and Culture in Stem
Education. Springer.
Hesket, R. P., Farrell, S., & Slater, C. S. (2003). 'An Inductive Approach to Teaching Courses in
Engineering,. Proceedings of the 2003 American Society for Engineering Education Annual
Conference & Exposition.

L4: Learning Principles and Events of
Instruction
Contributors
Dr. (Mrs.) Kiran Saksena

Professor, Department of Education & Research
&
Dr. K. K. Jain
Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Unit 4.4.1: Curriculum Analysis for Session Planning L4: Learning Principles and Events of Instruction
L4: Learning Principles and Events of Instructions
LO 1. Explain the various principles of learning.
LO 2. Differentiate the events of instruction.
LO 3. Use nine events of instruction while planning classroom teaching.
Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 3
2.0 CONCEPT OF LEARNING .............................................................................................................. 3
2.1 Principles of Learning .................................................................................................................. 4
3.0 INSTRUCTION............................................................................................................................... 5
4.0 GAGNE’S NINE EVENTS OF INSTRUCTION ................................................................................... 5
5.0 MAXIMS OF TEACHING (AND LEARNING) ................................................................................... 9
6.0 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................... 9
7.0 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................ 9
Module 4- Instructional Planning and Delivery NITTTR, Bhopal L4 Page 2

L4: Learning Principles and Events of Instruction
1.0 INTRODUCTION
People learn in different settings and different ways which could be broadly categorised into
formal and informal learning. Formal learning occurs in any formal education set up such as
in schools, universities and other higher education institutes and follows a set of prescribed
rules, regulations and norms. In contrast to this informal learning occurs at everywhere
depending on the characteristics and interests of the learner. To ensure effective learning to
happen, it is essential that the teacher is aware of the learning principles so that they can
integrate the same during the various teaching-learning (T-L) situations process. Learning
has been broadly understood as acquiring new information, exhibit change in attitude,
behaviour or performing a new skill which pertain to different learning domains i.e.
Cognitive, Affective and Psychomotor domain as discussed in Module 1. This lesson is
intended to help you to understand the ‘learning principles’ and 'Events of Instruction' so
that you will be able to ‘teach’ (instruct) effectively and efficiently.
2.0 CONCEPT OF LEARNING
In module 1 the concept of learning has already been discussed in detail. But it is worth
recalling that learning’ can be said to be is a process of Acquisition, Organisation, Retention,
Recall, Application. Some other educationists (Richard, 2015) say’s ‘learning’ is the process of
acquiring new, or modifying existing knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, or preference.
Robert Gagne defines learning as ‘a change in human disposition or capability that persists
over a period of time and is not simply ascribable to processes of growth’ (Robert M. Gagne,
1992). This definition has three indicators. Firstly, the duration of the change is long-term
rather than short-term. Secondly, the cause of the change is the learner’s experience in the
environment rather than fatigue, motivation, drugs, physical condition or physiologic
intervention state. Among a plethora of definitions, learning is also popularly defined among
the engineering education fraternity as ‘a relatively permanent change in a person’s
knowledge or behavior due to the experience or teaching that happens voluntarily or
involuntarily’.
Understanding how the human brain processes the information, stores it and retrieves the
same whenever needed is often required to be known by the teacher. The kind of internal
processing that occurs in a learner at the time of learning, could be summarised as follows:
(Robert M. Gagne, 1992). These processes together with the principles of human learning,
will greatly help to design and implement the learning experiences in classroom, laboratory,
workshop, field and other locations effectively and efficiently.

a) Attention: Determines the extent and nature of reception of the learning material.
b) Selective perception (or pattern recognition): Transforms the above received learning
material in the form of object-features, for storage in short-term memory.
c) Rehearsal: Maintains and renews the learning material stored in short-term memory.
d) Semantic encoding: For long-term storage the learning material is semantically
encoded for future retrieval which may be some form of cues which differs from
person to person
e) Retrieval, including search: Whenever the learnt material is required by the learner,
the semantically encoded material is brought to the working memory from the long-
term memory.
f) Response organization: The retrieved material that is brought to the working
memory is required for response (i.e. performance) for that particular situation.
2.1 Principles of Learning

The three major ‘principles of learning’, also referred to as ‘laws of learning’, which are
generally applicable to the learning process have been well researched, tested, and used by
educationists over the years. These are:
a) Principle of Readiness (or in other words Principle of Motivation): This is based on
the fact that Individuals learn best when they are physically, mentally, and
emotionally ready to learn. For example, the teacher can tell a story with a positive
ending, use a video clip with a motivating theme as a ‘starter’ and so on.
b) Principle of Exercise: This is based on the proof that when things are repeated, they
are best remembered and this is also the basis for ‘redundancy' in several teaching-
learning situations, ‘tutorials’ and ‘drill-and-practice’ sessions.
c) Principle of Effect: This is based on the emotional reaction of the student which is
accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling due to positive reinforcement. Rather
than punishing, the teachers should provide feedback in such a manner (such as
saying “good, very good, and others) so that the students get a good feeling and are
encouraged to learn more and more.
There are some other broadly accepted principles of learning as well, such as the:
d) Principle of Primacy: Things that are learned for the first time are more durable and
lasts longer. They are ‘absorbed’ by the student and create a durable and long-lasting
impression on the student. For example, inform in the beginning of the session of
how that topic will help tell the student when s/he will work in the industry.
e) Principle of Intensity: This states that a student will learn more from the real thing
than from a substitute. For example, a student will understand the construction of a

real small transformer brought to the class, rather than a rudely drawn figures on the
board.
f) Principle of Freedom: This implies that things ‘freely’ (against forcefully or coerced)
learned are best learned. Learning should be ‘fun’. Students need to be given the
choice to choose, to act and also bear the consequence of the act whereby better
learning will occur. The greater the freedom enjoyed by individuals within a society,
the greater the intellectual and moral advancement enjoyed by society as a whole.
3.0 INSTRUCTION
The purpose of instruction is to provide support to the processes of learning. Teaching or

Instruction already seen in the module 1, ‘is the process in which one individual teaches or
instructs another individual’. Teaching is considered as the act of imparting instructions to
the learners. A teacher is a person who helps students to acquire knowledge, competence or
virtue. Similar to learning, teaching can occur in different settings and different locations.
Although there are many definitions of instruction, Romiszowski, 1981 (Romiszowski, 1981)
says, ‘By instruction we shall mean a goal directed teaching process which is more or less
pre-planned’. The great educationist R. M. Gagne, [1971] defines instruction as ‘a set of
events external to the learner which are designed to support the internal processes of
learning’. This definition indicates that the concept of instruction has the following elements:
a) It is a set of events.
b) It is external to the learners,
c) These events of instruction are designed by the teachers, and
d) These events of instruction support (facilitate) the internal processes of learning.
4.0 GAGNE’S NINE EVENTS OF INSTRUCTION
In teaching-learning (T-L) situations, the processes involved in learning as mentioned in

section 2 are influenced by external events called instruction. For effective instructional
planning Gagne (Robert M. Gagne, 1992) proposed nine instructional events which is
popularly known as ‘Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction'. These nine events are applicable in
various places such as designing instructions, writing a paper, authoring a book and also in
the T-L situations. These events of instruction need to be deliberately arranged by the
teacher for the learning to occur. The functions served by the various events of Instruction
during learning are listed in Table 1.

Table 1 Instructional Events and Their Relation to Process of Learning

(Robert M. Gagne, 1992)
S. No. Instructional Events Relations to Learning Processes
1. Gaining attention Reception of patterns of neural impulses

(learning material or stimulus)
2. Informing the learner of the Activating the process of executive control
objective
3. Stimulating recall of prerequisite Retrieval of prior learning to working
learning memory
4. Presenting the stimulus material Emphasizing features of selective
perception
5. Providing learning guidance Semantic encoding; cues for retrieval
6. Eliciting the performance Activating response organization
7. Providing feedback about Establishing reinforcement
performance correctness
8. Assessing the performance Activating retrieval; making reinforcement
possible
9. Enhancing retention and transfer Providing cues and strategies for retrieval
For a better understanding, each of these nine events of instructions are discussed briefly
with some sample external activities that needs to be planned by the teacher.
4.1 Gaining Attention

This event may be also called 'hooking the attention', so that the student's far away thoughts
are brought into the classroom. Some of the techniques for gaining student's attention are:
a) showing a video clip as a ‘starter'
b) showing a picture
c) Telling a story related to topic of instruction
d) Clapping the hands
e) Ask thought provoking questions and the like.
4.2 Informing the Learner of the Objective

This event is perfectly in tune with the present engineering education situation in the
country where all teaching activities have to be undertaken so that some observable and
measurable outcomes are seen in the students at the end of the session. These outcomes
are also called as Instructional objectives Some of the methods for stating the learning
objectives/outcomes are:

a) The students have to be explicitly told 'After completing the lesson you will be able
to............(do something such as explain, calculate and such others)'.
b) Action verbs of terminal nature have to be used in formulating these objectives/
outcomes.
c) Describe required conditions and criteria
d) Describe criteria for standard performance.
4.3 Stimulating Recall of Prerequisite Learning

Recalling earlier learned concepts or principles is always helpful. Prior knowledge provides a
foundation for building up next level of learning. Revision or recall of previous relevant
instructional content helps the students to understand new information or teaching points.
Some of the techniques to accomplish this task such as:
a) Asks questions of previous learning.
b) Show some video/power point presentations of previous lesson and the like.
4.4 Presenting the Stimulus Material

By now the student is ready to receive the new concepts or principles that you as a teacher
expect the students to learn. Present the new subject matter in order to develop the already
stated outcomes, which can be broken down in smaller steps to gradually and sequentially
built up such as:
a) Present the learning material using real things, videos, ppts and such others
b) Provide suitable examples.
c) Use different teaching methods depending on the subject matter.
4.5 Providing Learning Guidance

This activity means that the teacher should provide cues and learning guidance or
alternative approaches to understand the concepts so that the students can encode them,
retain the information and retrieve them as and when required. Some of the techniques to
provide learning guidance are:
a) Show real things.
b) Show videos.
c) Use analogies and visual images.
d) Conduct role plays depending on the subject matter.
e) Explaining the concept by suitable examples
f) Use non-examples-to help students see what to do and what not to do
g) Provide Graphical representations.
4.6 Eliciting the Performance

For confirmation of the learning performance, eliciting the performance provides an
opportunity for students to confirm their correct understanding. This is basically for

providing feedback for consolidating the right learning. At this stage, the teacher ascertains
whether or not the students have learnt and to what extent. In this event, the students are
further required to do the repetition to confirm their correct responses. Some strategies for
eliciting the student performance are:
a) Ask relevant questions to test the achievement of the objective.
b) Ask the students to solve numerical.
c) Conduct a short quiz.
d) Ask students to narrate or demonstrate new knowledge /skills.
e) Ask students to elaborate or explain details of some principle, procedure or
application.
4.7 Providing feedback

This event is very much required after eliciting the response from the students for cementing
the correct learning to occur. This can also be called as 'Immediate knowledge of results'
(IKR). It is better, if the feedback is given at every interim stage of the learning process. The
types of feedback at this stage can be for:
a) Confirmatory feedback or
b) Corrective and remedial feedback
When the correct responses are reinforced through the feedback, confidence is generated in
the students as the reinforced responses are likely to be repeated.
4.8 Assessing the Performance

This event that usually happens at the end of the session is generally used for grading and
certifying whether the already stated learning outcomes in the third event is achieved in the
student. The students should be provided with the knowledge of these results as well. Some
of the assessing techniques are:
a) Tests of different types
b) Short questionnaires
c) Quizzes
4.9 Enhancing Retention and Transfer

This is the last of the instructional events, by which retention of the correct learning
outcome is enhanced and further cemented when the student is able to transfer this to new
learning outcomes or skills in some other new or different situations. For this to happen,
some of the techniques of retention are:
a) Giving relevant practice tasks and
b) Assignments and such other tasks.

5.0 MAXIMS OF TEACHING (AND LEARNING)
Combined with above mentioned major principles of learning and events of instruction,
learning in the students can be maximised if some of the following rules of
instructions/teaching are also adhered. They are also called Maxims (derived from the word
‘maximisation’) of Learning:
a) Known to Unknown paths
b) Simple to Complex concepts
c) Concrete to Abstract Concepts
d) Whole to part and part to whole
e) Particulars to generalisations.
f) Provide immediate knowledge of results (IKR) especially during classroom sessions.
6.0 CONCLUSION
You must have noticed that this unit is of utmost important to every teacher, as classroom
and laboratory teaching are the 'lifeline' of every engineering teacher through his/her entire
career. These principles of learning and events of instruction discussed above are indivisible
part of their profession. Therefore, in various teaching-learning situations understanding and
practicing the salient features of these two major functions is required for designing,
developing, implementing, and monitoring lessons and instructional materials which lead to
effective and efficient learning in the students.
**********
7.0 REFERENCES
experiential_learning. (2019). Retrieved from

www.niu.edu/facdev/resources/guide/strategies/experiential_learning.pdf
Gagne, R. M. (1977). The Conditions of Learning ( 3rd ed.). Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Gagne, Robert M.& Briggs, Leslie, J. (1979). Principles of Instructional Design (2nd ed.). New York:
Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
influential-theories-of-learning. (n.d.). Retrieved from
www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/strengthening-education-systems/quality-
framework/technical-notes/influential-theories-of-learning/
kolb_learning. (2019). Retrieved from changingminds.org/explanations/learning/kolb_learning.htm
principles12. (2019). Retrieved from
www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/support/pages/principles12.aspx
Richard, G. (2015). Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behaviour 7th Edition. Hachette, UK: Hodder
Education.
Robert M. Gagne, L. J. (1992). Lesson 10 - The events of Instruction. In Principles of Instructional
Design (pp. 185-201). Orlando: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Romiszowski, A. (1981). Designing Instructional Systems. . Kogan Page Ltd., London.
Thorndike, E. (1999). Education Psychology. New York: Routledge.

ASSIGNMENTS
Match the events of instruction in Column A with the given situations in Column B
Column A Column B
1 Gaining attention A. The Teacher discusses classroom assignment with
all the students
2 Informing the learner of the B. The teacher gives a classroom assignment.
objective
3 Stimulating recall of C. The teacher organizes a Quiz in the end of a
prerequisite learning session.
4 Presenting the stimulus D. The teacher showing a video programme on a
material new theme.
5 Providing learning guidance E. The teacher is asking question in the beginning to
ensure the learning of the last session
6 Eliciting the performance F. Teacher explaining a new concept with the help
of a diagram
7 Providing feedback G. The students solve the problems in home
assignments based on teacher inputs in the class
8 Assessing the performance H. The teacher narrates the learning outcomes in
the beginning of the session.
9 Enhancing retention and I. Greeting the students in the class
transfer

MODULE 4
Unit 4.4.2
Instructional Methods and
Strategies- Part 1
L5 Basic Teaching Model

L6 Need for Variety of Instructional
Methods
L7 Classification of Instructional
Strategies
L8 Basic Instructional Methods
L5: Basic Teaching Model
Contributors
Dr. K. K. Jain
&

Unit 4.4.1: Curriculum Analysis for Session Planning L5: Basic Teaching Model
L5: Basic Teaching Model
LO 1. Describe the meaning and need of teaching models.
LO 2. Justify the use of basic teaching model to enhance the effectiveness of
teaching learning process.
Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 3
2.0 MODELS OF TEACHING ................................................................................................................ 3
3.0 UTILITY OF TEACHING MODEL..................................................................................................... 4
4.0 CLASSIFICATION OF TEACHING MODELS..................................................................................... 5
4.1 Information processing family..................................................................................................... 5
4.2 Social interaction family .............................................................................................................. 5
4.3 Personal family ............................................................................................................................ 5
4.4 Behaviour modification family .................................................................................................... 6
5.0 BASIC TEACHING MODEL............................................................................................................. 6
5.1 Basic Teaching Model .................................................................................................................. 6
5.2 Strengths of Basic Teaching Model ............................................................................................. 7
6.0 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................... 8
7.0 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................ 8
Module 4-Instructional Planning and Delivery NITTTR, Bhopal L5 Page 2

Unit 4.4.2: Instructional Methods and Strategies – Part 1 L5: Basic Teaching Model
L5: BASIC TEACHING MODEL

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Models of teaching are critical pieces to instructional planning and delivery. In general,
models of teaching are helpful in designing meaningful instructional activities and
experiences for students. For any teacher it is essential to gain the needed insights into why
some instructional methods work with some learners, while others do not. Quite a number
of educationists and psychologists have conducted researches on this aspect, as a result of
which the teaching models or paradigms have been developed.
In this lesson, concepts related to models of teaching are presented in a very concise way in
order to understand their classroom implication. This lesson describes meaning, functions
and types of teaching model. The components of basic teaching model are discussed with
reference to the instructional procedures to be adopted for different domains of learning.
2.0 MODELS OF TEACHING

The term 'model' carries different meaning to different individuals and is used in several
ways. A model could be defined as representation or abstraction of something/system that
allows for investigation of the properties of the something/system and helps to concentrate
on the essentials of a (complex) problem by keeping out non-essential details.
With regard to teaching, the teacher needs to understand the concept of model and concept
of teaching first, so that the meaning of the term 'Models of Teaching' is clear in totality. For
a student to shape his or her behaviour and values, generally he or she looks up to a teacher,
a leader or a screen actor as a role model. In any instructional environment also, model is
important for the purpose of its imitation by the individual concerned. Teaching has been
defined in different ways by different educationists, of which some are reproduced here:
• Teaching is the work that a teacher does in helping students to learn.
• Teaching is a form of interpersonal influence aimed at changing the behaviour
potential of another person. (N.L. Gage, 1963)
• Teaching is an interactive process, primarily involving class room talk which takes
place between teacher and pupil and occurs during certain definable activity.
(Edmund Amidon, 1967)
2.1 Definitions of Models of Teaching

Models of teaching help a teacher improve his/her capacity to reach out to more students
and create conducive environment for them to learn. Educational experts and researchers
have developed a variety of models of teaching, each designed to produce intended learning
outcomes. Professional educators have evolved various definitions of models of teaching.
Some of these definitions are given below:

Deyouy (1916): The core of the process of teaching is the arrangement of environments
within which the student can interact.
Paul D. Eggen, et al. (1979): Models are prescriptive teaching strategies designed to
accomplish particular instructional goals.
Joyce and Weil (1978): A model of teaching is a plan or pattern that can be used to shape
curricula, to design instructional materials and to guide instruction in the classroom and
other settings. In other words, a model of teaching is a description of a learning
environment.
B. K. Passi, L. C. Singh and D. N. Sansanwal (1991); A model of teaching consists of guidelines
for designing educational activities and environments. Model of teaching is a plan that can
also be utilized to shape courses of studies, to design instructional material and to guide
instruction.
These definitions indicate that various educationists perceived the meaning of teaching
models differently. However, there are certain attributes related to the term model of
teaching, which are common to these definitions. Looking at these commonalities, teaching
model can be described to be consisting of:
a) Prescriptive teaching strategies,
b) Guidelines for designing educational activities,
c) Guidelines for designing and selecting Instructional materials,
d) Learning outcomes and its realization, and
e) Arrangement of environments.
3.0 UTILITY OF TEACHING MODEL

The model of teaching can be used for the following purposes:
a) For planning, implementation and evaluation of curriculum,
b) For developing the instructional materials, and
c) For guiding the teacher for interaction with learners.
Some other uses of teaching model are:
i. Teaching models help in guiding the teacher to select suitable teaching strategies,
methods and techniques for the effective utilization of the resources.
ii. Teaching models help in specifying the learning outcomes in terms of observable and
measurable performance of learners.
iii. Teaching models help in bringing about desirable changes in the behaviour of the
learner.
iv. Teaching models assist teachers to develop their capacities to create favourable
environmental situation for carrying out teaching process.
v. Teaching models help in achieving desirable teacher - learner interaction during
teaching.

vi. Teaching models stimulates the development of new educational innovations in

teaching - learning process.
vii. Teaching models help curriculum planners to plan learning activities and content
material which provide a variety of educational experiences to learners.
viii. Teaching model evaluates the behaviour of the students.
4.0 CLASSIFICATION OF TEACHING MODELS

Different educationists have classified the models of teaching based on several patterns. In
this lesson, the classification described is on the basis of their families given by Joyce and
Weil, which is enough to help you to comprehend to plan and implement the instructional
session. In this classification, the models of teaching are categorised in four families as
described below:
a) Information processing family
b) Social interaction family
c) Personal family, and
d) Behaviour modification family.
4.1 Information processing family
The models of teaching of this family are concerned with the productive thinking and
development of general intellectual ability. Joyce, Weil and Showers (1992) refer
Information processing as the way in which people handle stimuli from the environment,
organise data, sense problems, generate concepts and solutions to problems and use verbal
and nonverbal symbols. Some examples of the models of this family are inductive thinking,
concept attainment, advance organizers, inquiry training. The teaching models of this family
could be helpful in attaining PO1, PO2, PO3, PO4, PO5 and PO10 of engineering graduate
programme.
4.2 Social interaction family
The models of teaching of this family are concerned with the social relationship of the
individual with others in the society. These models aim at the development of social
relationship, democratic processes and work productivity in the society. Some examples of
the models of this family are group investigation and role-playing. The teaching models of
this family could be helpful in attaining PO6, and PO11 of engineering graduate programme.
4.3 Personal family
The models of this family are intended to develop the unique personality of the learner.
These models pay more attention to the emotional life of the person and also focus on
helping individual to develop a productive relationship with their environment. An example
of the model of this family is Non-directive teaching. The teaching models of this family
could be helpful in attaining PO7, PO8, PO9 and PO12 of engineering graduate programme.

4.4 Behaviour modification family

The models of this family are concerned with the changing behaviour of the learners that is
visible or overt instead of the underlying psychological structure and unobservable
behaviour. These have wide applicability in education, training and behavioural therapy. One
of the common characteristics of these models is that they break down the learning task into
series of small sequenced behaviour. Each behaviour is so designed that success is ensured.
The learner actively responds to the problematic situation and gets feedback for
improvement and learning also gets reinforced. Some examples of the models of this family
are contingency management, self-control, stress reduction model. The teaching models of
this family could be helpful in attaining PO8, PO9, PO10, PO11 and PO12 of engineering
graduate programme.
So far, you have been provided with sufficient related information, still if you are interested
in further reading and updating the knowledge, you may refer the website links given in the
references.
5.0 BASIC TEACHING MODEL

Basic teaching model was developed by Robert Glaser in 1962. This model provides a simple
but relevant conceptualization of the teaching learning process.
5.1 Basic Teaching Model
To make teaching-learning more effective and efficient, you are required to concentrate on
the instructional processes. These processes need to be carefully designed by the teachers,
keeping in view the type of learning objectives (domain wise): Cognitive, Psychomotor, and
Affective, as real change in behaviour (learning) occurs during these processes. Robert
Glaser model of teaching has been modified a little and is known as basic teaching model,
which is depicted in Figure 1. He has analysed the teaching learning process in terms of
following components:
a) Instructional Objectives/ Learning Outcomes
b) Entry Behaviour/ Pre-requisite knowledge/ Prior Learning
c) Instructional Procedures/ Instructional Strategies
d) Performance Assessment, and
e) Feedback.
Figure 1: Basic Teaching Model

a. Instructional Objectives/ Learning Outcomes

In this component of the model, the teacher has to state the objectives or learning
outcomes of the session/unit/course as the case may be. That is what students will be able
to do at the end of the teaching-learning process. By doing so, the destination becomes
quite clear and the scope and boundaries of the teaching-learning process becomes clear to
the students.
b. Entry Behaviour/ Pre-requisite knowledge/ Prior Learning
Entry Behaviour of students means the abilities of the students before the teaching-learning
process begins. Ascertaining the entry behaviour of students helps teachers in designing the
suitable teaching strategies/methods according to the capabilities and prior knowledge of
the students.
c. Instructional Procedures/ Instructional Strategies
This component is the heart of any teaching-learning process and in this component the
teachers use different instructional strategies, methods, techniques and resources to
transfer information to students so that they develop the skills as mentioned in instructional
objectives and achieve the expected outcomes.
d. Performance Assessment
Assessment is an essential component to understand the extent of learning. In this
component, the teacher gives assignments, tasks and tests to students. Performance of
students in these activities provides feedback to students and teachers to find out
shortcomings in learning and teaching strategies. This feedback helps teachers and students
both to take appropriate remedial measures.
e. Feedback
Feedback loop is an important component of this model, as it provides an opportunity both
to the teachers, as well as to the students, to see whether the pre-stated objectives are
achieved and to what extent. It also provides a basis for making adjustments and take
corrective measures for making necessary amendments in components mentioned above
under c, b and a of the basic teaching model.
5.2 Strengths of Basic Teaching Model

This basic teaching model is called so, because it can be applied to any level of education
from primary education to higher education. It is applicable to all types of courses whether it
is social sciences, natural sciences (physics, chemistry, biology etc.), languages, mathematics,
and engineering related courses.
A major strength of this model is its fundamental nature which helps to analyse the
teaching-learning processes without much complexity. The T-L process is broken down into
four basic components, where the finer elements within each block of the instructional

objectives, entry behaviour, instructional procedures and the performance assessment can
be analysed by the teacher for further improvement after each feedback cycle.
Another major strength of this model is that it helps to improve the T-L process for the
instructional events of any duration, whether it is a session of one hour or a course for a
semester or a whole programme of three/four year’s duration.
6.0 CONCLUSION
In this lesson you have seen various types of model of teaching at introductory level. An
important purpose of discussing these models is to assist the teacher to have an insight of
wide range of approaches for creating a conducive environment for learning. The models of
teaching enable the teacher to adopt to the learning needs of the learners as each model is
based on particular learning theory and differ in the type of learning that is targeted. Thus, in
a real sense, increasing the capabilities to learn more easily and effectively is one of the
fundamental purposes of these models. In this lesson, basic teaching model along with its
four basic components was also discussed in detail to understand the teaching-learning
process (Mayer, 2008) in a comprehensive way.
********
7.0 REFERENCES
Joyce, Bruce R., Weil, Marsha, and Calhoun, Emily; (2017, 9th Ed.). Models of Teaching, Pearson.
Gagne, Robert M. and Briggs, Leslie, J. (1979, 2nd Ed.). Principles of Instructional Design. Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, New York.
Joyce, Bruce R., Weil, Marsha, and Showers, B.; BIBLIOGRAPHY \l 1033 (1992, 4th Ed.). Models of
Teaching, PHI New Delhi.
Mayer, R. E. (2008, 2nd Ed.). Learning and Instruction, Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
Teaching and learning model. Retrieved June 02, 2019, from

http://sathitech.blogspot.com/2009/03/teaching-and-learning-models.html.
Models of Teaching. Retrieved June 02, 2019, from http://elainelouisesalonga-
edtech.blogspot.com/2015/07/models-of-teaching.html.
Families of Models of Teaching. Retrieved June 02, 2019, from
https://www.scribd.com/document/51165265/Families-Of-Models-of-Teaching.

ASSIGNMENT
Match the statements of column-A associated with abilities with the corresponding families
of models of teaching in column-B.
Column -A Column -B
A. Social relationship of the individual with 1 Information processing family
others in the society
B. Productive thinking and development of 2 Personal family
general intellectual ability
C. Develop the unique personality of the learner 3 Behaviour modification family
D. Changing visible behaviour of the learners 4 Social interaction family
rather the underlying psychological structure
and unobservable behaviour

L6: Need for Variety of Instructional
Methods
Contributors

&
Dr. K. K. Jain

Unit 4.4.2: Instructional Methods and Strategies – Part 1 L6: Need for variety of Instructional Methods
L6: Need for Variety of Instructional Methods
Learning outcome: At the end of this lesson, you will be able to justify the need
for a variety of instructional methods.
Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 3
2.0 INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD ........................................................................................................... 3
3.0 NEED FOR VARIETY OF INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS .................................................................... 3
4.0 TYPES OF LEARNING OUTCOMES ................................................................................................ 4
5.0 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES ........................................................................................................... 4
6.0 LEARNING EFFECTIVENESS AS A FUNCTION OF TIME ................................................................. 5
7.0 NEED FOR STIMULUS VARIATION................................................................................................ 6
8.0 AVAILABILITY OF RESOURCES ...................................................................................................... 6
9.0 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................... 7
10.0 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................ 7

L6: Need for Variety of Instructional Methods
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The saying ‘necessity is the mother of invention’ holds good for every teaching-learning activity.
A teacher has to be concerned about how learning can be made more effective and efficient
and this is where the different types of instructional methods can be of great help. This lesson
attempts to establish the need to use the most suitable instructional method or technique in
formal teaching-learning (T-L) situations consciously and purposefully from a plethora of
instructional methods that are available.
2.0 INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD

In various contexts, an instructional method is also called a teaching method or a teaching
technique. In this module, the term that will be more often used will be instructional method
for which a working definition is given below.
‘An instructional method is an arrangement of learning events adopted by the teacher to
facilitate learning to occur in the students.’
In the above definition, you must have noticed that an instructional method is an
arrangement of learning events or learning experiences exterior to the learner. The aim is to
facilitate learning to occur in the students. A large number of instructional methods are used
in educational institutions, some of which are given below. It is the creativity of a teacher,
which makes him/her use these varieties of methods in his or her class.
i. Lecture and Improved Lecture xi. Simulation
ii. Demonstration xii. Computer-assisted Learning
iii. Tutorial xiii. Educational Game
iv. Laboratory/ Workshop/ Field Work xiv. Brainstorming
v. Project Method xv. Self-learning Module
vi. Assignment xvi. Role Play
vii. Web- based Learning xvii. Case Study
viii. Seminar xviii. Group Discussion
ix. Panel Discussion xix. Industry/ Field Visit.
x. Buzz Session
The various aspects of the initial four methods in the above list are discussed in lesson 8,
while the remaining are discussed in lesson 9.
3.0 NEED FOR VARIETY OF INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS

To develop different types of skills in the student, using one type of instructional method
may not always suffice. For example, demonstrations or projects are effective for meeting

the requirement for development of certain types of skills and outcomes, but ineffective for
achieving other types of outcomes. Also, a single instructional method cannot meet the
requirements of every student at the same time because of the individual differences. So, a
teacher needs to develop the capability to use not merely a single instructional method but
should be comfortable to employ variety of instructional methods. The prime reasons of
using number of instructional methods by a teacher especially with reference to courses of
technical education programmes are described below under the following sub-titles:
a) Types of learning outcomes
b) Individual differences
c) Learning effectiveness as a function of time
d) Need for stimulus variation
e) Availability of resources.
4.0 TYPES OF LEARNING OUTCOMES

It has already seen in Unit-1, Lesson 1 of this Module-4 that there are three different types of
learning outcomes that have to be achieved by the learners. These are learnt differently by
students due to the requirement of different mental and physical processes.
a) Cognitive Domain Outcomes: Knowledge of concepts, principles, procedures, or
intellectual skills (understanding, reasoning, analysing, synthesising, problem solving,
decision making, evaluating and the like). For example: explain the concept of current
and voltage, apply the current and voltage laws and such others.
b) Psychomotor Domain outcomes: Manual or physical skills required for manipulative
performance. For example: operate a machine, set up the apparatus and such others.
c) Affective Domain Outcomes: Attitudes, interests, values or motivational behaviours.
For example: exhibit the attitude of inquiry, take leadership role, practice good
housekeeping and such others.
Developing these different categories of learning outcomes require different learning
conditions. Such conditions could be created by using the different teaching methods.
5.0 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Although there are many commonalties between students of any class, all students are
invariably and uniquely different in many ways. Even the rate of acquiring and assimilating
knowledge is different in individuals and a teacher has to be conscious of this factor in
selecting activities and methods for slow learners, average learners and fast learners. Due to
individual differences, the students use different learning styles. Methods of instruction should
always attempt to match with the learning styles of students. The students also differ from
class-to-class and institution to institution due to several other factors such as:
a) Intelligence c) Aptitudes
b) Temperament d) Social background

e) Cultural background j) Analytical abilities

f) Communication skills k) Drawing abilities
g) Physique l) Interests
h) Attitudes m) Values and such others.
i) Motivational level
Therefore, these differences in the students are important factors to be considered in the
choice of instructional methods. There is also a difference in the pace of learning and a
teacher needs to consider the methods to be employed to manage pace. Broadly, there can
be three categories: Self-paced - the students learn at their own pace (rate), Teacher-paced -
the students proceed at teacher’s rate of teaching and Group-paced - the students proceed at
the rate of their peers. Different methods exist for each of these, which will be discussed in
later lessons.
REFLECTION SPOT
If you are already a teacher, compare the traits, characteristics and factors under
Section 5.0 of this lesson of five of your peers or students, in order to identify the
individual differences.
6.0 LEARNING EFFECTIVENESS AS A FUNCTION OF TIME

Research has shown that by using a single type of teaching method, the attention of the
students cannot be retained beyond 15 to 20 minutes in a normal class period. If a time v/s
attention graph is plotted as shown in Figure 1, it can be noted that the curve after rising
initially and reaching a maximum level starts to droop. This implies that the effectiveness of
teaching method starts decreasing after certain amount of time i.e. about 15 to 20 minutes.
When the attention of the student in the class
starts drooping and if another teaching method 100 %
is seamlessly introduced at this point of time
Effectiveness
during the instructional period as shown in

Figure 2, the effectiveness of the attention curve
is sustained and rises to a new level for a greater
period of time. If this ‘cycle’ of using a new
teaching method is introduced, whenever the 15
Span of Attention
attention curve starts to droop, the attention will
Time in Minutes
rise again and thus the learning can be made
Figure 1: Attention Curve
more effective and efficient during the whole
period of instruction which is generally around
45 to 60 minutes.

Method 1 Method 2 Method 3

100 %
Effectiveness
Span of Attention 15
30 45
Time in Minutes
Figure 2: Need for Variety of Teaching Methods for a Teaching Session
7.0 NEED FOR STIMULUS VARIATION

Incorporating the maximum number of the human senses in a multisensory manner in the
teaching- learning process activates more of the brain that accelerates the learning process in
the brain and facilitates the development of the various types of skills. Educational research has
established that if more of the five senses i.e., senses of hearing, sight, taste, touch and smell
are used, then the learning is more effective. This is what the advertisement world also
encashes upon through the Internet, social media, TV and other methods to market their
products. Good teachers also do the same by using techniques and methods, which make use
of more than one human sense. At least two senses i.e. hearing and seeing can be used in most
of the learning situations. Also, sense of touch can be used in many relevant situations in the
realm of engineering education.
Monotony as you must be aware results in boredom and loss of interest. On the other hand,
‘stimulus variation’ enhances the effectiveness of learning. It is, therefore, essential to bring in
variety in T-L situations. The relevant activities should be planned and provided so as to involve
the learners in the T-L processes. This objective can be successfully accomplished by using
different types of teaching methods which give students an opportunity of listening, watching,
writing, questioning, responding to questions, discussing, manipulating and the like.
8.0 AVAILABILITY OF RESOURCES

Many resources are available to teachers or can be developed or acquired by them. Also they
are required to teach under various constraints. These resources and constraints may be due to
various factors which are:
a) Students background (social, cultural, intellectual, and educational)
b) Students' entry level (prior knowledge and experience)
c) Class-size (Number of students)
d) Time available
e) Instructional Resources available (equipment, consumables)
f) Location of learning (classroom, laboratory, workshop, industry).

Therefore, different types of instructional methods have to be judiciously selected based on the
resources available.
9.0 CONCLUSION
The duty of the teacher is to ‘Focus on students Learning, not instruction or teaching’. You
have learnt in this lesson that there are vast differences in the students as each of them are
uniquely created. It was seen how different methods can be used to enhance the limited
attention span of learning during classroom sessions. Further it was also seen that for
different types of learning outcomes, different types of teaching methods are required to be
adapted in different educational settings. Every teaching method has its strengths and
limitations, which have to be used judiciously based on the outcomes that are to be
developed in the students.
******
10.0 REFERENCES
Mayer, R. E. (2008). Learning and Instruction (Second ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Merrill
Prentice Hall.
Banthiya, N.K., Earnest, Joshua, Mathew, Susan S.et al. (1999); Devise Teaching Strategies
and Select Teaching Methods- Competency Based Self-Learning Module; TTTI Bhopal.
Wilson, Bob. (1987). Methods of Training: Group Work ( Vol.2), Parthenon Publishing Group
Ltd., England.
Garvin, David A. (2000) Learning in Action; A Guide to Putting Learning Organization to Work
- Harvard Business School Press; Boston, Massachusetts.
Patki, S. D. (1997). Module on overview of Training Methods, Cement Industry HRD Project:
Technical Teachers’ Training Institute.

L7: Classification of Instructional Strategies
TEACHER STUDENT
CENTRED CENTRED
Contributors
Dr. A. S. Walkey,
&

Unit 4.4.2: Instructional Methods and Strategies – Part 1 L7: Classification of Instructional Strategies
L7: Classification of instructional strategies
Learning outcomes: At the end of this lesson, you will be able to

classify different types of instructional strategies.
Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 3
2.0 INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGY ......................................................................................................... 3
3.0 TYPES OF STRATEGIES ................................................................................................................. 3
4.0 TEACHER-CENTRED STRATEGY .................................................................................................... 5
5.0 STUDENT-CENTRED STRATEGY .................................................................................................... 5
6.0 MIXED STRATEGY ........................................................................................................................ 6
7.0 INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS CONTINUUM................................................................................... 6
8.0 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................... 9
9.0 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................ 9

L7: Classification of Instructional Strategies
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Any teaching-learning (T-L) experience is planned and implemented to develop intended
outcomes in the learners. To develop these effectively, the need for a variety of instructional
methods have been discussed in Lesson 6 of this module. Even the working definition of the
instructional method has been discussed over there. This lesson endeavours to discuss the
concept of instructional strategy and its importance in the realm of engineering education.
2.0 INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGY

The phrase ‘instructional strategy’ is borrowed from the military jargon, where strategy is
the science and art of ‘planning’ and directing large operations for military movements in a
campaign. A commander makes an integrated use of resources to achieve the specified aim.
A teacher is also considered a master strategist in the classroom or any other location, as
he/she has to plan and direct various T-L events in such a way that learning outcomes of the
lesson are achieved.
An ‘Instructional Strategy’ is the term used to define the combination of different types of
instructional methods which incorporates the use of different media, thereby continuously
bringing in stimulus variation at the relevant time when they are rightly required. A teacher
must try to select and use different instructional methods suitable to the total class and also
taking care of the individual differences among the students. For example, to develop a
practical skill, the demonstration method followed by the drill-and-practice is the best
‘instructional strategy’. A working definition of instructional strategy will be helpful to
understand it more clearly.
‘An instructional strategy is the science and art of planning and directing the use of teaching-
learning events for achieving the objectives using appropriate instructional method(s)’.
A strategy may comprise one or more instructional methods to deliver the learning and is
symbolically represented in Figure 1.
Strategy
Method - 1
3.0 TYPES OF STRATEGIES
Method - 2 Method - 3
The instructional strategies can be broadly
classified as: Method - 4
a) Teacher-centred strategy
b) Student or Learner-centred strategy Figure 1: Instructional Strategy -
Instructional Methods Relationship
c) Mixed strategy.
A teacher-centred strategy is one in which, the teacher plays the active role more as an
information provider.

A student-centred strategy is one in which the student plays an active role for his or her
learning.
A mixed strategy is one in which there is a role change between the teacher and the student
during T-L sessions. Sometimes teacher is more active, and some other time student is more
active. Role of the teacher may change from information provider to a facilitator of learning,
guide or a counsellor for students.
Instructional strategies may also be classified differently such as the:
Deductive Inductive Eclectic strategy
In the ‘deductive strategy’, the teacher dispenses the information to the learners and they
assimilate it, i.e. the ‘rule’ or ‘principle’ of the topic in course is first defined and taught to the
students after which the teacher provides examples using different instructional methods
orally, through visuals, or video clips in which the rule or principle that were taught is
applied in that machine/ instrument or process. Therefore this is also known as Rule-eg
strategy, or expository strategy. The assumption of this method is that:
▪ The teacher knows the needs of the students.
▪ The teacher can transmit the message effectively.
▪ It is easier to understand.
In the ‘inductive strategy’, the teacher first presents various examples and/or applications
using different instructional methods such as brain storming, simulation, role-play, question
answer technique or visually or through video clips and helps the students to discover the
rule or principle that is underlying or being used in that machine/instrument or process.
Therefore, this is also known as discovery strategy or eg-rule strategy. This method of learning
is more exciting to the students as they experience the joy of discovering the rules and/or
principles related to that topic of the course.
However, inductive strategy may sometimes require relatively more time than the deductive
strategy. The assumptions in this method are:
• Learning by doing is more effective.
• Students have intrinsic motivation when there is relevant problem to solve.
• Students are capable of generalizing on their own. On the basis of examples they can
find out underlying principles.
Felder and Silverman suggest using both deductive and inductive instructional strategies, as
in case of scientific method i.e. first by induction and then by deduction. You can plan for
relevant observable phenomena in class that creates a framework for inferring general

principles. These governing principles can then be used to deduce other implications and
consequences (Hesket, Farrell, & Slater, 2003).
Sometimes ‘eclectic strategy’ are employed, wherein a combination of both the deductive
and inductive strategies are used by the teacher to teach various facts, concepts, principles
and procedures.
Such classifications of instructional strategies provide cues to the teacher as to how to use a
judicious mix of the instructional methods to develop the pre-determined learning outcomes
in the students, thereby making the T-L more effective and efficient.
4.0 TEACHER-CENTRED STRATEGY

The teacher-centred strategy is the most common one. Control of the T-L session lies with
the teacher. It helps the teacher to transmit factual information and relatively more
information to the students in the minimum time. Moreover, it is less demanding on the part
of the teacher. But, it turns out to be boring to the students as students are more or less
passive and hence not very effective in the application of the knowledge imparted. During
the T-L sessions, students listen, observe and take down notes. They usually respond only
when the teacher asks them.
Assumptions
The following assumptions justify the use of this strategy.
The teacher:
a) knows the needs of the students fully.
b) can deliver the lesson more effectively.
5.0 STUDENT-CENTRED STRATEGY

In the student-centred strategy, also known as learner-
centred strategy (Figure 2), the student will play an
active role, while the teacher’s role will be
predominantly of a guide or a counsellor. Control of T-
L session is in the hands of the student. Student is
more or less autonomous about his/ her learning.
Teacher's role, though extremely important, is not that
of an information provider. It is more of a ‘facilitator’ Figure 2: Student Centred Strategy
or a ‘guide’ or a ‘mentor’.
When this strategy is used, the students are actively involved in the learning process, ‘learn to
learn’ and think on their own and feel rewarded when they solve problem(s). However, this
strategy may sometimes seem more demanding on less able students and also more time
consuming as compared to teacher-centred strategy.

Assumptions
Knowing about some basic assumptions of this strategy will be helpful, which are:
a) ‘Learning-by-doing’ is more motivating.
b) Students have an intrinsic motivation, when there is a relevant problem to solve.
c) On the basis of examples, the students find out the underlying principle, rule or law
governing them.
d) There is an academic thrill in discovering by oneself.
6.0 MIXED STRATEGY

It may so happen that in order to facilitate learning and establish channels of information flow;
the teacher may have to adopt a combination of teaching methods, which are both teacher-
centred and student-centred. When such a strategy is used, both the teacher and students are
active, and the focus still continues to be on the learning outcome(s) that should occur in the
students as illustrated by the following example.
Example
Suppose the learning outcome of a course is ‘the student will be able to use (operate) a single-
phase induction motor (or any other equipment related to any branch of engineering).
In this case, there are two dimensions to it. One dimension is the cognitive domain like –
'discriminate various parts of the equipment or explain the functions of various parts of the
induction motor (or the concerned equipment or process)'. This dimension may have to be
addressed using the teacher-centered strategy and using methods like improved lecture,
demonstration and others.
The other dimension is the psychomotor domain component - that of 'manually using or
operating the real induction motor (or the concerned equipment)'. For this, the teacher
needs to adopt the student-centered strategy by allowing the student to discover the fault
through the laboratory experience, project work and other methods.
In fact, as seen in the last lesson, deciding the strategy also depends on various other criteria
like the availability of the resources, time constraint, pace of instruction and others.
7.0 INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS CONTINUUM

To fully comprehend the classification and use of these instructional strategies, the
instructional methods are represented diagrammatically as instructional methods
continuum (Figure 3) based upon roles of teacher and students. The upper row lists
methods, where the teacher's role is that of an information provider. For example, when the
lecture method is employed, or when demonstrating the working of a mechanism, the
teacher role is predominant, as the teacher plays the major role of an information provider.

The list of instructional methods in the middle column i.e. lecture, improved lecture and
demonstration is considered as teacher-centred methods.
Based on Figure 3, some more observations can be made:

a) The middle column gives a continuum of instructional methods beginning with
teacher-centred strategy to the student-centred strategy. In between there are
instructional methods, which can be used as mixed strategy as both teacher and
student, playing substantial role in the teaching-learning process. The features and
their benefits will be discussed in the subsequent lessons.
b) Teacher role decreases from that of direct information provider as can be seen
outside the first column in this continuum. However, it does not become
unimportant. On the other hand, it becomes much more important and crucial. Role
shift is from direct information provider to that of a facilitator of learning, to that of a
guide to learning and learners, to that of a mentor or counsellor to learners on their
learning. This is evident as seen in column 1.
c) For the methods starting from tutorial method all the way down, the teacher facilitates
the student to learn by himself/herself. These methods are fairly good, even to develop
some desirable attitudes like respecting the views of others, co-operation, teamwork,
leadership and others. This is because a student has to interact with other persons in
varied situations.
d) It can be seen in the third column that the student role increases down the rows in the
continuum. After each row the student becomes more active in the learning process.
From an inactive role in the lecture method usually, where there is 'monologue' by
teacher only, it shifts to dialogue, interaction, action and then to reflection towards the
end. In methods like seminar, group discussion, case study, game, simulation and
others, there is usually more interactions between learners and the teacher and
amongst learners themselves. This could lead to the development of certain social
skills among the students because of the interaction that takes place during the
learning process.
e) In laboratory, project work and assignment, most of the responsibility of learning is
transferred to the student and he/she has to take action. This gives him/her the
practice of taking certain decisions. In the assignment method, laboratory or project
work, industry/field visit, the teacher functions as more of a guide as the student acts
on his/her own and struggle to learn. The teacher plans (Figure 4), and may also solve
certain problems, which the students face during this process of learning. As the
students are active in the learning process, the retention and learning is more.

Teacher’s Instructional Methods Type of Activity

Role Happening
Teacher-centred
T S
e Information Lecture Monologue
Provider t
a Improved Lecture Dialogue
u
c Demonstration d
h e
Facilitator Tutorial (Individual/Group) Interaction
e n
r Buzz Session
t
Seminar
Brainstorming
R R
o Game o
l Panel Discussion l
e Case Study e
Role play
D Group Discussion
I
e Guide Assignment Action n
c Laboratory/Workshop/ Field work c
r Simulation r
e
Project Method e
Industry/Field Visit a
a
Mentor Self-directed learning Reflection
s s
ICT-Based Learning
e e
Student-centred
s s
Figure 3: Instructional Methods Continuum
I need to give students

sufficient opportunity for
learning. What
assignments/ activities
can be planned?
Figure 4: Planning for students’ involvement

f) Towards the end of the continuum, students’ role in the T-L process leads to
'reflection' mode, if learning has to be more effective. It can be noted that the
instructional methods such as web-based learning (also commonly known as on-line
learning), computer-assisted learning and self-learning module can be used as a fully
student-centred strategy. These are all self-learning methods and provide considerable
autonomy to the student to control his/her own learning. In these methods, student is
active and not passive and continues to act, interact and reflect depending on the
design, as the T-L process goes on. This prepares the student for independent study
and he/she can be said to be in the reflection phase. As student works through the
lessons, the lessons make him/her to reflect back on the answers and decisions,
which he/she takes, in-turn reinforcing his/her learning.
g) The continuum shown in Figure 3 is not 'sacrosanct' or ‘prescriptive’. This is the
author’s view, when the T-L takes place in the right spirit. However, if a student does
not do the laboratory work on his own assigned to him, and teacher or laboratory
instructor does everything for him, use of this method can't be called a student-
centred strategy. Student is not doing any 'action' and teacher is not a 'guide' in this
case. Teacher or laboratory instructor is functioning like an 'information provider' as
in a 'lecture', where there is 'monologue', and student has no role.
8.0 CONCLUSION
‘All said and done’, our ultimate aim is that the student achieves the required objectives. For
this, a judicious mix of the instructional strategies incorporating a number of methods
should be adopted. This will come only through sustained ‘practice and feedback’. In the
following lessons, you will see in detail, the various aspects of different instructional
methods mentioned earlier.
9.0 REFERENCES
Banthiya, N. K., Joshua E. & Mathew Susan S.et al. (1999, July 3). Devise Teaching Strategies
and Select Teaching Methods- Competency Based Self-Learning Module; TTTI Bhopal.
Stephen Petrina. (in press). Curriculum and Instruction for Technology Teachers-eBook.
Damodharan V. S. and Rengarajan. V. (paper article). Innovative Methods of Teaching.
Instructional methods-Retrieved April 26, 2019, from

http://people.uwplatt.edu/~steck/Petrina%20Text/Chapter%204.pdf.
Methods of Teaching in the Classroom-Retrieved April 26, 2019, from

www.education.com/reference/article/methods-teaching-classroom/.
Instructional Methods information- Retrieved April 26, 2019, from

www.adprima.com/teachmeth.htm.

Teaching methods- Retrieved April 26, 2019, from https://teach.com/what/teachers-

teach/teaching-methods
Hesket, R. P., Farrell, S., & Slater, C. S. (2003). 'An Inductive Approach to Teaching Courses in
Engineering,. Proceedings of the 2003 American Society for Engineering Education
Annual Conference & Exposition.

DISCUSSION FORUM
Discuss the viability and use of student-centred methods over teacher centred methods in
an engineering institution in view of outcome-based education.

L8: Basic Instructional Methods
Contributors

&
Dr. K. K. Jain
&
Dr. A. S. Walkey

Unit 4.4.2: Instructional Methods and Strategies – Part 1 L8: Basic Instructional Methods
LO 1. Use lecture method effectively.
LO 2. Use question answer and other techniques to improve lecture method of
instruction so that the learners are actively involved in the T-L process.
LO 3. Employ demonstration technique during instruction effectively.
LO 4. Apply tutorial technique effectively.
LO 5. Use laboratory experiences to develop the practical learning outcomes.
Contents
1.0 OVERVIEW ................................................................................................................................... 3
2.0 LECTURE METHOD ....................................................................................................................... 3
2.1 Question Answer Technique ....................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Types of Questions ...................................................................................................................... 5
2.3 Feedback to Questions ................................................................................................................ 5
2.4 Other Techniques to Improve Lecture ........................................................................................ 6
3.0 DEMONSTRATION METHOD ........................................................................................................ 7
3.1. Types of Demonstration .............................................................................................................. 7
3.2 Laboratory/ Workshop/ Field-based Demonstration.................................................................. 9
3.3 Planning for Demonstration ........................................................................................................ 9
4.0 TUTORIAL METHOD ................................................................................................................... 13
4.1 When and Where to Use Tutorials? .......................................................................................... 14
4.2 Individual Tutorial...................................................................................................................... 14
4.3 Group Tutorial ........................................................................................................................... 15
5.0 LABORATORY METHOD ............................................................................................................. 15
5.1 Need for Laboratory Work ........................................................................................................ 16
5.2 Objectives of Practical Work ..................................................................................................... 16
5.3 Factors influencing Laboratory Instruction ............................................................................... 19
5.4 Teachers’ Role and Responsibilities Regarding Laboratory Work ............................................. 20
6.0 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................. 21
7.0 REFERENCES .............................................................................................................................. 23


1.0 OVERVIEW
In the previous lesson, the instructional strategies were classified as teacher-centred and
student-centred strategies. In this lesson, commonly used instructional methods and
strategies required to teach typical engineering education courses are discussed, and hence
they are referred here as basic instructional methods. Every engineering teacher, whether
newly inducted or experienced, invariably use the Lecture method, Tutorial method,
Laboratory and Demonstration methods in teaching-learning environment. How to use these
effectively is discussed in this lesson.
2.0 LECTURE METHOD
After going through this e-content, video and activity/assignment related to lecture
method, you will be able to use the lecture method to teach the engineering courses
effectively.
.
Lecture is a method, which is very widely used for instruction and it is observed that a
teacher uses lecture for a major part of teaching. The word lecture is derived from the Latin
word lectus, which translates roughly into ‘to read’. Although there are different definitions,
in this context, the following definition is considered.
Lecture is a method of imparting learning where one teacher teaches a relatively large
group of students (numbering 20 or even more) exclusively by one-way
communication, usually talking to them without much of students’ participation in the
teaching-learning process.
Although the lecture method is just one of several

instructional methods, it’s usually considered the
primary one by most of the teachers. This is because
it is convenient and usually makes the most sense in
many circumstances, especially with larger classroom
sizes. Lecturing lets teachers address all students of
the class at the same time to expose students to
unpublished or not readily available material and
where the students are passive learners (Figure 1).
Lecture method is quite popular due to its certain Figure 1: Lecture method
strengths, some of which are given here:
a) A teacher can dispense more information (facts, theory) in less time and thereby
complete the syllabus/curriculum of a course.

b) It is cost – effective. More number of students can be included in the teaching-

c) The teacher can adapt the lecture to the time and resources available.
d) Teachers and students being familiar with this method feel comfortable.
e) A teacher can pick up non-verbal cues from the students regarding their learning, as
well as teaching.
f) Lecture that is properly managed ensures students' discipline.
When the focus is on achievement of learning outcomes in the students, lecture method has
its own share of limitations:
a) Lecture generally involves one-way communication where learners are passive
listeners.
b) Due to poor note-taking skills in students, they forget much of what is heard during
the lecture.
c) All teachers are not trained to deliver good lectures, thereby reducing its
effectiveness.
d) As learners' active participation is limited, it tends to become dull, drab and boring.
e) For want of feedback from the learners, there is very little evidence of the learning
outcome.
f) It takes limited care of the individual differences in the students’ interests and
experience.
g) Research has indicated that recall of information after the lecture is not that
effective.
h) Lecture method is not at all suitable for developing practical skills.
i) It is not effective in developing desirable attitudes and social skills in the learners.
Some of these limitations could be overcome with the help of some other instructional
techniques and media that have been described later. However, one way of ensuring two-
way communication is to use 'oral question-answer technique'. For this, a teacher needs to
plan well in advance, as to what questions would be asked to students after covering each
teaching point in the class. Use of ‘oral question answer technique’ helps in improving the
effectiveness of the lecture.
2.1 Question Answer Technique

Good questions help the students to be actively involved in learning, and there is less scope
to get ‘switched off’. Depending on the purpose, questions of various types can be
formulated. Oral questioning can be used to:
a) Introduce new topic.
b) Review what has been taught.
c) Develop subject matter step-by-step.
d) Check whether students understand.

e) Stimulate mental activity of students.

f) Encourage/promote healthy discussions.
g) Direct students to new possibilities in the problem being tackled.
h) Help students to apply previously learned material.
i) Prompt students to make additions to their answers.
j) Develop oral communication skills of students.
2.2 Types of Questions

During any instructional session, several types of questions can be used that are listed
below:
a) Rhetorical questions: These are the questions which the teacher can use in rapid
succession in such a way that there is no opportunity for students to respond. This is
a way to present information and give variety to presentation.
b) Introductory questions: These are the questions asked to introduce new knowledge.
At the beginning these may be used to test previous knowledge so that the teacher
knows what and where to start.
c) Developing questions: These are the questions asked for developing the lesson with
the active participation of the students. These may help the students discover new
knowledge by themselves.
d) Leading questions: These questions are asked after students have been asked some
question, which they have not been able to answer. These leading questions provide
some prompts or clues to the students and lead students to correct answers.
e) Recapitulatory question: These questions are asked at the end of the lesson to revise
the lesson, measure the success of the lesson, and evaluate how much learning has
occurred.
In order to increase active participation of students and to provide them practice for
comprehending the concepts, principles, etc. during the lecture or any instructional session,
following types of questions depending upon the process of asking questions can also be
used in addition to the types of questions mentioned above:
i. Centering questions: These can be used for focusing students thinking on a
particularly important concept or principle asked.
ii. Probing questions: These can be used for trying to get a student to go beyond
his/her initial answer to a previous question.
iii. Redirecting questions: These can be used for getting other students to respond to an
initial student's question or to comment on another student’s response.
2.3 Feedback to Questions
The students’ responses to questions raised during the session should be handled carefully:
a) The teacher should give feedback about the correctness or otherwise of the answers.
b) The teacher should reward (reinforce) their correct responses.

c) The teacher should handle the incorrect or partially correct responses by offering
explanations in simple language and giving much more familiar examples.
How teachers respond to erroneous answers is critical in maintaining trust and developing
curiosity. Incorrect or partially correct answers should be experienced by the students
genuinely as learning opportunities. Hence to improve the effectiveness of any lecture
session, the teacher ought to ask questions, help students to understand the significance of
the question, ask students to make a judgment and provide them with some basis for
making the judgment, answer the question and leave students with a leading problem or
question related to topic taught.
2.4 Other Techniques to Improve Lecture

In the previous section, you have learned that in order to remove the limitation of one-way
communication, one of the effective ways is to use 'oral question-answer technique'.
Weaving other instructional techniques, methods and instructional media mentioned below
during a lecture improves this method.
These methods should build interest, maximize understanding and retention, involve
learners during the lecture, and then reinforce what has been said. Along with Question-
answer technique, some of these methods are:
a) Demonstration
b) Lead-off stories or interesting visuals
c) Use of media like chalk board, white board, interactive board, smart board
d) Use of resources like charts, video programmes, books, hand-outs, manuals, self-
learning modules, case studies
e) Examples and analogies
f) Short classroom assignments and tests.
If such techniques are properly planned and implemented, if not all, at least some of the
limitations of the lecture method can be removed. Demonstration method that is one of
these techniques, is being dealt in this lesson and some other techniques will be discussed in
subsequent lessons.
For increasing the effectiveness, it is also important for any teacher to properly organise the
lecture in three phases i.e. introduction, development of content, and summarization/
consolidation. While planning for implementing the instructional session, a teacher should
take care to incorporate these phases and the nine ‘Events of Instruction’, discussed in
lesson - 4 (Gagne 1970) and will be further dealt in the last unit of this module-4.
Please see the associated video on Improved Lecture method. You may also refer to the web
links provided in the references to get more information.
VIDEO

3.0 DEMONSTRATION METHOD
After going through the e-content, video and activity/assignment related to

demonstration method, you will be able to plan to conduct an effective demonstration
Research has shown that the one of the ways to maximise learning is using the real things in
the classroom, laboratory or any other place. The use of the real thing in the class room is
through demonstration. For example, the teacher can show a small electric motor (Figure 2),
which could be brought into the class to show the
stator, rotor, windings, shaft and other things. It could
also be diodes or transistor in an electronics
engineering class or different types of gravel or
aggregate in a civil engineering class and so on. A well
planned, well performed demonstration by the
teacher provides stimulating visual reinforcement. It
includes thinking, invites discussion and bring out
why, when and how the way things or phenomenon Figure 2: Display of components of
happen, and generates a sense of satisfaction in the Induction motor
class. The demonstration method could be defined as:
Demonstration is an instructional method that normally combines oral explanation

with the handling or operation of equipment or materials.
Demonstrations serve as link between theory and practice. In teaching learning

environment, it is an activity carried out by the teacher in the classroom, laboratory,
workshop or any other situation to support theory discussed during classroom instruction or
to show how something is done (skill). Demonstrations may be used at the beginning of the
lesson, during the lesson to link theory and practice or to provide a motivation and/or
stimulus variation to the students.
A lecture with a demonstration can makes the teaching learning process more effective.
Learning becomes much more effective when concepts, principles, etc. studied in theory
classes are synchronized with the demonstration or laboratory work. A demonstration can
be planned as a part of a lesson in order to provide a motivation or stimulus variation to the
students. The teacher should perform a demonstration and ask questions as the
demonstration is in progress.
3.1. Types of Demonstration
For a better understanding, trainee can classify demonstration into four types on the basis of
the purpose for which it is going to be used.

Display type - This is used to show

something in outline or in detail.
Examples - External features of a
theodolite and components of
crankshaft (Figure 3) etc.
a) Operational type - This is used to

Figure 3: Display of components of crankshaft
show how something works–
working principle, constructional details, processes
etc.
Examples – Mechanism of an engine (Figure 4),
Working of an Oscilloscope working of a Vernier
caliper, working of a compound lever, etc.
Figure 4: Mechanism of an engine
b) Instructional type – This is used to show how something is
done so that the student can repeat the same.
Examples – Reading a thermometer, how to start an electric
motor, how to drill properly, etc. (Figure 5)
c) Illustration type – This can be used to show why something

happens the way it does.
Examples – Concepts like deflection (Figure 6), discharge Figure 5: Drilling
through V- Notch, principles like ohm’s law, laws of

friction etc.
The teacher can also classify demonstration on the basis of

location where it is conducted as:
• Laboratory–based demonstration
• Workshop–based demonstration
• Field–based demonstration Figure 6: Concept of deflection
• Classroom–based demonstration
Normally, for developing practical skills, laboratory, workshop or field-based demonstrations

are used.

3.2 Laboratory/ Workshop/ Field-based Demonstration
Students prefer to see (rather than hear) how

things happen. It is a fact that the more the
senses are used during teaching learning
situation, the greater is the possibility of the
student learning and retaining what is being
taught. Demonstration makes this possible. The
demonstration can also be used during the
laboratory/workshop/field session in order to
develop some practical skills related to an
Figure 7: A Field based demonstration
equipment or process (Figure 7). The students will
be able to clear up the doubts which might have risen in theory class. In that case, the
master craftsperson or the concerned expert on that equipment or process can conduct the
demonstration so that the students can observe and practice the skills under controlled
supervision. The main objective of such a demonstration is to develop the requisite skills
required by the industry.
REFLECTION SPOT
It has been stated that:
• Demonstration can be used for explaining ‘how something can be done?’
• Demonstration can be used for explaining ‘how something works?’
• Demonstration can be used for explaining, ‘what something is like’
• Demonstration can be used for explaining, ‘why something happens the way it does’.
From your course area, find at least one example where above requirements of
demonstration are met.
3.3 Planning for Demonstration
When the teacher prepares a proper plan, s/he will not only be able to deal with expected
learning problems, but also will feel herself/ himself confident while dealing with
unexpected learning problems. Purpose of demonstration should be quite clear. Therefore,
the learning outcome/s, teacher wants his/her students to achieve through demonstration
should be thoroughly understood. Planning for a demonstration involves six stages.
Planning for
Design Rehearsal Motivation Performance Practice Feedback

a. Planning for Design

In order to have a good design, first of all the
teacher has to decide for his/ her
demonstration, the objectives to be achieved.
Once the objectives are clear, then decide the
type of demonstration, which suits to the
need i.e. whether it is a classroom (Figure 8),
laboratory, field or workshop type. Try to find
out what students already know so that it can
be omitted or touched lightly. Take care of
certain critical points that need attention Figure 8: A class room-based demonstration
during demonstration. Decide, develop or
arrange in advance, if any instructional media is required to support the demonstration so
that it is more effective.
b. Planning for Rehearsal

Before starting the demonstration, arrange the required material and equipment
systematically so that they are readily available when needed. Make sure that equipment is
working satisfactorily. If necessary, collect or prepare instructional media for greater
effectiveness such as drawings, product or process leaflets, graphs, diagrams, charts,
animations, video, computer-based presentation, etc. Before demonstration, do not forget
to rehearse, so that you become sure and confident that everything will work during the
demo in front of students. If needed make appropriate sequence of the operations. Prepare
well for each step. If required by student, repeat the whole sequence or part of it.
c. Planning for Motivation

In order to motivate the students, it is beneficial to have their active participation, instead of
they merely observing the demonstration. The importance and purpose of demonstration
ought to be established to build up the interest of students in demonstration. Students'
attention to specific points should be drawn; and if possible, by involving the students during
demonstration by inviting them to assist the teacher.
d. Planning for Performance

While demonstrating the most important thing is that students should hear and see the
demonstration clearly. The teacher will be tempted to look at the work, and if the teacher
talks to work table rather than to students, the teacher cannot hope to be heard. In addition
to this, the student will also feel neglected. The involvement of students can be achieved by
asking them. "What will happen further", by building suspense during demonstration or
expressing wonder about certain thing. Allow students to try for themselves if time permits.
Encourage students to ask questions and make special efforts to clear their doubts. Make
sure that students see the demonstration clearly. The size of model used should be

appropriate for the size of group. Use enlarging media such as document camera, projector
to show tiny components or parts visible to all.
e. Planning for Practice

If the demonstration is for development of skill, allow students to emulate. Promote
interaction within the students. Supervise each student and while they are practicing, watch
common mistakes. Once the demonstration is complete, repeat and explain both correct
and incorrect way of doing. Also plan to evaluate each student’s performance of the skill.
f. Planning for Feedback

Invite any of the faculty member or colleague to watch the new demonstration. Have
detailed feedback from him/her or observe any of the colleagues giving a demonstration and
note his/her good points for the improvement.
3.4 Demonstration for Development of Manipulative Skills
In simple words, skill can be defined as 'organised and coordinated pattern of mental/or
physical activity'. When any teacher plans to use demonstration method for developing
manipulative skills in a laboratory or workshop, do remember that giving a demonstration is
not just giving a performance, but it includes explaining of the procedure as well.
Demonstration of a skill by a teacher primarily consists of two parts:
Doing part
Demonstration
Explaining
Now, the question comes up as to what the explanation should include in this case.
a) A list of the equipment, tool and other materials required for the demonstration.
b) A logical sequence of steps in skill which the students can follow.
c) The techniques, cues and key points of each step to be emphasized.
d) A description of the safety procedures to be followed.
Steps for developing skills

Skills are best learned by repeated practice. Hence, it is also important that a skill lesson
should be planned to contain the two components as shown below.
Skill Lesson
Demonstration by Practice by
Teacher/ Demonstrator Students

A teacher must identify those mistakes, which may hinder the learning of manipulative skills,
and should act to rectify them immediately. Once having gone through a sequence of
movement wrongly, it is very difficult for learners to unlearn. This must be prevented from
happening. For example, a student before starting to solder, it is important that s/he should
hold the soldering iron correctly and a teacher ought to ensure it. Principles of planning a
skill lesson include:
i. Show students how to do it.
ii. Explain key points.
iii. Demonstrate the skill in full
iv. Break the skill down into its parts
v. Give reasons for doing a particular step in a particular way.
vi. Give the students plans of practice
vii. Repeat: Let the students watch the teacher/ demonstrator do it again.
viii. Let them do the simple parts of the job.
ix. Ensure feedback
x. Help them to do the whole, under supervision/observation. Provide feedback.
xi. Allow for free practice. Provide feedback.
xii. Let them practice on their own.
ACTIVITY
Identify skill(s) related to one of the courses you plan to deal with. Write the steps for
developing identified skills in students using demonstration technique.
3.5 Points to be taken care of before giving Demonstration

a) Anticipate those steps, which may cause the greatest difficulty and provide or have
ready form of supplemental instruction to clarify the point.
b) Have all material and equipment needed for the demonstration at hand and within
reach.
c) Rehearse before actual presentation; be sure that everything works as planned.
d) Give short demonstration to avoid fatigue of students and to help retention of what
is learnt.
e) Remove all possible distractions before the demonstration begins like unnecessary
noise, unused equipment, etc.
f) Be sure that everyone can see, as the worth of a demonstration is measured by its
visual appeal.
g) Use large equipment objects etc. if possible.
h) Avoid glare from light source and shining surface.
i) Hold work aloft, where all can get good view.
j) Stand by the side of the chart or model, particularly when it is on the board behind
the teacher.

k) Support demonstration with charts, diagrams, slides & printed instructional

materials.
l) Ensure all students see the demonstration from the angle from their seats so that
they don't have any difficulty when they do it by themselves.
VIDEO
Please see the associated videos to get more information.
4.0 TUTORIAL METHOD
After going through the e-content and video related to tutorial you will be able to explore
the use of tutorial as an instructional method.
In most of the curricula of engineering programmes, credits of lecture (L), tutorial (T), and
practical (P) are part and parcel called the L-T-P design. Therefore, tutorials have to be taken
with all seriousness as they are included even in the time-table. The individuals in a class
though treated as equal by the teacher, are not comparable to each other, neither in terms
of cognitive ability nor in terms of desirable attitudes. The tutorial method is generally the
follow up action of a lecture session and one of the means to create an environment for
individualized instruction. To achieve maximum learning in the students, it is desirable to go
for individualized instruction. When the word 'tutorial' is used, it signifies one-to-one
interaction between teacher and student. It can be defined as below -
A tutorial is an interaction between the teacher and student(s), primarily on one-to-

one basis wherein an instructional session is reviewed, or a problem considered.
Tutorials are not intended to supply what books and lectures can give, rather provide
students opportunities for more practice and clearing their doubts. During tutorial, teacher
enquires from students, their areas of difficulty and tries to help them. Most of the time,
students are least prepared even to know what to ask. In such situations, teachers on their
own identify areas of difficulties and give assignment to student to solve the problems so
that they could learn from repeated practice. This particular part of lesson aims to explain
what a 'tutorial' is, emphasize the strengths of tutorial and how best it can be used as a
method of teaching. Even when there is no provision of 'tutorials' in the timetable, concept
of 'tutorial' can definitely be adopted in any educational institution.
Tutorial is popular for practice and remedial teaching due to its following salient features:
a) It brings in elements of individualised learning to a large extent, as a student has to
make attempts to learn on his/her own, and then identify what he/she does not
understand.
b) It helps the students in solving their individual difficulties.

c) It supplements learning occurring during normal classroom teaching.

d) It provides the students an opportunity to exchange and validate ideas learnt
through individual study.
The tutorial has its share of limitations as well:
i. Individual tutorial is time consuming. If there are large numbers of students, it will
be difficult for the teacher to cater to needs of every individual student satisfactorily.
ii. During group tutorials, the pace of the instruction would differ if students vary
greatly in mental ability.
iii. Even with these limitations, one can use this method effectively by proper planning.
With the advancement of technology, there are other ways and means to create tutorial like
situation. For example, in 'Computer-Assisted Learning (CAL)', there is one-to-one
interaction between student and teacher (in the form of a CAL lesson).
4.1 When and Where to Use Tutorials?
Situations where tutorial can be used are:

a) When the topics are very important for understanding subsequent topics.
b) When the topics are difficult.
c) When the topic requires drill and practice.
d) When the students face some problems.
e) When the teacher wants to have remedial teaching for weak students.
f) When students need the guidance of teacher for their project work, assignment,
seminar presentation etc.
Tutorials can be of two types - Individual Tutorial and Group tutorial.
4.2 Individual Tutorial
Here the teacher will meet one of the students

possibly in the office at pre-fixed times or in laboratory
or some other location (Figure 9). Student can come up
with the problem. The role of teacher will be facilitator
of learning. There will be close interaction between
the teacher and the student. Because of this there will Figure 9: Individual tutorial
be better interpersonal relationship and student can
feel free to get his/her doubt(s) clarified.
Example
Suppose in an electronics engineering class, the students are taught how to calculate gain of
an amplifier. But it may be possible that some weak students have not understood it
thoroughly. So, they may come individually to the teacher during pre-fixed time and then

the teacher can explain stepwise how to solve the problem. To see whether the student has
understood or not, the teacher can give similar exercises with slight variations in the circuit.
This drill and practice followed by immediate feedback will help them learn. The teacher will
also provide individual care and attention.
4.3 Group Tutorial
Figure 10 depicts a group tutorial situation. Number of students in group tutorials could be 5
to 10. Preferred seating arrangement in this is around a
table, so as to facilitate easy interaction between the Student
teacher and the students. Group tutorial could be in the
Teacher
form of getting exercises solved in a group with teacher
assistance, and getting doubts clarified for specific
topics/situation. Additional gain from the use of this method Figure 10: Group Tutorial
is that through the interaction, interpersonal relationship Seating Arrangement
drastically improves. There is a great deal of intimacy and every student gets an individual
attention by the teacher.
Example
Suppose the teacher asks the students to design a 'fibre optic link' on the basis of power
budget. For this, the students have to collect data and do calculations to get the final result.
The teacher can have a group tutorial for a group of students in which the teacher can look
at what they have done, what their difficulties are, and how they can proceed further.
Please watch the associated video of tutorial method.
VIDEO
5.0 LABORATORY METHOD
After going through the e-content, video and activity/assignment related to Laboratory
method, you will be able to use appropriate laboratory experience as an effective
teaching method to develop the pre-determined practical outcomes.
Engineering is a 'hands-on' profession,

where doing is the key. Applying
engineering to everyday life requires
both theory and hands-on practice.
While the former lends itself to
classroom learning, the later can only
be learned and practiced in the physical
laboratory. In this method the teacher’s
role has to be that of a 'guide' and
students must do most of the 'action'. Figure 11: Laboratory method
This means that students need to be most of the time guided and helped to conduct

practical in laboratory. The laboratory method (Figure 11) can be used both for individual
and group instruction and how to effectively use this instructional method to develop the
pre-determined outcomes is discussed in this lesson.
5.1 Need for Laboratory Work

Firstly, it is necessary to understand the reason for existence of the laboratory in the
engineering institutions, which is different from science colleges. The laboratories in the
science colleges are set up to verify the various scientific theories, rules, laws and principles.
Whereas the laboratory/workshop in the professional institutions related to engineering
education system are established to develop the requisite competency and skills required
for the concerned profession. If fact laboratory functions as ‘miniature industry’ where the
necessary equipment and instruments are set up to develop the basic and essential
competencies and skills related to that occupation and required by the industry, so that they
become almost ready for the world of work on graduation.
It is also pertinent to understand that the students are not all the time doing only practical
activities, but they also undergo experiences of being a group leader, team member and
such generic laboratory-based activities and hence the term ‘laboratory experiences’ would
be a more appropriate term to be used in place of the term ‘laboratory experiments’ as they
are not ‘experimenting’ anything. In fact, the ‘practical work’ would be still better as they
will be doing that practical work, which help them to attain the practical outcomes/ skills
required by the industry. Hence there should not be any of the so called ‘Study Type’
experiments as the focus of the laboratories is on developing the skills and not observation.
Therefore, just by observation and study of static equipment in a laboratory/ workshop
cannot be considered as ‘practical/ laboratory work’. Therefore, in most part of this lesson
and associated videos, the term practical work or experience (which means laboratory/
workshop/ field work) is used.
5.2 Objectives of Practical Work

All engineering programmes have number of courses and associated laboratory work. The
practical work in the laboratories related to these courses need to be focused, to render the
students more acceptable to the industry. Most of the graduates from engineering
programmes, who get employed in the industry work on the shop-floor, undertake
production, market and service the products. For this to happen, the objectives of the
laboratory work ought to be clear to both the teacher and the students. The objectives of
the laboratory work with special focus on UG and diploma engineering curricula are
discussed separately in subsequent paragraphs.
Thirteen objectives, converged at the colloquy convened in San Diego, California, where
academicians discussed “What are the fundamental objectives of engineering instructional

laboratories?” are listed below. All objectives start with the following: “By completing the
laboratories in the engineering undergraduate curriculum, the student will be able to….”
i. Instrumentation: Apply appropriate sensors, instrumentation, and/ or software tools
to make measurements of physical quantities.
ii. Models: Identify the strengths and limitations of theoretical models as predictors of
real world behaviours. This may include evaluating whether a theory adequately
describes a physical event and establishing or validating a relationship between
measured data and underlying physical principles.
iii. Practical Work: Devise practical works, specify relevant equipment and procedures,
implement these procedures, and interpret the resulting data to interpret and come
to conclusions.
iv. Data Analysis: Demonstrate the ability to collect, analyze, and interpret data, and to
form and support conclusions. Make order of magnitude judgments and use
measurement unit systems and conversions.
v. Design: Design, build, or assemble a parts, product, or system, using specific
methodologies, equipment, or materials; meeting client requirements; developing
system specifications from requirements; and testing and debugging a prototype,
system, or process using appropriate tools to satisfy requirements.
vi. Learn from Failure: Identify unsuccessful outcomes due to faulty equipment, parts,
code, construction, process, or design, and then re-engineer effective solutions.
vii. Creativity: Demonstrate relevant levels of independent thought, creativity, and
capability in real-world problem solving.
viii. Psychomotor: Demonstrate competence in selection, operation, and modification of
relevant engineering tools and resources.
ix. Safety: Identify health, safety, and environmental issues related to technological
processes and activities, and deal with them responsibly.
x. Communication: Communicate effectively about laboratory work with a specific
audience, both orally and in writing, at levels ranging from executive summaries to
comprehensive technical reports.
xi. Teamwork: Work effectively in teams, including individual and joint accountability;
assign roles, responsibilities, and tasks; monitor progress; meet deadlines; and
integrate individual contributions into a final deliverable, product.
xii. Ethics in the Lab: Behave with highest ethical standards, including reporting
information objectively and interacting with integrity.
xiii. Sensory Awareness: Use the human senses to gather information and to make sound
engineering judgments in formulating conclusions about real-world problems.
For undergraduate engineering students from engineering institutions, following list of

objectives has been formulated for their laboratory work:
a) Develop practical skills through first-hand experience.
b) Show an attitude of enquiry.

c) Show confidence and ability to solve problems.

d) Interpret events and results.
e) Work effectively as leader of a team.
f) Work effectively as member of a team.
g) Assess errors and reduce them.
h) Observe and measure physical phenomena.
i) Write technical reports.
j) Select suitable equipment, instruments and materials.
k) Locate and rectify faults in systems.
l) Set and handle instruments, machines and equipment.
m) Follow standard/ specified test procedure.
n) Show awareness of safety procedures.
o) Understand concepts, theories and principles.
p) Understand the operation of instruments, machines, systems, equipment, etc.
q) Integrate theory and practice.
r) Discover or prove rules, relationships and principles.
To fulfil these objectives of engineering laboratories, some of the most industry needed
skills that could be developed in students through practical work during the programme of
study in a technical institution are given in Table-1.
Table 1: Some Common Skills to be Developed in Laboratory
S. No. Practical Skills Social Skills & Values Cognitive Skills

1 Operate Follow safe practices Evaluate
2 Handle with dexterity Manage time Analyze
3 Survey Show alertness Communicate in written form
4 Procure Exhibit sincerity Communicate orally
5 Estimate Show Interest Listen
6 Install Demonstrate Confidence Solve problem
7 Test Show Cost consciousness Draw conclusions
8 Inspect Adhere to Healthy Record
practices
9 Repair Work hard Classify
10 Maintain Show empathy Investigate
11 Service Demonstrate Integrity Interpret
12 Use of modern tools Self-motivation Use for varied applications
13 Measure with Self-discipline Observe
precision
As can be observed, Laboratory work can be used for achievement of outcomes in all the
three domains of learning i.e. psychomotor domain, affective domain and cognitive domain.

These skills are possible to be developed, if the laboratory work is suitably designed and
effectively implemented. Repeatability is one of characteristics of skill development and this
need to be built in the laboratory work design for implementation. Social skills and values,
which are the outcomes in the affective domain, can be developed through only some
methods, laboratory being one of the most prominent one, especially since in any
curriculum, significant time is allotted to practical work. Values are not social skills. Good
values like loyalty, sincerity, and such others are those which the industry strongly needs, for
which suitable environment has to be created in the institutions and teachers should
motivate the students to internalize such noble values and ethics and assess them at
appropriate times.
5.3 Factors influencing Laboratory Instruction
The following are the important factors that influence the laboratory instruction. As the
influence of these factors is self-evident, a brief discussion on them is only given.
a) Teacher competence
It is important that the teachers themselves need to be confident, competent and
trained to operate all the concerned equipment in the laboratory, they have been
given responsibility. A necessary step before administering any practical work is to try
it out. This will enable the teacher to appreciable the difficulties that the students
may encounter when performing it. Furthermore, the teacher will be in a better
position to guide the students for achievement of the industry relevant skills.
b) Resource Constraints
It is vital that equipment should be available in good working condition. Equally
important is the availability of necessary consumables. Policy support and essential
funds ought to be available for ensuring the same.
c) Students Characteristics
While more able students need little guidance, average and less able ones need more
support from the teacher and have to be gradually trained up to take up the student-
centered learning experience. Some students readily take up initiative and assume
responsibilities, while some students feel contended with passive roles. Teacher
influence becomes necessary to make such students take active role and thereby
develop necessary practical skills which cannot be attained anywhere else.
d) Learning Outcomes
This is a vital factor. The students should clearly understand the outcomes expected
through the practical work. The relevance of the laboratory work has to be
appreciated by student to gain and sustain his/ her interest. Therefore, there has to
be clarity to students as well as to teachers regarding the practical learning outcomes

and the practical skills linked with the course outcomes and programme outcomes,
which need to be acquired by the students.
e) Assessment of Learning Outcomes
One of the most important factors in the development of practical outcomes effectively
is their assessment. If teachers design assessment schemes properly and make it
transparent and implement it sincerely, it can motivate students to acquire the skills
through laboratory work effectively. Details about it will be discussed in the
subsequent lessons.
5.4 Teachers’ Role and Responsibilities Regarding Laboratory Work
The engineering teacher is the key person who has to facilitate the development of requisite
practical skills, social skills and cognitive skills in the students. The main roles of the teacher
with reference to laboratory are:
a) Plan and design lab experiences.
b) Provide guidance and direction during laboratory practice.
c) Assess the students’ performance.
d) Organise and manage the laboratory work in totality.
For achieving this, the major responsibilities of the teacher specifically in the laboratory are
highlighted here:
i. Ensure that all the equipment required for that course are procured, installed and
commissioned.
ii. Assure the availability of required consumables in time.
iii. Plan to organise the practical work.
iv. Design practical work to develop the industry relevant skills relevant to the course.
v. Develop notes to teachers and compile them in the form of teacher guide, so that the
designed practical work is implemented properly.
vi. Implement the practical work to develop the industry relevant skills relevant to the
course.
vii. Facilitate the development of the skills in the students during the practical work.
viii. Assess the students’ performance and certify whether the practical learning
outcomes have been acquired or not.
The above responsibilities may call for special care and additional activities such as:
• Prepare various schedules.
• Develop learning material for labs/ workshops - (Instruction sheet, Models, Charts,
Video Programs, CAI packages, etc.).
• Decide relevant instructional strategy.
• Ensuring active student participation.
• Render guidance and assistance.
• Set criteria for evaluation - Continuous, end-of- term using Rubrics, Checklist, Rating
Scale

• Ensure house-keeping and maintenance of laboratory.

• Ensure safety in the laboratory.
In nutshell, it can be said that the laboratory work is a powerful tool to develop the industry
relevant skills and practical outcomes, which cannot be developed in the classroom. Hence,
the practical work in the laboratory/ workshop/ field needs to be effectively designed and
implemented to develop the requisite skills in the students. Moreover, the laboratories also
need to be utilized for the maximum amount of time so that the students will have more
time for practicing and developing the skills. All these point to the fact that laboratory work
is to be logically and scientifically designed or innovated to focus on the development of
these skills in the students.
Please watch the associated videos on laboratory to get more information. VIDEO
6.0 CONCLUSION
It can thus be seen that all the basic instructional methods, discussed in this lesson, viz
Lecture, Demonstration, Tutorial and Laboratory have their individual features, strengths
and limitations. ‘All said and done’, the ultimate aim is that the students achieve the
expected learning outcomes. For this, a judicious mix of the instructional strategies
incorporating a number of methods should be adopted. Along with it, a good mix of various
instructional media needs to be used for implementing the session effectively, keeping in
focus that there is an active student involvement in the teaching learning process. This will
come only through sustained ‘practice and feedback’.
*******

ACTIVITY
Please go through the given case related with improved lecture method and answer the
questions that follow.
Mrs. Surbhi Khanna, is an Assistant Professor in electrical engineering department of XYZ

technical Institute. She was teaching “Basic electrical engineering” in second semester
for the last three months. She tried her best to make her lessons interesting to the
students. She brought different types of models relevant to the topics to the classroom,
conducted several small demonstrations in the class room, encouraged students to
observe the natural phenomena and used several other activities to make students learn
effectively. Whenever she was planning for the delivery of classroom lecture, she
proceeded as follows:
a) Introducing the topic.
b) Asking questions about last topic covered.
c) Demonstrating the concept to be taught with a simple model.
d) Consolidating information from the demonstration on the board.
e) Giving examples and non-examples of concept taught.
f) Asking students to give more examples and non-examples concept.
g) Asking students to solve a problem in the class, which makes use of concept
taught that day, and/or on previous turn.
h) Going around the class and seeing that students are working and solving their
difficulties.
i) Commenting on the solution.
j) Summarising the lecture.
Answer the following:

i. State the variety of instructional methods, Mrs. Khanna has planned?
ii. In your opinion was she able to:
a) generate students’ interest in learning electrical engineering?
b) satisfy to the individual needs of the students?
c) encourage creative thinking of the students?
d) assist the students to organise their knowledge?
e) motivate students to participate more in the learning process?
*******

7.0 REFERENCES
Banthiya N.K., Joshua E., Mathew Susan S. et al.(1999). Devise Teaching Strategies and Select
Teaching Methods- Competency Based Self-Learning Module. TTTI Bhopal.
Banthiya N.K., Srivastava M.K, Earnest, Joshua, Mathew S.S. (1999). Design suitable learning
experiences for laboratory work & Direct laboratory experiences to achieve specified aims.
Module 4: Competency Based Self-Learning Module; TTTIBhopal.
Damodharan V. S. ACCA, AICWA and Rengarajan.V. AICWA.Innovative Methods of Teaching . paper
article
Earnest, Joshua, et al. (1999). Competency-Based Laboratory Manuals for Various Courses of DEVE
and DERE Programmes. St.Xavier's Technical InstituteMumbai.
Earnest, Joshua.(2003). How to Assess Student Outcomes in an Engineering College Laboratory? -
Proceedings of the International Symposium on ‘Best Assessment Processes V’, at Rose-
Hulman Institute of Technology, Terre Haute, Indiana; USA.
Earnest, Joshua.(September 8 - 11 2002).Graded Laboratory Experiments – An Innovation.
Proceedings of the 30th SEFI Annual Conference ‘The Renaissance Engineer of Tomorrow’; at
University of Florence, Firenze; Italy; Technical Session B5.
How do I improve my lectures. Retrieved March 06, 2019,
fromhttps://www.montclair.edu/academy/resources/teaching-resources/how-do-i-improve-
lectures/
Improving lectures by understanding students’ information processing. Retrieved March 02, 2019,
from https://www.colorado.edu/ftep/sites/default/files/attached-
files/ftep_memo_to_faculty_1.pdf.
Jain K.K and Lalla G.T.(1995). Module on Skill Training Techniques. Technical Teachers’ Training
InstituteBhopal.
Jain P.C., Mathew, Susan.S., Earnest, Joshua, et al.(1999). Compendium of Laboratory Experiences– A
Project on Effective Utilization of Laboratory Equipment (Maharashtra State) – A Report;
TTTI. Bhopal, India.
Levin (1989).Secondary Instruction: A manual for classroom Teaching. Allyn & Bacon.
Mathew S.S.(2002).Conduct a good demonstration, using laboratory equipment. Module 4:
Competency Based Self-Learning Module: Technical Teachers’ Training Institute Bhopal.
Mathew, Susan S., Earnest, Joshua.(9-13 February 2004). Innovations in the Laboratory for
Competency Development. Proceedings of the 7th UNESCO International Centre for
Engineering Education (UICEE) Annual Conference on Engineering Education, Mumbai, India.
Mukhopadhyay M.& Kapruan N. S.(1978) .Conduct Tutorial. CBTE Module No.24, Technical Teachers’
Training InstituteBhopal.
Patki S D (1994).Module on Overview of Teaching Methods.Cement Industry HRD Project, Technical
Teachers’ Teaching Institute: Bhopal.
Some advantages and disadvantages of tutorial Methods of Teaching.Retrieved March 08, 2019,
fromhttp://www.dissertationhelponline.co.uk/blog/advantages-disadvantages-tutorial-
method-teaching/
Teaching improvement guide. Retrieved March 06, 2019, from
https://sites.google.com/a/uwlax.edu/teaching-improvement-guide/improvement-
strategies/teaching_methods_course_structure/a-lecture.

Ten suggestions for improving a lecture.Retrieved March 02, 2019, from

http://www.montana.edu/facultyexcellence/Papers/lecture.pdf.
Tutorial strategy in education.Retrieved March 06, 2019, from
http://www.vkmaheshwari.com/WP/?p=2427
Tutorials and small group Teaching.Retrieved March 08, 2019,
fromhttps://iubmb.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1016/0307-4412%2888%2990007-6
Why lecture.Retrieved March 07, 2019, fromhttps://faculty.londondeanery.ac.uk/e-
learning/improve-your-lecturing/why-lecture
Wilson B.(1987) . Methods of Training: Individualised Instruction. Parthenon Publishing:
Lancashire

ASSIGNMENT
Some learning outcomes are given below. Identify the outcomes, which can be best
achieved through laboratory work.
S. No Learning Outcomes Yes or

No
The student will be able to
1. apply all the rules of grammar to form meaningful sentences.
2. select suitable instruments for carrying out specified survey work.
3. follow given safety precautions while conducting performance test on an
induction motor.
4. draw sketch of a given object.
5. discriminate between active form and passive form in simple, compound
and complex sentences.
6. demonstrate ability to work in groups.
7. check the soundness of the columns and beams with accuracy.
8 state the laws of friction.
9 start the given pump in good condition in three minutes.
10 define the concepts: work, power and energy.

DISCUSSION FORUM
Suggested topics for discussion forum:
• Discuss the concerns related to roles of teachers, students and technical staff in the
laboratory.

MODULE 4
Unit 4.4.3
Instructional Methods and
Strategies- Part 2
L9 Advanced Instructional Methods

L10 Blended and Flipped Learning Approach
Unit 4.4.3: Instructional Methods and Strategies - Part 2 L9: Advanced Instructional Methods
L9: Advanced Instructional Methods
Contributors
Dr. B. L. Gupta Professor, Department of Management

Dr. J. P. Tegar Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering
Prof. (Mrs.) Susan S. Mathew Associate Prof. Department of Electrical and Electronic
Engineering
Dr. A. K. Jain Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering
Prof. (Mrs.) Asmita A. Khajanchee Associate Prof., Department of Electronic Media
Dr. Vandana Somkuwar Associate Prof. Department of Mechanical Engineering
Dr. Sharad Pradhan Associate Prof. Department of Mechanical Engineering

Module 4 - Instructional Planning and Delivery NITTTR, Bhopal L9 Page 1

L9: ADVANCED INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS
LO 1. Justify the importance of the specified advanced instructional method.
LO 2. Select relevant advanced instructional method to develop the pre-
determined learning outcomes.
LO 3. Explain the procedure to implement the selected instructional strategy
effectively.
Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 3
2.0 WHY ADVANCED INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS? ........................................................................... 3
3.0 LEARNING IN GROUPS: HOW IT OCCURS? ................................................................................. 4
4.0 ADVANCED INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS...................................................................................... 5
5.0 ADVANTAGES OF GROUP-BASED LEARNING............................................................................... 8
6.0 USE OF SOME ADVANCED INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS FOR DEVELOPING CREATIVITY ............. 8
7.0 SEMINARS .................................................................................................................................... 9
8.0 PANEL DISCUSSION.................................................................................................................... 10
9.0 EDUCATIONAL GAMES .............................................................................................................. 11
10.0 GROUP DISCUSSION .................................................................................................................. 13
Outer Circle- Observer Group ........................................................................................................... 14
11.0 CASE METHOD ........................................................................................................................... 14
12.0 ROLE PLAY.................................................................................................................................. 16
13.0 BUZZ SESSION ............................................................................................................................ 18
14.0 BRAINSTORMING....................................................................................................................... 18
15.0 SIMULATION .............................................................................................................................. 19
16.0 PROJECT METHOD ..................................................................................................................... 20
17.0 INDUSTRY/ FIELD VISIT .............................................................................................................. 23
18.0 ICT-BASED LEARNING ................................................................................................................ 24
19.0 SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING ......................................................................................................... 26
20.0 PROBLEM BASED LEARNING...................................................................................................... 27
21.0 SELECTION OF INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD ................................................................................. 28
22.0 REFERENCES .............................................................................................................................. 31

L9: Advanced Instructional Methods
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In any educational institution teaching learning normally occurs in a formal set up under the
guidance of teachers to attain pre-determined learning outcomes which are derived from
curriculum as per the industry need for that occupation. The industry requirements include
competencies and skills related to technology, problem solving, creativity, communication,
sustainability and the like which fall in the three domains of learning – i.e. Cognitive, Affective
and Psycho-motor. The teaching and practice of these skills is not restricted only to the
classrooms but it occurs at different places like laboratory, workshop, field, etc. It can be said
that though lectures and demonstrations are popular methods of conveying structured
information to all classes of learner, the development of psychomotor and affective domain
skills needs different kind of setting for learning. No single instructional method can develop
the above-mentioned skills. A proper mix of different instruction methods will serve this
purpose. This lesson which is in continuation of the basic instructional methods seen earlier,
will discuss some advanced instructional methods. One important point to note is that the
word ‘Advanced’ does not necessarily indicate that any advanced technology is essentially
needed to implement these methods. The discussions along with the videos will help you to
understand how to use these methods to develop the above mentioned skills.
Some important words/phrases frequently used here: Learning Outcomes, Cognitive

Domain, Affective Domain and Psycho-Motor Domain, Skills, Teacher-Centred Methods,
Student-Centered Methods, Group Based Methods, Student Activities, Teacher Roles,
Interaction, Discussion. These have specific meanings as given in earlier lessons.
2.0 WHY ADVANCED INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS?

The basic methods such as lecture, demonstration (discussed in the previous lesson) requiring
more of teacher control during learning process, have some inherent advantages. Teacher’s
proficiency in the subject and skills in managing the learning process are key factors for
success of these methods. As a learner attains learning skills s/he may also develop the ability
to take responsibility of managing herself/ himself during T-L process and taking decisions
related to the learning process. Then s/he can be given opportunity to study on her/his own
and learn individually. Methods which permit individualized learning are advantageous and
may also take care of individual learners’ differences with respect to her/his learning
preferences and flexibility for learning.
The learner may also develop ability to work in a group if such a situation is provided. Matured
learners/ students can also be allowed to collaborate by sharing knowledge, taking some
responsibilities in learning activities, sharing the given resources in conditions facilitated by
the teacher. Such situations may be categorized as 'Group Based Learning'. Group based

learning is a common feature in many of advanced instructional methods. Therefore, it is

important to understand as to how learning occurs in groups. In such situations, cognitive
abilities at higher levels of “Revised Bloom's Taxonomy” can be developed easily. Such
methods also facilitate attitude development which are discussed over here. For effective
achievement of desired learning outcomes using such methods, two abilities in the teachers
are required to be ensured:
a) Ability to select proper method/s and
b) Ability to implement the selected method/s.
If teacher lacks these abilities, implementing such methods may not give desired result; but
may turn out to be just a mockery. Many of the advanced instructional methods demand
participation of students in group, wherein advantages of group-based learning could be
harnessed.
3.0 LEARNING IN GROUPS: HOW IT OCCURS?

In previous lessons, different models of teaching have been discussed. There are different
theories of learning too. It is essential to briefly state approaches, some of them in the context
of group learning are:
a) The Constructivist Approach of learning states that 'learners are not passive recipients
of information, but they actively construct/ build up their knowledge by interacting with
the environment'. Secondly, learners evolve or reorganize their mental structures
through collaborative learning.
b) The Social Learning Theory Based Approach states that 'people learn new behaviours
by observation, within a social context'. The context brings about the attention,
retention, reproduction and motivation. The learner's belief in his or her capacity to
act or behave in a certain way helps learning in such contextual situations. The learners
or students can be put in a contextual situation in which they satisfy social needs and
develop useful skills.
It has been observed that learners enjoy learning in group. Research in the area of small group
learning indicates that 'Learning in small group provides a powerful means to develop social
skills, managerial skills and entrepreneurial skills'. In specific contexts, the skills such as
effective communication, negotiation, bargaining, collaborating, and working in teams as
required for working in real life situation can be developed. Every learner has some strengths
and some weaknesses. Their strength can be used to enable learning in groups. The most
important aspect of group-based learning situations is that the group exerts pressure on
individual members to follow group norms thus enabling controlled proceedings of group
activity.

4.0 ADVANCED INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS

In the previous lesson the classification of instructional methods based on teacher role and
student role was discussed. The figure is recalled here with some more information in the
context of discussion in this lesson. The curly bracket in the Figure 1 includes many of the
Advanced Instructional methods.
Teacher’s Instructional Methods Type of Activity

Role Happening
Teacher-centred
Information Lecture Monologue
T Provider S
e Improved Lecture Dialogue
t
a Demonstration
u
c Facilitator Tutorial (Individual/Group) Interaction d
h e
Buzz Session
e n
r Seminar
t
Brainstorming
R Game R
o Panel Discussion o
l l
Case Study
e e
Role play
D Group Discussion I
e Guide Assignment Action
n
c c
Laboratory/Workshop/ Field work
r r
e Simulation e
a Project Method a
s Industry/Field Visit s
e e
Mentor Self-directed learning Reflection
s s
ICT-Based Learning
Student-centred
Figure 1: Instructional Method Continuum
The methods, except laboratory and tutorials, all are dealt under category - advanced
instructional methods. These methods require action, interaction and reflection by students
individually or in groups (see Figure 1). The Table 1 below broadly shows where and when

these can be implemented. Some methods like group discussion, brainstorming, case study,
seminar, panel discussion, simulation, are examples of teacher-centred approaches. Here the
teacher is supposed to identify the activities which enable building on individual student’s
existing knowledge, sharing of specific information within the group, and application of
previous learning. The teacher is considered expert at the topic/ theme and is expected to
share his expertise and to ‘present’ information and his views on the theme to the group after
the group work is over.
Table 1: Instructional Methods and their Implementation
Instructional Methods Implementation

Group Discussion, Brain storming, Buzz session, Panel Discussion, Group-Based Methods
Role Play, Nominal Group Technique (NGT)
Project Method, Case Method, Simulation, Assignment, Problem Individual and Group-
Based Learning, Online learning, Seminar, Industry visit Based both possible
Self-Learning Individual
On the other hand, in methods like problem-based learning and project method the teacher is
there to help only to manage the process of learning. Problems are very broadly or loosely
defined. Tasks that are designed are to encourage the students to:
a) Plan for learning
b) Undertake research for formulating problem
c) Assess problem solving and learning approach
d) Share their ideas with each other
e) Develop a set of subject related skills.
The teacher’s own actions are more in the background- that of facilitator or mentor. S/he may
or may not know what exactly can be the final output.
2a Briefing for Seminar Presentation 2b Roleplay

Figure: 2a and 2b Teacher-Centred Approach

Students working on the given problem

Figure: 3a and 3b Student-Centred Approach
Group-based Learning can occur in formal groups and informal group situation. An Example
of informal group is student club that is formed by students on their own initiatives to achieve
specific purpose. However, for advanced instructional methods formal groups are preferred.
So, whenever the word ‘Group’ appears, it means ‘Formal Group’.
Formal groups are made using criteria such as learning requirements, time available,
requirements of the learning task, availability of the resources, etc. These groups can be of
different sizes such as Dyads (2 students), Triads (3 students), small groups (4 to 8 students)
and large groups (12 to 15+ students). Formal groups that are heterogeneous with regard to
particular skills or abilities of students, are mostly advantageous to achieve learning
outcomes.
Different kinds of interactions can be held in different types and sizes of groups in different
instructional methods. They are described in subsequent sections.
PRACTICE TASK
a) Define dyad and triad.
b) List three group-based methods that use creativity techniques.
c) Fill up the blank spaces with appropriate option-
i. The number of students in small group can be (3/ 4 to 8 /12 to 15 +)
ii. ……………………type of learning approach is based on learning in stimulus-
response situations.
iii. Social learning approach describes learning in (society / defined context).
Teacher can find answers by reading previous paragraphs.

5.0 ADVANTAGES OF GROUP-BASED LEARNING

There are a number of advantages of using group-based learning in technical institutions.
It develops: It reduces:
• discussion attitudes • the feeling of loneliness
• reflective thinking • anxiety and tension for learning
• socio emotional support • problems of learning
• foster creativity and synergy • negative thinking
• attitudes for collective learning • frustration
• greater energy to learn • feeling of exhaustion and
• adjustments with individual differences withdrawal
• opportunity for fun and joy
• mutual trust
PRACTICE TASK
a) Write at least one example of one situation where you as a teacher has found
group work to be advantageous
b) Write at least one example of one situation where you as a teacher has found
group work to be disadvantageous.
6.0 USE OF SOME ADVANCED INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS FOR DEVELOPING CREATIVITY

These methods enable shifting the focus of instruction away from knowledge transmission to
learners' knowledge construction (application of Constructivist learning theory). The creation
of guided tasks, interactions, assignments, and environments that cultivate deep, meaningful
learning to small groups in methods given in figure below involve group of 5-7 students. The
application of such groups is in implementation of creativity techniques.
Any creativity technique uses two predominant steps:
• Idea generation (important step in creativity) and
• Idea analysis.
After reading this lesson and watching the associated videos you will appreciate use of such
small groups. The literature related to instructional methods often refers to these groups as
Action Learning Sets. The teacher should be aware that Graduate Attributes (The abilities of a
fresh passouts of undergraduate engineering programme) recommended by the National
Board of Accreditation (NBA) include Creative Abilities as an important outcome of educational
programme. Hence it is important that engineering college teacher use these methods.

7.0 SEMINARS
The seminar can be defined as ‘A gathering of people for the purpose of discussing a stated
topic’. ‘Seminar is a teaching technique for higher learning. A specific subject or topic is
delivered as an article or report in the seminar. The article and its concepts submitted in the
seminar are analyzed and discussed through group discussion to arrive at a final decision or
concept.’ (C. N. Raja and T. P. Rao). The seminar method is an advanced teaching method or
technique used to develop in-depth learning of any subject or topic by the students. This
method is a student-centered learning method in which teacher serves as a facilitator. This
method creates a situation for a group of students to have a guided interaction among
themselves on a given topic/theme. The seminar as a teaching method can be classified
according to level of activities involved:
a) Mini Seminar conducted at classroom level
b) Major Seminar conducted at Department or Institutional Level.
7.1 Purposes of Seminar Method

The major purposes of using seminar as an instructional method are to:
a) develop higher cognitive abilities, communication related and team working abilities.
b) develop the ability of responding, keen observation of experience and feelings.
c) provide students the opportunity to participate in the methods of scientific analysis and
research procedures.
d) help the students to develop skills in reading and comprehension of scientific writing of
verbal presentation.
e) enable the students to gain experience in self-evaluation.
7.2 Planning and Organizing Students’ Mini and Major Seminar VIDEO- V31, V32
The steps that are usually followed are given below. The steps for organizing a classroom mini
seminar are demonstrated in associated videos.
a) Teacher selects the theme and sub-theme of the seminar.
b) Teacher assigns the topics to the students so that they have enough time to prepare
for the seminar.
c) Teacher conducts the activities of seminar and directs the seminar on theme.
d) Students present the paper on the given theme. Participants seek clarification and put
questions.
e) In case of long silence in discussion in the initial stage, the teacher can ask probing
questions.
f) Teacher helps students to express their ideas and keep the discussion at a high level of
interest so that the students listen attentively to those who contribute the ideas.
g) Teacher may also plan to comment and prepare questions that relate to the subject
and also guide and direct the discussion.

h) Teacher manages time by setting time limitations for each student's contribution.
Makes sure that all members have a share in the discussion and that irrelevant
discussion is avoided.
i) Teacher plans for summarisation at intervals during the discussion and also at the end
of the discussion and relate the ideas expressed to the purpose of discussion.
j) Teacher arranges to get the discussion recorded by a student as a recording secretary
or by video recording.
k) Teacher has to ensure that essential points are not overlooked. Teacher has to
ascertain that gross inadequacies are corrected preferably by other members of the
class.
l) Teacher has to motivate the students who are not participating.
m) Plan for teacher and student self-evaluation of the progress made towards the
immediate objectives.
REFLECTION SPOT
a) Prepare a list of topics/themes for the seminar from the curriculum.
b) Prepare a list of sub topic/ sub themes for each main topic.
8.0 a. PANEL DISCUSSION

Panel discussion is a student–centred instructional method. As the name suggests 2 to 6
participants discuss a particular topic from different points of view and after discussion the
audience asks the questions to panelists. The students are assigned issues related to discipline
and they are asked to explore the issues on well-defined points in detail. Students do a piece
of research and prepare the information for discussion. The teacher organizes the panel
discussion of these students for the benefit of all the other students. If the discussions are
related to course/ subject specific technology, they can be organized from fourth to seventh
semester. Generally, the panel discussions are one-time activity and the participating
members may never get an opportunity to work together. Sometimes panel of Experts having
specialization in a particular area are also invited in the institution for discussing the general
issues, trends, prospects, demands, and problems of the industry. Panel discussions may be
practiced in higher semesters.
8.1. Purposes of Panel Discussion Method

Panel discussions prepare the students for the future. They get information about the career
and trends. The major purposes of using panel discussion as an instructional method are:
a) Learn to explore the issue, gather information in a systematic way,
b) Present the information in a logical way.
c) Put forth their views on issues raised by someone.
d) Approach a question/ problem rationally.
e) Respect the views of others.

f) Ask a question.
g) Formulate strategy for discussion.
h) Establish relationship.
i) Respond positively.
j) Recall the information spontaneously with a reference, and so on.
k) Debate over an issue.
8.2. Planning and Organizing Panel Discussion VIDEO- V21, V22
The steps usually followed are given below. An associated video demonstrates panel
discussion.
a) Select the topic for panel discussion related to some learning outcome of the course.
b) Select the panel of students.
c) Provide enough time (at least 5 to 7) days to the panel of students to plan.
d) On the scheduled day, call the panel of students to the dias.
e) Conduct the panel discussion and monitor each student’s contribution.
ACTIVITY
Suggest three topics related to your curriculum for organizing panel discussion with
justification. (In about 100 words each).
9.0 EDUCATIONAL GAMES

Games are considered as part of active learning process. Here the focus of discussion is on
learning and not on the games played for physical fitness and enjoyment. Educational games
completely involve the students in the learning process. They accept the challenges of learning
and prepare themselves to play the games. Games provide good change in the instructional
process. It is a good tool to involve students in the learning process and harness their full
potential for learning. Properly designed and conducted games incorporate number of
principles of learning such as, reinforcement, recognition and rewards for the positive
learning, feedback for improvement, purposeful and joyful learning without anxiety and
learning to win. The games create sense of responsibility for self-learning and feedback for
improvement.
The main feature of any game is ‘competition’. Therefore, when the feature of ‘competition’
is weaved into any instructional method, it can become an educational game. The following
example can make features of this type of instructional method clearer.
Example
‘Educational Volleyball Game’ – Time duration: 30 minutes; Players: Whole class.

The teacher announces in the class that a particular unit of the course of that semester has to
be self-learnt and the game will be played in around 20-25 days from the date of
announcement. S/he divides the class into team ‘A’ and team ‘B’. Each team will prepare a set
of 10 ‘short–answer’ or ‘multiple choice questions’ to assess the pre-stated unit outcomes
which are derived from the curriculum. This will be a secret till that date and marks will be
awarded for the right answers which can get reflected in the progressive assessment. Each
team is expected to keep the questions a secret. On that day, the teacher will be the referee
(moderator of the game). When the game begins, team ‘A’ will throw the first ball (i.e. ask the
question) to team ‘B’. If they answer the question correctly, they will get 4 marks and if they
answer half correct, they will get 2 marks and so on. The next question will then be posed by
team ‘B’ and the game will go on.
9.1 Purposes of Educational Games

The major purposes of the educational game are:
a) Competition encourages the learning.
b) Learning becomes fun.
c) The onus of learning is transferred to the students.
d) Both lower and higher order learning outcomes could be developed if designed
accordingly.
9.2 Planning and Organizing Educational Games VIDEO-V25, V26
The steps that are usually followed are given below. An associated video demonstrates the
educational game.
a) Select the topic(s) to design the game.
b) Identify the learning outcomes.
c) As far as possible, involve the whole class in the game.
d) Design the game with competition element in it.
e) Decide the time limit.
f) The rules of the game should be clear to students.
g) The teacher forms the teams.
h) Decide the scoring (assessment) method and inform the students about it.
i) Give the students sufficient time for preparation.
j) The teacher facilitates the conduction of the game.
k) Teacher scores the game as it progresses.
l) Students share the learning experience.
m) Teacher consolidates the learning.
n) Gives feedback during the game and after the game as well.
ACTIVITY
Design an educational game to fulfill the curriculum outcomes of your course.

10.0 GROUP DISCUSSION

Group discussion is a student-centred instructional method in which students are divided into
groups and they are encouraged to discuss on the subject matter given. This method can
generally be used at the end of the semester after teaching of the entire course and the
students have enough background to take part in the discussion actively. Group discussion is
supervised and guided by the teacher. Use of group discussion as teaching method could be
used as stimulus variation towards the end of a classroom session from the point of view of
arriving at solutions with respect to the pre-determined learning outcomes especially of the
higher order of the cognitive domain. Due to high level of interaction, some of the affective
domain outcomes are also addressed.
10.1 Purposes of Group Discussion

The major purposes of the group discussion as an instructional method are the following:
a) Provides a deeper understanding and learning of content of the subject matter.
b) Improves the ability to think critically.
c) Provides different approaches to solving a problem.
d) Helps the group in taking a decision.
e) Enhances communication skills.
VIDEO- V20
10.2 Planning and Organizing Group Discussion
The steps usually followed are given below. An associated video demonstrates group
discussion:
a) Choose the topic for group discussion
b) Form groups for group discussions.
c) Give the time limit.
d) Monitor the group discussions.
e) Summarise the group discussion.
When a more creative output is expected out of a discussion then other advanced techniques
like Fishbowl can also be used.
Fish Bowl: The teacher forms two groups of equal size for a learning situation. One group
works on the situation and the other group observe the behaviour of the working group. The
observation of the behaviour is made on one to one basis on predefined criteria. The working
group is also called inner group and observing group is called observer group. After completion
of learning in group the observing group members offer positive feedback on one to one basis
on the behaviour of the members. This method is beneficial in situations where attitude
development is prominent in learning process. In this process both the groups learn but they
learn different types of skills. The inner group learns on working in situation. The observing
group learn observational skills and feedback providing skills. In subsequent learning situation
the observer group may take the position of working group and working group can be observer

group. Fish bowl method is useful in shifting the responsibility of learning to students. In
classroom situation circular sitting arrangement is made to facilitate the process of learning
and observing. The sitting arrangement is shown in Figure 4. Blue arrows indicate the
observation links with in inner and outer circle students. This method helps teacher to
objectively observe the particular behaviour and provide specific feedback to particular
student.
Inner Circle- Learning Group
Outer Circle- Observer Group
Figure 4: Group arrangement in Fish Bowl method
ACTIVITY
Select a topic for group discussion and identify the criteria, and the specific activities that
are to be performed by the students before, during and after the discussion.
11.0 CASE METHOD

Case is a story-like description of an incidence or a sequence of coherent events that represent
a notable change in a scenario or problem-solving. It suits to a learning situation wherein
comprehension of a situation or problem and the analysis of events that surround the
situation are required. It promotes intensive learning. One unique feature of the Case is its
close kinship with reality. The learner feels to be a part of or familiar to situation given in the
case. Due to these reasons, more and more use of this method in engineering colleges is
strongly recommended. The Case method draws the concept of learning from and through
experience - from the past, on which a Case study is built.
The interaction of participants regarding the situation given in case happens in the context of
their own life experience and this makes the case interesting. Case study is a ‘student-
centered’ teaching method which requires extensive preparation. It has the ability to develop
many important Graduate attributes/ Program Outcomes identified by National Board of
Accreditation (NBA) for Under and Post graduate Engineering students: such as Problem
analysis, Design/ development of alternative solutions, conduct investigations of multi-
dimensional and complex problems, The engineer and society issues, Environment and

sustainability issues, Ethics for society, Individual and team work, Communication, Project
management and finance, Life-long learning.
A Case mainly consists of two basic components - Stem or Body and a Brief. The following are
the features of the Stem:
a) The stem of a Case is the actual narration of the story or the documentation of events
normally written in 'Third Person'.
b) It is written most of the times with changed names of persons, places and organizations
so as to avoid any biases.
c) The stem of the Case has to be informative and simple so that students can easily
understand and assimilate it.
d) It is centered around a complex problem or dilemma about which various students
participating in the Case hold different views.
e) There are facts about the problem/ situation itself, the environmental context, and the
characteristics/ roles/ duties of the people in the 'Case'. The case may not present
quantitative relations requiring computations, but other more factors such as the
interactions of people, the dangers of components of systems involved, and the
pressures of time and resources under which engineers work.
f) Cases include realistic details, much as does a good novel, to help put the reader into
the situation itself. The details can be in the form of conversations, maps,
correspondence, policy statements, organizational charts, graphs and pictures.
The following are the features of the Brief:

a) Set of questions
b) Points for discussion
c) Issues for discussion.
These are open ended though they give a focus on the expected learning outcomes
(objectives) desired by teacher from the particular Case.
11.1 Purposes of the Case Method

The major purposes of the case method are:
a) Develops higher order cognitive skills.
b) Develops analytical thinking
c) Generates alternative strategies to achieve some aims.
d) Take risks to propose solutions under the guidance of an instructor within the safe
confines of the classroom.
VIDEO- V27
11.2 Planning and Organizing Case Method
case method.
a) Design cases over period of time based on the features discussed above.

b) Create a bank of cases for developing different types of learning outcomes.

c) Administer the case at the relevant time after teaching the related concepts, principles
and applications.
d) Form groups for case discussions, if required.
e) Give the time limit for discussion.
f) Monitor the case discussions.
g) Summarise the case findings.
Following is an example of a case related to Laboratory Experiments.
CASE OF ENGINEERING LABORATORY

Mr. Subhash, a bright post-graduate engineer has been appointed as an assistant professor of
an engineering department of Bharat Engineering College. After joining he was given some
teaching load and also was assigned the laboratory sessions. Before going to the laboratory to
conduct the practical sessions, the laboratory-in-charge gave him a list of experiments to be
conducted by the students. Some printed instructions and old journals of the earlier students
were also made available to him.
The students came to the laboratory; they seemed to follow the instructions and worked in
groups of 7-10 students each. It was observed that one or two members of each group
normally did some work on the laboratory equipment and after a few days all of them
submitted journals of the experiment which they were allotted.
Mr. Subhash noted that the students were not attending the classes regularly. His enquiry
revealed that an oral examination only is conducted as the end of the term to assess the
students’ laboratory performance. He also came to know that this has been the practice over
the previous years and that no student failed during the last 4 years.
Mr. Subhash was uneasy about the situation. He was puzzled and did not know what to do.
He approached his HOD to seek his guidance and suggestions to improve this situation.
Brief:
1. Suppose you were the HOD of the engineering department, suggest what advise will you
give Mr. Subhash to improve the situation described above.
2. If you were in place of Mr. Subhash, what you would do to improve this situation.
12.0 ROLE PLAY

Role-play method of learning is widely practiced in developing professional attitudes along
with professional competence. After graduation the student may have to work with superiors,
subordinates, peers, clients and others following rules, regulations, norms, ethics and values
related to her/his work and work environment. There are situations in the world of work that

are related to human relations. This method is suited to help the graduates to work in such
situations.
12.1 Purposes of Role Play

The major purposes of the role play method depending on how it is organised are summarized
in table 2 and table 3 given below-
Table 2 Skills Expected to be Developed by Role Playing
a) Problem solving k) Performance appraisal

b) Decision making l) Conducting inquiry
c) Resolving conflicts m) Handling complaints
d) Influencing with a purpose n) Obtaining commitment
e) Rapport building o) Negotiating with a purpose
f) Consensus seeking p) Delegating the power
g) Providing feedback q) Dealing with difficult employees
h) Counselling r) Shaping the culture
i) Coaching s) Collaborating
j) Mentoring t) Culture building
Table – 3 Attitudes Expected to be Developed through Role Play Method

a) Attitude of inquiry i) Concern for others
b) Attitude of systematic working j) Respecting diversity
c) Attitude for safety k) Attitude of accuracy
d) Respecting others l) Attitude of experimenting
e) Attitude of tolerance m) Attitude of serving
f) Team spirit n) Attitude of cleanliness
g) Attitude for environment protection and o) Attitude of cooperativeness and
conservation collaboration
h) Adjusting with situations p) Empathy
12.2 Planning and Organizing Role Play VIDEO- V23

role play:
a) Describe the situation.
b) Selection of students to perform role.
c) Give the time limit for preparation as per role.
d) Arrange physical setting and resources.
e) Orient the students to perform the role
f) Let the students play the role
g) Consolidate the learning.

13.0 BUZZ SESSION

Generally, it is seen that attention and interest of students come down rapidly after 10-15
minutes in any class. If a teacher does not change the activity or method of teaching at this
point, the students may start daydreaming or may disturb others. A purposeful discussion of
small student groups called “buzz groups” on a relevant matter is called “buzz session” in
which students are asked to discuss on a matter or task relevant to topic of study. Teacher
writes a question or a topic on the board and asks each student to write down any idea /
response they have. Then s/he asks them to share their thoughts with a colleague for a couple
of minutes in low voice level. Time is given to students to discuss and then the question is
asked again by the teacher – asking them for their suggestions. The humming like sound ‘ZZZZ’
in class characterizes the name BUZZ group session. Two to five minutes of buzz session can
restore students’ attention for the next fifteen to twenty minutes. The main feature of this
method is that the students get motivated. Secondly, the active engagement of large number
of students is possible without disturbing the seating arrangement.
13.1 Purposes of Buzz Session

The major purposes of the buzz session as an instructional method are the following:
a) It works as an effective stimulus variation to sustain the attention.
b) Students interact with each other fruitfully.
c) Informal formative evaluation occurs.
13.2 Planning and Organizing of Buzz Session

The major activities of the buzz session as an instructional method are given here. The teacher
divides the class into sub-groups of 2 to 4 students (dyads, triads or quads), right there, where
they are seated.
a) S/he then suggests a topic or topics to be discussed by the buzz groups. The discussion
may be invited on any of following:
• Review what has been taught/ discussed till then.
• Apply the concepts and principles taught/discussed.
• Get their doubts cleared by buzzing (discussing) amongst each other.
• Summarise, revise or conclude the lesson.
b) Each sub-group is given a fixed time limit for discussion on the topic.
c) Each sub-group report back on its deliberations to the class as a whole, or combines
with another sub-group in order to share their findings and discuss the implications.
d) The teacher may consolidate the results of discussion
14.0 BRAINSTORMING
Brainstorming is again a student- centred method but teacher facilitated. Brainstorming is a
method often used to unleash the creative side of the work by group process. It helps to create
conducive environment to generate as many ideas as possible. It is done especially when there

could be several solutions to a single problem or when there are varied opinions on some
issues. It is generally done after teaching for some time and certain concepts are already
known to the students. The rules are; only idea generation, no criticism or evaluation of idea,
no discussion or cross communication, diverse ideas are welcome, listing and projection of
ideas, hitch hiking on other’s ideas to generate new ideas.
14.1 Purposes of Brain Storming Method
The major purposes of the brain storming method as an instructional method are the following:
a) Develop skills to think 'out of the box'.
b) It also involves introvert students.
c) Helps to bring out more solutions to the problem presented
VIDEO- V24
14.2 Planning and Organizing Brainstorming Method
The steps for planning and organising Brain Storming session are given below. An associated
video demonstrates this.
a) Choose the problem for brain storming.
b) If the brainstorming is to be conducted in small groups, the teacher will form it.
c) Present the theme or problem.
d) Each member of the group or class responds. Each idea is evaluated against decided
criteria and decisions are taken to accept or discard the idea.
e) One rapporteur records the responses.
f) The responses are analysed.
g) Finally, the list of workable ideas/solutions are collated.
PRACTICE TASK
After viewing associated video, suggest five topics for conducting brainstorming session in
your class.
15.0 SIMULATION
One of the important ways to facilitate effective learning is by providing the 'real thing' or 'real
experience' in the classroom to the students. This is called using 'direct purposeful
experience', which may not be always possible. In such cases, teacher must find out ways by
which we can provide near-to-real experience. One of the ways that this can be brought in is
through the method of 'simulation'. Simulation can be defined as any operating
representation of a real system or process or its part. This teaching method allows the closest
possible approach to reality, as there is no danger to the individual or equipment. All
simulations actively involve the learners in playing roles and taking decisions. Simulations can
be designed for skills development in all the three domains- Cognitive, psychomotor and
affective.
The simulation can be a mechanical simulation with 3D models or a computer simulation
which is close to reality with respect to feelings, expressions of live elements are shown. For

providing training on actual operation of expensive and sophisticated equipment or system,

whose operation may be dangerous to personnel and/or equipment, an alternative solution
can be a simulation exercise. The beauty of a good simulation is that it can provide mix of
learning experiences which can be repeated with little change in different batches of students.
Secondly feedback can be given just after performance.
15.1 Purposes of Simulation

The major purposes of the simulation as an instructional method are the following:
a) Provide near-to-live experience to students.
b) Keep the student active.
c) Promote self-directed learning.
d) Supplement classroom and laboratory sessions.
e) Develop affective domain outcomes also in many situations.
15.2 Planning and Organizing Simulation

For planning and organising simulation:
a) Develop a bank of copyright free simulations.
b) Arrange suitable computers to run the simulations.
c) Provide formative feedback to the students when they are working on the
simulations.
16.0 PROJECT METHOD

John Dewey, an American philosopher and educational reformer said that ‘Real development
of skills comes through a student’s active participation in the solution of problems real to him
or her'. Project work is a comprehensive instructional approach to engage students in
sustained, co-operative investigations that enable them to learn concepts, apply information
and represent their knowledge in a variety of ways. Moreover, National Board of Accreditation
(NBA) requirement of ‘learning to learn’ (Graduate Attribute No.11) confirms it. The main
characteristic of any project whether small or big is that it requires simultaneous application
of various types of skills in the different domains of learning. Normally, it is mix of several
types: simple or complex, small or large cluster of problems. Generally projects do not have a
pre-defined single solution. In other words, for the same problem specification, different
students may come up with different, but acceptable solutions. Further, in the process of
arriving at a particular solution to the identified problem, the students must be required to
make a number of decisions after scrutiny of the information s/he has accumulated from
experiments, analysis, survey and other sources.
The typical feature of project-based learning is greater independence of inquiry and develops
the ability and confidence in accomplishing targets within the time and resource constraints.
The ‘Project work’ is versatile as it caters to different types of learning styles. An educational

'project' can be defined as 'a purposeful student activity, planned, designed and performed by
a student or group of students to solve/ complete the identified problem/task (relatively big
and complex), which requires students to integrate the various skills acquired over a period of
a programme or course to accomplish higher level cognitive and affective domain outcomes
and sometimes the psychomotor domain outcomes as well' (Earnest, et. al 2019). The above
definition highlights the following major aspects:
• Project work is an open-ended experience that is offered in such a way that it
integrates into ‘a whole’ the several skills that the students would have acquired over
a period of study in the classroom and laboratory/workshop/field.
• Projects are adaptable to different types of learners and learning situations
(Blumenfeld et. al., 1991).
• It demands continuous and sustained efforts on the part of students to complete it
successfully.
Be it a small or a large project work, it normally starts with submission of a ‘Project Proposal’ by
the students and ends with the submission of the ‘Project Report’. There can be many types of
projects - micro, mini or Capstone projects. Micro-projects are generally limited to a single course
that is to be completed within a semester. It is generally to integrate the learning outcomes in all
the three domains of the entire course and prepare the students for larger project works. It could
be an individual project or a group project. In the initial semesters of an UG programme it is
better to give group projects so that the weaker students are 'pulled up'. Mini-projects are
comparatively a bigger one which could integrate more than one course.
The Capstone project is to be given to the students to ‘cap’ or address several courses within a
programme. It is generally offered in the last two semesters of the diploma/UG/PG engineering
programme, as it is to integrate the learning outcomes of most of the courses to undertake a real
or near-to-live project. Thus, Capstone Project prepares the students for entry into a career and
can be described as a 'right of passage' at 'minimal threshold' through which participants change
their status from 'student' to 'graduate'. A Capstone Project focuses on both a synthesis,
reflection, integration and a bridge to the real-world which the student has acquired during
his/her journey from the first semester to the last semester of the educational programme.
The project works (small or large, simple or complex) that the students may undertake could be
of different types like the samples given below:
a) Feasibility studies.
b) Design projects.
c) Market surveys about raw material, components or finished products.
d) Prototype (design, make, test and evaluate).
e) Advanced experimental work requiring the development of existing equipment to be
used and developed.
f) Experimental work for finding new relationship between a range of variables.

g) Field works: This could include surveys, using equipment, charting data and information
from visual observation.
h) Comparative Studies: Theoretical study of two or more systems/ mechanisms/
processes in detail and comparing them on the basis of cost/energy conservation/
impact on environment/ technology used and such others.
i) Application of emerging technology and feasibility of their application in some real-life
situations in detail.
j) Fabrication of some equipment/ machine (or some of its parts).
k) Improving existing equipment or rigging up new equipment.
l) Construction of some structure.
m) Development of software or use of software for solving some problem.
16.1 Purposes of Project Method

Some of the major purposes of the project work are to develop:
a) Initiative, confidence and ability to tackle new problems.
b) Spirit of enquiry.
c) Creativity and innovativeness.
d) Planning and decision-making skills.
e) The habit of working in a team and to lead a team.
f) Lifelong learning skills.
g) Habit of Persistence (of not giving up even in case of momentary failures, till success is
achieved).
h) Resourcefulness.
i) Habit of keeping proper records of events and to present a formal comprehensive
report of their work.
VIDEO- V30
16.2 Planning and Organizing Project Work
The steps for planning and organising the project work that are usually followed are given
below. An associated video demonstrates this.
a) Form the student groups for group projects.
b) Guide in identifying the project titles.
c) Develop assessment criteria for the projects which is to be given to the students.
d) Edit the Project Proposals.
e) Help in locating the necessary resources.
f) Monitor the students fortnightly about the progress of the project work.
g) Assess students at every stage of work.
h) Maintain a ‘projects bank’ for micro, mini or Capstone projects, which could
preferably be drawn from the industrial situations.

The role of teacher should be that of a 'guide’, helping the students only when they need any
assistance. 'Action’ should be mainly by students. This does not mean that the role of teacher
is unimportant in this method. A teacher ought to constructively motivate the students
continuously. This is very crucial for the success of the method and achievement of outcomes
through the experiences students undergo.
ACTIVITY
Suggest three titles each for a micro-project and capstone project. For any one of the
projects, state the broad activities expected from students.
17.0 INDUSTRY/ FIELD VISIT

Technical education inputs can go close to reality if students get opportunity to work in actual
real-life situations such as industry or field. Industry visit is a very valuable input in the whole
academic activities of teaching learning process. For this method to be used fruitfully teacher
or institute has to have good relationship with industries. It gives a real-world experience to
students. But when it comes to appreciation of complexity of engineering/ field situation for
developing better understanding and to relate inputs in classroom or laboratory, industry and
field visits can be very helpful. This experience also helps develop motivation, appreciation
and soft skills amongst students.
17.1 Purpose of Industry/ Field Visit

Some of major purposes of the industry/field visit are to:
a) Provide students a firsthand experience of their future place of work and the work
culture.
b) Observe industry required Affective domain skills in action such as good housekeeping,
safety, communicating between peers, superiors and supporting staff and so on.
c) Integrate the various types of competencies and skills.
d) Observe the convergence of different technologies (sometimes even other branches
of engineering) which seemed to have been independent courses in the institute.
17.2 Planning and Organizing Industry/ Field Visit

The steps for planning and organising the industry/field visits which are usually followed are
given below.
a) Create a database of small, medium and large industries with addresses, phone Nos.
Email, staff strength, No. and type of engineers, their products/services and details of
previous visits.
b) Focus on the various learning outcomes.
c) Correspond with industry contact persons
d) Send list of students and prepare attendance forms

e) Schedule the pre-visit (Recce)by two to three persons to finalize actual visit and plan.
f) Arrange for transportation and time schedules.
g) Prepare observation schedules for students.
h) On the day previous to the visit orient students how to learn (opportunity for self-
directed learning) and how to take notes.
i) Issue safety instructions, dress code students wear and the identity cards
j) Make small batches of students and make one of them the leader. The visit is
generally in small batches to the various departments in the industry.
k) Formulate letter of thanks to industries.
l) Be punctual in all activities.
ACTIVITY
Formulate learning outcomes in the three domains to be achieved through industrial visit
related to your courses.
18.0 ICT-BASED LEARNING

The rise of information and communication technology (ICT) in education have given rise to
many options of teaching learning. Computer Assisted/ Aided Learning (CAL), Computer Based
Learning (CBL) and ICT could be termed as synonyms that covers the teaching learning (T-L)
methods that involve the use of computer (now even the mobile) as a mediator to provide
information through interface software. The National Mission on Education using ICT
(NMEICT) has facilitated many networks and platforms for online education and learning
material repositories. An overview of these is discussed over here, the details of which could
be learnt in a separate module dedicated to these. The digital world has opened up a lot of T-
L opportunities in off-line as well as online modes. Apart from the Indian ICT-based platforms,
there are other learning platforms which offer MOOCs (Massive Open Online Courses) that
any teacher can refer such as edX, Coursera and others.
Offline Learning: The offline learning can occur through locally prepared learning resources
such as interactive videos, simulations, virtual labs, spoken tutorials and such others. The
student can navigate through the resources provided to them from time-to-time. The internet
connectivity is not a requirement. Such resources may be procured by institute or the teachers
themselves can develop after acquiring necessary skills.
Web-based/ Online Learning: With considerable amount and variety of free and paid online
learning resources available on several platforms, this type of learning is quite popular
formally and informally especially among the students. The resources are hosted on internet
or intranet and students can learn and work individually or by use of collaborative tools such
as blogs, discussion boards, using learning management system and related features.
Some of the recent Indian solutions or platforms for facilitating Computer Assisted Learning
are:

SWAYAM (swayam.gov.in): This is an MOOC learning platform that facilitates hosting of all
the courses, taught in classrooms from Class 9 till post-graduation to be accessed by anyone,
anywhere at any time. All the courses are interactive. These are prepared by the best teachers
in the country. All courses are available free of cost to any learner. There are scheduled as well
as self-paced courses. Experienced teachers from different premier institutions across the
country have participated in preparing these courses. The courses hosted on SWAYAM are in
4 quadrants – (1) video lectures (2) specially prepared reading material that can be
downloaded/printed (3) self-assessment tests through tests and quizzes and (4) an online
discussion forum for clearing the doubts. Steps have been taken to enrich the learning
experience by using audio-video and multi-media and state of the art pedagogy / technology.
This is an open platform for any learner.
SAKSHAT (www.sakshat.ac.in) and Virtual Lab (www.vlab.co.in) Repositories are online

learning resources such as e- content and virtual labs. These are supported by UGC and AICTE
under NMEICT under MHRD. Details are available on www.sakshat.ac.in/, www.vlab.co.in.
NPTEL (National Project on Technology Enabled Learning) (www.nptel.ac.in) of MHRD,

Government of India has facilitated the availability of lectures from faculty of IITs and other
premier institutions. It is the largest online repository in the world, providing videos and e-
content in engineering, basic sciences, engineering education, few selected humanities and
social sciences. It can be accessed by teacher free of cost and can be shown in classroom.
EDUSAT based network was established in 2005 for education and training. Here regional and
national networks in one way and two-way communication mode are available. Many states
in India and their open universities used the two-way network for conducting engineering and
technology classes for technical education courses.
AVIEW virtual classrooms: A-VIEW (is an advanced multi-modal, multi-platform, collaborative

e-learning solution used in India. It is supported by MHRD and it allows an instructor to teach
or interact with a large number of students in distance mode. Lectures are followed by
interaction using MOODLE Learning management system. This is national facility.
Many other such resources are available on line. Many You tube channels deliver specific
content. A teacher can create his own channel on you tube.
18.1 Purposes of ICT-Based Learning

Some of the major purposes of ICT/CAL methods are to develop:
a) Some of learning outcomes of the curriculum of various domains that cannot be
achieved through other modes/methods of learning.
b) Lifelong learning capabilities.
c) Individualized learning capabilities.
d) Collaborative learning.
e) The use of varied media.

f) Self-evaluation capabilities to usher further improvement.
18.2 Planning and Organizing ICT-Based Learning

The steps for planning and organising the ICT/CAL methods which are usually followed are
given below:
a) Arrange for computer classrooms.
b) Ensure that licensed software is in place.
c) Guide the students to use various ICT/CAL lessons.
d) Encourage team working among the students to ‘pull up’ weaker students.
e) Monitor the ICT/CAL sessions.
REFLECTION SPOT
Access two features of each of the websites of ICT based education portals given above.
19.0 SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING

Knowl, an educationist describes self-directed learning as ‘a process in which individuals take
the initiative without the help of others in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating goals,
identifying human and material resources, and evaluating learning outcomes’. In the context
of adults, the term ‘Self Directed Learning’ is more relevant because it is usually some desire
or need or inspiration that is felt for acquiring certain type of knowledge or skill. There may
not be any teacher who will teach even the what, where and when to learn. Therefore, the
habit of ‘learning by oneself’ is important and is to be developed. But direction and
management of oneself is very essential for purposeful learning so, the term 'self-directed
learning' is more appropriate than just ‘Self-learning’. With the focus on lifelong learning as
the one of the key requirements of the industry and NBA, developing ‘Self-directed learning’
skills in the students has taken the centre-stage. The students will be expected to be on their
own in order to keep pace with trends in their profession or field of activity when they will
work in real life situation.
19.1 Purposes of Self-Directed Learning

Some of major purposes of self-directed learning are:
a) Selectively learn from internet to attain pre-determined learning outcomes.
b) Follow ethics when compiling from other sources.
c) Quick reading of computer screens or books/booklets.
d) Interpret specifications of equipment independently.
e) Use installation, operational and service manuals of various equipment and processes
independently.
19.2 Planning and Organizing Self-Directed Learning

The steps for planning and organising self-directed learning are:

a) The teacher has to allocate some percentage of the curriculum of each course for the
students to learn on their own.
b) Provide problem-based learning (PBL) events and situations.
c) Inform the students of the learning outcomes.
d) Give assignments and take tests of the topics given for self-learning.
e) Give internet-based assignments.
f) Give library-based assignments.
g) Give data collection projects from the market place.
h) Give assignments for team-working.
i) Encourage the students to independently and in a group do the practical work using
the laboratory worksheets without teacher’s demonstration, but with all precautions
and constant watch.
j) Assign micro-projects for each course and evaluate their progress every fortnight.
k) Provide the students the assessment criteria for all types of assignments, jobs, micro-
projects in advance, so that the students are more sincere in completing the work.
20.0 PROBLEM BASED LEARNING

Problem-based learning (PBL) is a student-centered approach in which students learn about a
subject by working in groups in order to solve an open-ended problem. The problem becomes
the source of challenge, motivates students to approach it to solve. Problem-based learning
(PBL) initiates with students working in small groups, inquiring in related aspects, identifying
most important issues, and then finding solutions to the problem under the guidance of a
teacher/facilitator. By focusing upon a realistic problem, students develop a deeper and multi-
dimensional perspective and knowledge of the subject area.
PBL possesses some good characteristics: -

a) PBL could be small or large. The problems are complex and less structured.
b) PBL enables the teacher to integrate the outcomes in the three domains of learning.
c) It is highly realistic, with many researchable unknown aspects, and open to more than
one solution (Duch and Allen, 1996).
d) It promotes self-directed learning. However, PBL is used only after teaching the facts,
concepts, principles, procedures and applications related to topic.
e) Problem should require students to make feasible decisions and to defend them.
Problem motivates the students to probe deeper into unveiling concepts.
f) Learning processes focus on the students. Students work in small groups to
solve/provide alternative solutions to problems. Teacher task is only facilitation.
20.1 Purposes of Problem-Based Learning

The purposes of PBL method are many, some of the major ones are mentioned over here.
a) To gives the students an experience of real life problems.

b) To integrate the theory and practical of that course.

c) To motivate creative and critical thinking
d) To integrate the outcomes in the three domains of learning.
e) To promote reflection, and self-evaluation.
f) To promote self-directed learning.
20.2 Planning and Organizing of Problem-Based Learning VIDEO- V28, V29
The steps for planning and organising problem-based learning are as follows:
a) The problems designed or collected should be graded from simple to complex.
b) Problems could be designed which can address outcomes not only of a single course
but also can cut across multiple courses.
c) Provide the necessary resources.
d) Provide feedback as and when necessary, but do not spoon feed.
e) Function as a facilitator as the students solves the problems.
f) Assess the problem solutions.
g) Maintain a 'bank' of problems that can be given in different semesters.
REFLECTION SPOT
Formulate an example of a problem-based learning for any one course.
21.0 SELECTION OF INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD

Based on the discussions so far, the inductee teacher would have realised that it is necessary
for a teacher to use a variety of instructional methods for effective and efficient instructional
planning and delivery. Now the question is how to decide which instructional methods have
to be used? A teacher can follow the steps given below-
a) Identify the observable and measurable learning outcomes of the concerned course
and session.
b) Consider the major features of the instructional and match their relevance to the
learning outcomes
c) Decide which instructional methods are suitable and when, where and how to use
them.
d) The selection of instructional method has also to be done based on the learning domains
as illustrated in Figures 5 ,6 and 7 depict the selection of methods in three domains, which
can serve as a broad guideline.

Cognitive Domain
Lower Order Thinking skills (LOTS) All levels Higher Order Thinking skills (HOTS)
Remember and Understand of Apply and above of Revised Bloom's
Revised Bloom's Taxonomy Taxonomy
✓ Improved Lecture ✓ Tutorial ✓ Project Method

✓ Demonstration ✓ Industry/Field Visit ✓ Seminar
✓ Buzz session ✓ Laboratory/Workshop ✓ Panel Discussion
✓ Educational game ✓ Field Work ✓ Simulation
✓ Computer Aided ✓ Assignment ✓ Role Play
Learning (CAL) ✓ Online Learning ✓ Case Study Method
✓ Group Discussion
Figure 5: Methods for Different Levels of Cognitive Domain
Psychomotor Domain
Lower Levels (Dave's Taxonomy) All levels Higher Levels (Dave's Taxonomy)
(Imitation and Manipulation) (Precision and Higher Levels)
✓ Demonstration ✓ Tutorial ✓ Project Method

✓ Laboratory/Workshop/Field ✓ Industry/Field Visit ✓ Laboratory/Workshop/
Work ✓ Laboratory/Workshop/ Field Work
✓ Simulation Field Work
✓ Industry/Field Visit ✓ Assignment
✓ Computer Aided Learning
(CAL)
Figure 6: Methods for Different Levels of Psychomotor

Domain

Affective Domain
Lower skills of Krathwohl’s All levels Higher skills of Krathwohl’s

Taxonomy Taxonomy
Receiving and Responding Valuing and above
✓ Demonstration ✓ Seminar ✓ Project Method

✓ Buzz session ✓ Panel Discussion ✓ Seminar
✓ Tutorial ✓ Group Discussion ✓ Role Play
✓ Laboratory/Workshop/ ✓ Laboratory/Workshop ✓ Case Study Method
Field Work /Field Work
✓ Educational game ✓ Simulation
✓ Simulation ✓ Online Learning
✓ Computer Aided
Learning (CAL)
Figure 7: Methods for Different Levels of Affective Domain
ACTIVITY
Formulate/ choose learning outcome(s) for any selected course and suggest the relevant
instructional methods with justification for your selection.
********

22.0 REFERENCES
Banthiya N.K., Joshua E., Mathew Susan S. et al.-Devise Teaching Strategies and Select
Teaching Methods- Competency Based Self-Learning Module; TTTI Bhopal, 1999
Bozic, C., and Hartman, N. (2014). Case-based instruction for innovation education in
engineering and technology. American Society for Engineering Education Annual
Conference and Exposition, Indianapolis, IN.
Das, S. (2006). Implementing a multi-media case study in traditional laboratory class.
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Chicago, IL.
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Garg, K. and Varma, V. (2007). A study of the effectiveness of case study approach in
software engineering education. Conference on Software Engineering Education and
Training, Dublin, Ireland.
Gupta, B. L. (2010). Developing, using and analysing a Case study, Readings in Education
Management. Mahamaya Publishing House, New Delhi.
Indiana University, Bloomington, Campus Instructional Consulting. (2010). Teaching with the
case method. Retrieved from
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Jonnasen, D., Strobel, J., and Lee, C. B. (2006). Everyday problem solving in engineering:
Lessons for engineering educators. Journal of Engineering Education, 95(2), 1–14.
Klein, J. T. (1996). Crossing boundaries: Knowledge, disciplinarities, and interdisciplinarities.
Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia.
National Academy of Engineering. (2004). The engineer of 2020: Visions of engineering in the
new century. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
University of Calgary, Teaching Strategies Series, Teaching and Learning Centre. (n.d.). Case
studies: Connecting theory to practice.
http://tlc.ucalgary.ca/resources/library/itbl/connecting-theory-to-practice/
connectingtheory-to-practice.pdf
Van’t Riet, A., Berg, M., Hiddema, F., and Sol, K. (2001). Meeting patients’ needs with patient
information systems: Potential benefits of qualitative research methods. International
Journal of Medical Informatics, 64(1), 1–14.
Vesper, K. H. (1964). On the use of case studies for teaching engineering. Journal of
Engineering Education, 55(2), 56–57.
Wagener, T., and Zappe, S. (2008). Introducing real-world hydrology case studies into an
undergraduate civil and environmental engineering curriculum. American Society for
Engineering Education Annual Conference and Exposition, Pittsburgh, PA.

Yadav, A., Shaver, G. M., and Meckl, P., (2010). Lessons learned: Implementing the case
teaching method in a mechanical engineering course. Journal of Engineering
Education, 99(1), 55-69.
Yadav, A., Vinh, M., Shaver, G. M., Meckl, P. and Firebaugh, S. (2014). Case-based instruction:
Improving students’ conceptual understanding through cases in a mechanical
engineering course. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 51(5), 659-677.
Brame, C.J. and Biel, R. Setting up and facilitating group work: Using cooperative learning
groups effectively. Retrieved [28/05/19] from http://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-
pages/setting-up-and-facilitating-group-work-using-cooperative-learning-groups-
effectively/., (2015).
Ten Research-Based Steps for Effective Group Work IDEA Paper #65, Retrieved from
https://www.ideaedu.org/Portals/0/Uploads/Documents/.../PaperIDEA_65.pdf
Nathan Roberts, Small group teaching: Methods and Techniques, Retrieved from
https://www.cardiff.ac.uk/learning-hub/view/small-group-teaching-methods-and-
techniques
Colombo Plan Staff College for Technician Education; Aspects of Curriculum for Technician
Education; Singapore: CPSC,1982
Duch, B. J., Groh, S. E., and Allen, D. E. (Eds.) (2001). The power of problem-based learning.
Sterling, VA: Stylus Publications.
Dochy, F., Segers, M., Van den Bossche, P., and Gijbels, D. (2003). Effects of problem- based
learning: A meta-analysis. Learning and instruction, 13(5), 533-568.
Ertmer, P. A., and Simons, K. D. (2006). Jumping the PBL implementation hurdle: Supporting
the efforts of K–12 teachers. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning,
1(1), 5.
Earnest, Joshua; Gupta, S.K.; Mathew, S. Susan; Rachel, Sthuthi (2019). Micro-project: A
Curricular Reform in Maharashtra State, India. Proceedings of the 126th ASEE Annual
Conference at Florida, USA, 15-19 June 2019.
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learning: A meta-analysis from the angle of assessment. Review of Educational
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Samford University’s Center for Problem-based Learning (n.d.), An Introduction to Problem-

Based Learning, Sir Wilfrid Laurier School Board, www.samford.edu/pbl/
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https://teach.its.uiowa.edu/file-resource/962

ASSIGNMENTS
a) Write the steps to be followed in implementation of a role-play.
b) Prepare a list of activities in order to organize a seminar.
c) List any three instructional methods that help in development of creativity
d) Read the case related to storage area of the ABC Company and suggest methods for
increasing the storage area to accommodate the contemplated increase in finished
goods inventory.
e) Describe one situation from a course that can be dealt with buzz session method.
f) Identify two titles of project in a subject and write the expected outcomes
g) Write the information about contents, objectives and duration of one course on
Swayam platform of your interest

DISCUSSION FORUM
Suggested topics for discussion forum include

a) Discuss the viability and use of student-centred methods over teacher centred
methods in an engineering institution in view of outcome-based education
b) Discuss the concerns related to roles of teachers, students and technical staff in the
laboratory.
c) Discuss the feasibility of using brainstorming, educational games and simulation in
teaching learning environment.
d) Compare Case-Based Learning with Problem-Based Learning (PBL)

Unit 4.4.3: Instructional Methods and Strategies - Part 2 L10: Blended and Flipped Learning Approach
L10: Blended and Flipped Learning

Approach
Contributor
Dr. R. K. Kapoor
Associate Professor, Department of Computer Engineering and Applications

L10: Blended and Flipped Learning Approach
LO 1. Explain the features of Blended and Flipped learning approaches.
LO 2. Explain the way Blended and Flipped learning approaches can be applied
in teaching learning process for improving students’ learning.
Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 151
2.0 BLENDED LEARNING ............................................................................................................... 151
2.1 Applying Blended Approach in Learning Situation ................................................................. 152
2.2 Role of Teacher in Blended Learning...................................................................................... 152
3.0 FLIPPED LEARNING ................................................................................................................. 153
3.1 Flipped Learning Process ........................................................................................................ 153
3.2 Applying Flipped Learning ...................................................................................................... 153
3.3 Benefits and Limitations of Flipped Learning ......................................................................... 154
3.4 Implications for Teaching and Learning ................................................................................. 155
4.0 CONCLUSION .......................................................................................................................... 155
5.0 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................... 156

L10: Blended and Flipped Learning Approach
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The modern educational environment is different than it was few decades before. The
Variation in student demography, their personal traits, globalization of the world economy,
emergence of modern technologies in industry and greater use of Internet technologies have
enforced us to change. As a result, many educationists are exploring newer models of
instruction which can transfer and inculcate necessary knowledge, skills and attitudes to meet
out these challenges and produce successful pass-outs to serve the modern society.
Educationists seem to have thought about changing the lecture-based traditional teaching-
learning process the preferred teaching method, by integrating technology in teaching-
learning through so called blended and flipped learning as a new approach. This lesson
discusses about the way Blended and Flipped Learning can be integrated in teaching learning
process to create an ICT enhanced learning environment for improving students’ learning.
Several studies including one at Harvard University focused on the learning gains revealed that
students who followed the blended and flipped approach outperformed those who learnt in
traditional lectures (A. Means, et al, 2010). However, many others have criticized this
approach stating various reasons in support of their arguments. Prof. Katharine T. Schaffzin in
a study has proved that blended and flipped learning if do not increase the learning, at least,
these do not decrease students learning (Schaffzin, 2016).
2.0 BLENDED LEARNING
Blended learning is the learning environment that involves the integration of technology in
the learning process together with traditional instructional practices. Blended learning is a
combination of offline i.e. face-to-face, traditional classroom learning and technology based
online learning in a way that the one compliments the other (Yeop, 2016). It provides learners
with the opportunity to take advantages of both the modes. For example, students might
attend classes in a common classroom setting and then supplement the learning by
completing coursework through online mode. Again, they can attend the class to clarify any
doubts and further discussions if required. Blended learning is often also referred to as 'hybrid'
learning, and can take on a variety of forms in education environments. You may use blended
learning techniques on some selected occasions, or can utilize it as a primary teaching method
within your set of course.
There are two key principles commonly associated with blended learning (Telnet LMS, 2018)
a) Students who share information and work with other students directly in a collaborative
environment have a more enriched learning experience.
b) Collaboration between students can be improved upon if group activities rely on
information gathered from online resources or lessons.

Tools and platforms that can be commonly used to complement classroom teaching in
blended learning include Learning Management Systems, Virtual labs, Virtual reality, Videos
and interactive video tutorials, various OERs like NPTEL, eGyanKosh, and by using
desktop/laptop computers, and mobile devices such as tablets and smart phones.
2.1 Applying Blended Approach in Learning Situation
It takes some planning and analysis before you transit from a traditional classroom
environment to blended learning. Here is a suggested strategy for the same.
a) Ascertain Learning Outcomes and Assessment technique
Ascertain the learning outcomes where from the relevant teaching strategy, and ways of
assessing the students’ learning is arrived at. For example, if your Learning outcome is simply
about recall of information, then a Quiz based online assessment would be an appropriate
method. On the other hand, if it requires your learners to collaborate, then you should think
of a discussion board on an LMS.
b) Map Learning Outcomes with Delivery Strategy
Once the outcomes and its assessment method are decided, you can determine which mode
of instruction would be best for each of the learning outcomes. For example, if you want your
learners to simply recall the sequence of steps of a process, you can have an online learning
module comprising of text, images and/or other media. This material can be served through
Learning Management System (LMS). Then for reinforcement of learning a regular class
session could be conducted. Take another example, if learning outcome requires your learners
to 'apply' the knowledge, then: learners can be taught the conceptual part of the learning in
a classroom situation, and then they can apply the knowledge using any simulation software.
These two examples exhibit typical case of a blended approach where learners get
opportunity to practice in real time using technology, and still have the face-to-face
interaction with the teacher.
2.2 Role of Teacher in Blended Learning
For implementing Blended learning, you have to play an active part differently than the
traditional classroom setups. The shift to blended learning has enthused educators to
redefine traditional roles of a teacher. The word 'facilitator' has emerged as an alternative
to 'teacher,' bringing with it a somewhat diverse focus on teaching learning activities. You,
as facilitator have to put an emphasis on empowering students with the knowledge and skills
required to make the use of online material and independent study time in most effective
manner, guiding students toward the most meaningful learning experience possible. As
facilitator, you have to focus on the following key areas:
a) Making available online and offline course content by developing it and/or by
organizing the sources and links of online content useful for the course.

b) Facilitation of communication with students and among students to create a conducive

environment to carry on activities.
c) Guiding the learning experience of individual students, and customizing the material
wherever possible, in order to reinforce the learning experience.
d) Designing ways of assessing the learners as per the perceived outcomes of learning.
With the easy availability and accessibility of technological tools, implementing blended
learning is a viable option for institutes looking to integrate technology-enabled learning
into their Teaching-learning strategy. You will appreciate that the blended learning has
potential to get the best of both TDL (Teacher Directed Learning) and LDL (Learner Directed
Learning) approaches in a given situation. It is up to teachers to utilize it in appropriate way
to harness its benefits to increase the effectiveness of teaching learning process.
3.0 FLIPPED LEARNING
Flipped learning is a pedagogical approach in which the conventional concept of classroom-

based learning is inverted. Students are introduced to the learning material before class
commences. The classroom time then used to extend the understanding of the topic through
various activities like discussion with teacher and peers, problem-solving activities in a
workshop situation facilitated by teachers. In short, the flipped classroom is a pedagogical
model in which the typical lecture and off the class elements like homework of a course are
reversed.
3.1 Flipped Learning Process
Depending on the learning outcomes, the learning material which the students have to go
through before the commencement of the class is provided to the students. For example,
short video programme can be viewed by students before the class session, especially when
affective and psychomotor domain outcomes are more predominant, whereas the in-class
time is dedicated to discussions, exercises, projects. For cognitive domain outcomes, even
text-based resources can also be used.
The notion of a flipped learning brings about such concepts as active learning, student
engagement, and hybrid course design. The worth of a flipped class is in the effective
utilization of classroom time into a workshop situation where students can get an opportunity
to discuss and inquire about lecture content, indulge in activities to apply knowledge, and
interact with one another in hands-on activities. During class sessions your role is as coach or
guide, motivating students in individual learning activities and collaborative efforts.
3.2 Applying Flipped Learning
You can devise suitable strategy to adopt flipped learning in your teaching-learning process.
To begin with, you can expose students to some of their courses’ fundamental concepts

through various online learning resources before they attend the classroom session. You then
can conceive live classroom sessions design that has focus on developing outcomes that are
mainly build on those concepts aiming directly towards developing students’ analytical and
problem-solving skills that strengthen student’s overall comprehension of the course.
In order to clarify any doubt, an immediate quiz, feedback and the replay of lecture segments
may help and clarify points of confusion. You could organize students into an informal
workgroup to solve a problem that students in general are feeling difficult to comprehend.
You may guide in discussions, convert the classroom into a workshop where students create,
collaborate, and put into practice what they have learned from the classroom inputs or from
various learning resources from other than the classroom activity.
Finally, in order to assess the attainment of the learning outcomes, online quizzes or activities
can be integrated to test students learning. Although you can make it quite comprehensive,
as a suggestive way, you can go to implement only a few elements of the flipped model or to
flip only a few selected class sessions during a term
Some of the following points can be used to plan an effective flip class ( University Of Texas
at Austin,, 2018).
a) Identify the learning outcomes.
b) Decide where and when to flip the class;
c) Design suitable classroom-based activities to enhance students learning;
d) Identify and organize content to engage students in leaning before class;
e) Motivate students for the flipped approach by setting and informing expected
outcomes.
f) Implement the plan.
3.3 Benefits and Limitations of Flipped Learning
By this time, you must have realized that there are several benefits of the flipped class:
a) Control of learning is given to the students and the teacher functions as a facilitator.
b) More high order thinking skills (HOTS) get developed.
c) Efficient learning happens as more of the contents are self-learnt.
d) Affective domain outcomes get developed due to greater collaborative learning.
e) It is very good strategy which addresses the learning styles of individual learners.
f) Blended and flipped learning demand greater efforts from both, you as well as your
students, compared to traditional method. It also tenders both a return on
contribution of your increased efforts.
Although there are certain limitations of the flipped learning given here, which however could
also be overcome:
i. Initially it requires a different mindset and therefore greater efforts in planning and
preparation.

ii. Initially the students may feel it difficult to adjust with the change due to the loss of
commonly used face-to-face sessions.
iii. Students with the perception that they can learn by surfing the web may not
immediately appreciate the value of the interaction, collaboration and hands-on
learning which is provided in the classroom.
iv. Students will not attain the learning outcomes, who come to the flipped class without
going through the prescribed learning resources beforehand.
3.4 Implications for Teaching and Learning
The flipped learning changes the teacher’s role. You need to convert the lecture-oriented
session to more and more activity-based learning to create scope for collaborative and
cooperative contribution by the students to the T-L process. Your session may not rely on
preplanned lesson notes to disseminate information to students like in a traditional way; the
flipped classroom calls for much greater spontaneity to answer learner’s questions.
There is an associated change in the role of students’ commitment towards learning. Instead
of passive participants in the T-L process where instructions and material are served to them,
the flipped model gives students a thrust to experiment and make them more responsible for
learning. Activities are basically led by students and the session is devoted to learning through
hands-on and problem-solving activities which tend more towards Learners’ directed
Learning. The concept of flip brings about a distinctive shift in the responsibility of teachers
and students both.
4.0 CONCLUSION
By now you must have realized that blended and flipped learning are overall positive teaching
approaches which should be preferable to a traditional classroom teaching-learning mode.
The overall advantages of such a platform outweigh those offered by the present state of
affairs. Hence one should go for flipped learning wherever it is possible.
ACTIVITY
Prepare an activity plan to incorporate blended and flipped Learning approach to develop
a learning outcome.

5.0 REFERENCES
University Of Texas at Austin,. (2018). flip quick start guide. Retrieved from flipped classroom:
http://ctl.utexas.edu/sites/default/files/utflipquickstartguide112114.pdf
A. Means, et al. (2010). Evaluation of Evidence-Based Practices in online learning. Retrieved from U.S.
Dept. of Edu.
Schaffzin, K. T. (2016). Learning outcomes in a flipped classroom. Retrieved from University of

MemphisCecil C.: https://www.memphis.edu/law/documents/schaffzin46.pdf
Telnet LMS. (2018, December). What is blended learning ? Retrieved from Explore telnet LMS:
https://www.talentlms.com/elearning/blended-learning
Yeop, M. A. (2016). Blended Learning: pedagogy, learning styles and assessment activities in the
classroom. International Journal of Advanced and Applied Sciences, 36-39.

ASSIGNMENT
Describe the roles of teachers and students in blended and flipped learning approaches.

MODULE 4
Unit 4.4.4
Instructional Media
L11 Need of Instructional Media

L12 Classification of Media
L13 Design of Handouts, Assignments
and Laboratory Worksheets
L14 Media Design Principles and
Effective Board Work
Unit 4.4.4: Instructional Media L11: Need of Instructional Media
L11: Need of Instructional Media
Contributor
Dr. Sandip S. Kedar


AICTE-NITTT Module 4: Instructional Planning and Delivery © NITTTR, Bhopal All rights Reserved L11 Page 1
LO 1. Justify the need for media for effective classroom communication.
LO 2. Explain the importance and role of instructional media in T-L process.
Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 3
2.0 BASIC CLASSROOM COMMUNICATION MODEL ............................................................. 3
3.0 MEDIUM, MEDIA AND INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA ............................................................. 5
4.0 IMPORTANCE AND ROLE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA .................................................... 5
5.0 MEDIA FOR TEACHER DIRECTED AND TEACHER INDEPENDENT INSTRUCTION ............. 7
6.0 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA ....................................... 8
7.0 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................. 9
8.0 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................. 10
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Education system in India right from school level to Ph.D. level has also not remained
untouched with the technological advancements. Use of instructional technology as well as
Information and Communication Technology to enhance teaching learning process has
become the need of the day. The teaching-learning (T-L) process mainly depends upon various
factors such as teaching skills of the teacher, instructional methods and strategies,
instructional media used, learning experiences provided to the learners, learner’s
characteristics, classroom environment, and so on. With the knowledge explosion, technology
and information explosion, the role of a teacher is changing from pure information provider
to the facilitator of learning. Therefore, a teacher needs to be resourceful enough to use the
latest instructional technologies to facilitate learning. This lesson is intended to convey the
role and importance of instructional media in improving the T-L process and the use of
instructional media. This lesson has been written with the premise that the teacher has
already studied the lessons L5 to L10 of this module and has understood the concept of
learning and instruction.
2.0 BASIC CLASSROOM COMMUNICATION MODEL

In any classroom situation, either traditional or virtual, teaching learning process plays an
important role to facilitate the learning. Any classroom could be considered as a system having
some inputs, processes, outputs and feedback mechanism for ensuring learning. There is
always an interaction between teacher or instructional designer and the student or the
learner. So, a normal classroom has different elements such as teacher or instructor, students
or learners, environment, teaching methods and strategies, messages, channels, medium,
barriers, etc. (Figure 1).
Teaching Methods and Strategies
Instructor Medium Message Learner
Feedback
Figure 1: Communication between Instructor and Learner
During the instruction teacher creates and transmits some messages in varied forms which
are received and perceived by the receiver or the learner. The messages may be anything such
as factual or conceptual knowledge which consist of facts, concepts, principles, laws, rules,
procedures, applications, or directions to the learners, questions about the content, feedback
on the appropriateness of responses, or any other information. These messages are
transmitted by the teacher, instructor or sender through some medium so that they reach the
learners. The medium may be anything such as text written on the chalkboard, handout, text
book, computer-based presentation, video, animation, real objects, maps, simulator, virtual
reality setup, etc. The medium carries the message. It is received by the learners through
channels or senses of perception. These are seeing, hearing, touching, smelling, or tasting. The
learner extracts the meaning out of the received message. This process of communication is
depicted in an engineering model based on signal processing (Figure 2).
Figure 2: Engineering Model of Communication
The sender encodes the message or an idea to be transmitted in various media forms such as
verbal language, visuals, symbols, formulae, diagrams, graphs, sketches, photographs,
animations, models, real things, and by using different instructional methods and techniques.
The receiver receives the message through sensory channels and decodes it based on his/ her
intelligence, previous knowledge, language capabilities, interests, etc. In the process of
communication, some barriers or noise cause disturbance. Such barriers are previous
knowledge, Social and cultural backgrounds, prejudices (beliefs and preferences), disinterest,
imperceptions, day dreaming, verbalism, referent confusion and physical discomfort.
Some of these barriers such as previous knowledge, Social and cultural backgrounds,
prejudices are not under direct control of the teacher, but others could be controlled and
reduced by the teacher to make the communication effective. Communication in the
classroom situation is a two-way process. There is always a feedback channel present which
reduces the errors in transmission of the message from sender to receiver. The feedback may
be in terms of discussion, questions and answers between teacher and students. This makes
the communication process a complete cycle. If learner perceives same meaning from the
message sent by the teacher, then maximum learning takes place, and that is possible when
sender (teacher) takes care of various communication barriers. The communication barriers
and the ways of reducing them are explained in the Annexure A. After going through the
communication model, it is clear that medium, media and message hold a prominent place in
any communication. Need and importance of these is discussed in subsequent paragraphs.
3.0 MEDIUM, MEDIA AND INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA

In the two models of communication discussed above the most important factor is medium
or channel which carries the message from the sender to the receiver. A medium (plural is
media) is a channel of communication or message transmission. The term instructional media
as described by Adekola (Adekola, 2010) means all available human and material resources
which appeal to the learners’ sense of seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, touching or feeling
and which assist to facilitate teaching and learning. As per Onyeozu (1997), instructional
media are resource materials which help to facilitate teaching and learning. This may include
traditional media such as chalkboards, white boards, print material, handouts, text books,
charts, slides, overhead transparencies, magnetic cut outs, real objects, video programme or
film, 2D and 3D animations, radio, audio DVDs, television.
Presently, newer media such as computers, smart mobiles, smart TVs, interactive boards,
interactive panel, interactive pads, opaque projector, multimedia projector, internet,
multimedia presentation, simulators, open source learning material and software, interactive
video conferencing, podcast, blogs, wikis, e-learning, e-books, mobile-learning, social
networking, virtual and augmented reality. Each of these media has different strengths and
limitations in terms of the types of messages that can be recorded and displayed.
ACTIVITY
Write at least two media used in classroom teaching, along with their purposes.
4.0 IMPORTANCE AND ROLE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA

Instructional media are important elements of teaching and learning process and they play a
key role in the design and use of systematic instruction. Brief outline of roles and purpose of
media in teaching learning process (Banthiya, 1999) is given below.
a) Media stimulates more than one sense during T-L process (eye, ear, touch). If properly
used, they can bring in stimulus variation in the classroom.
b) Tiny and big objects, any event or process may be shown at rest or in motion. The
smaller objects are difficult to perceive by naked eyes, but could be enlarged with the
help of video camera- zoom in facility. Slow and fast motion objects could be shown at
a desired speed. (Figure 3)
c) Dangerous or distant objects and events could also be shown which are difficult to
observe by normal vision, like blasting event of a mine. (Figure 4)
d) Media create continuous change in stimulus; hence they gain and sustain the attention
level of students.
Figure 3 Fast objects could be shown Figure 4 Blasting event of a mine

with reduced speed in video
(Courtesy: Childcraft Dictionary, World Book, Inc., USA 1993)
The impact media are also varied. Adekola (2008, 2010) states the following:
a) Increases the rate of learning by the learners.
b) Makes learning to be real and permanent.
c) Saves teacher’s time which would have been wasted on oral presentation and
explanation of subjects’ contents.
d) Promote learner’s participation in learning activities.
e) Makes learning available to wider audience and helps teacher and learner overcome
physical difficulties in teaching and learning.
In addition to the above purposes and impact on the learner, instructional media can:
a) Be designed, developed such as simulators, working models, cut section models could
be used to develop skills and to explain internal structure of any object or system
b) Be developed and made available to the learners in digital form, in synchronous or
asynchronous mode catering to the learning needs, learning style of the individual
learner. They may access it from anywhere, and at any time.
c) Offer interactivity which further enhances the interest, active participation and
engagement of the learner in learning process.
d) Present the content in various forms such as text, visuals, graphics, video, animation,
and sound with user control.
e) Be developed with quality by taking services of best media designers.
Media can be used to support one or more of the following instructional activities: (Instruction
at FSU Handbook, 2011)
a) Gain attention: A picture on the screen, a question on the board, or music playing as
students enter the room all serve to get the student’s attention.
b) Recall prerequisites: Media can be used to help students recall what they learned in
the last class, so that new material can be attached to and built upon it.
c) Present objectives to the learners by projecting the day’s learning outcomes.
d) Present new content: Not only can media help make new content more memorable;
media can also help deliver new content (a text, movie, or video). It supports learning
through examples and visual elaboration. One of the biggest advantages of media is to
bring the world into the classroom when it is not possible to take the student into the
world.
e) Elicit student response: Present information to students and poses questions to them,
getting them involved in answering the questions.
f) Provide feedback: Media can be used to provide feedback relating to a test or class
exercise.
g) Enhance retention and transfer: Pictures enhance retention. Instructional media help
students visualize a lesson and transfer abstract concepts into concrete, easier to
remember objects.
h) Assess performance: Media is an excellent way to pose assessment questions for the
class to answer, or students can submit mediated presentations as classroom projects.
5.0 MEDIA FOR TEACHER DIRECTED AND TEACHER INDEPENDENT INSTRUCTION

The media requirement for teacher directed instruction and teacher independent instruction
vary to a large extent. For appropriate selection of media in these situations, teachers must
evaluate the learning outcomes, teacher characteristics and learner characteristics. A
conventional classroom and laboratory situation call for teacher directed instruction. In these
situations, the instructional media provide supplemental support to the teacher. Teacher may
use media for recalling previously learned content as well as for explaining and demonstration
purpose for achievement of learning outcomes. Depending on the content and learning
outcome teacher select video, animation, real objects, models, chart, graph, diagram etc. for
making teaching learning effective.
Now days in engineering education, self-learning and online learning through Massive Open
Online Courses (MOOCs) is being promoted. Such scenario falls under the category of teacher
independent instruction. For achievement of the learning outcomes a complete packaged
material which is self-sufficient is developed and provided to the student. Customized media
which include self-learning material, video, audio, virtual laboratory, multimedia packages are
developed in advance and provided to the registered student. If required, student may contact
teacher through video conferencing, phone, discussion forum.
6.0 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA

By now the advantages of the use of instructional media may have become evident;
however, it is summarized as a ready reckoner.
a) Media can be used for large group, small group presentation or for individual learning.
b) Media like chalkboard, whiteboard can be used for incidental content writing. These
are more suitable for explanation and development of content in steps.
c) Due to availability of millions of colors in digital media, its display brings realism in the
content presentation.
d) Most of the media can be prepared once and then reused, thus saving teachers’ time.
Media like video, animation and other ICT based media bring dynamism, realism,
interactivity, which sustain interest of the learners in learning.
e) Media can be used when real things are too big or too small in size.
f) Media can slow down or raise the speed of an event when real things are too quick or
too slow. For example, movement of earth’s crust or plate tectonics, construction of a
building, manufacturing of product, and so on.
g) Media are useful when real things are too dangerous to handle, like mine explosion.
h) Media helps when real things are too difficult to visualise. For example, human
anatomy and internal systems of human body, top view of any area, city.
i) Media helps to represents the real things which are too expensive. Media help to bring
outside world inside the classroom.
j) For example, bringing actual satellite to classroom.
k) Media helps when the equipment is not usually available. For example, showing the
da-Vinci-Si Surgical Robotic System to students, or giving overview of mining
operations with machines and equipment and so on.
l) Media provide a flexibility to choose the appropriate one to suit the learning
outcomes, learning styles, preference of selection and use of media, competence and
resources available.
m) Media such as virtual reality, augmented reality and mixed reality could be used for
various purposes such as skill development.
As in every case, there are limitations to every aspect, so too for media. However, some of
them could be overcome too by taking some remedial measures:
a) Teacher needs the skill for careful selection, preparation, planning and appropriate
media for which relevant training could be imparted.
b) Preparation of media requires time, but once made, it can re-used again and again.
c) Production of some of the media such as video, multimedia, animations, e-content,
simulators, demands funds, resources and technical knowhow.
d) If teacher is using any media designed and developed by some other expert, then the
teacher may have to modify it to suit the exact purpose.
ACTIVITY
Case on First Classroom Experience
Mr. Raghuvir was very happy to join as a faculty of a renowned Govt. Engineering College
in Nagpur. He got this job after getting selected through MPSC. He had completed his
Masters from a renowned University. He did not have any teaching experience earlier
although he worked for quite some time in an automobile industry as an engineer. But he
was more interested to work as a teacher so he joined this profession. He was techno
savvy and so very confident in handling computer peripherals but due to lack of teaching
experience, he was not much confident in conducting his first session in the classroom. He
talked about his situation to his HOD, who advised him to prepare some media for his
class. He was not much aware about many media so he prepared only one computer-
based presentation incorporating mostly text material on the selected topic. In his first
class, he tried to explain the content to the students, who were only listening to him for
the whole session. Most of the students were not comfortable during his session. He was
also not satisfied with his first performance in the class.
Brief:
1) Why Mr. Raghuvir was not satisfied with his performance?
2) Why most of the students were uncomfortable in his class?
3) What are your suggestions to Mr. Raghuvir to make his next class more effective?
Write answers to these in your journal as a part of your teaching-learning portfolio.
7.0 CONCLUSION
In T-L process, any medium or media act as a means to achieve the learning outcomes. Media
helps teacher to impart instruction systematically and effectively so teacher needs to develop
the competency and mastery in designing, developing and using media in any teaching
learning situation. Based on the individual capabilities and skills, learning needs of students,
resources available, teacher can select a media mix considering the advantages and limitations
of media. While planning for instructional session, teachers need to decide about the media
to be prepared and to be used for effective session implementation. In next lesson you will
learn about classification of media based on various parameters.
*******
8.0 REFERENCES
Adekola, G. (2010, JUNE). The Impact of Instructional Media on the Education of Youths on
HIV/AIDS in Nigeria Urban Communities. International Journal of Scientific Research
in Education, Vol. 3(1), 64-72.
Banthiya, N. K. (1999, July). M-3: Use Correct Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication in
Classroom. REC Competency Based Self-learning Module. Bhopal, MP, India: TTTI,
Bhopal.
Banthiya, N. K. (1999, July). M6- Manage classroom transactions and make effective
presentation in classroom. REC Competency Based Self-learning Module. Bhopal, MP,
India: TTTI, Bhopal.
Instruction at FSU Handbook. (2011). Instruction at FSU: A Guide to Teaching & Learning
Practices. Retrieved January 01, 2019, from distance.fsu.edu:
https://distance.fsu.edu/instructors/instruction-fsu-guide-teaching-learning-
practices
Oklahoma State Department of Education. (2013, October). B, Technical Assistance Guide

Assistive Technology for Children and Youth with Disabilities IDEA Part. Oklahoma
City, OK 73105. Retrieved February 25, 2019, from
https://sde.ok.gov/sites/ok.gov.sde/files/documents/files/Assistive%20Technology%
20(AT)%20Technical%20Assitance%20Guide%20(Oct%202013).pdf
Shodhganga. (2018). Retrieved December 2018, from shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in:

http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/101198/11/11_chapter%202.pdf
*******
Annexure A
Communication Barriers and ways to reduce them. (Banthiya, M3 Use Correct Verbal and
Non-Verbal Communication in Classroom., 1999)
1) Previous knowledge - Knowledge here includes all kind of previous exposure to the subject
matter in the form of cognitive learning, skills, attitudes and experiences. Students
normally have some prior knowledge of the subject and related topics due to earlier
exposure to these. Whenever you teach a new concept or principle pertaining to a subject
to students, they tend to relate these concepts and principles with the ones already stored
in their memory. In case the context and the concepts already learned are similar, the
learning of new concepts and principles is facilitated. Sometimes, previous knowledge
becomes a barrier when the topic is known to the students and you start teaching it in
great detail. Students may start showing disinterest in this case. Before teaching a new
concepts, you should recall the pre-requisite knowledge by asking questions and based on
the student’s reply you may decide upto what extent the recall is necessary. Previous
experience of the student may also become a barrier sometimes. Previous experience of
students can be converted from a barrier to facilitator by your making use of such students
in giving their practical insight into various problems.
2) Background- Intellectual, social and cultural backgrounds of a teacher as well as students

may become a barrier sometimes. A teacher coming from high social background and soft-
spoken, may misunderstand something said by a student coming from rural and socially
unprivileged background. Similarly, a teacher from a socially unprivileged background may
cause some resistance in the minds of students from higher strata of society. Individual
differences also affect perceptions of students. Background of students also influence
their understanding the new concepts and principles taught by you. The pace and rate of
learning is also immensely affected due to background since each learner has his own
learning style. In order to take care of this barrier the old maxim 'know your subject, and
know your students' could serve a useful guideline for you for designing and delivering the
instruction. You must also show understanding and caring attitude for those students who
come from different background than yours, and especially for those who come from rural
and unprivileged background.
3) Prejudices-These are unfavourable opinions formed beforehand. Prejudices may cause

personal likes and dislikes, thus becoming a barrier between you and students. These
preconceived notions may be by teachers towards students, by students towards teachers,
and by students towards some subjects. For example, some students find difficulty in
understanding subjects which have abstract concepts like engineering drawing and
mathematics. They form a barrier in their minds about these subjects due to this prejudice.
Use of different instructional methods, media, graded assignments may encourage
students to learn the subject with interest. Unbiased delaing, polite and understanding
behaviour with students will help in removing the prejudice about you in the minds of
students.
4) Disinterest- In a teaching situation, sometimes the students start loosing the interest in
the classroom activities.This may be due to the nature of the subject as well as teaching
style of the teacher. Slow moving lesson, repetitions, irrelevant matter, poor presentation,
lack of enthusiasm and monotony are some of the reasons for such a situation. Some
external social or cultural activity or sports event may divert attention of the students. The
students might become bored because they need to be treated as important individuals
possessing variable interests, needs, and abilities. In order to remove this barrier and make
the communication effective, skilful application of variety of instructional media, use of
different instructional methods and strategies to arrange for active participation of
students, will make the presentation interesting with stimulus variation, and by breaking
the monotony. This will transform a dry, uninteresting lesson into a live experience for the
learners.
5) Imperception- It is just the opposite of perception. It acts as barrier in the communication

process. Perception is the process by which the human brain constructs an internal
representation of the outside world. It is the process by which we become aware of changes
through the senses of sight, hearing, and it is an act or power of perceiving. On the contrary,
the inaccurate conclusions drawn on the basis of what our senses tell us results in
imperception. Objects and things are perceived wrongly when complete information is not
presented before the observer. To remove the imperceptions, you should present the
information in such a way that it reaches the students in the original form. You may use the
real objects, working models, video, photographs to explain the content. This will remove
probable imperception about the concept.
6) Day Dreaming- It is a state of mind under which human beings are pre-occupied with idle
and pleasant thoughts. Everyone is engaged in this activity at one time or another.
Daydreaming may be the source of most powerful and ideal thoughts. Even if a student is
physically present in the class for fear of attendance, his/her mind may be engaged in
pleasant or unpleasant experiences outside. These may be due to some exciting news or
some one's sickness. As you know adolescent students now a days live in a world of their
own having variety of pre-occupations also they have variety of electronic gadgets and
information sources to get distracted or daydream. A slow-moving lesson, long silence and
many such other things might make the students daydream. Active student participation in
the teaching-learning process, use of short class assignment, buzz session, group discussion,
may compel students to remain mentally present in the class. Continuous feedback taken
by you about students' learning can make them feel attentive.
7) Verbalism- Verbalism refers to the practice of using too many words while explaining the
topic. Too many words may confuse the students. Words are the abstract symbols which are
often used to explain concepts. But mere use of words which is input to the sense of hearing
only will not result in effective learning. It has been found that the effectiveness of sense of
hearing is only about 13%. So, to minimise this barrier, you can use variety of instructional
media which provide input to the channel of sight (eyes) having the effectiveness of about
75%. Some time teacher repeats some of the words or phrases such as “OK”, “Isn’t it?”,
“Understood”, and so on. Such verbalism distracts the attention of students. Teacher need
to avoid such verbalism.
8) Referent confusion- This can be the result of hearing a new meaning attached to a word
for which a different meaning has already been learnt. Spoken words and terms may have
a totally different meaning to different listeners. The confusion in meaning occurs as the
same technical words have different dictionary meanings altogether. For example, when
students hear words like ‘work’ ‘chip’ ‘power’ ‘system’ ‘hole’ ‘table’ and many other such
words which have particular connotation in engineering context but have different
dictionary or general meaning, create confusion. Confusion may be due to similar
‘sounding words, for example ‘week’ and ‘weak’ or ‘brake’ and ‘break’. In such situations
it becomes essential to explain the meanings of the new terms by writing them on the
chalkboard. Also, graphic and visual presentation may be helpful.
9) Discomfort- Physical discomforts could result from some illness or a physical trouble on
the part of the learner. Empathising with the suffering student and showing affection
towards him/ her will reduce physical discomfort to some extent. Discomfort may be due
to the inadequate arrangements inside the classroom such as lack of proper ventilation,
improper lighting, glare on the board, a poor seating arrangement, too hot or too cold
inside, too much noise outside. So, it is not that difficult for a teacher to eliminate these
in-class discomforts. Neat and clean as well as well-ventilated and well-illuminated
classrooms helps in improving the in-class situation for effective teaching learning process
to occur.
DISCUSSION FORUM
• Discuss on the issues related to the use of media in the classroom, problems
faced and strategies adopted to overcome them.
• Some of the instructional media are highly acceptable to teachers and
students in today’s context. Discuss the reasons.
L12: Classification of Media
Contributor
Dr. Sandip S. Kedar


Unit 4.4.4: Instructional Media L12: Classification of Media
Learning Outcome: At the end of this lesson, you will be able to describe the
salient features of different instructional media for use in the T-L process.
Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 3
2.0 CLASSIFICATION OF MEDIA ........................................................................................................ 3
2.1. Projected and Non-Projected Media ......................................................................................... 4
2.2. Mediating and Criterion Media .................................................................................................. 9
2.3. Audio, Visual and Audio-Visual Media ..................................................................................... 10
2.4. Print and Non-Print Media ....................................................................................................... 10
2.5. Media Hardware and Software ................................................................................................ 11
2.6. Static and Dynamic Media........................................................................................................ 11
2.7. Exposition and Inquisition Media ............................................................................................. 11
2.8. Traditional and New Media ...................................................................................................... 12
3.0 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................ 16
4.0 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 17
1.0 INTRODUCTION
For effective implementation of planned instruction in any learning environment, teacher
need to use variety of instructional methods, strategies and media, according to the learning
needs of the learners. The advancements in media therefore should be used for the benefits
of the students. In today’s context, when most of the students who join engineering
institutions, possess smart phones, laptops, the strengths of these can be used for self-
directed learning. So, the teacher needs to know the use of these modern media for
instructional purposes. In lesson 11, the importance and role of instructional media in
teaching-learning process was discussed as well as advantages and limitations of
instructional media. This lesson focuses on classification of instructional media right from
traditional to modern digital media. After going through this lesson and watching the related
video, you will be able to classify instructional media.
2.0 CLASSIFICATION OF MEDIA

Instructional media mainly have three properties viz. fixative property, manipulation
property and distributive property (Shodhganga, 2018). The fixative property permits the
capture, preservation, and reconstitution of an object or event. For example, one can
capture an object or event through photographic camera, by audio recording or video
recording using video camera or a mobile. These could be preserved for future use. The
manipulation property of media permits to manipulate the speed of occurrence of an event
or to remove or add any desired content. For example, video captured or animation
developed can be slowed down or made faster by editing it. A photograph captured can be
edited to remove the extraneous content or add any other content into it. The distributive
property of media facilitates its reproduction, reuse and dissemination in variety of ways,
either in digital or print form, through wired or wireless networks as well as in any learning
environment, in face to face situation or in distance mode.
Most of the media possess these properties that facilitates the use of media in T-L
environment. Instructional media can be classified in variety of ways. They are classified
based on the process of their development, use for teachers and students, purpose, type of
projection, dynamism or static nature, type of dissemination, and so on.
a) Projected and non-projected media e) Media Hardware and software

b) Criterion and mediating media f) Static and dynamic media
c) Audio, visual and Audio-visual media g) Exposition and inquisition media
d) Print and non-print media h) Traditional and new media
The salient features of these classifications are discussed further so that their instructional
uses can be better understood.
2.1. Projected and Non-Projected Media
2.1.1 Projected Media

They need some type of projector through which the content is
projected on the screen in the enlarged form. Multimedia
projector, overhead projector, film projector, opaque projector
or document camera, slide projector, are some examples of
projected media.
Figure 1: Multimedia
(a) Multimedia projector (Figure 1) can be used to project the Projector
content by connecting a computer system or laptop. This can
project any multimedia content comprising of visuals, graphics,
animations, video, text, internet websites, and input from a
document camera. The projector can also be used with
interactive board to project the content of computer. It creates
a sharp high resolution, bright and enlarged image on any
screen. It has replaced most of the earlier projectors due to its
versatility of projecting various types of inputs.
(b) Overhead Projector (Figure 2) was quite common before

Figure 2: Overhead
the advent of the multimedia projector is called overhead Projector
because it projects the image on screen over the head of
presenter.
(c) 16 mm film Projector (Figure 3) In early days this film

projector used to project the matter exposed on 16 mm
films. Due to its small size, it was portable for showing
educational as well as entertainment films.
(d) Opaque Projector or Document

Camera (Figure 4) A modern digital
opaque projector also called
document camera, is a quite
versatile equipment to project
Figure 3: 16 mm opaque (non-transparent) materials
Film Projector
such as flat pictures, book
illustrations, drawings, or even certain small objects. It is very useful
for teachers for enlarging illustrative materials for making charts or
cutouts. It can also project instantaneous writing on the paper kept
on its stage. It is portable, as it weighs only 3 to 4 kg. Such projector Figure 4: Document
Camera
has camera with zoom and focusing facility, which facilitate
enlargement of desired part of the visual, or content placed on its stage. During
presentations the teacher can switch between the inputs from opaque projector and
computer when connected to multimedia projector.
(e) Slide projector (Figure 5) was also in use for projecting 35

mm slide film (Figure 6 and 7). It has
either a rectangular or a circular
slide storage cassette for holding
number of slides to be displayed in
sequence. Nowadays, these slides
Figure 5: Slide Projector
have been replaced by computer-based
presentation software, wherein teacher can
prepare slides in digital form using millions of
colors and other features of the software.
Figure 6: 35 mm Figure 7: 35 mm slide 2.1.2 Non-Projected Media

Slide Set
As the name suggests non-projected Media do not need any
projection system. Common non-projected media are normal
chalkboard, whiteboard, glass board, magnetic board, flannel
board, bulletin board, real objects, specimen, cut-section models,
models, charts and posters, maps, and so on.
(a) Chalkboard (Figure 8) is the old friend of a teacher and is still
the most widely used teaching media. The major advantage is that
Figure 8: Chalkboard
of incidental writing as a teacher teaches along. Use of colored
chalks, templates of figures, drawing instruments, roller boards, sliding boards, etc. improve
the utility of chalkboards. The main limitation of chalkboard is that drawing diagrams on
board needs considerable time and moreover the diagram cannot be reused. The students
cannot, effectively utilize the time used by the teacher while
drawing, as content matter is usually new. You may watch video
on ‘Effective Board Work’ which demonstrates the use of
chalkboard in the classroom.
(b) Whiteboard (Figure 9) is a replacement for chalkboard. It has

similar attributes as that of chalkboard. In place of chalks,
multicolor whiteboard marker pens are used for incidental
writing on these boards. The matter written can be erased very
easily. These boards could be installed on the wall or mounted
on the stand having wheels. This facilitates easy movement of
the board as per requirement in the classroom. These could be Figure 9: Whiteboard
used as screen for projecting computer content through
multimedia projector. But its glossy surface creates glare and a spot on the board. This may
be avoided by using matt finish surface of the whiteboard.
(c) Magnetic board (Figure 10) basically consists of a sheet of a

magnetic material suitably painted. Magnetic cutouts presenting
the content could be pasted on this board. Small button or strip
magnets are stuck at the back of the cutouts of different parts of a
diagram (Figure 11). The arrangement of the cutouts can be
changed by moving them as desired. The electronic media and
Figure 10: Magnetic Board
animations have replaced these.
(d) Bulletin board and Flannel board

(Figure 12 and 13) These boards are
used in the institute galleries or in the
classrooms mainly for displaying charts,
announcements, brochures, posters,
bulletins, project work, art work, Figure 11: Magnetic cut out with button magnets
reports, drawing sheets, common
notices for students. Portability of these
boards facilitates varied positions and
combinations of boards for exhibiting
different material.
(e) Real objects and specimens- Learning

Figure 12: Bulletin board Figure 13: Flannel Board
is maximized when real things are used
to teach. For example, while introducing the
functions of Digital Single Reflex Lens (DSLR) camera
(Figure 14) or teaching about a Vernier caliper
(Figure 15), always take such portable objects in the
classroom for demonstration purpose. Similarly,
wherever possible show actual specimen to
students (Figure 16). Use of real objects as well as
specimens provide direct purposeful experience to Figure 14: DSLR Camera
the students and help in effective learning. with flash gun
Figure 15: Vernier Calliper
Figure 16: Specimens of jobs

done on CNC machine
Real objects such as turbo engine of an airplane (ITE, 2018) (Figure 17), or real small aero
plane (Figure 18), actual machine (Figure 19) can also be used as an instructional media.
Students can understand various internal parts, structures, systems and functioning of such
systems and perform different skill development activities on such objects.
Figure 17: Aeroplane Turbo Engine Figure 18: Real Small Aeroplane Figure 19: Real Machines
(f) Models play an important role in

understanding and visualizing the real object,
place, or event and working principle in
miniature or reduced scale form (Figure 20).
Lack of real things could then be substituted by
working or non-working static models. These
are three-dimensional reproduction of real
objects. These are either created by the
teachers or by students as project work. Figure 20: Scaled Model
Design, development of models provides Figure 21: IC Engine
opportunities for students to work in group and Cut-Section Model
develop number of skills. Variety of models can
be prepared for instructional purposes such as
sectional model, transparent model. Working
models and cut-section models (Figure 21 and
22) make teaching more effective because the
student/ teacher can handle, operate,
dismantle, reassemble or view it from different
angles in order to comprehend all aspects. The
drawback of the 3-D models is that a large Figure 22: Cut Section Model of Jet Engine
group cannot see them if the size of model is
small and if the size is very big it is difficult to carry it in
the class. This limitation could be circumvented by
using modern digital opaque projector or document
camera discussed earlier.
(g) Charts are used to display consolidated graphical

information in the classroom, in laboratory, in
Figure 23: Film making process chart
workshop and at appropriate places in the institute.

Teacher can prepare charts using drawing sheets, on the
content to be taught (Figure 23). Document camera along
with multimedia projector can be used to trace and enlarge
visuals to prepare charts. Readymade charts (Figure 24)
could also be procured and displayed in the laboratory.
Once prepared or procured, charts could be used for a
longer duration. Teacher may engage group of students in
development of good charts on content areas.
(h) Posters are used to display information about a specific

event or to create general awareness about specific
content. Posters are normally printed in bulk quantity in
varied sizes and in multicolor (Figure 25).
Figure 24: Readymade chart
(i) Maps (Figure 26) are authentic and reliable source of
information about the nation or any part of it (Survey
of India, 2019). This becomes a very effective
instructional media which can be displayed in the
classroom and teacher can discuss number of aspects
using maps. For example, areas where minerals are
found could be marked and explained using the map.
Different types of maps such as physical map,
topographical map, political map, climate map, economic Figure 25: Poster of Lathe machine
or resource map, thematic map, road
map, google map help teacher to involve
students in the activity-based learning
process. These maps need to be used in
the classroom on regular basis.
Figure 26: Political Map of India 7th edition
2.2. Mediating and Criterion Media
(a) Mediating Media: Whenever any media is used by the teacher to impart instruction to
develop some concept, principle and the like, it is called a mediating media. They help the
learner to learn new subject matter (Figure 27), but not used for reproducing to
demonstrate the learning. Such media are means to an end. The main function of these
media is to give the students an insight into or knowledge of certain phenomena or event.
For example, you may use a computer-based presentation on a specific topic, or show a
video programme, animation (Figure 28), or photograph, such media acts as mediating
media. Students learn by seeing, listening such media.
Figure 27: Photograph with labels as Figure 28: Animations as mediating media
mediating media
(b) Criterion Media – When media is used to teach it is

called a mediating media and when the same media is
again used to test the learning outcomes in the students,
they are called a criterion media. For example, when a
video programme is used to teach the working of some
equipment or process, then it functions as a mediating Figure 29: Preparing drawing sheet
media. When the same video programme is played
without the audio and in its place the teacher asks
questions on various sections of the video, then the same
media functions as a criterion media. Similarly, the media
which the learner will be required to describe, interpret,
identify, draw or reconstruct in order to show his/her
achievement of learning outcomes, development of skills Figure 30: Preparing a model
and abilities, are called Criterion Media. For example,
when students are asked to prepare a drawing sheet
(Figure 29), prepare a model (Figure 30), prepare a job on
milling machine, identify a component out of the given
specimens, prepare plan in group (Figure 31), these all
media become criterion media. Assignments may be part
Figure 31: Drawing group task
of such criterion media where in students have to
demonstrate their achievement of skills.
2.3. Audio, Visual and Audio-Visual Media
Under this classification of media, the sense of hearing as well

as sense of sight are used to transfer the message. There are
certain media which solely covers audio part such as PODCAST,
or audio recording, e-book in audio form, audio stories, radio Figure 32: Audio recording with
microphone and software
broadcasts, etc. These media could be made available on DVDs
or distributed electronically through internet. Being a teacher,
you may record your own voice (Figure 32) and create a
PODCAST (Figure 33) on the desired curriculum content for
distribution to your students. You may record, edit your audio
using Open Source audio editing software such as Audacity.
You may use other software also. Audacity is an easy-to-use,
multi-track audio editor and recorder for varied operating
systems. Audacity can record live audio through a microphone Figure 33: Podcast – a way
or mixer, or digitize recordings from other media. You may of reaching through audio
import, edit, and combine sound files, export your recordings

in many different file formats, including multiple files at once. As this is an open source
software so you can download it directly from its website.
Video (Figure 34) as a media covers both audio as well as

visual part. Use of Audio-Visual media usually results in
enhanced effectiveness of instruction as it provide inputs to
two human senses, sense of sight and sense of hearing.
Video can bring realism in presenting or demonstrating the
content, any event or any process. You may bring outside
world inside the classroom using video. It facilitates
capturing, manipulating, editing the content as per the Figure 34: Video an audio-
learning needs. Developing any video is a lengthy process but visual media
you may record some content related events using even your mobile phone. These small
video clips could be incorporated in your presentation to enhance learning. Presentation
prepared on computer, 2D and 3D animations with sound, spoken tutorials available on
SAKSHAT portal, MOOCs are some of the examples of audio-visual media.
2.4. Print and Non-Print Media
The print media (Figure 35) include all

those which are either typed or printed
and given to the students for learning,
such as handouts, worksheets,
Figure 35: Print Media
assignments, textbooks, workbooks,
handbooks, journals, etc. The print materials usually carry verbal descriptions, sometimes
with illustrations. The major potential of this media lies in the fact that a student can study
this at his/her own pace and convenience and can refer to it as and when needed. Non-print
media mainly consist of all kinds of electronic media which display the contents in non-print
form. For example, computers, laptops, tablets, smart phones, television, radio, and so on.
2.5. Media Hardware and Software
The instruments or equipment needed to use different media are known as hardware. It is
that part of the media which can be seen and touched. Software are either programs written
on the media, or the content printed/ stored on the media. This distinction is clarified in the
Table 1.
Table 1: Distinction Between Hardware and Software.
S. No. Hardware Software

1 Computer Computer aided lessons, self-learning modules, various
software, content received from internet.
2 Television, DVD Player Video Programmes in digital form, television broadcast
computer and network programmes, video, digital audio available online and
devices, Radio set audio programmes broadcast on radio.
3 Multimedia Projector Content received electronically from Digital Video Disc
or Digital Versatile Discs, presentations from computer/
internet.
4 Interactive White Software of the interactive devices, which facilitate
Board, Interactive direct control of computer on these devices with
Display, Interactive interactivity.
Panel, Interactive Pad
5 Opaque Projector or Real objects, content in books, pamphlets, OHP
document camera Transparencies, content written on paper.
6 Film projector Content exposed on 16 mm. Film.
7 Overhead projector Content printed or written on the transparencies.
8 Slide projector Content exposed on Slides
2.6. Static and Dynamic Media

Media such as photographs, charts, posters, whiteboard are static in nature. But the media
such as video programme, animation, magnetic cutouts, television, interactive board,
interactive panel, pad, simulator, working cut section models, have some dynamism in use
and display. You may show various processes, internal working principle, constructional
feature, with such media. These media could be used by the teacher for instruction as well
as by the students for self-learning.
2.7. Exposition and Inquisition Media
Exposition media are the media through which concepts and principles are explained in
words and revealed to the learner without learner’s initiation/ intervention. They are used
by the teacher to explain something. For example, computer-based presentations, models,

charts, OHP transparencies, visuals on chalkboard, animations, videos, real objects,
specimens, etc. all these are exposition media. Inquisition media are used by the student for
self-learning. The student interacts with the media and learn by self-direction/ sequencing.
Simulations, computer-based materials, web-based multimedia packages, open source
learning material and self-learning packages fall in this category. Variety of media discussed
so far are shown in the four quadrants represented by dynamic to static nature of media on
X axis and by teacher centered to student centered on Y axis (Figure 36).
Figure 36: Four Quadrant Classification of media
2.8. Traditional and New Media

Traditional media are those which were in use before introduction of various digital media.
For example, media such as chalkboard, whiteboard, handouts and print material, charts,
OHP transparencies, real objects, video programmes, animations come under this category.
Due to advancement in information and communication technology, we are entering in the
new era of education. Now with digital technology, student can access the content from any
source, at any time, from anywhere and on any device. For example, computer or laptop,
tablet, interactive board, Interactive touch panel, interactive pad, mobiles, 4K resolution
television screens, PTZ cameras are some of the hardware based new media which could be
used by teachers while imparting the instruction. Number of digital software-based
resources are available now a day. For example, Open Educational Resources, Massive Open
Online Courses (MOOCs), Open Source Learning Management System platform such as
(MOODLE, 2019) (Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment), e-learning
material available online (SAKSHAT, 2019) Portal, (SWAYAM, 2019) Portal, video
conferencing system for live interaction (A-VIEW , 2019), blogs, wikis, social networking
sights, simulators, virtual games, virtual reality and augmented reality, are some of the new
technology based media. These could be utilised by the teacher to involve students actively
in the teaching learning process. Let us see some of these new media in brief.
(a) Interactive White Board/ Interactive Panel/ Interactive Pad/

Interactive Display
Interactive white board is a media which can be used by connecting
it with a computer system and a multimedia projector. When
connected, it turns into an interactive whiteboard (Figure 37) and
Figure 37: Interactive
provides full control of computer through software. This can also be Board
used as an ordinary whiteboard for incidental writing during the
session. It is normally used for large group presentations. Interactive
whiteboard may have wired or wireless connection with computer.
It comes with plastic tip special pens to write on it. You may directly
control applications and software in your computer from the
whiteboard, write, erase or draw on the surface, annotate over any
PC software while it’s running. Other facilities available are spot light,
Figure 38: Interactive
curtain, zoom, importing pictures, video, and animations, displaying Touch Panel
presentations, save, print, e-mail, hand writing recognition, record &
playback (audio & video), on screen keyboard, and so on. Please
watch the videos V43 (Smart Classroom- Use of Interactive Board-
Part 1) and V44 (Smart Classroom- Interactive Board- Part 2) to
understand and practice the use of interactive whiteboard. Similar to
this, interactive touch panel (Figure 38) and interactive pad (Figure
39) facilitate the same functions of interactivity. Their main
advantage is that; you can maintain eye-to-eye contact with the Figure 39: Interactive
students. Special pens are used to write on these devices. Now a Pad
day’s Interactive displays with 4K resolution in different sizes (55”, 65”, 75”, 86”) are
available. These displays could be connected to any device such as mobile, tablet, Laptop,
PC, etc.
(b) 4K resolution television screens and PTZ cameras

You must be aware about the sizes of television screens available in the market. HD TV has
resolution of 1920 (Horizontal) Pixels x 1080 (Vertical) pixels (Figure 40) with an aspect ratio
of 16:9. So pixel resolution of HD TV is 2.1 megapixels. Now 4K televisions (Figure 41) are
Figure 40: Comparison of 4K, Figure 41: Smart Classroom Figure 42: PTZ Camera
HD and other TV resolutions with 4K TV Screens
available in the market. 4K refers to one of two high definition resolutions: 3840 x 2160
pixels (Ultra HD) or 4096 x 2160 pixels (True 4K). 4K is four times the pixel resolution (8.5
megapixels), or twice the line resolution (2160p), of 1080p (1920 x 1080 pixels). This is
represented in the Figure 33. These 4K screens could be installed in the classroom to display
the content.
PTZ stands for Pan, Tilt, Zoom camera (Figure 42). Such camera can be installed in the
classroom to record the session of the teacher for live streaming to other places. This may
be a part of a smart classroom. Watch the video V42 (Smart Classroom) for more
information on Smart Classroom.
(c) Sakshat (SAKSHAT, 2019) is a Portal developed under National Mission on Education
through ICT (NMEICT), a landmark initiative of the Ministry of Human Resource
Development (MHRD) to address all the education and learning related needs of students,
teachers and lifelong learners. It provides various free learning resources for both teachers
and students. Various links are provided on this portal to explore various online learning
resources such as Virtual Labs, National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning
(NPTEL) Video and Web lessons, Free/Libre and Open Source Software for Education
(FOSSEE), Spoken Tutorial, and so on. You as a teacher must explore the resources available
on this portal and make your students aware of all these resources. These resources could
be used in daily teaching learning activities.
(d) Blogs
As per Wikipedia, a blog is a type of website or part of a website. Blogs are usually
maintained by an individual with regular entries of commentary, descriptions of events, or
other material such as graphics or video (R. P. Khambayat, S. S. Kedar, 2016). Entries are
commonly displayed in reverse-chronological order. Many blogs provide commentary or
news on a particular subject; others function as more of personal online diaries. A typical
blog combines text, images, and links to other blogs, Web pages, and other media related to
its theme/topic.
Most blogs are primarily textual, although some focus on art (Art blog), photographs
(photoblog), videos (video blogging), music (MP3 blog), and audio (podcasting). An edublog,
is a form of a blog written by someone with a stake in education. Examples might include
blogs written by or for teachers, blogs maintained for the purpose of classroom instruction,
or blogs written about educational policy. Currently, use of blogs has become very popular in
educational institutions including schools and colleges. Blogs are important tools for sharing
useful information and tips among co-workers, dispersing information to students, or
keeping in contact with parents. Teachers can create, monitor and edit blogs to ensure that
the postings are appropriate and pertain to the classroom. Teachers are using blogs as a way
to post important information, such as homework, important dates, missed lessons,
projects, discussion boards, and another useful classroom information that is accessible by
all. Students can access this information from home, or from any computer that is connected
to the Internet.
(e) Simulators Similar to real objects, simulators are the

replica of the real objects and specifically used for skill
training purpose. For example, the airplane cabin
simulator (Figure 43) (ITE, 2018) and helicopter cockpit
simulator (Figure 44) or its Virtual Reality based
simulator can provide direct purposeful experience to
the students. Students may be exposed to the real like Figure 43: Airplane Cabin Simulator
situation and develop many skills to handle, operate the
actual systems. Simulators are more expensive to
establish but are more effective in skill development
and cheaper from training point of view. Risk of life,
cost of training in real situation or on real objects can be
reduced by using simulators. Always teacher or
instructor can guide students properly and observe his
or her performance on continuous basis. Based on the
performance data, teacher can decide the remedial Figure 44: Helicopter Cockpit Simulator
treatment and activities for the students to achieve the practical learning outcomes and
develop abilities.
(f) Virtual Reality- The latest

interactive media available for self-
experience and skill development is
digital reality which consists of Virtual
Reality (Figure 45), Virtual Games, and
Augmented Reality. Virtual Reality Figure 46: VR Headset with
multi-sensors
creates a digital environment that
replaces the user’s real-world Figure 45: VR Head Set
environment (Deloitte Insight, 2018). It is the term used to describe a three-dimensional,
computer generated environment which can be explored and interacted with by a person.
The person becomes part of this virtual world or is immersed within this environment and
whilst there, is able to manipulate objects or perform a series of actions (Virtual Reality
Society, 2019). Virtual Reality enables more effective learning at a lower cost and in less
time, it can allow for more training repetitions, especially when dealing with costly, rare, or
dangerous environment. Today virtual reality is usually implemented using computer
technology along with some systems such as VR normal headset, headset with multi-sensors
(Figure 45), special gloves, and others.
(g) Virtual Games are computer generated 3D games

which provide interactive and immersive virtual
environment to play the game. Such games could be used
both for entertainment as well as for education. The
computer-generated environment may be screen based
with headset and a controller or fully immersive virtual
Figure 47: Virtual Game
environment. development setup
(h) Augmented Reality- Overlays digitally created content into the user’s real-world
environment. You may see here in Figure 48, the way digitally created 3D content is
overlapped into the real room environment. With such overlapping, you may zoom in the
object by moving your tablet forward in real environment.
Figure 48: Augmented Reality
3.0 CONCLUSION
Instructional media plays an important role in implementing the planned instruction in any
learning environment including classroom, laboratory and workshop. Being a teacher, you
need to understand the types of instructional media, their features and use. Development of
any instructional media is a creative process. You need to consider various aspects such as
need of media for delivering the type of content (Static/ Dynamic), learning needs of the
students, resources available and skills available with the teacher to develop the media. The
classification of media you have learned in this lesson will help you in planning for your
lessons and in selecting the relevant media for your content delivery. Advancements in
technology have given a very good opportunity to a teacher to choose, design and develop
variety of instructional media. While designing your own instructional media, you need to
consider some media design principles and guidelines. You will learn about these more in the
next lesson L14 on ‘Design principles for media and effective board work’
*******
4.0 REFERENCES
A-VIEW . (2019). Retrieved from A-VIEW Platform: http://aview.in/Amrita
Deloitte Insight. (2018). Real learning in a virtual world- How VR can improve learning and training
outcomes. Deloitte Insights. (B. H. Matthew Buman, Ed.) Retrieved from www.deloitte.com
ITE. (2018). Institute of Technical Education. Singapore.
MOODLE. (2019). Retrieved from https://moodle.org/
R. P. Khambayat, S. S. Kedar. (2016, May-August). Adopting Digital Media in Technical Education.

Journal of Engineering, Science and Management Education, 9 (II), 77-84. Retrieved from
www.nitttrbpl.ac.in
SAKSHAT. (2019). Retrieved from SAKSHAT Portal: http://sakshat.ac.in/
Shodhganga. (2018). Retrieved December 2018, from shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in:

http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/101198/11/11_chapter%202.pdf
Survey of India. (2019, July). Political Map of India 7th edition. (S. o. India, Editor) Retrieved from
www.surveyofindia.gov.in: www.surveyofindia.gov.in/files/POL_MAP_4M_ENG_WTR.jpg
SWAYAM. (2019). Retrieved from SWAYAM Portal: https://swayam.gov.in/
Virtual Reality Society. (2019). Retrieved from Virtual Reality: https://www.vrs.org.uk/virtual-

reality/what-is-virtual-reality.html
******
L13: Design of Handouts, Assignments
and Laboratory Worksheets
Contributors
Dr. Sharad K. Pradhan

Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering
&
Dr. Sandip S. Kedar

Unit 4.4.4: Instructional Media L13: Design of Handouts, Assignment and Laboratory Worksheets
L13: Design of Handouts, Assignments and Laboratory Worksheets
LO 1. Design handouts to facilitate the development of the learning outcomes.
LO 2. Design assignments to assess the attainment of the learning outcomes.
LO 3. Design laboratory worksheets for the development of the relevant skills.
Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 3
2.0 HANDOUT .................................................................................................................................... 3
2.1 Guidelines for Development of a Handout ................................................................................. 3
3.0 ASSIGNMENT ............................................................................................................................... 4
3.1 Types of Assignments .................................................................................................................. 5
3.2 Guidelines for Designing Assignments ........................................................................................ 8
4.0 LABORATORY WORKSHEET ......................................................................................................... 8
4.1 Formats for Design of Laboratory Work Sheets .......................................................................... 9
4.2 Guidelines for Designing Laboratory Worksheets ..................................................................... 11
5.0 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................. 11
6.0 REFERENCES .............................................................................................................................. 11
L13: Design of Handouts, Assignments and Laboratory Worksheets
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Handouts, Assignments and Laboratory Worksheets are basically print media (which could
also be in electronic form) used to supplement the instructions given to the students in the
classroom and/or laboratory sessions. In engineering education programmes, they are
important as these are generally custom–designed by the concerned teacher of that
particular course. These instructional materials help to implement the curriculum in order to
achieve the pre–determined learning outcomes. This lesson discusses how to design and use
them for effective instruction.
2.0 HANDOUT
Handout is a teacher–generated instructional resource, for a particular course. It maybe of
one page or several pages. Handouts are specially designed for a specific target group having
a pre-defined entry level and has to be brief. Its main purpose is to help the student to focus
on the essentials in order to attain the pre-determined learning outcomes and not to
concentrate much, on the non-essentials. The handout can be a written or diagrammatical
material containing specific information to be additionally provided to the students. It may
contain salient points of a lesson and graphs, sketches, or material compiled from reference
books, journals, pamphlets, and such others materials that are not readily available in
standard textbooks. Some of the benefits of the handouts are as follows:
a) Instructional time is saved.

b) Promotion of systematic class work.
c) In the handouts the difficult diagrams and tables of better quality can be provided.
d) Handouts can reduce note-taking so that the students can pay more attention to the
instructions being delivered.
However, handouts also have their share of limitations as well. Too much spoon-feeding in
handouts may make the students dependent on teachers. Their habits of searching material
and self-learning may not get developed. Hence handouts should be more precise.
2.1 Guidelines for Development of a Handout

For developing a handout, it is quite important to be aware of the background of the
students and the knowledge and skills that they possess. Subsequently, the following steps
may become helpful to develop the handout:
a) State the learning outcomes so that the development of the handout stays focused.
b) Structure and sequence the subject matter into logical units.
c) Use short paragraphs.
d) Use numbered sub-titles as it helps in referring.
e) Avoid lengthy and complex descriptions.
f) The language of handout should be simple and precise. It should encourage student
thinking.
g) Use emphasizing techniques for better learning such as underlining, changing font
types and their sizes, using bold letters, italicizing the words, using quotes, using
boxes, starting as new paragraphs and the like.
h) Use diagrams, sketches and tabulations to present the information.
i) Ensure good quality of visuals. Remove non-relevant content from the visuals.
j) List the reference books or bibliography from where the relevant text/ picture has
been taken so that interested learners may refer the resources.
k) A set of questions can be added at the end.
l) Database of handout should be maintained.
Sometimes, the students just keep away the handouts without reading it. To avoid this, the
handouts may be even designed as completion type handouts. Handouts can also be used to
invite student participation wherein certain gaps, missing words, missing parts of a diagram
are deliberately made to necessitate student thinking.
Unless, it is a flipped classroom session, do not give the handout in advance, or else, the
student will avoid taking notes. It may be given towards the end of the classroom session if it
is a completion type handout or a case-study that needs to be discussed.
ACTIVITY
State the learning outcome and prepare a relevant handout to support the classroom
session
3.0 ASSIGNMENT
Assignment is usually designed on the principle of 'Learning by doing'. The main purpose of
assignment (which is basically a task the student has to do during or after the classroom
situations) is to 'cement' the learning and increase the learning capabilities of students. All
types of assignments are intended to reinforce and supplement learning and provide practice.
Alternatively, it can also serve as a tool whereby the students are encouraged to pay more
attention during the classroom session as the students know that there is a task that will
follow. After the assignment is given, the role of the teacher changes to that of a 'guide' so
that help is provided only when required. This role of the teacher makes the student more
independent and the skill of 'learn–to–learn' is developed. There can be other purposes of
assignments as well, such as:
a) Drill and Practice d) Evaluation
b) Reinforcement of learning e) Encouraging reading habits
c) Recapitulation f) Guided learning.
Before designing any assignment, the learning outcomes should be stated and accordingly
the assignments are to be given to the students.
3.1 Types of Assignments

There can be several types of assignments depending on the outcomes of the topic/ course,
location, mode, level of the students, time and other resources available such as:
• Classroom–based • Home assignment
• Library–based • Individual assignment
• Internet–based • Group assignment.
Table 1 highlights the types and the major purposes of the assignments.
Table 1 Purposes of Different Types of Assignments
S. No. Type of Assignment Major Purpose

1 Classroom–based • Reinforces the learning through:
– Comprehension
– Recapitulation
– Drill and Practice
2 Library–based • Use of library resources for:
– Self learning
– Collection of information / data
– Use of reference material
3 Internet–based • Helps in learning from internet-based resources
4 Home Assignment • Reinforcement of learning
• Drill and Practice
5 Field-based assignment • helps to compile information related to a product/
component/ through a survey of industry/ market
6 Individual assignment • Promotes initiative,
• Commitment toward assigned tasks
• Builds self confidence
7 Group assignment • Along with the cognitive domain outcomes, also
develops Affective domain attitudes such as
– team working
– leadership and others
a) Classroom–based Assignment
Classroom assignment brings in a stimulus variation and also ascertains whether the students
have understood the content or not. You can give a classroom assignment in the form of
numerical, short-answer questions, and the like. Classroom assignments provides IKR
(immediate knowledge of results) and formative assessment of the learning.
Salient Features
• Eliciting Performance which is use of Gagne’s 6th instructional event
• Enhance collaboration between students if it is a group assignment
• Diagnostic purpose is served

• Generally of short duration, and it can designed to be completed during the classroom
period.
Example
Suppose, in a basic electronics engineering class, after teaching the h-parameters for CE, CB and
CC configurations, if a numerical on one of the configurations is given to be solved two
objectives are achieved (1) a change in stimulus, and (2) assessment of the understanding of h-
parameter.
Classroom– based assignment can take many forms such as:

i. Completion Type assignment: In this assignment, in between 'gaps' have to be filled up.
ii. Diagrams/ Sketches/ Drawings: Students may be asked to draw graphs, flow diagrams,
block-diagrams, schematic diagrams, sketches, etc. in the class itself.
iii. Problem/ Calculations: Students may be asked to solve small numerical problems or do
calculations. This can be done individually or in groups.
iv. Cases/ Incidents: If small case studies/ incidents are available, these can be given for
discussion in groups or individually.
v. Demonstration Worksheet: A worksheet is given to students before an actual
demonstration or demonstration through a video programme. At the end of
demonstration, students may be expected to draw conclusions or answer some
questions.
b) Library–based Assignment
Library–based assignment is mainly in the form of collecting relevant information from books,
print as well as online journals, magazines. Preparation of a seminar paper, searching of books
in specified area and writing brief, are some of the library assignments. Following are some of
the salient features.
Salient Features
i. Develops the skill of gathering, compiling and using relevant information from
various types of library resources.
ii. Inculcates the use of library resources
iii. Develops self-study skills and inquisitiveness in students.
Example
Suppose the 'Use of various springs in different machines and appliances' is given as a topic for
seminar presentation. The student will have to consult different books, journals in the library
and prepare a write-up for presentation.
c) Internet–based Assignment
Such an assignment gives the student an opportunity to compile information from the
internet to help in achieving the learning outcome. It may include videos, animations and
other information related to a specific outcome.
Salient Features
i. Access correct information
ii. Use of open source software to create resources
iii. Promote Self-learning habit and inquisitiveness
iv. Help in building self-confidence to tackle new problems.
d) Home Assignment
It is not possible to deal with all types of problems in the classroom, so home assignment is
useful in such situations. To provide ‘drill and practice’ for applying various concepts and
principles and to develop habit of self-learning, a teacher can give home assignments of
different types to the students such as numerical, long answer questions, their opinion on some
current issue and so on.
Salient Features
i. Requires more time than classroom assignment.
ii. Provides opportunity for ‘drill and practice’.
iii. Helps in assessing the attainment of learning outcomes.
iv. Helps in honing self-study habits
v. Develop the habit of inquiry.
vi. Improve written communication.
Tasks for Home Assignment

Some of the sample tasks for the home assignments could be
• Descriptive Questions answers
• Design related Problem
• Preparation of presentation on the given topic
• Preparation of Seminar paper
• Review of published articles/ research papers.
e) Field-Based Assignment
Field-based assignments are those wherein the student goes to the place of action such as the
construction site, industrial estate, electric substation, dam site, automobile market, water
purification plant and others to perform learning activities. Such assignments are given for
developing those parts of the learning outcomes which can neither be developed in classroom
or in the laboratory/ workshop. This could be an individual or a group assignment depending on
the complexity of the given assignment and the other constraints.
Salient Features
• Assignment is in real setting
• Develops team work and leadership

• Develop Negotiating and presentation skills.
3.2 Guidelines for Designing Assignments

Following are some of the basic steps to design an assignment:
a) Select the relevant type of assignment.

b) Inform in advance to the students about the assignment.
c) State the learning outcomes expected from it.
d) The design should match the level of the students.
e) In case of structured assignment, the questions must proceed from simple to
complex
f) Keep the language simple.
g) Maintain a portfolio of self-designed handouts.
ACTIVITY
State the learning outcome and prepare relevant type of assignment to assess its
attainment.
4.0 LABORATORY WORKSHEET

In the absence of a laboratory manual or to supplement a laboratory manual, hard copies of
laboratory work sheets are given to the students. The need for relevant laboratory work
sheets is important because practical work is often assigned a secondary role in many
institutes and is therefore handled casually by teachers as well as students. The organisation
of practical work favours manipulation of data due to stereotype experiments and students
find nothing new or challenging to be done. There are no well-defined aims or outcomes for
practical work, which therefore, result in random or disjointed work. Often, the practical
work does not indicate the industry relevance of each practical that the students have to
work on or work with.
These laboratory sheets go a long way to supplement teacher’s oral or visual instruction
about how a practical work is to be performed in the laboratory/ workshop. It guides the
students to perform the practical work safely in order to develop the pre-determined
industry needed skills and pre-determined learning outcomes. The laboratory sheet saves
the precious laboratory time and gives more time to the students to work on the equipment
and increase the use of the equipment to develop the much-needed practical skills in the
students rather than engage the students in other unproductive activities. However, they do
not eliminate the need of teacher interaction with students.
REFLECTION SPOT
For any selected course, list at least 4 industry needed skills that could be achieved
through laboratory/ workshop.
4.1 Formats for Design of Laboratory Work Sheets

Laboratory work sheets are write-ups prepared by the teacher and provide relevant
information to the students about the practical work and the teacher expectations from
students. These sheets may be separately given or combined in the form of a complete
laboratory manual. The laboratory sheets are meant to be given to students much before
practical work, so that they can prepare and plan in advance. Different formats for designing
laboratory sheets are available. However, a typical one is given here so that the competency
and the related outcomes are clearly stated for each practical work.
The list of typical sub-titles that need to be included in a laboratory worksheet is given in
Table 2. Additionally, the interpretations of these titles/ headings are also stated. A sample
laboratory worksheet incorporating these sub-titles is given in Appendix A for better
understanding.
Table 2: Interpretation of Each Sections of a Typical Laboratory Work Sheet

(For a typical example refer to Appendix A)
Section Title/ Heading Interpretation

No.
Short TITLE of the A title is always intended to be a ‘crisp phrase’ and not a sentence.
Laboratory It usually should have a few key words indicating the important
Experience outcomes.
I Practical Significance This section will highlight the importance of this practical work and
how it is related to the world of work and thereby motivate the
students to take this practical work seriously.
II Related POs The related POs given by NBA are brought over here.
(Programme
Outcomes)
III Competency and This section informs the students to which competency this
Practical Skills practical work is related, as well as the associated skills that the
industry needs.
IV Relevant COs The related COs mentioned in the curriculum are stated here to
(Course Outcomes) establish their relationship with this practical work
V Practical Outcomes These specific practical outcomes starting with an action oriented
verb is the major final outcome of this practical work
VI Related ADOs This section informs the students of the attitudes and values that
(Affective Domain could be developed through this practical work
Outcomes)
VII Minimum In most of the engineering institutions in India, often the practical
Theoretical is conducted even before the underpinning theory required for
Background that practical is taught. To address such situations, this section is
included. A minimum amount of information required to perform
the practical is to be given.
VIII Practical Set-up/ This section is expected to provide the practical set-up/circuit
Circuit Diagram diagram of the practical to be conducted by the student.

No.
IX Resources Required Appendix A Section IX provides the details about the equipment/
instruments required along with the specifications and quantity in
a tabular format for greater clarity to all concerned.
X Procedure Practical work is a set of activities and if these are written in the form
of discrete steps and numbered, it will become more self-
instructional and easier for the students to follow. In the procedure,
each activity should be written as one step.
XI Precautions to be While using equipment/instruments some precautions are to be
taken taken for maintaining the accuracy and smooth operation and safety
of the equipment. Such precaution ensures safety of the personnel
too.
XII Actual Procedure Here the students will write in the log book the actual procedure
Followed followed in doing the practical work, which may be the same or
sometimes some variations may be there as the practical set up may
be different in different institutions.
XIII Actual Resources Again the student will write in the log book the actual and type of
Used resources used at the time of practical work
XIV Actual Precautions Although the precautions are given, the students may repeat the
Followed same and add if some more they have followed.
XV Observations and The observations are to be made and a number of readings are to
calculations be noted down which may be in some tabular form depending on
the practical.
XVI Results The outcome of any practical work has a result which may be
qualitative or quantitative in the form of data values, graphs,
screenshots and others.
XVII Interpretation of Unless the result is not interpreted, the practical work does not
Results serve much purpose. When the students explain the meaning of
the result it makes sense to the employer. The interpretation skill
is therefore quite important one which industry expects from the
engineers.
XVIII Conclusions Conclusion emerges out from the preceding section 'Interpretation
of Results' and therefore leads to a 'decision' that an engineer
takes based on the interpretation. Therefore, this is also an
important analytical skill that the industry expects from every
engineer.
XIX Practical Related These questions are concerned only with the performance of this
Questions practical, which means the answers will be not from any book, but
based on the practical conducted by the student. i.e. the student
should derive the answers to the questions from the conduction,
observations and calculations of practical work.
XX References and These could be books, websites, journals that the student can
Suggestions for further refer to.
Future Reading
XXI Suggested Assessment scheme will have a 'process' part and a 'product' part
Assessment Scheme to be assessed. Process related skills are those that can be
assessed in ‘real time' (i.e. when the practical work is being done)
and cannot be assessed after the practical work is finished, such as
connection skills, team working, following safe practices and
others. The 'product related skills' are those that can be assessed

No.
after the practical is over. The weightages to these two will
depend on the competency statement, COs, ADOs, and industry
related skills.
4.2 Guidelines for Designing Laboratory Worksheets

Following are some of the basic steps to design laboratory worksheets:
a) Choose format similar to the above.
b) State the competency expected out of the course which is implied or explicitly stated.
c) State the course outcomes.
d) State the Practical outcomes of the course.
e) Write in simple language.
ACTIVITY
Design a laboratory worksheet similar to Appendix A and also referring Table 2
5.0 CONCLUSION
It is seen in this lesson that the learning outcomes of the topic or course dictate the design
of the relevant type of handout or assignment or laboratory work sheet. All these three
types of instructional resources are designed by the teacher to cater to the situation and
need. The salient features of each of these three instructional resources are discussed so
that the teacher is aware of when and where and how they have to be used/ administered in
the class or laboratory so that the students are benefitted the most.
******
6.0 REFERENCES
Banthiya, N.K. (1987). Designing of Laboratory Experiences. Monograph, Bhopal: Technical

Teachers’ Training Institute
Banthiya, N.K. (1999). Competency based self-learning Modules on Lab Work. Developed for
Regional Engineering Colleges under Educational Technology Project with British
Assistance, Technical Teachers' Training Institute, Bhopal.
Bruce, J. and Weil, M. (1992). Models of Teaching. Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi
Centre for Teaching and Learning, Georgian College, August (2011). Designing Effective
Assignments. Retrieved from www.georgianc.on.ca/staff/ctl/wp-
content/uploads/2009/02/assignments_3_2.pdf
Centre for Teaching Excellence, University of Waterloo. (n.d.) Assignment Design: Checklist.
Retrieved from https://uwaterloo.ca/centre-for-teaching-excellence/teaching-
resources/teaching-tips/developing-assignments/assignment-design/assignment-
design-checklist
Dalhousie University, Academic Integrity. (2010). Effective Research Assignments. Retrieved
from www.lib.berkeley.edu/instruct/assignments.html
Designing Assignments. (1996). Retrieved from
academicintegrity.dal.ca/Faculty%20Resources/Designing_Assignment.php
Earnest, J. (1996). Skills Development through Laboratory work. Journal of Engineering
Education.
Eberly Centre for Teaching Excellence, Carnegie Mellon University. (n.d.) Whys and Hows of
Assessment. Retrieved from http://www.cmu.edu/teaching/assessment/
assesslearning/creatingassignments.html
Hamilton, J. B. et al. (1977). Module on Direct Student Laboratory Experiences. AAVIM:
Georgia.
McShane & Dalene. (1998). Presenting Information Visually. EIC Guide.
www.wmin.ac.uk/mcshand/TEACHING/handouts.htm#INTRO
Rao, G. N. N. et al. (1981). Laboratory Instruction in Polytechnic, Approaches. Technical
Teacher's Training Institute, Bhopal
Wilson, B. (1987). Methods of Training: Individual instruction. Parthenon Publishing,
Lancashire.
Appendix - A
PRACTICAL No. 10 (say)
FLOW MEASUREMENT USING ROTAMETER
I PRACTICAL SIGNIFICANCE
In the industry environment, Instrumentation Engineering graduates are expected to handle
various transducers for measurement of process parameters such as temperature, pressure,
level, flow, displacement etc. The engineer should be able to select proper instruments for
the measurement of above parameters and also maintain these instruments for proper
functioning in different applications. This practical will help you to acquire the necessary
skills.
II RELATED PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs)

PO 2. Discipline knowledge: Apply Instrumentation engineering knowledge to solve
broad-based Instrumentation engineering related problems.
PO 3. Experiments and practice: Plan to perform experiments and practices to use
the results to solve broad-based Instrumentation engineering problems.
III COMPETENCY AND PRACTICAL SKILLS

This practical work is expected to develop the competency - Test different types of
transducers - and the following associated industry needed skills
a) Connection skills
b) Calibration skills.
IV RELEVANT COURSE OUTCOMES (CO)

Test different types of flow transducers.
V PRACTICAL OUTCOME
Use Rotameter for flow measurement.
VI RELATED AFFECTIVE DOMAIN OUTCOMES (ADOs)

a) Follow safety practices.
b) Practice good housekeeping. - 100
-
- 90
VII MINIMUM THEORETICAL GRAVITY -
- 80
BACKGROUND -
Rotameter is a variable area flow meter used - 70
-
for flow measurement. It consists of vertical EQUILIBRIUM - 60
-
tapered tube with a float which is free to move - 50
up and down within the tube. The free area FLOAT -
- 40
between float and inside wall of the tube forms -
- 30
an annular orifice. The tube is mounted -
vertically with the small end at the bottom. The TAPERED - 20
FLOW -
fluid to be measured enters the tube from the METERING - 10
bottom and passes upwards around the float TUBE -
- R
and exit at the top. Figure 1: Rotameter Principle
(Scale)
Its operating principle is based on a float of given density's establishing an equilibrium

position where, with a given flow rate, the upward force of the flowing fluid equals the
downward force of gravity.
Rotameters are the most widely used type of variable-area (VA) flow meter. In these devices,
the falling and rising action of a float in a tapered tube provides a measure of flow rate as
shown in Figure. These are known as gravity-type flow meters because they are based on the
opposition between the downward force of gravity and the upward force of the flowing
fluid. When the flow is constant, the float stays in one position that can be related to the
volumetric flow rate. That position is indicated on a graduated scale. It can be used to
measure the flow rates of most liquids, gases, and steam. The materials of construction
include stainless steel, glass, metal, and plastic.
The tapered tube's gradually increasing diameter provides a related increase in the annular
area around the float, and is designed in accordance with the basic equation for volumetric
flow rate:
(1)
where:
Q = volumetric flow rate, e.g., gallons per minute
k = a constant
A = annular area between the float and the tube wall
g = force of gravity
h = pressure drop (head) across the float

With h being constant in a VA meter, we have A as a direct function of flow rate Q.
VIII PRACTICAL SET-UP /CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
ROTAMETER
PUMP
Figure 2: Flow measurement setup
IX RESOURCES REQUIRED
S. Remark
Particulars Specification Quantity
No.
Range 0-1000 LPH, Glass tube body, Bob
Rotameter for flow
1 Material-SS, connection 1’’, Mounting inlet 01
measurement setup
bottom top outlet.
X PROCEDURE
1. Interpret the given diagram.
2. Connect Rotameter measurement setup as in diagram.
3. Fill the sump tank with water.
4. Switch on the power supply.
5. Start the pump and ensure flow rate through pipe line
6. Measure flow rate indication on the Rotameter.
7. Change valve position for increasing flow rate in pipe line.
8. Record flow rate in observation table.
9. Repeat the steps 6 to 8 for 5 to 6 readings.
10. Switch off the power supply to the setup.
XI PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN
a) Avoid zero error.
b) The rotameter must float vertically.
XII ACTUAL PROCEDURE FOLLOWED (To be written by students) (Use blank sheet
provided if space not sufficient)
1. …………………………
2. …………………………
3. ……………………….
4. ………and so on
XIII ACTUAL RESOURCES USED
S. No. Name of Resource Broad Specifications Quantity Remark

1
2
3
XIV ACTUAL PRECAUTIONS FOLLOWED

a) ……………...
b) ………………………..
XV OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

(Use blank sheet provided if space not sufficient)
S. No. Flow rate on indicator Calculated flow rate

1
2
3
4
5
XVI RESULTS
1. .…………………………….
2. .………………………
XVII INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS (Give meaning of the above obtained results)

………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………..……….
…………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...
XVIII CONCLUSIONS (To be written by students)

(Actions/decisions to be taken based on the interpretation of results).
………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………..……….
…………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...
XIX PRACTICAL RELATED QUESTIONS

Note: Below given are few sample questions, the answers of which should be related
to the practical itself, the answers of which will not be available in the books, but
available only from the practical. Teachers must design more such questions so as to
ensure the achievement of identified CO. Write answers of minimum two questions.
1. State what will happen if the Rotameter does not float vertically.
2. State the maximum range of flow rate measurement.
3. ……………. So on
Space to Write Answers

.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
XX REFERENCES / SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING
S.
Title of Book Author Publication
No.
Electrical and Electronic Sawhney, A.K. Dhanpat Rai and Sons, N. Delhi
1
Measurements and 201; ISBN:9788177001006
Instrumentation
Industrial Instrumentation Singh, S.K. McGraw Hill Publishing; N. Delhi
2
and Control 2010; ISBN:9780070678200
https://www.youtube.com/ Accessed on 14
3
watch?v=YYM92QFhTDo August 2019
https://www.youtube.com/ Accessed on 14
4
watch?v=6CdO9inzSRQ August 2019
XXI Suggested Assessment Scheme

The given performance indicators should serve as a guideline for assessment
regarding process and product related marks.
S. No. Performance Indicators Weightage (%)

Process related 60% (for this practical)
1 Identify the practical setup of rotameter setup 10%
2 Connection of complete measurement system. 20%
3 Applying input flow rate to rotameter 10%
4 Observation of output differential pressure 10%
5 Working in team. 10%
Product related 40% (for this practical)
6 Answers to practical related questions. 30%
7 Submission of report in time. 10%
Total: 25 Marks 100%
******
ASSIGNMENT
State the learning outcomes to be attained by the student in the following types of
instructional resources and design one of each based on the discussions in this lesson
1. A handout
2. An Assignment
3. A Laboratory worksheet
L14: Media Design Principles and
Effective Board Work
Contributors
Dr. Sandip S. Kedar

&
Prof. (Mrs.) Asmita Khajanchee

Unit 4.4.4: Instructional Media L14: Media Design Principles and Effective Board Work
L14: Media Design Principles and Effective Board Work
Learning outcomes: At the end of this lesson, you will be able to use:
LO 1. Cognitive theory of multimedia learning in designing instructional media.
LO 2. Instructional design principles for development of media.
LO 3. ADDIE model for evaluating the design of media.
LO 4. Chalkboard and interactive board effectively.
Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 3
2.0 COGNITIVE THEORY OF MULTIMEDIA LEARNING ...................................................................... 3
3.0 MEDIA DESIGN PRINCIPLES AND MEDIA DESIGN GUIDELINES .................................................. 4
4.0 ADDIE MODEL FOR EVALUATION OF MEDIA DESIGN ................................................................ 8
5.0 GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE USE OF CHALKBOARD ................................................................... 9
6.0 EFFECTIVE USE OF INTERACTIVE BOARD.................................................................................. 10
7.0 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................ 11
8.0 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 11
L14: MEDIA DESIGN PRINCIPLES AND EFFECTIVE BOARD WORK

1.0 INTRODUCTION
For effective implementation of instruction in the classroom environment, teacher need to
acquire some basic skills in design and development of relevant instructional resources.
Media design and development is a creative process. Every teacher uses one or more media
during the classroom instruction. If a teacher is technology savvy and conversant with the
use of different media and has interest in developing his/ her own media, sky is the limit for
any creation. In the lesson on classification of media, you have already learned about
different types of media. While designing instructional media, you need to use a systematic
procedure to consider some media design principles and guidelines. This lesson and
associated video will make you aware about various media design principles, guidelines as
well as effective ways of using chalkboard and interactive board for classroom instruction.
2.0 COGNITIVE THEORY OF MULTIMEDIA LEARNING
Cognitive scientists have considered three important assumptions of cognitive theory of

multimedia learning associated with the human information processing system that are
particularly relevant for media users: (Mayer, 2005)
(a) Dual-channels, that is, people have separate

information processing channels for visual
material and verbal material; The human
cognitive system consists of two distinct
channels for representing and manipulating
knowledge: an auditory–verbal channel and a
visual–pictorial channel. The auditory–verbal
channel processes verbal representations of
words that enter the cognitive system through
the ears. The visual–pictorial channel processes Figure 1: Dual Channel model
pictorial representations of pictures as well as printed words that enter the cognitive
system through the eyes. (Figure 1)
(b) Limited capacity, that is, people can pay attention to only a few pieces of information in
each channel at a time; Working memory is the component of the human cognitive
system that manipulates verbal and pictorial representations in the auditory–verbal and
visual–pictorial channels. Working memory has a limited capacity for holding and
processing information. Thus, the visual–pictorial channel can be overloaded if too many
pictures (or other visual materials) are presented at one time. For example, while
watching any news on television, when number of visuals are presented on the screen at
a time along with breaking news strip, advertisement strip at the bottom, you cannot
concentrate on all the contents due to overload of visual information. Similarly, the
auditory–verbal channel can become overloaded if a large number of spoken words (or
other sounds) are presented at one time. For example, while watching any debate on the
news channel, every speaker tries to put his or her point of view. They may speak
simultaneously at a point of time. This also creates overload of spoken words and you
cannot grasp the views of a particular speaker. Overloading one channel can limit the
processing ability of the other channel. So, while designing media we need to keep the
content very simple and media should not be crowded with lots of information, both
visual as well as audio.
(c) Active processing, that is, people understand the presented material when they pay
attention to the relevant material, organize it into a coherent mental structure, and
integrate it with their prior knowledge. Active processing within the auditory–verbal and
visual-pictorial channels leads to meaningful learning. These active learning processes
are more likely to occur when working memory contains both pictorial and verbal
representations at the same time.
Cognitive theory of multimedia learning emphasizes the use of both visual as well as
associated verbal information while designing any media. Dual channel model of cognitive
theory of multimedia learning (Figure 1) is very well explained in the video V38 on ‘Media
Design Principles- Part 1’
3.0 MEDIA DESIGN PRINCIPLES AND MEDIA DESIGN GUIDELINES
3.1 Media Design Principles
Richard Mayer (Mayer, 2005) has recommended research-based principles for the design of
media instructional messages. These are as follows:
(a) Multimedia principle- It states that students learn better from words and pictures than
from words alone, or, more specifically, that students learn deeply when appropriate
pictures are added to text. As per cognitive theory of multimedia learning, it is necessary
to provide input to both auditory–verbal channel and visual–pictorial channel. So, while
designing any media, use more visuals with a title as well as labels wherever possible. To
remove any imperception use multimedia elements such as visual as well as verbal
information (Figure 2)
Figure 2: Use of multimedia elements
(b) Spatial contiguity principle- It states that students learn better when corresponding
words and pictures are presented near than far from each other on the page or screen.
Spatial means, with respect to space. While creating any visual, always provide labels
near the parts and around the visual. This reduces the learning efforts of the students.
(Figure 3)
Figure 3: Placement of labels in visual
(c) Temporal contiguity principle- It states that students learn better when corresponding
words and pictures are presented simultaneously rather than successively. Temporal
means, with respect to time of presentation. So always present visual and related labels
together and not in succession. But when you want to assess the student’s learning, you
may use the same visual by displaying it first and then displaying corresponding labels in
succession.
(d) Coherence principle, in which students learn better when extraneous words, pictures,
and sounds are excluded rather than included. While designing media, it is necessary to
remove unnecessary details from it. Use one idea per visual and keep media very simple.
The process of removing unnecessary words, pictures and sounds from media is called
editing. Photographs, visuals can be edited using visual editing software such as GIMP,
Inkscape or any other such visual editing software (Figure 4). Video editing software are
used to edit both visual and sound part in the video.
Figure 4: Remove unnecessary details from visual
(e) Personalization principle- It states that students learn better from conversational style
(Use of first person – ‘I’ & Second person ‘You’ & making comments directly to the
learner) rather than formal style (Referring students in third person).
While designing instructional media, these research-based principles need to be considered
for its effectiveness. Beside to these principles, some media design guidelines will be helpful
to you while designing any type of instructional media.
3.2 Media Design Guidelines

Along with media design principles, you need to follow certain guidelines while developing
media. These guidelines are equally applicable for both print and non-print media.
(a) Legibility- In case of any media to be used for classroom presentation, legibility of the
content is very important. For example, while writing something on the chalkboard, the
content should be legible to the student seating on the last bench in the class. When you
display a presentation slide, it must be readable to the students. So do not put too much
text on a slide and keep it large enough to read easily. Minimum size of text on a slide
should not be less than 80 points. You can choose bigger sizes for main titles and other
labels. Use uniform thickness font for text, such as Calibri, Arial, Tahoma. Legibility of
such fonts is better compared to cut letter font such as Times New Roman. Use uniform
font, font size and font color for slide titles and respective text content to maintain
consistency. Follow 6 by 7 rule. It means do not incorporate more than 6 lines of text per
slide and no more than 7 words per line. This will facilitate appropriate size of the text on
the slide.
(b) Emphasis- Sometimes you may need to emphasize the text on the slide. This can be done
by using different font styles such as Bold, Italicize, underline and by using different
colors for fonts. You may use dramatic and artistic letters.
(c) Use of colors- In case of print and non-print media, use of colors brings realism in the
presentation. Different color models are used in digital media equipment such as
television screens, computer monitors, digital cameras, and scanners, in color printing,
and in color paintings.
i. In case of digital media equipment, additive color model i.e. RGB model is used
(Figure 5). RGB refers to the primary colors of light i.e. Red, Green and Blue. This
model is based on adding and mixing light, when you add Red, Green, and Blue light
together, you create a pure white and black is the absence of color (Kenna, 2019).
RGB Color wheel for digital media is also shown in Figure 6.
Figure 5: RGB Color Model Figure 6: RGB Color Wheel for digital media
ii. In case of color printing CMYK color model is used. It is a

subtractive color model. CMYK refers to the four ink plates
used in some color printing: Cyan, Magenta, Yellow and Key
(Black). (Figure 7)
iii. In case of color painting, RYB color model is used. RYB
stands for Red, Green, Blue, these are primary colors. When
Figure 7: CMYK Color
you combine each of them with other color, it gives Model for color printing
secondary colors: Orange (R+Y), Green (Y+B), and Brown
(R+B) OGB (Figure 8)
While developing digital media such as computer-based presentation,

photographs captured by digital camera, use RGB color model for
editing and developing.
Figure 8: RYB Color
iv. Use Darker Colors for background and lighter colors for text Wheel for Painting
and graphics
While preparing slides of Computer-based presentation, to get high contrast, use darker
colors for background and lighter colors for text, line diagrams, and visuals. This will provide
better legibility of the content when displayed on the screen. It is recommended not to use
white background and darker colors for text as it creates glare on the projected screen and
may create eye fatigue due to brighter image on screen. Use Darker colors on the outer
periphery of this color pallet for background (Figure 9). Recommended colors for
background are darker shades of Blue and green.
Figure 9: Darker colors Figure 10: Lighter colors for

for background Text and graphics
Use Lighter colors in inner part of this color

pallet for text to create contrast with
background (Figure 10).
(d) Use Rule of Thirds while composing visuals-

This rule states that if you consider any
visual frame and divide it into three equally
sized horizontal sections and three equally
Figure 11: Rule of Thirds- Golden Spots
sized vertical sections, the resulting grid guides you in placement of your design
elements in that frame. With two horizontal and two vertical lines you get four cross
sections. These are called golden spots. As per this rule, it is recommended to compose
your visual in such a way that the most important part of your visual coincides the golden
spot/s (Figure 11). Such grid is available in the DSLR Camera as well as in the smart
phones. Such composition of visual emphasizes the important part of the visuals.
(e) Arrangement of text and visuals- To capture

viewer’s attention and direct it towards the
relevant details, visual and verbal elements
could be arranged in patterns of letters such
as C, O, S, Z, L and T. Such an arrangement
makes the reader to read and scan the
content in steps which further helps in
establishing the relationship between the Figure 12: S Pattern visual arrangement
content displayed (Figure 12).
(f) Arrange visuals in horizontal line- Such an

arrangement helps in moving eyes from left to
right matching the direction of reading and
facilitates easy comparison of objects (Figure 13).
While designing any instructional media either print

or non-print, specifically handouts and computer-
based presentation, you may use these guidelines to Figure 13: Horizontal visual arrangement
make your handout and presentation effective and interesting for the students.
4.0 ADDIE MODEL FOR EVALUATION OF MEDIA DESIGN

The Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation (ADDIE) Model
(McGriff, 2000) is a good tool for evaluation of the media design. ADDIE Model comprises of
five main phases of systematic instructional design. (Figure 14). This is a very good model
that can be used to evaluate the media that you have designed or the media that you
borrowed from somewhere else and would like
to use.
(a) Analysis- In unit 1, you have learned about
the curriculum analysis from instructional
planning point of view. It is the process of
defining what is to be learned based on the
learning needs of the student, and the
requirements of the curriculum. This phase Figure 14: ADDIE Model
emphasizes on the need analysis of media to
be developed or to be procured to achieve the learning outcomes of the individual

lesson.
(b) Design- It is the process of specifying how it is to be learned. Design phase may include
writing a target population description, formulation of learning outcomes, selecting a
delivery system, instructional methods and instructional strategy, sequencing the
instruction, identify instructional media and other resources required and strategy for
assessment of learning. Depending on the facts, concepts, rules, principles, procedures
and applications to be explained you can decide about the media required. These may be
available online as Open Educational Resources (OERs) or you may create your own.
During this phase you design for instructional media, identify, collect visuals and other
media elements required. Output of this phase becomes the input for next phase.
(c) Development- It is the process of authoring and producing the learning materials. During
this phase you develop the instructional media based on the requirement of the topic,
and learning outcomes to be achieved. This phase is very crucial wherein your skills in
development of variety of media play an important role. You need to validate whatever
media you have developed from implementation point of view and evaluation of
designed media with respect to the learning outcome is an iterative process.
(d) Implementation- It is the process of implementing the instruction in actual learning
environment. You organise all the resources overcoming all the constraints, tryout newly
developed or procured resources for proper implementation and finally implement the
instruction in classroom environment.
(e) Evaluation- It is the process of determining the adequacy of the instruction. During this
phase you keep record of time required for various planned activities, interpret the test
results, and revise the activities based on the feedback received from the students. This
also includes evaluation of effectiveness of instructional media and methods. Evaluation
should actually occur throughout the entire instructional design process - within phases,
between phases, and after implementation. Evaluation may be Formative or Summative.
5.0 GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE USE OF CHALKBOARD

Being a teacher, you need to use chalkboard or whiteboard on daily basis for incidental
writing as well as for drawing visuals during the session. Following are some of the guidelines
which will make your board work more appealing and fulfilling the learning needs of your
students in the classroom.
(a) Clean the board completely before starting your session. It indicates clarity in teacher’s
mind & provokes concentration of student’s mind. The teacher has to ensure that every
student has a glare free visibility of the content written on the board.
(b) Divide the space on board in 2-3 equal parts using vertical lines. This will facilitate proper
use of board area during the session. Use these three sections in sequence so that
students will get enough time to note down the content written on the board or the
visual drawn.
(c) On the left most part, write the key points that are to be discussed in session as per your
plan. Go on check marking [] those points as you proceed. Write the frequently referred
as well as new terms on one side of the board.
(d) Diagrams may be drawn in one section; other sections can be used for scratch work.
Draw the diagrams at the centre of that section so that you may label it appropriately
distributing the labels around the diagram.
(e) Key to good hand writing is straightness of lines (horizontal or vertical), curvature of
curves, and adequate size of letters.
(f) Maintain horizontalness of line when writing. Height of letter should be minimum 5 cm
for uppercase letters and 7 cm for lower case letter for better visibility. Write the text of
size big enough to read from back side of your classroom. Maintain enough pressure on
the chalk to ensure uniform text and line thickness.
(g) Write key words only. Write less and mean more. Avoid overwriting, and scribbling here
and there.
(h) Use templates for standard figures & reference figure such as, gears, circles and other
such sketches. Use geometry drawing tools to draw figures wherever necessary.
(i) Use colored chalks for distinction. Lines drawn with blue, orange chalk should be thicker
for better visibility.
(j) Avoid standing in front of board so as to hide the written matter. Keep on moving so that
everybody can see.
(k) Avoid speaking to the board.
(l) Rub off the sections of boards on which further discussion is not needed.
(m) Separate Hanging board or sliding board can be used to draw complicated figures which
will be useful in few more lectures continuously. Effort for redrawing and time is saved.
Please watch video V41 on ‘Effective Board work’ for more information.
6.0 EFFECTIVE USE OF INTERACTIVE BOARD

The new media available with the teacher today are interactive board, Interactive touch
panel, interactive pad and interactive 4K display which could be used independently by the
teacher along with a computer system and a multimedia projector. These are very dynamic
media available to the teachers today. You may use the interactive board or interactive
display for incidental writing electronically, for drawing visuals using soft tools provided, for
displaying colored photographs, visuals, animation, video, computer-based presentations,
and so on. Video V42 on ‘Smart Classroom’ describes about the various features and
elements of a smart classroom. Various features, tools available with the interactive devices
are demonstrated in the two videos V43 on ‘Smart Classroom- Use of Interactive Board- Part
1’ and video V44 on ‘Smart Classroom- Interactive Board- Part 2’.
ACTIVITY
• Search for information about the features of media equipment such as interactive
board, interactive panel and pad, Interactive display, multimedia projector.
• Select a visual related to the topic of your choice and edit the visual.
7.0 CONCLUSION
In today’s context, varieties of media are available for a teacher. Being a teacher, it is
necessary for you to develop your own media and use the same in the classroom for
conduction of sessions effectively. In this lesson, you have learned about and instructional
system design model, that is ADDIE model. Using this model, you may design and use your
own instructional media. While designing any media you may use the three important
assumptions of cognitive theory of multimedia learning associated with the human
information processing system and research-based principles for the design of media
instructional messages. You have also learned about various media design guidelines such as
legibility, emphasis, use of colors, rule of thirds, arrangement of text and visuals, importance
of arranging visuals in horizontal line to match the direction of reading, and so on. You have
also learned about the effective use of chalkboard, whiteboard as well as interactive board
through associated videos also. These demonstrations and the content will help you in
developing your own media and use the same effectively in the classroom instruction.
*******
8.0 REFERENCES
Kenna. (2019). DIY DESIGN: WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RGB AND CMYK? Retrieved 2019,
from Modern Soapmaking: https://www.modernsoapmaking.com/diy-design-whats-the-
difference-rgb-and-cmyk/
Mayer, R. E. (2005). Chapter 3- Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning. In R. E. Mayer, The

Cambridge handbook of Multimedia Learning (p. 31). Cambridge University Press.
McGriff, S. J. (2000, 09). Instructional System Design (ISD): Using the ADDIE Model. Retrieved from
https://www.lib.purdue.edu/sites/default/files/directory/butler38/ADDIE.pdf
******
ASSIGNMENT
Prepare a computer-based presentation of about 15 slides, incorporating all the media
elements, design principles and guidelines on the topic of your choice. Place your
presentation in your e-portfolio.
MODULE 4
Unit 4.4.5
Instructional Plan
Preparation
L15 Classroom Session Plan

Preparation
L16 Feedback Mechanism for
Improvement
L17 Planning for Laboratory and
Industry-Based Instruction
L15: Classroom Session Plan
Preparation

Unit 4.4.5: Instructional Plan Preparation L15: Classroom Session Plan Preparation
L15: Classroom Session Plan Preparation
Learning outcome: At the end of this lesson, you will be able to prepare an
Instructional Session Plan.
Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 3
2.0 STEPS IN SESSION PLANNING ..................................................................................................... 3
3.0 PREPARATION OF SESSION PLAN ............................................................................................... 5
3.1 Introduction Phase ..................................................................................................................... 7
3.2 Development Phase ................................................................................................................... 7
3.3 Consolidation Phase ................................................................................................................... 7
4.0 CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................................. 9
L 15: Classroom Session Plan Preparation
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The accomplishment of instructions and achievement of session learning outcomes is

facilitated by proper planning. Effective teachers plan their instructional activities in
advance, as it is impossible to plan, once the process is set in motion. Good preparation
allows the teacher to be in command of the teaching learning situation, rather than being
commanded by many unplanned and unexpected events. Planning is concerned with 'what
to do', 'how to do it', and 'when to do it' during instruction. The process of planning an
instructional session is often more valuable than the plan itself. The time spent on thinking
about the session gives the teacher a clearer understanding of the topic as he analyses and
sequences it. Instructional session plan is the outcome of the planning process and is a
write-up of instructional decisions. While preparing the plan the instructional time (which is
usually 45 to 60 minutes for classroom session) is divided into three phases viz. Introduction,
Development and Consolidation. To help you to decide about what should be included in
these phases, their purpose and alternative strategies are discussed in this lesson.
2.0 STEPS IN SESSION PLANNING
The essential steps in instructional session planning can be put under three categories, as
a) Preliminary steps
b) Main steps, and
c) Final steps.
2.1 Preliminary Steps

The Preliminary Steps in instructional session planning are the following:
Step 2.1a. Choose the topic based on content analysis.

Step 2.1b. Write the learning outcomes of the session.
Step 2.1c. Identify entry level knowledge and skills.
Step 2.1d. Select material for session.
Step 2.1e. Gather relevant material.
The main purpose of these steps is to determine what is to be included during the session.
Material can be selected depending upon the entry level of students. Awareness about
existing knowledge will determine what should be included in the session. Awareness about
previous experience will tell about students’ attitude and willingness to learn. The
information presented during the session may be accepted or rejected by students. If
students are made aware about its relevance for the present and future, it is less likely to be
rejected. Also, if the presentation is difficult to understand, it will be rejected. These factors
must be considered during these preliminary steps. Once the preliminary steps have been
completed, the main steps could be undertaken.
2.2 Main Steps

The Main Steps in the instructional session planning are:
Step 2.2a. Select appropriate instructional method.

Step 2.2b. Identify teaching points and arrange in logical sequence.
Step 2.2c. Select suitable learning activities.
Step 2.2d. Decide how learning would be assessed.
The main steps deal with how the topic should be taught, what sequence should be followed
and how the learning should be assessed. The instructional method should be selected
depending upon the nature of learning outcomes to be achieved. Next stage will be
identification of important teaching points and sequence them. Teaching points are key
points to be included during an instructional session for achieving the learning outcomes.
The following rules may be helpful in sequencing. Proceed from:
a) Known to unknown d) Particular to general

b) Simple to complex e) Observations to reasoning
c) Concrete to abstract f) Whole to part and back to whole.
The effectiveness of learning is highly dependent on active learner participation in the

instructional activity. One way to ensure this is oral questioning. Teacher must frame
relevant questions to be asked at intermediate stages for developing the learning outcomes.
In session planning, suitable learning activities and learning experiences in which students
can be active participants must also be identified. The activities should be:
i. Consistent with the learning outcomes of the session

ii. Varied to break monotony to promote interest
iii. Consistent with the knowledge and experience of the students, and
iv. Balanced so that the session learning outcomes do not get out of focus.
The last or the main step is concerned with assessment of achievement of session outcomes.
The assessment procedure should be adequate and consistent with the outcomes.
2.3 Final Steps

The final steps in instructional session planning are:
Step 2.3a. Prepare Instructional Session Plan.

Step 2.3b. Prepare media, handouts, assignments based on session plan.
Step 2.3c. Arrange and check physical resources and media.
Step 2.3d. Choose the instructional methods
Step 2.3e. Decide the instructional strategy
Step 2.3f. Deliver instructional session plan.
These final steps are concerned with the recording of the final plan on paper, which could be
usable in an instructional setting, and the selection and preparation of suitable media and
the setting up of learning environment.
3.0 PREPARATION OF SESSION PLAN

The instructional session plan is a write up of the instructional decisions in a written form.
Essentially, the plan should take the form of an outline, and should fulfil the following
requirements:
a) Choose the topic
b) State the learning outcomes of the session.
c) Develop the sequence in which the key teaching points will be presented.
d) Gather information about topic, students, time available and entry level knowledge.
e) Identify the instructional methods and the instructional strategy to be used.
f) Note down the details of photographs, power point slides and other visuals required
for each teaching point.
g) Decide on the key features of student participation in the session.
Just as every plan (short term or long term) has a time frame, similarly while formulating
instructional session plan, the instructional time which is duration of the session need to be
considered. Normally a classroom session last for 45 to 60 minutes duration. This time is to
be effectively utilised for the instructional purpose. This time is usually divided into three
phases viz. introduction, development and consolidation in a 'knowledge' type session.
'Knowledge' type session is one in which information is passed on to the students by the
teacher lecturing, in combination with audio-visual media. The time for each of these phases
may be approximately 10%, 75%, 15% respectively. A good session plan must identify
activities to be performed by teacher and students in these phases. To help you to decide
about what should be included in these phases, their purpose and alternative strategies are
presented.
There are a number of formats available for instructional planning. However, on the basis of
outcome-based education for engineering programmes, the following sample format is
considered for discussion and implementation. An example is given in Appendix A:
Session Plan Format (Sample)
a) Name of the Teacher: ……………………………………………….……………………………....
b) Name of UG/Diploma Programme: ......................................................................
c) Semester: ...............................
d) Course Code and Course Name: ............................................................................
e) Relevant Course Outcome (CO): ……………………………………………….………………………
f) Unit (Topic) Number with Title: ………………………………………..…………………...............
g) Sub-topic Title: ……………………………………………………………………...............................
h) Session Duration: …………………………….
i) Participants: UG Students
j) Session Learning Outcomes (starting with action-oriented verbs):
i. ………………………………………………………………………….................................
ii. ………………………………………………………………………….................................
k) Entry level knowledge and skills of students
i. ………………………………………………………………………….................................
ii. ………………………………………………………………………….................................
l) Equipment required in Classroom/ Laboratory/ Workshop
i. ………………………………………………………………………….................................
ii. ………………………………………………………………………….................................
m) Instructional media required
• List of media available
i. ………………………………………………………………………….................................
ii. ………………………………………………………………………….................................
• List of media to be prepared
i. ………………………………………………………………………….................................
ii. ………………………………………………………………………….................................
n) Instructional strategy and methods to be used should be developed in the following sequence
Time Teaching Points Teacher’s Activity Student’s Media to be

required Activity used
5 minutes Introduction
6 minutes Development
a) 1st teaching point
5 minutes b) 2nd teaching point
..... c) ..................
and so, on ..................
...... ..................
....... n) ..................
1 Consolidation
60 minutes
3.1 Introduction Phase

The main purpose of this phase is to gain attention of the students. Introduction is used to
indicate what the learner would be able to do after the session i.e. by stating learning
outcomes of the session. Session outcomes may be presented explicitly or implied in the
statements made. During introduction, previous knowledge is recalled and linked with the
learning outcomes of the session. The introduction should be used to establish rapport with
the students and showing relevance of the topic to them. Introduction can be made more
interesting by narration of anecdotes, stories, incidents, episodes, historical background or
asking questions or showing simple demonstration or use of charts, pictures, cartoons,
drawings and so on. However, whatever is done should be relevant to the topic to be
introduced. During session planning, it is necessary to decide what will be done during
introduction and record it on paper.
3.2 Development Phase

Once the session outcomes have been decided and it is planned how these will be
introduced, next stage is to plan how these will be developed. This phase of the session plan
makes you think, how you will present the content logically to the students, so that, they are
able to achieve the learning outcomes. Planning for this will require selecting the suitable
methods, material and media and also the interactivity that you would like to build into this
phase as you go ahead. Relevant assignments including practice assignments may have to be
planned. Choice of method, media, material and learning experiences will depend upon
outcomes, individual needs, interest and abilities of the students. The choice will also
depend upon whether the teacher wants the students to learn:
a) Concepts, principles and procedures.
b) a skill, or
c) some attitudes and values.
Time and resources will also dictate the choices. It is necessary to plan for active
participation of the learner and also varying the stimuli during this phase.
3.3 Consolidation Phase
The purpose of this phase is consolidation of the learning by summarisation of the
presentation and evaluation achievement of learning outcomes by students. These two
activities need not necessarily occur in this order. The order will be dictated by
circumstances.
The planning will have to be done to decide how summarisation will be carried out. Students
help can be taken for revising/ summarising. This phase should also be used for pulling loose
ends together by linking learning outcome, drawing conclusions and evolving
generalisations. By use of key questions orally or in written form, informal evaluation of
achievement of learning outcomes can be carried out. Homework and reading exercises can
also be set during this phase. This phase should relate the three stages i.e. where students
were before, where students should be now and where they will go from here?
The evaluation component will be used to determine where students should be now. The
method of evaluation will depend upon session outcomes. If a formal evaluation is a must,
most of the time it is done separately from an instructional session.
In the instructional session plan presentation, where teaching of a number of new concepts,
and principles has to be included, these summarisation and evaluation phases may occur a
number of times and, it may be difficult to separate these out distinctly. Consolidation for
one aspect may merge with introduction of the next aspect.
The above discussed three broad phases of instructional planning in relation to Gagne’s Nine
Events of Instruction discussed in Lesson 4 is depicted in Table 1 as a ready reckoner. For
more details, details kindly refer to section of 4 of Lesson 4.
Table 1 Relation between Phases of Session Planning and Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction
Phases of Instructional Events Relations to Learning Processes

Session Planning
Introduction 1. Gaining attention Reception of patterns of neural impulses
(learning material or stimulus)
2. Informing the learner of the Activating the process of executive
objective control
3. Stimulating recall of prerequisite Retrieval of prior learning to working

learning memory
Development 4. Presenting the stimulus material Emphasizing features of selective

perception
5. Providing learning guidance Semantic encoding; cues for retrieval
6. Eliciting the performance Activating response organization

7. Providing feedback about Establishing reinforcement
performance correctness
Consolidation 8. Assessing the performance Activating retrieval; making reinforcement
possible
9. Enhancing retention and Providing cues and strategies for retrieval
transfer
ACTIVITY
Prepare a session plan for a classroom session of 45-60 minutes in the suggested
format.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Instructional session plan is a written document prepared by a teacher for his/her own use.
The 'process' of planning makes the teacher understand the topic better, and thus, take care
of unexpected during actual presentation. Instructional session planning is divided into three
major steps; preliminary, main and final. Preliminary steps begin with topic selection and
consist of deciding session learning outcomes, identifying entry behaviours of students and
selecting material. Main steps consist of selecting relevant method, putting teaching points
in a logical sequence and selecting suitable learning activities. Final steps involve actual
preparation of session plan and selection of material and media before implementing in
actual setting.
**********
Acknowledgements
Dr. N. K. Banthiya and Prof. P. C. Jain (Former Professors of NITTTR Bhopal)
Appendix A
Session Plan (Sample)
a) Name of Teacher: xyz
b) Name of UG/Diploma Programme: UG Programme in Mechanical Engineering
c) Semester: Four
d) Course Code and Course Name: Fluid Mechanics
e) Relevant Course Outcome (CO): Interpret the properties of Lubricants
f) Unit (Topic) Number with Title: III - Oils and Greases
g) Sub-topic Title: Viscosity of lubricants and their applications
h) Session Duration: 60 minutes
i) Participants: Trainee Teachers
j) Session Learning Outcomes (starting with action oriented verbs) :
i. Justify the need of additives.
ii. Select the additives for the given situation
k) Entry level knowledge and skills of students.

i. Purposes of lubrication
l) Equipment required in Classroom

i. Computer with multimedia projector.
ii. White board.
m) Instructional media required

• List of Media Available
i. Sample lubricant.
ii. Sample Additive.
• List of Media Available
Nil.
n) Instructional strategy and methods to be used should be developed in the following sequence.
Time Teaching Points Teacher’s Activity Student’s Activity Visual/Any

other material
2 mins INTRODUCTION • Ask why oils are used? (For Student answer PPT.1 showing
a) Oils used mainly as lubrication) question title of the
lubricants • Ask any other purpose (For Trainees session and
transmitting power for
b) Oils also used for answer/question objectives
cooling as a cutting fluid or
transmitting power, rust for rust prevention) give example
prevention • Tell additives added to give
c) Additives added to oil special properties
• Write topic on blackboard
• State objectives of the
session to understand
different types of additives
• Show PPT of objectives
Time Teaching Points Teacher’s Activity Student’s Activity Visual/Any

other material
DEVELOPMENT • Define additive Trainees give Visual of an
a) Additives are chemicals • State why different answer automobile
added to give special additives for same effect (with engine
properties • Ask what is a detergent May give
b) Different additives used • Link with detergents and examples of Visual of a
for achieving the same dispersants in present detergent bearing (with
effect when oils work context point
available in
under different • State the difference emphasizing
conditions market rust inhibitors
between detergent and
Detergents and Dispersants dispersant and corrosion
a) Used for keeping • Ask for examples Trainees give inhibitors in oil)
insoluble suspended in • Show PPT of an automobile examples oil containing
the oil to prevent sludge with engine oil containing detergent)
formation detergent Trainees fill up
b) Detergents used at high the blank in the Visual of a
• Distribute handout in which
temperatures and figure piston- cylinder
figures have been drawn
dispersants at low • Ask or explain what is mechanism to
temperatures Trainees explain show anti-wear
inhibition
c) These are contained in 'inhibition' property of
• Link with rust and corrosion
I.C. engine oils additive
• Show PPT of a bearing with
Rust Inhibitors and Trainees fill up
lubricating oil
corrosion inhibitors the blank in the PPT of an
• Ask what is wear? Where
Used for inhibiting chemical figure internal
wear occurs?
corrosion and rusting combustion
• Link trainees answer to
These are contained in most engine to show
explain Trainees answer
example of
machinery lubrication oils • Show PPT of sliding surface give example
viscosity index
Anti-wear additives • Ask question, 'what improver
a) Used to reduce wear happens when temperature Trainees fill up
(between sliding or of oil increases? the blank in the
rubbing surfaces) • Link the answer with figure
b) Examples cams, piston requirement in this case
in cylinder • Give example of use/obtain Trainees answer
Viscosity index improving example by questioning it becomes thin or
Used to lessen the amount viscosity
by which the thickness of oil decreases
changes with temperature
Example internal Trainees give
combustion engine example ppt fill
up the blank in
the figure
CONSOLIDATION • Ask trainees to fill in the gap Trainees fill in the
a) Definition of additive in the statement. Statement gap PPT of
b) Additives type on PPT. Trainees revise examples
• Detergents and • Additives used in oil to give- the list
dispersants ....... (special properties) Trainees give
• Rust inhibitors and • Types of additives is answers
corrosion inhibitors summarised on a magnetic
• Anti-wear additives board by magnetic cut outs.
• Viscosity index • Show examples (different
improvers then before) what property
• Examples of each type is important in each case?
L16: Feedback Mechanism for
Improvement
Contributor


4.4.5: Instructional Plan Preparation L16: Feedback Mechanism for Improvement
Lesson 16: Feedback Mechanism for Improvement
LO 1. Obtain feedback about the Instructional session plan prepared.
LO 2. Modify the instructional session plan on the basis of feedback received.
LO 3. Validate a prepared session plan to achieve the specified learning outcomes.
LO 4. of teaching learning process.
Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 3
2.0 CONCEPT OF FEEDBACK .............................................................................................................. 3
3.0 DIFFERENT PURPOSES OF FEEDBACK .......................................................................................... 3
4.0 CHARACTERISTICS OF FEEDBACK ................................................................................................ 4
5.0 THREE ASPECTS OF FEEDBACK .................................................................................................... 4
6.0 IMPROVING INSTRUCTIONAL SESSION PLAN USING CHECKLIST ................................................ 5
7.0 DEVELOPING HABIT OF RECEIVING FEEDBACK ........................................................................... 8
8.0 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................... 9
9.0 REFERENCES .............................................................................................................................. 10
Lesson 16: Feedback Mechanism for Improvement
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the earlier units as well as in the Lesson 15 of this unit, the importance of planning at each
level has been explained. You have seen that a session plan is a systematic arrangement of
teaching - learning processes, which is designed by a teacher to achieve desired learning
outcomes. It is a 'learning trajectory' for a session. A well-prepared instructional session plan
is a journey well begun. In fact, much of the teachers’ work is accomplished before he or she
enters the class-room, through the development of session plan. In this lesson the focus is
on role of feedback mechanisms in improving different aspects of related instructional
planning and delivery. An instructional session plan that is developed and finalised based on
prescribed criteria will help the teacher to use the resources and time effectively and
efficiently.
2.0 CONCEPT OF FEEDBACK

When people communicate their feelings and perceptions to others, especially about their
behaviour, style of work and allied features, it is called feedback. In the present context of
teaching learning environment, the importance of feedback cannot be denied, which
ensures and makes way for improvement on performance, motivation and self-regulation.
Researchers say that human beings like to obtain feedback about their work and feedback is
psychologically reassuring. It is very important to take as well as provide relevant feedback
at appropriate time about performance so that one is informed of the gaps to attain
expected performance level and can make efforts to improve. Research studies have been
done to evaluate the effect of feedback in various situations and the findings support
importance of relevant, purposeful and timely feedback.
Recent studies, especially those reported by the researchers, Hattie and Timperley (2007)
have showed that feedback which is given at wrong point of time or in wrong way may not
serve its purpose but also harm the learning process. It is also found that feedback given in
constructive way at the appropriate time help learner in self-regulation leading to habit
formation of reviewing oneself to understand the level of learning.
3.0 DIFFERENT PURPOSES OF FEEDBACK

A basic model of teaching explained in Lesson 1 of Unit 2 as well as Gagne’s events of
instruction depicts the importance of feedback to improve the different activities associated
with teaching-learning environment. Feedback is provided and is used to:
a) Identify the shortcomings and scope for improvement.
b) Plan to take corrective action.
c) Think of better ways of doing an activity or problem solving.
d) Understand that one has certain control over their own learning and can work hard
to achieve more and more.
e) Get motivated to do better quality work.
f) Develop a habit of accepting constructive feedback, etc.
4.0 CHARACTERISTICS OF FEEDBACK

To benefit the teacher trainee or for that matter any learner, feedback needs to be:
a) Constructive: The feedback should set out ways so that learner feel encouraged and
motivated to improve the work. It ought to constructively highlight the strengths and
weaknesses of a given piece of work. It encourages them to think critically about
their work and to reflect on what they need to do to improve. It helps them see their
learning in new ways and gain increased satisfaction from it and also promote
dialogue.
b) Timely: The feedback should be given while the assessed work is still fresh in a
learner's mind, before s/he moves on to subsequent tasks.
c) Passive: In general, this advice goes against a fundamental rule of writing. However,
passive voice is integral to giving productive peer feedback that’s helpful without
being personal. It allows your feedback to focus on the problem, not the individual
who is being critiqued.
d) Meaningful: It should target the individual needs, be linked to specific assessment
criteria, and be received by the learner in time to benefit subsequent work. Effective
feedback:
i. Guides to adapt so as to accommodate learning needs and adjust the learning
strategies.
ii. Guides to become independent and self-reflective learners, and better critics of
their own work.
iii. Stimulates reflection, interaction and dialogue about learning improvement.
iv. Has consequences, so that it engages by requiring them to attend to the
feedback.
Feedback is valuable when it is received, understood and acted on. How a receiver of
feedback analyses, discuss and act on feedback is as important as the quality of the feedback
itself. In short, it can be said that the feedback needs to be SMART (Specific, Measurable,
Acceptable, Realistic and Timely).
5.0 THREE ASPECTS OF FEEDBACK

Hattie and Timperley (2007) mentions that effective feedback should cover minimum three
aspects given below:
a) What is the targeted level of teacher trainee performance or what are the goals?),
(i.e. Where he is as compared to target level- Also stated by as feed Up)
b) How the teacher trainee is progressing? (i.e. How the progress is being made toward
the goal? -- Also stated as feed Back), and
c) What activities need to be undertaken by the teacher trainee to make a better
progress? (i.e. Where to go next? - - Also stated as feed Forward)
An ideal learning environment or experience occurs when answers to each of these

questions are sought. Effective feedback is found to be one of the most important influences
on learning and should always focus on further improvement. In other words, providing
effective feedback is a powerful tool to reinforce learner's learning. However, providing
effective feedback is not easy. For example, the effectiveness of feedback depends on the
type of feedback and the way it is given. The most important goal of feedback is to reduce
the gap between the current and desired situation. This means that teacher trainees should
know what is desired of them, where they are, and what they can do to close this gap.
In order to bridge the gap ascertained, feedback need to be taken. Feedback can be
obtained using designed observation forms, checklists, rating scales, questionnaires, and
similar tools.
6.0 IMPROVING INSTRUCTIONAL SESSION PLAN USING CHECKLIST
In the Lesson 15 and also subsequent Lesson 17 of this module, session plan on the basis of
locations of learning in any engineering institution has been dealt in brief, that will include
the classroom, laboratory, workshop, industry, society and community in general. For any
instructional session, selection of appropriate methods and techniques is also vital.
In a classroom-based session where the focus is on achievement of learning outcomes in

cognitive domain, the teachers will plan classroom transactions and interactions in such a
way that students are able to remember and understand the concepts and principles etc.
discussed in the class but when the focus is on applying the concepts and principles the
teachers need to create the conditions and provide the opportunities where the principles
are applied, this may be done though individual and group based assignments.
In a laboratory or any other location, where the focus is on development of psychomotor

domain related skills the teacher may follow a different model, s/he may demonstrate the
skills and ask the students to follow the steps and acquire the skills. In affective domain,
where the focus is on development of values and attitudes, there may not be a specific plan
as they are developed in various formal and informal situations. There could be certain
guidelines which need to be followed, which will facilitate their development. It is also said
that attitudes are caught and not taught, so we need to be careful and there should not be
gap between what the teachers teach and what they practice.
REFLECTION SPOT
Using the suggested format for preparing the plan given in Appendix 1 of Lesson 15 of
this module, you must have prepared the instructional session plan of 45 to 60 minutes.
Ensure that the plan is categorized in three phases of a) introduction b) development of
content, and c) consolidation, as discussed in the Lesson 15 on ‘Classroom Session Plan
Preparation’. Reflect and self-evaluate on each criterion given in Table 1 below for
instructional plan and see if you can improve. Describe the reflection experience briefly.
Also specify how it helps the learner. Post this on the discussion forum to have further
discussion and save a copy of the same in your e journal as a part of your teaching –
learning portfolio.
Table 1: Proforma - Criteria for Validating the Instructional Session Plan
Elements of Criteria Response: ‘Y’ Remarks

Planning for Yes, ‘N’ for (If any)
No, ‘NA’ for Not
applicable
Format a) Is any component in the format missing?
b) Is information under each head provided?
Objectives/ a) Are objectives/Learning outcomes stated?

Learning b) Have they been appropriately stated in terms of single
Outcomes behavior?
c) Are they achievable within the time specified?
d) Are they achievable by the method and strategy used?
e) Are they appropriate for the topic?
Pre-requisites a) Have they been properly specified?
b) Are all these stated necessary for this lesson?
Media a) Is any media hardware equipment which is required
hardware & missing from the list?
Equipment b) Is anything which is mentioned not required?
required c) Are all the required media hardware/equipment
available in working condition?
d) Has the teacher ensured that all the equipment is
working?
e) Has the teacher tried operating the same?
Media and a) Are all the material and media identified appropriate
Material for the objectives stated?
required b) Are all of them available?
c) Have the media and material which are not available
been prepared by the teacher?
d) Are all the media and material properly prepared?
e) Suggest /think of possible improvements or alternative
media and material.
f) Is the content on media accurate?
Treatment
a) Introduction
i. Is it proper?
ii. Is it motivating and interesting?
iii. Does it relate the present learning to previous
one?

applicable
iv. Have the objectives been stated (explicitly or
implicitly)?
v. Is it too short or too long?
b) Development
i. Is the development given step by step?
ii. Is the sequence appropriate and systematic?
iii. Are the teacher activities and teacher trainees'
activities relevant with proposed teaching points?
iv. Are the teaching strategies and methods planned
appropriate for the objectives and teacher trainees?
v. a) Is active participation of teacher trainees planned?
b) Is it adequate?
c) Suggestions to increase or improve active
participation ...........
vi. Is enough stimulus variation provided? (Different
methods, activities, media, demonstration,
questioning, assignment etc.)
vii. Has each concept, principle etc. been explained on
the basis of maxim of teaching such as known to
unknown, simple to complex, concrete to abstract
etc.?
viii. Are the examples, non-examples, problems, etc.
planned clear and relevant?
ix. Are the proposed media, other resources appropriate
for effective and efficient teaching- learning session?
x. Are the proposed questions framed clearly and
properly?
xi. Are the proposed questions appropriate at that stage?
xii. a) Have some learning activities like assignments,
practice etc. been included?
b) Are they appropriate?
xiii. Any suggestions for improvement
..................................................
c) Consolidation
i. Is the planned consolidation/summarisation
appropriate?
ii. Has integration of present learning with previous one
planned?
iii. Has any attempt been made to asses achievement of
objectives?
iv. Has any homework been planned?
v. Have any references or additional reading been
suggested?
vi. Has seeding for the next lesson been planted?
vii. Any suggestions for further
improvement...........................
d) Balance and time planning
i. a) Has the time planning done?
b) Is it appropriate?
ii. Is the plan balanced with respect to the time planned
for introduction, development and consolidation?
iii. If the plan is for a long session, does it include

applicable
introduction and consolidation at appropriate
locations?
iv. Can the plan be implemented within specified time?
v. Has some flexibility planned for potential
uncertainties?
7.0 DEVELOPING HABIT OF RECEIVING FEEDBACK

‘Practice- feedback – practice’ is the key to develop any skill. Aristotle said, ‘We are what we
repeatedly do. Excellence, therefore, is not an act but a habit’. As a teacher, one ought to
practice the habit of planning the instructional sessions and implementing them and
receiving feedback on both plan and implementation. There can be different sources and
ways to receive feedback.
a) Self-feedback: After every planning and also after classroom presentation, sit back
and introspect about the aspects of your teaching that you feel satisfied and would
like to repeat in future. Also think about the aspects which you would like to
discontinue or change. Try to reinforce the good habit and repeat them in your future
classes, and try to intentionally avoid the behavioral aspects that are not satisfying.
b) Peer feedback: You may request your colleagues or seniors to come to your class,
observe and offer feedback about your plan and performance. Take their feedback
sportingly and try to make necessary changes.
c) Students’ feedback: If possible, try to collect some informal feedback from some of
your students. Once they know that you welcome their opinion, they themselves will
approach you and appreciate the aspects which they like in your teaching. They may
also like to have their doubts cleared. This will tell you that they have not understood
that portion. This will give indirect feedback to you about your plan as well as
introducing, explaining, questioning, reinforcing and consolidating skills, and
presentation aspects in the instructional plan.
Following the above-mentioned steps may help to build up this habit of receiving feedback
for improvement.
8.0 CONCLUSION
It is important to understand that 'knowing does not mean practicing'. To ‘know’ is one thing
but to ‘do’ is another thing. One knows many things but do not necessarily practice all of
them. For practicing, he or she should internalise the concepts and make it a habit to
practice these concepts. This is true even for teaching profession. Feedback is found to be
one of the most important factors impacting the learning. So, giving timely and relevant
feedback such as one including the three aspects mentioned here is important. It is essential
to improve performance on the basis of feedback received. The sources of feedback could be
self- introspection, feedback from peers i.e. colleagues and seniors, feedback from mentors
or resource persons and if possible, feedback from students while teaching. If such a habit is
developed, it is easier to become a ‘good teacher’, a ‘role model’ for others. The classes will
become lively and interesting, and the students will love to attend classes, and learn from
these.
ACTIVITY
Use your developed Instruction Session Plan of Lesson 15 to be dealt by you in teaching
practice.
a) Show the plan to one or two peers to get the feedback
b) Modify and finalize the plan based on the feedback.
Get your instructional session plan validated by two peers, preferably of your discipline using
the same checklist given in Table 1, before finalizing the instructional plan for practice.
Modify the teaching plan after discussions with the peers. Describe the peer editing
experience in 4-5 lines. Post this on the discussion forum to have further discussion and save
a copy of the same as well as finalized instructional session plan in your e journal as a part of
your teaching – learning portfolio.
Modify the session plan as per feedback and get it validated by mentor/resource person using
the checklist given in Table 1 on the basis of criteria.
Keep on updating the e-journal in which you have instructional session plans and your
observations and reflections. You can write your observations by self-introspection after the
class also, with reference to session plan. Review this file and go on adding positive and
negative experiences. This will be a good resource for you and you can also share some such
experiences with your colleagues.
*******
9.0 REFERENCES
Banthiya N.K. [Ed.]. (1999). Module 6 -Manage Classroom Transactions and Make Effective
Presentation in Classroom. UK-REC Project on Development of Competency-based
Self Learning Module. Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India: TTTI, Bhopal.
John Hattie and Helen Timperley (March 2007). ‘The Power of Feedback’. Review of
Educational Research, Vol. 77, No. 1, pp. 81-112, DOI: 10.3102/003465430298487
Gagne, Robert M. & Briggs, Leslie, J. (1979, 2nd Ed.). Principles of Instructional Design. Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, New York.
Banthiya N.K. & Jain, P.C. (1994). Instructional Session Planning, Cement Industry HRD
Project: Training of Trainers' Programme, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India: TTTI,
Bhopal.
London, M. Job (1997). Feedback: Giving, Seeking, and Using Feedback for Performance
Improvement. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
Susan Brookheart, (2008). 'How to give Effective Feedback to your teacher trainees'. pdf
version, Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
*******
ASSIGNMENT
Submit the validated session plan for a classroom session of 45-60 minutes in the suggested
format.
L21: Practicum in Classroom
Contributors



Unit 4.4.6: Instructional Delivery L21: Practicum in the classroom
L21: PRACTICUM IN CLASSROOM
LO 1. Deliver the session for a period of 45 to 60 minutes duration in a classroom
situation.
LO 2. Obtain feedback from peers and mentor about the teaching practice using
suggested 'observation proforma'.
LO 3. Identify areas for improvement based on feedback received.
Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION......................................................................................... 3
2.0 RECAPITULATION ...................................................................................... 3
2.1 Introduction .............................................................................................. 3
2.2 Development ............................................................................................ 4
2.3 Consolidation ............................................................................................ 4
3.0 EFFECTIVE PRESENTATION ........................................................................ 4
3.1 Gaining Attention...................................................................................... 5
3.2 Keeping Students Interested ..................................................................... 5
3.3 Style .......................................................................................................... 5
3.4 Voice ......................................................................................................... 6
3.5 Gestures.................................................................................................... 6
3.6 Movements............................................................................................... 6
3.7 Eye movement .......................................................................................... 6
3.8 Silence ...................................................................................................... 7
3.9 Distracting Mannerisms ............................................................................ 7
3.10 Interactions ............................................................................................... 7
3.11 Effective Questioning ................................................................................ 7
3.12 Illustrations ............................................................................................... 8
3.13 Two-Way Communication......................................................................... 9
4.0 INSTRUCTIONAL DELIVERY ........................................................................ 9
5.0 JOHARI WINDOW .................................................................................... 10
6.0 DEVELOPMENT OF TEACHING SKILLS BASED ON FEEDBACK ................... 11
7.0 CONCLUSION .......................................................................................... 13
8.0 REFERENCES............................................................................................ 14
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The final outcome of module-04 is to improve the teachers' performance through 'Practicum
in classroom’. You are expected to deliver a session of 45-60 minutes in a classroom
situation. You have prepared the session plan and got it validated through your peer and
mentor in lesson 15 and 16 respectively. You might have also created or procured resources
like computer-based presentation, handouts, assignments etc for conducting your session.
In this lesson, the focus is on delivery of the plan, getting the feedback from colleagues and
mentor, which will help you to identify the areas where you need improvement.
2.0 RECAPITULATION
This lesson aiming at implementation of instructional session plan is a blend of whatever you
have learnt earlier. Effective implementation also means effective presentation so that
students are continuously able to maintain high attention levels in the classroom. The
adolescent students are full of energy and emotions, which make the job as a teacher, a very
challenging one. You have to sustain the attention levels of the students throughout the
session for effective teaching-learning process. The presentation should also be easily
understood and retained for a longer duration of time. Thus, the presentation on the part
requires the use of motivating techniques in the class. In this lesson, an attempt has been
made to recapitulate and revisit some of the techniques and guidelines which if practised,
will help you to improve your presentation in a classroom.
Please recall from the earlier lessons, that Introduction, development and consolidation are
the three important components of any presentation. You have also leant that they are
linked to principles of learning and the nine instructional events (Gagne, 1979). To support
the process of learning in students, following aspects need to be taken care under the three
components:
2.1 Introduction
As the class starts, you have to draw and sustain the attention of the students. You must
introduce the topic which is the initial part of instruction and should serve some of these
purposes.
• Recall the previous learning
• Answer the questions or queries of the students with regard to previous session.
• Explain the instructional objectives of present session.
• Explain the relevance of proposed instruction.
When would you know that introduction is complete? It has been suggested to utilize
maximum 10% of the total instructional session time for introduction. On each such
occasion, the time is not only the criteria, the criteria should be whether the students have
been prepared to receive the main content of the instruction or not. The 'prepared'
students will show the indicators such as –
• They are eager to learn the new instruction.
• They are attentive in the class
• They may ask inquisitive questions.
• They maintain eye to eye contact.
• They are ready to note down the instruction.
2.2 Development
After the introduction, you may present the main content as per the finalized session plan.
The presentation should follow the logical sequence as already planned. Such an approach
will result in smooth transitions, and high attention level of the students can be maintained
for effective learning. The narration also needs to be supported by use of questioning skills
as discussed in Lesson-8 of this module. The feedback from questioning may be utilized to
modify the instruction during its session, so that the designed objectives are successfully
achieved.
The students’ participation should be associated with the instruction as per the plan. This
two-way communication will improve the teaching – learning process. The students should
be encouraged to:
a) Seek clarifications.
b) Ask questions.
c) Practice the skills to be learnt.
d) Keep trying till they are able to perform as desired.
During the course of instruction, a natural and conducive environment is to be maintained
which will always enhance the learning efforts of students. You may smile or frown on the
undesired performance, but what will the effect of these two responses? The smile will
have a positive effect while frowning may have a negative effect of losing attention and
ultimately withdrawal from the class.
2.3 Consolidation
This is the concluding part of the instructional session plan and hence requires consolidation.
a) Review major points of lesson
b) Explain accomplishment of objectives
c) Assess students’ learning outcome
d) Provide more assignments for practice etc.
3.0 EFFECTIVE PRESENTATION

During the lesson presentation from introduction to consolidation, you may have to adopt
many roles e.g. teacher, guide, counsellor or manager. For performing these roles
effectively, you have to take care of various aspects that are explained briefly below.
Module-3 for 'communication Skills, Modes and Knowledge Dissemination' covers these
aspects in detail and you can refer it once again.

As you enter the class room for the instructional session, you have to draw the attention of
the students towards you. The drawing of the attention could be done in a number of ways
like greeting the students, looking at their faces and establishing eye contact, exchanging
feelings with smiling face etc. This will help you to develop a rapport with the students.
Sometimes, this may not be enough if some students are still talking to their companions or
busy in previous session's work. At this moment, the teacher has all the authority to be
angry with the students and draw the attention of the concerned students by scolding. But,
this may create non-cohesive atmosphere in the class. The students may turn off. They may
not like to be with you or listen to you or learn during the instructional session. Whether,
you like it or not, your own behaviour shapes the attitudes of your students. You may have
to avoid such behaviour and be persuasive to draw their attention, which will also establish
a conducive atmosphere. During such moments, you may use any of these ways to draw the
attention:
a) By making some noise with duster or any other object on table.
b) Ask questions about previous session
c) Ask question relating to present session.
d) Narrate some incident about previous or present session.
e) Narrate some short story or anecdote.
3.2 Keeping Students Interested

Be well prepared with the material you want to present. This will give you confidence and
you will not have to refer to your notes all the time. Referring to notes is not bad, but
looking into the notes all the time and not maintaining eye-to-eye contact with the students
shows lack of confidence. A teacher standing in front of the class staring at the notes, the
floor, ceiling or the side walls; looking rarely at the students may not notice that students
are yawning or talking. If you find that attention of your class is wavering, students are
inattentive or impatient; you should vary the stimulus. This could be done by telling a
related incident, anecdote, showing a cartoon or some visual illustration. If students don't
seem to understand what you are telling and look confused, unpack the material further and
simplify the explanation. If you are observant, you would be able to sense receptivity or lack
of it on the part of students and make appropriate changes in your presentation.
3.3 Style
Presentation should not be completely formal. Your style should be conversational, using
first and second persons in sentences, and avoiding use of third person. Talk to your
students in such a way that 'mental distance' between you and them is reduced. You must
feel natural and relaxed. You must remember that your manner of delivery- the way you
raise or lower your voice, emphasize words and sentences, convey lot of meaning. Your
voice must support points you are making. If you are enthusiastic, cheerful and interested,
your students will be motivated to listen to you. If you appear bored and gloomy, the
chances are that your students will start feeling bored and will not listen to you.
3.4 Voice
In the classroom, the students' attention needs to be sustained throughout the instructional
session. Your voice will play a major role in this. The students sitting in the last row should
be able to hear your voice clearly, but this is not enough. A voice at a particular volume
without vocal variations will make a dull class. The vocal variations are timing, pitch and
volume. These variations play an essential part in the narration by conveying the meaning,
giving emphasis, create and sustain interest and enhance learning. For example, you can say
‘yes’ in numerous ways by varying the pitch, volume and timing and thus give many
meanings to it. The vocal delivery with pauses of one fifth of a second helps to give
emphasis. The rapid speed may be given to that part of instruction which is relatively less
important.
3.5 Gestures
You have already learnt about verbal and non-verbal communication in module 3. Gestures
are movements of body, head and hands, which help to express the ideas and emotions
during oral communication. You must use gestures to support points you are making. You
should not use gestures which distract the attention of the students. You have to also assess
the attention of students by their displayed gestures, whether they are with you or day
dreaming.
3.6 Movements
Too many body movements may be very distracting, although standing motionless attached
to the white board or at a fixed place may result in losing attention of the students. Move
closer to students as you try to converse or get into a dialogue with them.
3.7 Eye movement

This is the most important non-verbal communication channel through which you sustain
linkages with one another in the classroom. While delivering the lesson, if you continuously
look to the board or wall or out of the window, then students’ attention will also start
wavering, and the result will be very low attention level of students. You, as a teacher may
move your eyes from one corner to other establishing the eye contacts with students. The
students as listeners also tend to look towards the eyes of the teacher. This eye to eye
contact is very helpful in teaching-learning process. Here, you should take care to avoid
staring at an individual student, as this will cause embarrassment. The eye to eye contacts
will tell us whether the students are following the lesson or they have some difficulty. You
are aware that many a time the eyes communicate more than words. You may read the
faces to find the signs of confusion, difficulty, boredom, or anxiety.
3.8 Silence
Silence has a language. A short pause before saying something important is an effective way
of holding attention. A sudden pause in the middle of sentence gains attention. A three
seconds pause is recommended for gaining attention. A longer duration pauses such as 20
seconds can be agonising for the students. You will appreciate that while questioning, it is
recommended to have a pause after each question has been asked.
3.9 Distracting Mannerisms

Many people have pet phrases and mannerisms. These become a habit without the realising
how distracting these could be to others with whom you are communicating. Habits such as
playing with chalk, playing with a shirt button, tie twisting, and too much movement are
very annoying to students. Also, phrases, such as 'you see', 'you know', 'right' and others can
become very annoying if used repetitively. Use of such pet phrases and mannerisms is not
noticed by a teacher. If your attention is drawn to these or you are shown a video recording
of your presentation, you will notice these mannerisms. It is then possible to take corrective
measures.
3.10 Interactions
Where ever possible, you should try to include the interaction at different level like teacher
to individual student, student to teacher and student to student. The interaction between a
teacher to individual student is possible as a result of questioning during the presentation.
The students should be encouraged to ask questions or raise queries, especially at the end of
some difficult part of session or at the end of the session. The student to student
interactions are difficult to accommodate due to shortage of time, however these could be
accommodated based on situations. You could try 'buzz session' for this purpose. Refer to
Lesson 9 in this module for recalling more about buzz session.
3.11 Effective Questioning

During the instructional session, you should use questioning to achieve the following
purposes:
a) To keep the student alert.
b) To create interest and motivation.
c) To improve understanding.
d) To obtain diagnostic information about the students' learning.
Efforts should be made to prepare simple and yet challenging questions which help the
students to comprehend the topic as well as arouse feelings to learn more.
3.12 Illustrations
Your presentation should include lot of verbal and visual illustrations. As you know, if senses
of seeing and hearing are combined together learning is better; plan to use both visual aids
and verbal illustrations.
a. Media: Audio-visual Aids and Other Resources

You have learnt about using board effectively in Lesson 14. Chalk and talk are not always the
only media to have an effective and efficient instruction. You need to use other media
discussed in Lesson 11 to 14. You may also make use of real objects or models. You may also
use demonstration method as discussed in Lesson 8 of this module.
Media should match the content you are delivering. Whenever you use a media, see that
you don't block the view of your students. Also plan before hand, where and what will be
used so that you can change over smoothly from one media to the other during your
presentation. While using the media, remember to follow guidelines given below:
i. Prefer real objects wherever possible as compared to pictures or diagrams.
ii. The selection of media should depend upon the availability of time, hardware and
specific need.
iii. The media should be relevant with the instructional objectives.
iv. The media should be properly prepared.
v. The media should be displayed at the right moment and for appropriate duration in
the instructional session. Longer duration may cause distraction of the students.
b. Verbal Illustrations
Verbal illustrations- examples, non-examples, and anecdotes make the presentation
relevant and lively; and should be used quite often.
c. Analogies
An analogy is a comparison of one thing to another which emphasizes the similarities
between them. Usually, the known concept is compared to unknown for emphasizing the
important characteristic of unknown which are similar to those of known. For example, the
flow of heat is analogous to flow of electrical current and flow of electrical current is
analogous to flow of water.
d. Anecdotes
An anecdote is an interesting story or incident used to illustrate the point being emphasized
by the teacher. Anecdotes remain long in the memory compared to other material which is
forgotten much earlier. Anecdote should be a natural part of the talk and should be relevant
for the topic.
e. Examples and Non-Examples

An example is a representative sample of a general concept, principle or process and it
illustrates the characteristic of the concept, principle or process you are explaining.
Examples chosen should be familiar to the students so that they can readily understand the
topic being taught. It is a good idea to bring in non-examples in your lecture together with
the examples. This will further draw attention of the students to the characteristics of the
concept being taught by emphasizing commonalties and differences.
3.13 Two-Way Communication

Your presentation should not be a monologue- a one-way communication. Create situations
for two-way communication by increasing student participation. Questioning, case studies,
class assignments, hand outs with blanks to be filled in etc. are some of the possibilities for
establishing two-way communication purposes.
4.0 INSTRUCTIONAL DELIVERY
Before the presentation, finalize your plan in view of the time available and ensure the
availability of resources. Make a copy of plan available to your mentor and colleagues.
Decide an appropriate place and time (a classroom situation) in consultation with your
mentor for presentation.
You may also ask your colleagues to be a part of presentation and get feedback after the
session. The suggested feedback format in given in Appendix one with this e content. You
are also advised to video record your session for future reference. You may use your own
mobile camera also for this purpose. Your mentor may like to discuss the parts / compete
video while offering feedback to you. In addition, to the feedback provided by your mentor
and colleagues, you should also introspect, as self-feedback is significant activity for self-
improvement. As the session will be video recorded, the presenter should avoid wearing
shirts or suit of light color, these clothing schemes result in poor picture quality while
recording on video. Now, please do the following activity.
ACTIVITY
Deliver the classroom-based session in the regular classroom situation using validated
session plan finalized through assignment. Record your video and submit the recorded
video to the mentor for obtaining feedback.
As advised earlier, you will request your mentor and colleagues to be present in the class
for full /part time. They will provide the feedback based on the suggested format given in
Appendix I, on different aspects of presentation. This is necessary because the
observations are to be recorded carefully and the effectiveness of this session depends
upon observations. The criteria in the form of Rubrics are explained in Appendix-II.
A very popular model related to feedback known as ‘Johari window’ is discussed in brief. For
details, you can refer to the web link provided in the references.
5.0 JOHARI WINDOW
Johari Window proposed by Joseph Luft and Harry Lingham (1955) is a quite a popular
model for understanding of transactions. This model is a good tool for understanding of the
transactions with students, including transactions in classroom. The model is based on
following premises:
a) There are some things (the behaviour, feelings, attitudes etc.) which you know about
yourself, and some things which you do not know about yourself.
b) There are some things which others know about you, and some things which they do
not know about you.
The Johari Window model is represented by a ‘window’ (figure 1), in the form of rectangle
ABCD. In this window following representations have been made:
Known to self P Unknown to self

A B
Open
to others
or Blind
Known
Public
R O S
Unknown
to others
Hidden Undiscovered
or or
Private Unknown
D C
Q
Figure 1. Johari Window
a) Side AB of the rectangle represents 'self' and side AD represents 'others'.

b) As stated earlier, some things are known to self and some things are unknown to self.
On the upper side AB, AP represents 'known to self' and PB represents 'unknown to
self'
c) Also, some things are known to others and some things are unknown to others. On
left side AD, AR represents 'known to others' and RD ‘unknown to others’.
d) Quadrant APOR now represents known to self and known to others. Hence, it is
known as 'open' or 'public' quadrant. The interaction in this quadrant is marked by
openness and compatibility, and has very little possibility for defensive behaviour and
feelings.
e) Quadrant PBSO represents unknown to self but known to others. Hence this is called
‘blind’ quadrant. You are blind and not able to see yourself. In the interaction in this
quadrant you are not able to see your own mistakes or weaknesses, although others
can see and know them. For example, if you are having interaction in this quadrant
you may irritate somebody and not even realize this, although all others know about
this.
f) Quadrant ROQD represents known to self but unknown to others and hence called
'hidden' or 'private' quadrant. You are keeping 'hidden' from others or it is 'private',
'not public'. In this quadrant you keep things hidden from others for fear of their
reactions.
g) Quadrant OSCQ represents unknown to self as well as others and hence called
'undiscovered' or 'unknown' quadrant. The things in this region are neither known to
you nor to others.
This model is dynamic and sensitive. You can make use of 'disclosure' and 'feedback'
mechanisms. The dividing line R-S in the figure separates the region of 'known to others'
from 'unknown to others’. If this line is moved from position RS to R'S', the effect of this is
that 'open self' increases and 'hidden self' decreases. Similarly, 'blind self' increases and
'undiscovered self' decreases. This is known as 'disclosure', because you have disclosed
something about yourself which has resulted in others awareness about you.
If, instead of RS, line PQ which is the dividing line between known to self and unknown to
self, it is moved towards right to new position P'Q’, the effect is that known to self increases
and unknown to self decreases. This mechanism is 'feedback', because you have received
feedback which has increased your awareness about yourself.
In the classroom presentation there are some aspects of teaching behaviour about which
others (students, colleagues, observers) are aware and can offer feedback to you. This is like
a mirroring exercise. If the feedback is offered in a constructive manner, it can bring about
positive changes in your presentation. When feedback is being offered it is advisable that
you take it in a sporting manner and improve upon. You should avoid finding excuses for not
accepting the feedback.
6.0 DEVELOPMENT OF TEACHING SKILLS BASED ON FEEDBACK
When a teacher gives feedback, it is a good practice to start with the strengths observed in
the presentation and then mention the points of weakness. Weakness should be expressed
in such a way that the presenter does not get hurt or offended. The feedback should be as
objective as possible. For self-feedback the teacher can watch and listen very attentively to
his/her own recorded video. One can improve a lot by observing one’s own performance. In
a teaching practice session, the trainee teachers get a golden opportunity to observe a
variety of performances. Strengths and weaknesses in these performances enable a

wonderful sharing of experience and increase the possibility of improvement.
Like any other skill, giving and receiving feedback is a key skill for development of any
teacher, hence you should develop this skill. As you know any skill cannot be developed in
one attempt, so the cycle of practicing, getting feedback, improving the performance based
on the feedback and re-practice should continue, till you achieve confidence level and
develop effective presentation skills.
You already are familiar about ‘feedback’ in Lesson L16. In this lesson, focus is on feedback
to improve your presentation and performance skills in the classroom. Feedback regarding
your performance in the classroom can be received from resource person or mentor. It can
also be obtained from seniors and colleagues and even from students about your classroom
presentation.
You should also analyse your own classroom presentation in order to improve your skills.
This is possible through self-feedback. Your presentation may be recorded on videotape for
self-assessment. You may also obtain feedback from your colleagues or students at regular
intervals. The feedback may be obtained on suggested formats or observation data sheets.
An example of a structured format is given in Appendix one for giving the feedback on your
performance. As stated above, you have four sources of collecting the feedback as described
below:
a) Feedback by Peers
Other faculty members may be requested to attend your session and may be
requested to provide the feedback on a structured or unstructured format.
b) Feedback by Mentor and Seniors

Your mentor has to provide the feedback on the suggested structured format
given in Appendix one. Even some senior faculty members like Head of the
department may be requested to attend your session and may be requested to
provide the feedback on the suggested format.
c) Feedback by Students
All the students or randomly selected students may be given the structured
proforma by you, which they may be requested to submit after giving their
comments. Please note that you are not going into pros and cons of student
feedback. You have to analyse your environment and then take a decision
accordingly. Student feedback will be useful only if you can get un-biased view.
d) Self-Feedback
You may reflect on the incidents which occur during your instructional session. This
can be done immediately after the session when the incidents are fresh in your
mind. On the basis of this reflection, you can identify your strengths and
weaknesses and build on your strengths and minimize your weaknesses. You may
get your instructional session video-recorded. Later on, you can watch the video
recording and carryout self-assessment. While watching video, you must not start
with any 'bias', if you have to give yourself un-biased feedback using the
observation form given in Appendix I.
The teacher should always be very keen to receive feedback about the aspects of his/her
performance. But giving and receiving feedback is a skill which you should learn and
develop. You continuously get feedback either explicit through oral or written language, or
implicit in gestures or tone of voice. The feedback conveys important information about the
behaviour. When you get feedback, you should take it as a learning opportunity. As it
reinforces existing strengths, gives opportunity to take corrective actions and contributes for
professional development of teachers.
You should remember that teacher development is a continuous process. You should
continue to work on the aspects which can be improved further. Even after 5-7 years of
experience, you may realize that you could not handle certain situations effectively. You
may realize that practicing teacher centered methods are somewhat easy but you should be
equally confident in practicing students' centered teaching methods, like problem based
and, project-based learning experiences.
Based on the feedback, you may identify the areas, which need to be strengthened. For
example, your mentor may give you the feedback that you need to work on communication
and presentation skills, which are key to effective delivery. Now do the following activity.
ACTIVITY
Develop an action plan for the next six months in order to improve your teaching skills,
based on the feedback provided by mentor, colleagues and self-feedback
7.0 CONCLUSION
Thomas Alva Edison said ‘Genius is 99% perspiration and 1% inspiration. Therefore, based on
all the discussions thus far and on practicing this instructional plan religiously and
implementing the same in your classroom, the teaching skills will gradually get perfected in
the teacher. Over a period of time, repeated systematic and logical teaching in this manner
will become internalized and become part of one’s own character and it will become a way
of thinking. The presenter is the beneficiary learner out of teaching practice experience and
therefore presenter should avoid defending when receiving feedback, instead should note
down the comments that could be discussed in details with his/her peers and evaluators for
clarification of doubts.
******
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors acknowledge the contributions of Dr. N. K. Banthiya and former professors
of NITTTR Bhopal whose documents have been referred in several of these lessons.
8.0 REFERENCES
Gagne, Robert M. and Briggs, Leslie, J. (1979.Principles of Instructional Design. Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, New York.
Banthiya, N.K., Saksena, K.; Lahiri S. and Chugh C. K. (1999). Manage Classroom Transactions and
Make Effective Presentation in Classroom. Module-6 - A Competency-Based Self-Learning
Module. Bhopal: TTTI.
Dempsey, J.V. and G.C. Sales (Eds.). (1993) Interactive Instruction and Feedback. Educational
Technology Publication. NJ: Englewood Cliffs.
Banthiya N.K. [Ed.] (1999). Use Correct Verbal and Non- Verbal Communication in Classroom.
Module-3 - A Competency-Based Self-Learning Module. Bhopal: TTTI.
London, M. (1997) Job Feedback: Giving, Seeking, and Using Feedback for Performance Improvement.
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
McGill, I. and L. Beaty (1995) Action Learning. London: Kogan Page Ltd.
https://www.communicationtheory.org/the-johari-window-model/ accessed on 1 June 2019
Appendix-I
INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICE SESSION OBSERVATION FORM
Teacher Trainee: ………………………………………………………………………………………. Date: ………….
Topic: …………………………………………………………………………......…………................Time: ………….
No. Criteria Excellent Very Good Fair Poor Remarks/
good Comments
A. PRESENTATION
1. Introduction
i. Gaining Attention 5 4 3 2 1
(Motivation)
ii. Informing the learners of 5 4 3 2 1
the behavioral Objectives
iii. Recall of Pre-requisite 5 4 3 2 1
learning
2. Development
i Content appropriateness 5 4 3 2 1
ii Methodology 5 4 3 2 1
iii Question-Answer 5 4 3 2 1
Technique
iv Trainees active 5 4 3 2 1
participation in learning
3. Consolidation
i. Recapitulation of points 5 4 3 2 1
covered
ii. Assessing the 5 4 3 2 1
Performance
iii. Giving Assignments for 5 4 3 2 1
Practice, Retention and
Transfer of Learning
B Use of Media and Material
i. Chalk Board/ Whiteboard 5 4 3 2 1
ii. Power point presentation 5 4 3 2 1
iii. Models / Video / 5 4 3 2 1
Animations /other
material (please specify)
C DELIVERY
i. Voice Audibility 5 4 3 2 1
ii. Quality 5 4 3 2 1
iii. Speed 5 4 3 2 1
iv. Gestures & Mannerisms 5 4 3 2 1
D OVERALL IMPRESSION 5 4 3 2 1
E Any Suggestions for Improvement
Appendix-II
RUBRICS FOR INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICE SESSION OBSERVATION FORM
Aspects of 5 4 3 2 1
Presentation Excellent Very Good Good Satisfactory Poor
Introduction Made the Attracted the Introduction Introduction Learning
trainees eager attention of made but made but Outcomes not
to learn the trainees. succeeded ineffective mentioned at
All were set to Learning partially. Learning all.
listen Learning Outcomes Learning Outcomes Commencem
Outcomes made clear Outcomes not mentioned ent of content
stated and made very clear but not clear teaching was
explained in abrupt.
sequence
Development
Content One-to-one Content Content had its Random Content not
appropriateness correspondenc appropriate own logic but selection of relevant with
e with Learning but partially not completely content and Learning
Outcomes and presented in a in not relevant Outcomes
presented in a logical correspondenc with Learning and not
logical sequence. e with Learning Outcomes appropriate
sequence Outcomes with course
Methodology Selection of Appropriate Methods and Methods and Methods/
methods and selection of techniques techniques techniques
techniques very methods and suitable but partially not suitable
well suited to techniques execution suitable and
the content and and execution average not properly
the execution good. executed.
excellent
Question- Questions Asked Only few Questions Questions
Answer made the purposeful purposeful were asked were neither
Technique session alive. questions but questions but some not asked nor
Students' handling raised and purposeful were
questions partially handling at an and handling Students
handled successful. average level poor encouraged
appropriately to ask
questions.
Students Active Maximum Participation At times Very little Students
Participation in participation of satisfactory students were participation were not
Learning students in involved, they involved
terms of were feeling except
answering bored listening
questions
participation in
discussion.
Use of Media Material very Material well Material Untidy, rather For too
and resources clearly and presented satisfactory crowded crowded
attractively letters presented, partly illegible illegible
presented readable letters difficult
to read
Verbal Very clearly Easily heard Just audible Sometimes Almost
Communication audible Lively, Fairly lively Satisfactory audible entirely
varied tone Rather dull inaudible Very
monotonous
Gestures and Very agreeable Pleasant Satisfactory Rather Unpleasant
Mannerisms (No distracting disagreeable (Lot of
gesture and distracting
mannerism gestures and
mannerism)
Consolidation Recapitulation/ Summarizatio Summarization Brief mention No
summarization n good average of what was Summarizatio
excellent, including all including some done. No n/
linking main main points. points. No assessment Recapitulatio
points, linking A little or/No assessment n and
with future assessment assessment
topic or field
assessment of
learning carried
out.
L21: Practicum in Classroom
Contributors



LO 1. Deliver the session for a period of 45 to 60 minutes duration in a classroom
situation.
LO 2. Obtain feedback from peers and mentor about the teaching practice using
suggested 'observation proforma'.
LO 3. Identify areas for improvement based on feedback received.
Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION......................................................................................... 3
2.0 RECAPITULATION ...................................................................................... 3
2.1 Introduction .............................................................................................. 3
2.2 Development ............................................................................................ 4
2.3 Consolidation ............................................................................................ 4
3.0 EFFECTIVE PRESENTATION ........................................................................ 4
3.1 Gaining Attention...................................................................................... 5
3.2 Keeping Students Interested ..................................................................... 5
3.3 Style .......................................................................................................... 5
3.4 Voice ......................................................................................................... 6
3.5 Gestures.................................................................................................... 6
3.6 Movements............................................................................................... 6
3.7 Eye movement .......................................................................................... 6
3.8 Silence ...................................................................................................... 7
3.9 Distracting Mannerisms ............................................................................ 7
3.10 Interactions ............................................................................................... 7
3.11 Effective Questioning ................................................................................ 7
3.12 Illustrations ............................................................................................... 8
3.13 Two-Way Communication......................................................................... 9
4.0 INSTRUCTIONAL DELIVERY ........................................................................ 9
5.0 JOHARI WINDOW .................................................................................... 10
6.0 DEVELOPMENT OF TEACHING SKILLS BASED ON FEEDBACK ................... 11
7.0 CONCLUSION .......................................................................................... 13
8.0 REFERENCES............................................................................................ 14
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The final outcome of module-04 is to improve the teachers' performance through 'Practicum
in classroom’. You are expected to deliver a session of 45-60 minutes in a classroom
situation. You have prepared the session plan and got it validated through your peer and
mentor in lesson 15 and 16 respectively. You might have also created or procured resources
like computer-based presentation, handouts, assignments etc for conducting your session.
In this lesson, the focus is on delivery of the plan, getting the feedback from colleagues and
mentor, which will help you to identify the areas where you need improvement.
2.0 RECAPITULATION
This lesson aiming at implementation of instructional session plan is a blend of whatever you
have learnt earlier. Effective implementation also means effective presentation so that
students are continuously able to maintain high attention levels in the classroom. The
adolescent students are full of energy and emotions, which make the job as a teacher, a very
challenging one. You have to sustain the attention levels of the students throughout the
session for effective teaching-learning process. The presentation should also be easily
understood and retained for a longer duration of time. Thus, the presentation on the part
requires the use of motivating techniques in the class. In this lesson, an attempt has been
made to recapitulate and revisit some of the techniques and guidelines which if practised,
will help you to improve your presentation in a classroom.
Please recall from the earlier lessons, that Introduction, development and consolidation are
the three important components of any presentation. You have also leant that they are
linked to principles of learning and the nine instructional events (Gagne, 1979). To support
the process of learning in students, following aspects need to be taken care under the three
components:
2.1 Introduction
As the class starts, you have to draw and sustain the attention of the students. You must
introduce the topic which is the initial part of instruction and should serve some of these
purposes.
• Recall the previous learning
• Answer the questions or queries of the students with regard to previous session.
• Explain the instructional objectives of present session.
• Explain the relevance of proposed instruction.
When would you know that introduction is complete? It has been suggested to utilize
maximum 10% of the total instructional session time for introduction. On each such
occasion, the time is not only the criteria, the criteria should be whether the students have
been prepared to receive the main content of the instruction or not. The 'prepared'
students will show the indicators such as –
• They are eager to learn the new instruction.
• They are attentive in the class
• They may ask inquisitive questions.
• They maintain eye to eye contact.
• They are ready to note down the instruction.
2.2 Development
After the introduction, you may present the main content as per the finalized session plan.
The presentation should follow the logical sequence as already planned. Such an approach
will result in smooth transitions, and high attention level of the students can be maintained
for effective learning. The narration also needs to be supported by use of questioning skills
as discussed in Lesson-8 of this module. The feedback from questioning may be utilized to
modify the instruction during its session, so that the designed objectives are successfully
achieved.
The students’ participation should be associated with the instruction as per the plan. This
two-way communication will improve the teaching – learning process. The students should
be encouraged to:
a) Seek clarifications.
b) Ask questions.
c) Practice the skills to be learnt.
d) Keep trying till they are able to perform as desired.
During the course of instruction, a natural and conducive environment is to be maintained
which will always enhance the learning efforts of students. You may smile or frown on the
undesired performance, but what will the effect of these two responses? The smile will
have a positive effect while frowning may have a negative effect of losing attention and
ultimately withdrawal from the class.
2.3 Consolidation
This is the concluding part of the instructional session plan and hence requires consolidation.
a) Review major points of lesson
b) Explain accomplishment of objectives
c) Assess students’ learning outcome
d) Provide more assignments for practice etc.
3.0 EFFECTIVE PRESENTATION

During the lesson presentation from introduction to consolidation, you may have to adopt
many roles e.g. teacher, guide, counsellor or manager. For performing these roles
effectively, you have to take care of various aspects that are explained briefly below.
Module-3 for 'communication Skills, Modes and Knowledge Dissemination' covers these
aspects in detail and you can refer it once again.

As you enter the class room for the instructional session, you have to draw the attention of
the students towards you. The drawing of the attention could be done in a number of ways
like greeting the students, looking at their faces and establishing eye contact, exchanging
feelings with smiling face etc. This will help you to develop a rapport with the students.
Sometimes, this may not be enough if some students are still talking to their companions or
busy in previous session's work. At this moment, the teacher has all the authority to be
angry with the students and draw the attention of the concerned students by scolding. But,
this may create non-cohesive atmosphere in the class. The students may turn off. They may
not like to be with you or listen to you or learn during the instructional session. Whether,
you like it or not, your own behaviour shapes the attitudes of your students. You may have
to avoid such behaviour and be persuasive to draw their attention, which will also establish
a conducive atmosphere. During such moments, you may use any of these ways to draw the
attention:
a) By making some noise with duster or any other object on table.
b) Ask questions about previous session
c) Ask question relating to present session.
d) Narrate some incident about previous or present session.
e) Narrate some short story or anecdote.
3.2 Keeping Students Interested

Be well prepared with the material you want to present. This will give you confidence and
you will not have to refer to your notes all the time. Referring to notes is not bad, but
looking into the notes all the time and not maintaining eye-to-eye contact with the students
shows lack of confidence. A teacher standing in front of the class staring at the notes, the
floor, ceiling or the side walls; looking rarely at the students may not notice that students
are yawning or talking. If you find that attention of your class is wavering, students are
inattentive or impatient; you should vary the stimulus. This could be done by telling a
related incident, anecdote, showing a cartoon or some visual illustration. If students don't
seem to understand what you are telling and look confused, unpack the material further and
simplify the explanation. If you are observant, you would be able to sense receptivity or lack
of it on the part of students and make appropriate changes in your presentation.
3.3 Style
Presentation should not be completely formal. Your style should be conversational, using
first and second persons in sentences, and avoiding use of third person. Talk to your
students in such a way that 'mental distance' between you and them is reduced. You must
feel natural and relaxed. You must remember that your manner of delivery- the way you
raise or lower your voice, emphasize words and sentences, convey lot of meaning. Your
voice must support points you are making. If you are enthusiastic, cheerful and interested,
your students will be motivated to listen to you. If you appear bored and gloomy, the
chances are that your students will start feeling bored and will not listen to you.
3.4 Voice
In the classroom, the students' attention needs to be sustained throughout the instructional
session. Your voice will play a major role in this. The students sitting in the last row should
be able to hear your voice clearly, but this is not enough. A voice at a particular volume
without vocal variations will make a dull class. The vocal variations are timing, pitch and
volume. These variations play an essential part in the narration by conveying the meaning,
giving emphasis, create and sustain interest and enhance learning. For example, you can say
‘yes’ in numerous ways by varying the pitch, volume and timing and thus give many
meanings to it. The vocal delivery with pauses of one fifth of a second helps to give
emphasis. The rapid speed may be given to that part of instruction which is relatively less
important.
3.5 Gestures
You have already learnt about verbal and non-verbal communication in module 3. Gestures
are movements of body, head and hands, which help to express the ideas and emotions
during oral communication. You must use gestures to support points you are making. You
should not use gestures which distract the attention of the students. You have to also assess
the attention of students by their displayed gestures, whether they are with you or day
dreaming.
3.6 Movements
Too many body movements may be very distracting, although standing motionless attached
to the white board or at a fixed place may result in losing attention of the students. Move
closer to students as you try to converse or get into a dialogue with them.
3.7 Eye movement

This is the most important non-verbal communication channel through which you sustain
linkages with one another in the classroom. While delivering the lesson, if you continuously
look to the board or wall or out of the window, then students’ attention will also start
wavering, and the result will be very low attention level of students. You, as a teacher may
move your eyes from one corner to other establishing the eye contacts with students. The
students as listeners also tend to look towards the eyes of the teacher. This eye to eye
contact is very helpful in teaching-learning process. Here, you should take care to avoid
staring at an individual student, as this will cause embarrassment. The eye to eye contacts
will tell us whether the students are following the lesson or they have some difficulty. You
are aware that many a time the eyes communicate more than words. You may read the
faces to find the signs of confusion, difficulty, boredom, or anxiety.
3.8 Silence
Silence has a language. A short pause before saying something important is an effective way
of holding attention. A sudden pause in the middle of sentence gains attention. A three
seconds pause is recommended for gaining attention. A longer duration pauses such as 20
seconds can be agonising for the students. You will appreciate that while questioning, it is
recommended to have a pause after each question has been asked.
3.9 Distracting Mannerisms

Many people have pet phrases and mannerisms. These become a habit without the realising
how distracting these could be to others with whom you are communicating. Habits such as
playing with chalk, playing with a shirt button, tie twisting, and too much movement are
very annoying to students. Also, phrases, such as 'you see', 'you know', 'right' and others can
become very annoying if used repetitively. Use of such pet phrases and mannerisms is not
noticed by a teacher. If your attention is drawn to these or you are shown a video recording
of your presentation, you will notice these mannerisms. It is then possible to take corrective
measures.
3.10 Interactions
Where ever possible, you should try to include the interaction at different level like teacher
to individual student, student to teacher and student to student. The interaction between a
teacher to individual student is possible as a result of questioning during the presentation.
The students should be encouraged to ask questions or raise queries, especially at the end of
some difficult part of session or at the end of the session. The student to student
interactions are difficult to accommodate due to shortage of time, however these could be
accommodated based on situations. You could try 'buzz session' for this purpose. Refer to
Lesson 9 in this module for recalling more about buzz session.
3.11 Effective Questioning

During the instructional session, you should use questioning to achieve the following
purposes:
a) To keep the student alert.
b) To create interest and motivation.
c) To improve understanding.
d) To obtain diagnostic information about the students' learning.
Efforts should be made to prepare simple and yet challenging questions which help the
students to comprehend the topic as well as arouse feelings to learn more.
3.12 Illustrations
Your presentation should include lot of verbal and visual illustrations. As you know, if senses
of seeing and hearing are combined together learning is better; plan to use both visual aids
and verbal illustrations.
a. Media: Audio-visual Aids and Other Resources

You have learnt about using board effectively in Lesson 14. Chalk and talk are not always the
only media to have an effective and efficient instruction. You need to use other media
discussed in Lesson 11 to 14. You may also make use of real objects or models. You may also
use demonstration method as discussed in Lesson 8 of this module.
Media should match the content you are delivering. Whenever you use a media, see that
you don't block the view of your students. Also plan before hand, where and what will be
used so that you can change over smoothly from one media to the other during your
presentation. While using the media, remember to follow guidelines given below:
i. Prefer real objects wherever possible as compared to pictures or diagrams.
ii. The selection of media should depend upon the availability of time, hardware and
specific need.
iii. The media should be relevant with the instructional objectives.
iv. The media should be properly prepared.
v. The media should be displayed at the right moment and for appropriate duration in
the instructional session. Longer duration may cause distraction of the students.
b. Verbal Illustrations
Verbal illustrations- examples, non-examples, and anecdotes make the presentation
relevant and lively; and should be used quite often.
c. Analogies
An analogy is a comparison of one thing to another which emphasizes the similarities
between them. Usually, the known concept is compared to unknown for emphasizing the
important characteristic of unknown which are similar to those of known. For example, the
flow of heat is analogous to flow of electrical current and flow of electrical current is
analogous to flow of water.
d. Anecdotes
An anecdote is an interesting story or incident used to illustrate the point being emphasized
by the teacher. Anecdotes remain long in the memory compared to other material which is
forgotten much earlier. Anecdote should be a natural part of the talk and should be relevant
for the topic.
e. Examples and Non-Examples

An example is a representative sample of a general concept, principle or process and it
illustrates the characteristic of the concept, principle or process you are explaining.
Examples chosen should be familiar to the students so that they can readily understand the
topic being taught. It is a good idea to bring in non-examples in your lecture together with
the examples. This will further draw attention of the students to the characteristics of the
concept being taught by emphasizing commonalties and differences.
3.13 Two-Way Communication

Your presentation should not be a monologue- a one-way communication. Create situations
for two-way communication by increasing student participation. Questioning, case studies,
class assignments, hand outs with blanks to be filled in etc. are some of the possibilities for
establishing two-way communication purposes.
4.0 INSTRUCTIONAL DELIVERY
Before the presentation, finalize your plan in view of the time available and ensure the
availability of resources. Make a copy of plan available to your mentor and colleagues.
Decide an appropriate place and time (a classroom situation) in consultation with your
mentor for presentation.
You may also ask your colleagues to be a part of presentation and get feedback after the
session. The suggested feedback format in given in Appendix one with this e content. You
are also advised to video record your session for future reference. You may use your own
mobile camera also for this purpose. Your mentor may like to discuss the parts / compete
video while offering feedback to you. In addition, to the feedback provided by your mentor
and colleagues, you should also introspect, as self-feedback is significant activity for self-
improvement. As the session will be video recorded, the presenter should avoid wearing
shirts or suit of light color, these clothing schemes result in poor picture quality while
recording on video. Now, please do the following activity.
ACTIVITY
Deliver the classroom-based session in the regular classroom situation using validated
session plan finalized through assignment. Record your video and submit the recorded
video to the mentor for obtaining feedback.
As advised earlier, you will request your mentor and colleagues to be present in the class
for full /part time. They will provide the feedback based on the suggested format given in
Appendix I, on different aspects of presentation. This is necessary because the
observations are to be recorded carefully and the effectiveness of this session depends
upon observations. The criteria in the form of Rubrics are explained in Appendix-II.
A very popular model related to feedback known as ‘Johari window’ is discussed in brief. For
details, you can refer to the web link provided in the references.
5.0 JOHARI WINDOW
Johari Window proposed by Joseph Luft and Harry Lingham (1955) is a quite a popular
model for understanding of transactions. This model is a good tool for understanding of the
transactions with students, including transactions in classroom. The model is based on
following premises:
a) There are some things (the behaviour, feelings, attitudes etc.) which you know about
yourself, and some things which you do not know about yourself.
b) There are some things which others know about you, and some things which they do
not know about you.
The Johari Window model is represented by a ‘window’ (figure 1), in the form of rectangle
ABCD. In this window following representations have been made:
Known to self P Unknown to self

A B
Open
to others
or Blind
Known
Public
R O S
Unknown
to others
Hidden Undiscovered
or or
Private Unknown
D C
Q
Figure 1. Johari Window
a) Side AB of the rectangle represents 'self' and side AD represents 'others'.

b) As stated earlier, some things are known to self and some things are unknown to self.
On the upper side AB, AP represents 'known to self' and PB represents 'unknown to
self'
c) Also, some things are known to others and some things are unknown to others. On
left side AD, AR represents 'known to others' and RD ‘unknown to others’.
d) Quadrant APOR now represents known to self and known to others. Hence, it is
known as 'open' or 'public' quadrant. The interaction in this quadrant is marked by
openness and compatibility, and has very little possibility for defensive behaviour and
feelings.
e) Quadrant PBSO represents unknown to self but known to others. Hence this is called
‘blind’ quadrant. You are blind and not able to see yourself. In the interaction in this
quadrant you are not able to see your own mistakes or weaknesses, although others
can see and know them. For example, if you are having interaction in this quadrant
you may irritate somebody and not even realize this, although all others know about
this.
f) Quadrant ROQD represents known to self but unknown to others and hence called
'hidden' or 'private' quadrant. You are keeping 'hidden' from others or it is 'private',
'not public'. In this quadrant you keep things hidden from others for fear of their
reactions.
g) Quadrant OSCQ represents unknown to self as well as others and hence called
'undiscovered' or 'unknown' quadrant. The things in this region are neither known to
you nor to others.
This model is dynamic and sensitive. You can make use of 'disclosure' and 'feedback'
mechanisms. The dividing line R-S in the figure separates the region of 'known to others'
from 'unknown to others’. If this line is moved from position RS to R'S', the effect of this is
that 'open self' increases and 'hidden self' decreases. Similarly, 'blind self' increases and
'undiscovered self' decreases. This is known as 'disclosure', because you have disclosed
something about yourself which has resulted in others awareness about you.
If, instead of RS, line PQ which is the dividing line between known to self and unknown to
self, it is moved towards right to new position P'Q’, the effect is that known to self increases
and unknown to self decreases. This mechanism is 'feedback', because you have received
feedback which has increased your awareness about yourself.
In the classroom presentation there are some aspects of teaching behaviour about which
others (students, colleagues, observers) are aware and can offer feedback to you. This is like
a mirroring exercise. If the feedback is offered in a constructive manner, it can bring about
positive changes in your presentation. When feedback is being offered it is advisable that
you take it in a sporting manner and improve upon. You should avoid finding excuses for not
accepting the feedback.
6.0 DEVELOPMENT OF TEACHING SKILLS BASED ON FEEDBACK
When a teacher gives feedback, it is a good practice to start with the strengths observed in
the presentation and then mention the points of weakness. Weakness should be expressed
in such a way that the presenter does not get hurt or offended. The feedback should be as
objective as possible. For self-feedback the teacher can watch and listen very attentively to
his/her own recorded video. One can improve a lot by observing one’s own performance. In
a teaching practice session, the trainee teachers get a golden opportunity to observe a
variety of performances. Strengths and weaknesses in these performances enable a

wonderful sharing of experience and increase the possibility of improvement.
Like any other skill, giving and receiving feedback is a key skill for development of any
teacher, hence you should develop this skill. As you know any skill cannot be developed in
one attempt, so the cycle of practicing, getting feedback, improving the performance based
on the feedback and re-practice should continue, till you achieve confidence level and
develop effective presentation skills.
You already are familiar about ‘feedback’ in Lesson L16. In this lesson, focus is on feedback
to improve your presentation and performance skills in the classroom. Feedback regarding
your performance in the classroom can be received from resource person or mentor. It can
also be obtained from seniors and colleagues and even from students about your classroom
presentation.
You should also analyse your own classroom presentation in order to improve your skills.
This is possible through self-feedback. Your presentation may be recorded on videotape for
self-assessment. You may also obtain feedback from your colleagues or students at regular
intervals. The feedback may be obtained on suggested formats or observation data sheets.
An example of a structured format is given in Appendix one for giving the feedback on your
performance. As stated above, you have four sources of collecting the feedback as described
below:
a) Feedback by Peers
Other faculty members may be requested to attend your session and may be
requested to provide the feedback on a structured or unstructured format.
b) Feedback by Mentor and Seniors

Your mentor has to provide the feedback on the suggested structured format
given in Appendix one. Even some senior faculty members like Head of the
department may be requested to attend your session and may be requested to
provide the feedback on the suggested format.
c) Feedback by Students
All the students or randomly selected students may be given the structured
proforma by you, which they may be requested to submit after giving their
comments. Please note that you are not going into pros and cons of student
feedback. You have to analyse your environment and then take a decision
accordingly. Student feedback will be useful only if you can get un-biased view.
d) Self-Feedback
You may reflect on the incidents which occur during your instructional session. This
can be done immediately after the session when the incidents are fresh in your
mind. On the basis of this reflection, you can identify your strengths and
weaknesses and build on your strengths and minimize your weaknesses. You may
get your instructional session video-recorded. Later on, you can watch the video
recording and carryout self-assessment. While watching video, you must not start
with any 'bias', if you have to give yourself un-biased feedback using the
observation form given in Appendix I.
The teacher should always be very keen to receive feedback about the aspects of his/her
performance. But giving and receiving feedback is a skill which you should learn and
develop. You continuously get feedback either explicit through oral or written language, or
implicit in gestures or tone of voice. The feedback conveys important information about the
behaviour. When you get feedback, you should take it as a learning opportunity. As it
reinforces existing strengths, gives opportunity to take corrective actions and contributes for
professional development of teachers.
You should remember that teacher development is a continuous process. You should
continue to work on the aspects which can be improved further. Even after 5-7 years of
experience, you may realize that you could not handle certain situations effectively. You
may realize that practicing teacher centered methods are somewhat easy but you should be
equally confident in practicing students' centered teaching methods, like problem based
and, project-based learning experiences.
Based on the feedback, you may identify the areas, which need to be strengthened. For
example, your mentor may give you the feedback that you need to work on communication
and presentation skills, which are key to effective delivery. Now do the following activity.
ACTIVITY
Develop an action plan for the next six months in order to improve your teaching skills,
based on the feedback provided by mentor, colleagues and self-feedback
7.0 CONCLUSION
Thomas Alva Edison said ‘Genius is 99% perspiration and 1% inspiration. Therefore, based on
all the discussions thus far and on practicing this instructional plan religiously and
implementing the same in your classroom, the teaching skills will gradually get perfected in
the teacher. Over a period of time, repeated systematic and logical teaching in this manner
will become internalized and become part of one’s own character and it will become a way
of thinking. The presenter is the beneficiary learner out of teaching practice experience and
therefore presenter should avoid defending when receiving feedback, instead should note
down the comments that could be discussed in details with his/her peers and evaluators for
clarification of doubts.
******
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors acknowledge the contributions of Dr. N. K. Banthiya and former professors
of NITTTR Bhopal whose documents have been referred in several of these lessons.
8.0 REFERENCES
Gagne, Robert M. and Briggs, Leslie, J. (1979.Principles of Instructional Design. Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, New York.
Banthiya, N.K., Saksena, K.; Lahiri S. and Chugh C. K. (1999). Manage Classroom Transactions and
Make Effective Presentation in Classroom. Module-6 - A Competency-Based Self-Learning
Module. Bhopal: TTTI.
Dempsey, J.V. and G.C. Sales (Eds.). (1993) Interactive Instruction and Feedback. Educational
Technology Publication. NJ: Englewood Cliffs.
Banthiya N.K. [Ed.] (1999). Use Correct Verbal and Non- Verbal Communication in Classroom.
Module-3 - A Competency-Based Self-Learning Module. Bhopal: TTTI.
London, M. (1997) Job Feedback: Giving, Seeking, and Using Feedback for Performance Improvement.
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
McGill, I. and L. Beaty (1995) Action Learning. London: Kogan Page Ltd.
https://www.communicationtheory.org/the-johari-window-model/ accessed on 1 June 2019
Appendix-I
INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICE SESSION OBSERVATION FORM
Teacher Trainee: ………………………………………………………………………………………. Date: ………….
Topic: …………………………………………………………………………......…………................Time: ………….
No. Criteria Excellent Very Good Fair Poor Remarks/
good Comments
A. PRESENTATION
1. Introduction
i. Gaining Attention 5 4 3 2 1
(Motivation)
ii. Informing the learners of 5 4 3 2 1
the behavioral Objectives
iii. Recall of Pre-requisite 5 4 3 2 1
learning
2. Development
i Content appropriateness 5 4 3 2 1
ii Methodology 5 4 3 2 1
iii Question-Answer 5 4 3 2 1
Technique
iv Trainees active 5 4 3 2 1
participation in learning
3. Consolidation
i. Recapitulation of points 5 4 3 2 1
covered
ii. Assessing the 5 4 3 2 1
Performance
iii. Giving Assignments for 5 4 3 2 1
Practice, Retention and
Transfer of Learning
B Use of Media and Material
i. Chalk Board/ Whiteboard 5 4 3 2 1
ii. Power point presentation 5 4 3 2 1
iii. Models / Video / 5 4 3 2 1
Animations /other
material (please specify)
C DELIVERY
i. Voice Audibility 5 4 3 2 1
ii. Quality 5 4 3 2 1
iii. Speed 5 4 3 2 1
iv. Gestures & Mannerisms 5 4 3 2 1
D OVERALL IMPRESSION 5 4 3 2 1
E Any Suggestions for Improvement
Appendix-II
RUBRICS FOR INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICE SESSION OBSERVATION FORM
Introduction Made the Attracted the Introduction Introduction Learning
trainees eager attention of made but made but Outcomes not
to learn the trainees. succeeded ineffective mentioned at
All were set to Learning partially. Learning all.
listen Learning Outcomes Learning Outcomes Commencem
Outcomes made clear Outcomes not mentioned ent of content
stated and made very clear but not clear teaching was
explained in abrupt.
sequence
Development
Content One-to-one Content Content had its Random Content not
appropriateness correspondenc appropriate own logic but selection of relevant with
e with Learning but partially not completely content and Learning
Outcomes and presented in a in not relevant Outcomes
presented in a logical correspondenc with Learning and not
logical sequence. e with Learning Outcomes appropriate
sequence Outcomes with course
Methodology Selection of Appropriate Methods and Methods and Methods/
methods and selection of techniques techniques techniques
techniques very methods and suitable but partially not suitable
well suited to techniques execution suitable and
the content and and execution average not properly
the execution good. executed.
excellent
Question- Questions Asked Only few Questions Questions
Answer made the purposeful purposeful were asked were neither
Technique session alive. questions but questions but some not asked nor
Students' handling raised and purposeful were
questions partially handling at an and handling Students
handled successful. average level poor encouraged
appropriately to ask
questions.
Students Active Maximum Participation At times Very little Students
Participation in participation of satisfactory students were participation were not
Learning students in involved, they involved
terms of were feeling except
answering bored listening
questions
participation in
discussion.
Use of Media Material very Material well Material Untidy, rather For too
and resources clearly and presented satisfactory crowded crowded
attractively letters presented, partly illegible illegible
presented readable letters difficult
to read
Verbal Very clearly Easily heard Just audible Sometimes Almost
Communication audible Lively, Fairly lively Satisfactory audible entirely
varied tone Rather dull inaudible Very
monotonous
Gestures and Very agreeable Pleasant Satisfactory Rather Unpleasant
Mannerisms (No distracting disagreeable (Lot of
gesture and distracting
mannerism gestures and
mannerism)
Consolidation Recapitulation/ Summarizatio Summarization Brief mention No
summarization n good average of what was Summarizatio
excellent, including all including some done. No n/
linking main main points. points. No assessment Recapitulatio
points, linking A little or/No assessment n and
with future assessment assessment
topic or field
assessment of
learning carried
out.
Guidebook
for Learners of
AICTE-NITTT Module 5
(Technology Enabled Learning & Life-Long Self Learning)
Unit # 1: Introduction to Technology Enabled Learning
National Institute of Technical Teachers Training and Research

(An Autonomous Institute under Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India)
Taramani, Chennai – 600 113, India
UNIT
1
Please note: This booklet (version 2.0) was designed for the course learners of the
SWAYAM MOOC Course – Technology Enabled Learning and Life-Long Self Learning
under AICTE-NITTT Programme. The information provided in the text may not be suitable
or appropriate for other categories of course learners.
Edition: January 2020
Module Coordinator & Learning Material Prepared by:

Dr. G. Janardhanan., Ph.D (USA).,
Associate Professor & Head i/c
Centre for International Affairs &
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
NITTTR Chennai
Email: [email protected] / [email protected]
Phone / Whatsapp: +91-9445520968; +91-44-22545447 / 460
Module Co-Coordinators:
Dr. V. Shanmuganeethi
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
NITTTR Chennai
Phone / Whatsapp: +91-9444289146; +91-44-22545458
&
Dr. K. S. A. Dinesh Kumar
Associate Professor
NITTTR Chennai
Phone / Whatsapp: +91-9443737315; +91-44-22545421
To meet the Course Coordinators, it is preferable to have prior appointment.
2
UNIT
1
Table of Contents
Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 4
Expected Outcomes: .............................................................................................................. 4
Questionnaire Survey: ............................................................................................................ 5
Looking into Unit #1 Content: ............................................................................................... 6
What you mean by Technology Enabled Learning? .................................................................. 8
Reflection of Learning (Activity # 1) ....................................................................................... 9
Digital age and the necessary skills ........................................................................................ 10
National Education Policy ..................................................................................................... 11
Digital Natives & Digital Immigrants ......................................................................................... 29
Reflection of learning: Activity # 2: Identify your learning style: ...................................................... 30
Reflection Of Learning (Activity # 3: To Explore: What Is Technology Enabled Learning?) ...... 33
Assignment # 1: Watch – Think - Reflect .............................................................................. 36
Assignment # 2: Think – Pair – Share – Review of the article: ................................................ 37
Compulsory Reading – OECD Article .................................................................................. 38
Government of India – NMEICT Initiatives ........................................................................... 47
3
UNIT
1
Module 5: Technology enabled learning
And life-long self-learning
Unit # 1: Introduction to Technology Enabled Learning
Introduction
Faculty members and instructors are facing unprecedented change, with often larger classes, more
digitally savvy students. To handle change of this nature, faculty members need to be digitally
equipped along with their content knowledge and skills. This unit focuses on a broader scope of
what it is like teaching with technology, such as, how the faculty responsibilities are redefined in
engaging the millennials, where lies the challenges and opportunities in designing effective
classroom engagement.
We also provide quick overview on the learning theories and it is tuned towards technology
enabled teaching. The participants also explore classroom management strategies that support
active learning in ICT enabled instruction.
The content covered in this unit includes:
Introduction to Teaching into Technology – Technology in Education: National Educational Policy (Draft)
Overview - The Crucial role of the teacher in TEL - Learning Space: Teaching Environment - Teaching
Learning Principles: ICT Perspective Learning Theories - The potential benefits of adopting TEL - -
Expected Outcomes:
After completing the learning activities, the participants will be able to:
1. Describe and discuss some of the key skills that are needed in a technology enabled teaching
learning.
2. Identify the contributions of different factors to integrate technology into the classroom
instruction at all levels.
4
UNIT
1
3. Describe and discuss the National Educational Policy & other initiatives of Government of
India towards the technology in education.
4. Describe the learning theories associated with TEL and discuss their implications for teaching.
Questionnaire Survey:
In the unit 1, we have three questionnaire survey to understand the characteristics of learners.
Diagnostic Survey: To understand the basic attribute of the learners.
Exposure to ICT Tools: To understand the awareness about various ICT Tools.
Learning Space and Teaching Environment: To measure the awareness of the learners
about the teaching environment.
In addition to the three questionnaires, we have poll to understand the teaching beliefs and
intentions. Note that there is no right or wrong answer. There are a variety of teaching beliefs
and intentions that lead to a powerful learning environment for your students.
Poll about the learner perspective about teaching and technology tools.
Completing this questionnaire should take about 10 to 20 minutes of your time and not longer.
It is important to react on your first impression/feeling!
5
UNIT
1
Looking into Unit #1 Content:
The flow in which the learning needs to be done is provided in the form of table. Kindly follow
it for happy learning.
Learning Questionnaire
Videos Reading Discussion Assessment
Reflection Survey
Learning Type of
Title of the content
Sequence Material
01 Welcome to the course – Introductory Video
02 Overview of Unit 1: Teaching into technology
03 Diagnostic Survey
04 Self-Evaluation about ICT awareness
05 How to Get Started – Understanding the directions of learning
06 Introduction to Teaching with Technology
07 What we mean by Technology Enabled Learning?
08 Reflection of Learning (Activity # 1)
09 Technology in Education - National Education Policy (NEP) 2019
10 Teacher preparation and continuous professional development- NEP’19
11 Disruptive technologies - National Education Policy 2019
6
UNIT
1
Learning Type of
Sequence Material
12 Technology in Education – NEP 2019 (Draft)
14 Learning Space – Teaching Environment
OECD Article: Technology-enabled active learning environments: an

15
appraisal
16 Experts view about the Learning Space
17 Voice of the students
18 Crucial role of Teachers in TEL
19 The skills needed in a digital age
20 Technology enabled learning principles – Part 1
21 Technology enabled learning principles – Part 2
22 Leading change in TEL due to Technology
23 AICTE – NEAT Initiative
Discussion # 1
25
What are your reasons for changing in teaching learning spectrum
26 Reading Material
27 Watch – Think – Reflect: About the TED Talks Video
28 Think Pair Share: Review of the article
7
UNIT
1
Learning Type of
Sequence Material
29 Government of India - Initiatives
Discussion # 2
30
What technology challenges will you face in your own teaching?
31 Unit # 1 Conclusion
32 Useful Links and Resources
33 Unit # 1 Quiz: Introduction to TEL
34 Unit # 2 Quiz: National Education Policy (2019) Draft
What you mean by Technology Enabled Learning?
Hello Learners, we need to understand the real meaning of Technology-Enabled Learning so that
learners will have a clear appreciation and understanding of what is being discussed from the
outset. However, this would also be quite unusual: far too often in the field of educational
technology so much is assumed or taken for granted but basic educational questions are left
unanswered. Technology without pedagogy will not provide the intended learning outcomes.
From the periphery we need to bring technology to the core and redefine the digital learning
environment. It is not necessary or worth to get into discussions about whether the learning
context can be thought of as formal, non-formal or informal. At this stage, it is sufficient to
consider that there is an intention for learning to result from the human-technology interaction.
A range of terms, which each emphasize particular characteristics of the phenomenon,
exists to describe it — for example, computer-assisted learning, networked learning, eLearning,
digital learning and, more recently, technology-enhanced learning. The latter term is being used
increasingly in various parts of the world. It suggests that technology can enhance learning in
8
UNIT
1
some way, but it is unusual to find explicit statements about what this “enhancement” actually
involves and how learners’ benefit.
In this module we use the term Technology-Enabled Learning (TEL) and Life-long self-
learning to describe the use of technology to support students’ learning. Using this term makes
it possible to avoid potential ambiguities and differing interpretations of the process. The word
enabled refers to facilitation: learning is made possible by
the use of technology. It does not imply the value Technology Enabled Learning
judgment that the word enhanced necessitates. refers to facilitation and it is made
possible by the use of technology.
Technology-Enabled Learning is just about making learning
possible, whether that means different ways of serving
existing learners or, potentially, providing opportunities for learners who were previously
regarded as being “out of reach” — that is, those learners who typically have little to no access
to educational opportunities because of a variety of circumstances.
Reflection of Learning (Activity # 1)
The main aim of reflection of learning segment is to facilitate mentors in assessing the learning of the
learners through various activities documented in the form of portfolios. The learner perspective need to
be uploaded either in the course digital wall – PADLET (https://padlet.com/drgvjana/TELLLSL) or in the
course discussion page.
a) List down the skills that student should possess to attend your teaching in the digital learning
environment.
b) Have you in recent years adopted any new technology or online learning or blended in your instruction?
If so, what is the motivating factor to do so.
c) In case, if you adopted technology in your teaching, what were the main difficulties you have faced
during the journey of instruction? Whether your colleagues or academic institution provided enough
support to tackle the situation?
d) During the teaching phase, whether any unintended or unexpected consequences you faced towards
the use of more technology in your teaching?
9
UNIT
1
Digital age and the necessary skills
In the era of technological revolution, the entire mankind is encompassed, immersed and depend
upon the technology. The rate at which the technological innovations is far ahead when compare
to the knowledge/skill updating of the individual learners. The infusion of technology has
revolutionized the various walks of life and everyone felt it is indispensable to live without
technology. Technological innovations lead to massive changes in the economy, in providing
network and communication to each other. The potential of technology enabled teaching, will
facilitate us in establishing the knowledge society, which in turn will help us in improving our GDP
and nation growth. The major challenge exists in equipping our educational institution with digital
learning space or environment. Our educational institutions were built in line with industrial era
rather than a digital era. Thus, teachers and students are faced with a massive challenge of change.
How can we ensure that we are developing the kinds of graduates from our courses and programs
that are fit for an increasingly volatile, uncertain, complex and ambiguous (VUCA) future? What
should we continue to protect in our teaching methods (and institutions), and what needs to
change? There is a transition from chalk and talk to click and talk.
The following skill set is required in the digital era for establishing the sound & healthy knowledge
society:
• communications skills
• the ability to learn independently
• ethics and responsibility
• teamwork and flexibility
• thinking skills (critical thinking, problem-solving, creativity, originality, strategizing)
• digital skills
• knowledge management
The key point here is that content and skills are tightly related and as much attention needs to
be given to skills development as to content acquisition to ensure that learners graduate with the
necessary knowledge and skills to meet the need of digital society.
10
19. Technology in Education
Chapter 19
Technology in Education
Objective: Appropriate integration of technology into all
levels of education - to support teacher preparation and
development; improve teaching, learning and evaluation
processes; enhance educational access to disadvantaged
groups; and streamline educational planning, administration
and management.
India is a global leader in ICT and in other cutting-edge domains such as

space. The Digital India Campaign is helping to transform the entire nation
into a digitally empowered society. Quality education will play a critical
role in this transformation, and technology itself will play an important
role in the improvement of educational processes and outcomes. Thus, the
relationship between technology and education at all levels is bidirectional.
The use of technology in education can be classified broadly into four
categories, three of which are concerned directly with students, teachers
and classroom processes. The first and most important area is teacher
preparation and their CPD. It is essential for teachers to receive adequate
training in how to leverage technology to improve educational outcomes.
Teacher preparation may itself leverage technology (e.g. through the
use of online courses), but the quality of training must be of the highest
quality. A second important area where technology can be impactful is in
the classroom processes of teaching, learning and evaluation. Technology-
based tools must be created in response to challenges in these areas, in a
continuous process. The tools must be carefully evaluated to ensure that they
address the challenges without creating additional new ones. The third area
is the use of technology to improve access to education for disadvantaged
groups, including differently-abled students, girls and women, and students
living in remote areas. The fourth area is the planning, administration and
management of the entire education system.
339
National Education Policy 2019
Since technological change is rapid, it is essential to acknowledge key

technology trends in order to identify ways in which education can leverage
not just current technologies but emerging technologies as well. The first
technology trend of relevance is the increasing access to electricity, partly due
to ongoing government initiatives to expand electricity networks, and partly
due to falling costs of locally generated power such as solar energy. In view
of this trend, this Policy advocates focused electrification of all educational
institutions at the earliest, since access to electricity is a basic requirement
for all technology-based interventions. The second technology trend is the
falling cost of computation, data storage, and data connectivity. This trend is
largely driven by market forces, and it enhances the feasability of sophisticated
educational applications that can gather, process and share data (as opposed
to simpler, stand-alone applications). This immediately links to the third
technology trend, namely the increasing importance of data. Not only is it
becoming easier to gather and process data, but tools to perform sophisticated
data analysis are becoming easier to use. It is therefore important to ensure
that data is secured against misuse and that privacy concerns are carefully
addressed. A suitable institution must be empowered to analyse this data and
this task has been assigned to the CESD that is to be set up at NIEPA (see
P6.1.5). Finally, an important technological trend is the accelerated rate at
which disruptive technologies are emerging.
In view of these trends, it is worth highlighting their implications for
infrastructure, end-user hardware, software development, deployment and
data. The use of technology in education is likely to require considerable
investment in basic infrastructure such as electricity, hardware and connectivity.
The bulk of schools and colleges in remote and rural areas do not have access
to the basics (electricity, hardware and reliable connectivity) and, government
must ensure that this situation is remedied at the earliest, if not at the level of
each individual school then certainly at the level of school complexes.
With regards to end-user hardware, it is important to draw a distinction
between institutional devices such as desktop computers, classroom
projectors, WiFi routers, etc. and personal devices (such as smartphones and
laptops). Educational institutions must be allowed to purchase and maintain
institutional devices to support technology-based educational activities such
as blended learning and computer-based laboratories. A key area of concern is
the non-availability of local expertise to help use and maintain all the relevant
hardware and software at these locations. Funding for hiring trained IT staff,
at school complexes for instance, must be provided as needed. However, this
effort can be complemented imaginatively by stationing trained local youth,
either engineers or those with adequate technical training in hardware and
software, at these locations. They must be provided with special, named,
fellowships lasting two to three years during which time they can be associated
with schools, school complexes and other educational institutions in rural
areas to help them with the induction and use of technology. [see P19.4.5]
The success of solutions that require institutional devices has been limited, in
part due to non-uniform availability of resources for procuring them and in
part due the lack of knowhow available locally for maintaining equipment. For
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this reason, the increasing availability of personal devices needs to carefully

considered. Today, low-cost personal devices provide data communication,
computation and multimedia on a single platform, and students generally
learn to operate them quickly and effectively. Hence, personal devices have
the potential to support technology-based educational interventions. There
is a need to recognise however, that access to such devices is not universal,
and that they can also be addictive and distracting, and hence detrimental
to learning. A well thought out approach to making use of personal devices
in educational institutions is needed.
Several models for the creation of software for education exist, ranging from
software platforms such as SWAYAM commissioned by the MHRD for use
by the entire country, to applications and software developed and tested
by educational institutions such as IIT Bombay that need to be scaled, and
software applications created by entrepreneurs that need to be evaluated
and inducted if found to be useful. Although several innovative software
solutions have been created over the past 2-3 decades and are in use, a
mechansim to drive the cycle of:
• Identifying stakeholder (student, teacher, administrator) needs,

• Creating technology-based solutions that address these needs,
• Assessing these solutions in meaningful pilots, and
• Deploying them at scale, with government funding as needed,
is missing in the system. This lacuna can be filled by setting up of special

body that can be assigned this task (see P19.1.1).
Both top-down and bottom up approaches to software development and
induction need to be supported on a continuous basis. The proliferation of
cloud computing technologies makes it relatively easy to scale successful
software solutions across all educational institutions, either on a State-by-
State basis or at the National level. Examples that illustrate this principle
well include software created as part of the National Mission on Education
through ICT (NMEICT), such as Virtual laboratories that provide remote-
access to laboratories in various disciplines of Science and Engineering, and
Spoken Tutorials that help students learn and use open source software
by listening to audio commentary in Indian languages. Certain types of
educational software can be standardised (at State/National levels), which
can leverage scale to reduce development and operational costs per person/
institution.
Promotion of the use of open source software in education is another area
that requires considerable support, and the existing effort of FOSSEE (Free
and Open Source Software in Education) needs to become much more
widespread. The challenge with the use of free and open source software
of course is the higher level of technical competence that is required at
each individual institution, and this challenge must be addressed too (see
P19.4.5). In addition, there must be active encouragement for faculty in
educational institutions, those who are involved in the development of key
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pieces of software in education, to incubate companies so as to ensure that

these solutions are evaluated and inducted / actively marketed to educational
institutions. In the past, entrepreneurship among faculty, in technology or in
other areas, has been actively discouraged. This is changing now but much
more encouragement is needed for faculty and student teams to engage in
entrepreneurship. Faculty must be rewarded for this in their performance
appraisals.
While it is natural that many software initiatives are seeded by the Government
of India at premier institutions such as IIT Bombay or Homi Bhabha Centre for
Science Education (HBCSE), adequate attention needs to also be paid to the
task of making these software solutions available to all educational institutions
in the country. This can be done in more than one way and the appropriate
choice needs to be made based on considerations of the size of the target group,
the urgency and the costs:
• They can be popularised by the developers themselves as is being done now,

which is best for niche solutions in technology;
• They can be handed over to institutions such as the Centre for Development
of Advanced Computing (CDAC) so that they can maintain them with a
24x7 helpdesk that educational institutions can avail of;
• A new company is incubated by the developer institution to actively
popularise the solution and provide support for adoption and maintenance
to the educational institutions.
PPP models for these can also be explored, and government can also consider
paying for solutions created by the private sector to be deployed at scale.
Recipient educational institutions can either receive budgetary allocations
to evaluate and adopt specific technologies in the ‘PULL’ model), or have it
made available to them through the State or Central government in the ‘PUSH’
model. The two options are useful in different contexts and need to be used
appropriately, else hardware and software will remain unused as it does today
in many institutions.
With regards to data, there are at least three categories to consider. Some data
is personal to individuals - teachers and young students. In order to safeguard
privacy, the strictest possible privacy regime is necessary to ensure that
personal data cannot be shared without the explicit consent of the concerned
individuals or their guardians. Some data pertains to groups of individuals (e.g.
all students in a particular class, or all teachers in a particular institution), and
such data can be shared with appropriate safeguards to ensure privacy. A third
category consists of data generated and consumed by educational applications.
Such applications increasingly use advances in artificial intelligence to grow
in sophistication, and the value of such data is therefore growing. This Policy
recognises the need for an evolving set of guidelines related to such data, to
ensure that it is not misused.
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19.1. Setting up of a new National

Educational Technology Forum
Many experiments and pilot studies on the use of technology for improving
the quality of education in school as well as higher education have been
undertaken all around the country over the last two decades. These need
to be reviewed for their outcomes and carefully evaluated for their benefits,
risks and effectiveness, as well as their potential to scale, in the different
contexts in which they need to be deployed. This is a complex task requiring
a wide range of expertise.
The National Educational Technology

Forum will be a platform for
the free exchange of ideas on
the use of technology to improve
learning, assessment, planning and
administration.
P19.1.1. The National Educational Technology Forum: An autonomous body, the

National Educational Technology Forum (NETF), will be created to provide
a platform for the free exchange of ideas on the use of technology to improve
learning, assessment, planning, administration, and so on. The aim of NETF
will be to facilitate decision making on the induction, deployment, and use
of technology, by providing to the leadership of educational institutions,
State and Central governments and other stakeholders the latest knowledge
and research as well as the opportunity to consult and share best practices
with each other.
P19.1.2. Role and functioning of the National Educational Technology Forum:

The NETF will have the following roles:
a. Provide independent evidence-based advice to Central and State

government agencies on technology-based interventions;
b. Build intellectual and institutional capacities in educational technology;
c. Envision strategic thrust areas in this domain; and
d. Articulate new directions for research and innovation.
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To remain relevant in the fast-changing field of educational technology, the

NETF will maintain a regular inflow of authentic data from multiple sources
including educational technology innovators and practitioners, particularly
at the grass-roots level, and will engage with a diverse set of researchers to
analyse this data. It will act as a forum for harnessing the distributed energy
that democratising technology can unleash, particularly among the youth of
the country who continually prove their capacity to innovate and lead, while
also bringing a scholarly emphasis to ensure that the overall impact of these
efforts is positive.
P19.1.3. Funding and support to the National Educational Technology Forum: To

ensure deep connectivity with the field of education, NETF may be housed
within CIET/ NCERT/ NIEPA or any suitable body determined by the RSA.
While NETF will be supported initially with public funding, it should also be
able to receive funding from other sources such as memberships, and other
neutral technology industry bodies such as NASSCOM among others. The
work of NETF will be supported by decentralised institutional structures at
the State and District levels, whose specifics may be decided by the RSA, in
consultation with the States.
P19.1.4. Collective assessment and adoption of technology solutions: To support

the development of a vibrant body of knowledge and practice, NETF will
organise multiple regional and national conferences, workshops, etc. to solicit
inputs from national and international educational technology researchers,
entrepreneurs and practitioners. NETF will enable educational technology
experts from schools, universities, research institutions and other organisations
to evaluate these inputs against current best practices from multiple
perspectives, including pedagogical, psychological, social and economic, and
distil them into:
a. Necessary interventions, which should complement existing best-practices

and be implemented immediately in specific contexts;
b. Promising interventions, which require additional large-scale studies that
could, for example, be funded by NRF; and
c. Inappropriate interventions, which ought not be considered.
Such analysis will be regularly and publicly disseminated, and may be used
to advise Central and State governmental agencies on all matters related to
educational technology, including interventions that may be continued,
piloted at scale, or discontinued. NETF may also use this analysis to propose
strategic thrust areas and research directions in educational technology for
NRF to consider funding.
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19.2 Approach to the induction of

technology
Global evidence suggests that the effects of technology on classroom
processes and educational outcomes, particularly for very young childen, are
modest and mixed with multiple sociological and psychological side-effects.
However, many other uses of technology, including in teaching, learning and
assessment for older children, have tremendous transformative potential.
Therefore, a positive yet cautious approach to the induction of technology at
scale will be adopted, to ensure that the limited funds available and energies
devoted to educational technology are deployed in an optimal manner.
P19.2.1. Qualified support for educational technology with teachers playing

a central role: All use and integration of technology to improve multiple
aspects of education will be supported and adopted, provided these
interventions have been rigorously and transparently evaluated in relevant
contexts before they are scaled up. Education technology is amongst the
most powerful array of tools and methods that a teacher may potentially use
in her/his work. Teachers will be completely empowered through adequate
training and support to lead the activities and initiatives related to the use of
appropriate technologies in classrooms, and for all other uses of technology
in educational institutions.
P19.2.2. Technology use and integration in educational settings: Technology use

and integration will be pursued as an important strategy for improving the
overall quality of education. Thus, the focus will not just be on creating and
delivering high quality content, but also on using technology to: support
translation of content into multiple languages; assist differently-abled
learners; improve the quality of pedagogy and learning processes through
the use of intelligent tutoring systems and adaptive assessment systems;
create new types of interactive and immersive content (e.g. using augmented
and virtual reality); strengthen educational planning and management and
bring greater transparency and efficiency to the examination system as well
as to administrative and governance processes; assist in the management of
education such as supporting teacher development programmes; and scale up
the ODL system so that it can respond to the growing demand for education
from all age groups, across school education, higher education, professional
and vocational education, adult education, and lifelong learning.
P19.2.3. Centres of Excellence in Educational Technology: Centres of Excellence in

Educational Technology will be established at prominent Universities and
other institutions to perform research as well as support functions for the
uptake of appropriate technology solutions. These Centres of Excellence
will be represented at the NETF and they will engage themselves in a two-
way interaction with other members of the NETF for sharing of knowledge
and knowhow.
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P19.2.4. General guidelines for technology-based interventions: Three main

components will form an integral part of most technology-based interventions:
hardware, software and data. In general, the following guidelines will be used.
Exceptions to these guidelines, if any, will be carefully and publicly justified.
a. Hardware: Commodity hardware solutions such as cloud-based commercial

infrastructure and personal computing devices for end-users will be
preferred.
b. Software: Software for educational use will preferably be FOSSEE. Where
necessary, the government will pay for professionally developing and
maintaining the software, and will acquire the rights to distribute it to
learners, teachers and institutions for free-and-unlimited offline usage.
Steps will be taken to ensure that this software remains compatible with
popular and affordable end-user computing devices.
c. Data: All public data will be owned by the government and will be used for
improving educational standards (see Section 19.6). Individuals will retain
full ownership of their own data, which may not be used without their
explicit permission. In line with the Open Data Initiative, educational data
that has been anonymised, as per the best-practice in data security, will be
made publicly available on a regular basis for research purposes.
19.3 Teacher preparation and continuous

professional development
A very large effort towards the CPD of teachers will be needed if the
implementation of this Policy is to succeed. Many online learning experiments
do not work very well for first-time student learners who really need a classroom
environment that provides oportunities for peer learning, as well as mentoring
and guidance from faculty. However, this is not true for existing faculty who
are mature enough to be able to make the most of online courses. Most faculty
members will require upgradation of their subject knowledge, which can just
as well be done through online education.
With regard to school teacher preparation through the four-year integrated
B.Ed. programme, the considerations are similar to all undergraduate
programmes. Online, open and distance education, can both be used, but
extremely judiciously. Teachers will also need to be prepared to use education
technology in classrooms.
P19.3.1. Teacher preparation in the use of educational technology: To skill teachers

at all levels in the use of educational technology, all teacher preparation
programmes will include hands-on training in leveraging technology-based
resources, including addressing common problems related to connectivity,
maintenance of equipment and its safe operation, pedagogical strategies for
utilising e-content (including conducting classes effectively in a flipped mode
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and leveraging MOOCs), and using appropriate tools to enhance teaching-

learning processes (e.g. tools to assist CWSN and tools to help teachers
reflect on their pedagogical styles by capturing classroom practices).
Videos in the open educational repository (see P19.5.2) will be used for
teacher training discussions in every subject. Appropriate technology-based
tools will be developed to assess competencies of teacher trainees, including,
but not limited to, competence in the use of educational technology for
improving teaching, learning, and evaluation processes.
Initially, a large number of certified master teachers will be trained to
provide training to all teacher trainees in a phased manner. Hence, a suitable
initiative will be launched and run in a mission mode for 5-6 years by the
CIET.
P19.3.2. Use of educational technology for continuous teacher professional

development: An online training platform - linked to appropriate
mechanisms to certify trainees in specific areas - will be developed to
empower in-service teachers at all levels of education to stay at the cutting
edge of pedagogical techniques.
Since teachers will have increasing access to personal computing devices
(e.g. smartphones), all in-service teachers will be provided with sufficient
connectivity to access this training platform, explore high quality online
educational resources to incorporate into their pedagogy, and participate in
online teacher communities where best practices can be shared. The online
platform will also allow teachers to share ideas and showcase their pedagogy;
teachers with outstanding portfolios will be awarded due recognition,
including financial support for participating in national and international
training sessions, conferences, workshops, etc., and invitations to present
their work at NETF events.
P19.3.3. Specific technology related policy actions: The necessary interventions

must include customised courses for faculty development programmes on
a platform such as SWAYAM. Both for school teachers and for faculty in
higher education, SWAYAM can cover the theoretical aspects of learning.
At the same time, DIETs and and HRDCs will continue to provide academic
support to school teachers and faculty in higher education, respectively.
The course contents must be reengineered for the online mode and not be
simply recordings of classroom interactions. Similarly, the assessment for
certification must be designed in a way that is convenient for teachers, but
also rigorous enough to create value.
The development and widespread use of teacher professional learning
communities, where teachers can interact with other teachers teaching the
same subjects and exchange knowhow, experience, and even educational
content is a promising intervention that is already in use in some States with
great impact. This must be encouraged and expanded to cover many States
and different subjects.
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19.4 Improving teaching, learning and

evaluation processes
The Internet is a veritable treasure house of text, audio and video that can
be used for educational purposes. Availability of an adequate number of
access devices (rapidly becoming smart phones or iPads and equivalents) and
controlled access (for safety purposes) to the Internet can empower teachers as
well as students to make use of these resources and even contribute to creating
more. They can engage in many forms of active learning, using the available
material to do projects, engage in self as well as group learning methods that
can completely transform the delivery of education from the present ‘chalk-
and-talk’ models prevalent in most classrooms in India today.
P19.4.1. Integrating educational technology into the school curriculum: To prepare

school students for the digital age and bolster efforts in STEAM (Science,
Technology, Engineering, Art & Design, and Mathematics) education, the
following steps will be taken:
a. From age 6 onwards, computational thinking (the thought processes

involved in formulating problems and solutions in ways that computers can
effectively execute) will be integrated into the school curriculum. This is
a fundamental skill in the digital age, and it can be effectively taught with
well-designed paper worksheets.
b. Given the diffusion of devices and their affordability, all students are likely
to have access to connected personal computing devices by 2025. The
school curriculum will promote digital literacy using these personal devices
as well as available digital infrastructure (computer laboratories, tinkering
laboratories, makerspaces, etc.).
c. The school curriculum will offer optional subjects focused on programming
and other advanced computer-based activities at the late upper primary and
secondary stages.
P19.4.2. Developing educational software: A rich variety of educational software will

be developed and made available for students and teachers at all levels. All such
software will be available in all major Indian languages and will be accessible
to a wide range of users including CWSN and differently-abled students, and
will include:
a. Software to assist learners with disabilities (e.g. text-to-speech software in

all major Indian languages for blind/partially sighted students).
b. Intelligent Tutoring Systems to promote numeracy and foundational
literacy in all major Indian languages.
c. Educational software in the form of serious games, simulations, and
applications using augmented and virtual reality.
d. Software to create personalised learning trajectories for each learner based
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on curriculum, with content (readings, videos, interactive worksheets,

etc.) arranged in learning ladders.
e. Adaptive assessment tools that provide formative feedback to help
learners take remedial steps, such as self-study or learning collaboratively
with fellow students.
Software to help teachers create adaptive assessments, formative as well as

summative, evaluate the assessments, and provide appropriate feedback to
learners. Such assessments will minimise the importance of rote memory,
and will instead focus on 21st century skills including critical and creative
thinking, communication, and collaboration. Data generated by such tools,
that reflects the performance of individual learners and overall institutional
performance, will be appropriately recorded in the NRED for subsequent
analysis and research (see P6.1.5).
P19.4.3. Video viewing equipment: For maximal use of content in the open
educational repository, institutions will be supported with inexpensive and
portable video viewing equipment (e.g. solar powered video playback and
projection devices). Teachers will be encouraged to integrate such videos
into teaching-learning processes, along with their own teaching, where ever
they add value.
P19.4.4. Advanced online courses: Educational institutions will be encouraged to

offer course credits to students who complete specified courses (especially
advanced electives) online, e.g. via SWAYAM or other such platforms
developed in the future. This will include courses on topics such as IT
Enabled Services (ITES) and other such areas of vocational education and
adult education that can benefit from online courses.
P19.4.5. Support for appropriate information and communication technology

usage: Most educational institutions have difficulty maintaining and using
their hardware and software. This problem can be addressed through the
creation of a large number of prestigious ‘IT Ambassador’ Fellowships for
students who have completed their senior secondary courses. They can
support school complexes with managing their IT infastructure in a version
of rural service that is similar to military service in some countries. Computer
hardware and maintenance, as well as training in software installation and
maintenance (especially for open-source software) must be taught to these
students. As far as possible, local people must be given these Fellowships.
This will also help promote entrepreneurship among these Fellows at a later
date.
P19.4.6. Specific technology related policy actions: These are split into two groups,
the necessary interventions and the promising interventions. Some of
the necessary interventions in teaching, learning and assessment are the
following:
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a. Content repositories in Indian languages for educational content: along

with editorial processes for uploading content, and rating methods that will
allow the best content to surface to the top. The content must be made
available under the Creative Commons Licensing. The National Repository
for Open Educational Resources (NROER) is one such example, but it needs
to be supplemented with much more awareness building so that a lot more
content comes online and more people find it useful. A suitable financial
model to sustain such a repository needs to be selected. The content
repository could optionally be integrated with payment systems so that, in
time, content creators can be compensated in a small way for contributing
content. This will incentivise many teachers to create innovative age
appropriate content. The decision to create separate repositories for each
State, or hold all content in a single repository, can be made by the NETF
based on appropriate financial models.
b. Machine translation of content uploaded into any content repository:
This should be supplemented with editorial processes to check the quality
of translation, so that good quality content in any language can be translated
into multiple Indian languages.
Some of the promising interventions are the following:
c. Publishing software for educational material: Teachers must be able

to compile free content from one or more content repositories to devise
interesting courses for which material can be shared with students in pdf
form. Many older universities have printing divisions which can be used to
print relatively inexpensive hard copies of educational material for students
who would like to have them.
d. Online assessments: Assessments can be partly online multiple-choice
examinations combined with projects and other hands on work that
is evaluated separately by teachers. Some app-based multiple-choice
examination systems are already available now that make it very easy for
faculty to conduct quizzes.
19.5. Enhancing educational access

Appropriate use of ICT can help ensure that no student is left behind, by
helping to reach students in remote areas, women, CWSN, students who have
dropped out of schools, adults, and many others looking for lifelong education.
However, it is critical that educational content for these purposes is developed
keeping the specific requirements in mind.
P19.5.1. Access to technology in remote areas: School complexes must become the
nodal agency for reaching out to the unreached. For this, they must be equipped
with electricity, computers/ smart phones or other access devices, and Internet
access else the promise of reaching the unreached will not be realised.
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P19.5.2. High quality specialised content to be made available in open educational

repositories: To ensure that all learners have access to high quality educational
content, copyright-free educational resources including textbooks, reference
books, videos (ideally with subtitles), teaching-learning materials, etc. will
be created and curated from national and global sources at all levels of
education and in multiple Indian languages, and made available in a single
online digital repository e.g. the National Digital Library or NROER. This
repository must be organised so that anyone can quickly and easily locate
and download all relevant content. In order to reach the maximum number
of students and teachers, distributing this content in any form for a nominal
fee will be facilitated and encouraged.
P19.5.3. Maintaining content quality: It is critical to ensure that the repository in

P19.5.2 remains a high quality and up-to-date resource so that it will be of
value not only to teachers and students in the formal education system, but
will also be a powerful enabler of lifelong learning. Hence a mechanism
for creating and reviewing these learning resources will be devised (e.g.
through online feedback on quality, relevance, and usefulness of content
from users, both teachers and students, as well as competitions leading to
national recognition for outstanding content creation). Thus, the platform
will showcase the work of the best teachers, teaching in exemplary styles,
across the country in every subject, level, and language. The platform itself
(as in the case of all shared resources) once piloted and identified to be more
widely usable by NETF, must be maintained by specialist organisations such
as the CDAC or by private industry. The funding for this kind of professional
maintenance of shared resources will be provided by the Central government.
P19.5.4. Development of tools for automated language translation of educational

content: NRF will prioritise research and development of tools for automated
and/or crowd-sourced language translation of educational content into all
major Indian languages, so that additional content created in one language
can be made rapidly available in other languages.
P19.5.5. Specific technology related policy actions: In terms of necessary

interventions, software for adaptive learning for children of all ages with
special needs must be prepared. Considerable research into pedagogy will be
required for this purpose, and this can be funded by NRF at the Departments
of Education in universities. Similarly, with intelligent tutoring systems, and
many others.
The NRED will maintain all records related to institutions, teachers and
students in digital form.
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19.6. Streamlining educational planning

and management
Arguably, the most important benefits from ICT are in the area of governance
and management, where ICT tools can help with data-gathering and analysis,
and record-keeping. ICT can also help in mainstreaming education by providing
relatively simple and inexpensive solutions to problems that have plagued the
sector for a long time, such as the problem of fake degrees among others.
P19.6.1. National Repository of Educational Data: ICTs will be fully leveraged for
efficient and safe maintenance of educational information. All records related
to institutions, teachers, and students will be maintained by a single agency
in digital form in the NRED, which may be set up as part of the Digital India
programme (see P6.1.5). NRED will be tasked with:
a. Developing appropriate systems for authorised institutional users to enter

and update data. Teachers would be asked to enter data at most four times
per year, in order to ease the significant burden on teachers in collecting,
managing and transmitting data on an ongoing basis. This will be the only
mechanism for institutions to disclose data to government agencies (both
State and Central) for purposes of monitoring, accreditation, ranking,
rating, and eligibility for government schemes.
b. Validating employment records of teachers and credits earned by learners
(who will be, e.g. identified by their Aadhar numbers). This will simplify
the process for learners and teachers seeking scholarships, employment,
transfers between institutions, and re-entry into the education system. It
will also minimise the manual effort in tracking details of students and
teachers.
c. Complementing efforts to assess learning outcomes (e.g. NAS) by analyzing
the performance of individual learners and institutions, and attempting to
predict failures to meet outcomes so that proactive assistance measures can
be undertaken.
d. Maintaining records while adhering to national norms, best-practices, and
laws related to privacy of data. Practices based on “security by obscurity” will
be explicitly rejected. This Policy further states that laws be strengthened to
preserve the privacy of all individuals at the earliest.
e. Developing appropriate mechanisms to ensure the timeliness and reliability
of data, so that policies can be based on high quality data. Current best
practices employed by State and Central agencies can be studied and used
as a baseline.
f. Alerting concerned governmental agencies about important trends (both
positive and negative) as they are developing, for immediate action where
necessary, and making these analyses public on an annual basis. These
analyses will also include assessments of the quality of school education at
the district level.
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g. Monitoring migrant learners, and tracking their health and educational

progress in order to mitigate the negative impact of disruptions to their
well-being due to frequent displacement.
The National Repository of

Educational Data will maintain
all records related to institutions,
teachers and students in digital form.
P19.6.2. Technology for improving governance and administration: Educational

information management systems for community monitoring will
be created and integrated with NRED. These systems will be used to
streamline manual processes related to educational planning, admissions,
attendance, assessments, etc. Local communities, panchayats, and SMCs
will be able to look at the data and make sense of it themselves. ICT-based
tools will be used immediately for all administrative tasks where they can
improve efficiency and accuracy, including systems related to admissions,
scholarships, assessments, counselling, placements, accreditation, etc. ICT
will also be used for more efficient information dissemination and data
gathering towards decision making. To facilitate information exchange
between stakeholders, all educational institutions will provide all relevant
stakeholders (students, parents, teachers, staff, etc.) with access to official
institutional communication channels (e.g. institutional email).
P19.6.3. Specific technology related policy actions: Well over 30 years after the advent
of email, many of our educational institutions do not offer institutional email
to their faculty and students. The efficiency of communications that can be
brought in through institutional email and list servers must be provided to
all educational institutions without any further delay.
The problem of fake degrees can now be solved very elegantly by the new
Blockchain technology. Each State government must commission its own
depository of certificates, like the ‘National Academic Depository’, for all
educational institutions within the States.
A considerable degree of computerisation of the administration and
management of education has already taken place, with many aspects such
as admissions, student records and even online assesment of examinations
taking place in many universities in the State. These need to be scaled out to
all educational institutions.
353
19.7. Disruptive technologies

Technology is increasingly disrupting multiple aspects of human society,
including education. Some disruptive technologies will have clear applications
to education, and methods to integrate such technologies into the education
system through the involvement of the NETF have alredy been discussed. This
section focuses on policies to address the broader consequences of disruptive
technologies that are relevant to education, namely research, de-skilling, and
awareness raising.
When the National Policy on Education 1986/1992 was formulated, it was
difficult to predict the disruptive effect that the internet was about to have,
particularly in boosting the development rates and impacts of other disruptive
technologies. Our present education system’s inability to cope with these
rapid and disruptive changes places us (individually and nationally) at a
perilous disadvantage in an increasingly competitive world. For instance, while
computers have largely surpassed humans in leveraging factual and procedural
knowledge, our education at all levels excessively burdens students with such
knowledge at the expense of developing their higher order competencies.
This Policy comes at a time when the Fourth Industrial Revolution is already
underway, and disruptive technologies such as artificial intelligence have
emerged. At its core, artificial intelligence lowers the cost of prediction tasks
that use existing data (such as, “This patient’s symptoms”) to fill information
gaps (such as, “What disease does this patient have?”). As the cost of artificial
intelligence based prediction falls, artificial intelligence will be able to match
or outperform even skilled professionals such as doctors in certain predictive
tasks and will therefore be a valuable aid to them in their work. Hence, artificial
intelligence’s disruptive potential is clear.
NITI Aayog recently produced a timely discussion paper entitled “National
Strategy for Artificial Intelligence: #AIForAll”, drawing on several prior
investigations by MHRD and other national and international institutions,
to identify challenges in leveraging artificial intelligence in India, and to
articulate a national perspective and action agenda for artificial intelligence.
This Policy broadly endorses the recommendations of NITI Aayog that pertain
to education. It further notes that artificial intelligence provides an excellent
example of how the Policy actions related to disruptive technologies can be
applied to specific technologies. Thus, each of the Policy actions below is
followed by comments on its application to artificial intelligence.
Other disruptive technologies such as Blockchain and Virtual Reality are just
two of the many new technologies that are likely to have a sizeable impact on
education.
P19.7.1. Monitoring potentially disruptive technologies: One of the permanent

tasks of the Advisory Council of the RSA (see Chapter 23) will be to categorise
emergent technologies based on their potential and estimated timeframe for
disruption, and to periodically present this analysis to the RSA. Based on these
inputs, the RSA will formally identify those technologies whose emergence
354
demands responses from the education system. Given the increasing pace of
technological development, the traditional cycle of education policy revision
may be too slow to respond to such disruptions. The Advisory Council
of the RSA will propose technology-specific responses based on national
and international perspectives, which will be refined in consultation with
academia, industry and the wider public. These responses will be guided by
the EC of the RSA. While some agility in the education system is necessary, the
need for careful deliberation while assessing a specific technology’s disruptive
potential is well illustrated by artificial intelligence (which encompasses
several distinct technologies). Decades ago, some experts viewed rule-based
expert systems as an imminent disruptive artificial intelligence technology.
Artificial intelligence’s recent gains are in fact based on different techniques
developed in the 1990s (multilayer neural networks with feedback) and were
primarily triggered by recent advances in computation and the availability of
large data-sets. NITI Aayog’s discussion paper models one way in which the
Advisory Council can propose technology-specific policy changes.
P19.7.2. Research in disruptive technologies: In response to the RSA’s formal

recognition of a new disruptive technology, the NRF will initiate or expand
research efforts in appropriate areas including fundamental research in
the domain, advancing the technology’s development, and assessing the
technology’s socio-economic impact. For certain disruptive technologies,
NRF may fund mega-projects with international collaborations.
In the context of artificial intelligence, the NRF may consider a three-

pronged approach:
a) Advancing core artificial intelligence research,
b) Developing and deploying application-based research, and
c) Establishing international research efforts to address global challenges in
areas such as healthcare, agriculture, and climate change using artificial
intelligence.
P19.7.3. Skilling and re-skilling: The new institutional structure in higher education
is well suited to skilling students and re-skilling the current workforce
rapidly. Type 1 and Type 2 institutions will play an active role not only in
conducting research on disruptive technologies, but also in creating initial
versions of instructional materials and courses (including online courses) in
cutting-edge domains and assessing their impact on specific areas such as
professional education. Once the technology has attained a level of maturity,
Type III institutions are ideally placed to scale these teaching and skilling
efforts, which will include targeted training for job readiness. Disruptive
technologies will make certain jobs redundant, and hence approaches to
skilling and de-skilling that are both efficient and ensure quality will be of
increasing importance to create and sustain employment. Institutions will
have autonomy to approve institutional and non-institutional partners
to deliver such training, which will be integrated with skills and higher
education frameworks.
355
In the context of artificial intelligence, Type I and Type II institutions may

offer PhD and Masters programmes in core areas (such as Machine Learning)
as well as multidisciplinary fields (“artificial intelligence + X”) and professional
areas (healthcare, agriculture and law). They may also develop and disseminate
authoritative courses in these areas via platforms such as SWAYAM. For rapid
adoption, Type III institutions may initially blend these online courses with
traditional teaching in undergraduate and vocational programmes. Type
III institutions may also offer targeted training in low-expertise tasks for
supporting the artificial intelligence value chain such as data annotation,
image classification and speech transcription. In the context of Natural
Language Processing (NLP), certain low-expertise tasks (such as translating
simple sentences) may also be valuable from a pedagogical standpoint. Thus,
efforts to teach languages to school students should be dovetailed with efforts
to enhance NLP for India’s diverse languages.
P19.7.4. Raising awareness: As disruptive technologies emerge, schooling and
continuing education will assist in raising the general populace’s awareness
of their potential disruptive effects, and will also address related issues. This
awareness is necessary to have informed public consent on matters related
to these technologies. In school, the study of ethical issues (see Section 4.6.8)
and current affairs (see Section 4.6.10) will include a discussion on disruptive
technologies such as those identified by RSA. Appropriate instructional and
discussion materials will also be prepared for continuing education.
Data is a key fuel for artificial intelligence based technologies, and it is critical
to raise awareness on issues of privacy, laws and standards associated with data
handling and data protection, etc. It is also necessary to highlight ethical issues
surrounding the development and deployment of artificial intelligence based
technologies. Education will play a key role in these efforts to raise awareness
around these issues.
356
UNIT
1
Digital Natives & Digital Immigrants
The current generation learners/students are somewhat different today, they are always immersed in and
deeply engrossed to the digital technology, and in particular social media: instant messaging, Twitter, video
games, Facebook, and a whole host of applications (apps) that run on a variety of mobile devices. Such
students are constantly ‘on’. Most students come to university or college immersed in social media, and
much of their life revolves around such media. They prefer to look the life and education from a different
perspective and also learn fundamentally different. They expect to use social media in all other aspects
of their life. Why should their learning experience be different? It may seem obvious that different students
will have different preferences for different kinds of technology or media. The design of teaching would
cater for these differences. Thus, if students are ‘visual’ learners, they would be provided with diagrams
and illustrations. If they are auditory learners, they will prefer lectures and podcasts. It might appear then
that identifying dominant learning styles should then provide strong criteria for media and technology
selection. However, it is not as simple as that. Hence, we recommend the teachers to deploy the VARK
analysis in the class and understand the characteristics of the learners.
The terms “digital native” and “digital immigrant” are invented by Marc Prensky. He proclaimed that
digital natives and digital immigrants perceive and use technology in different ways as well as in learning.
New technologies have been a defining feature in the lives of younger generations in a way that they
predict a fundamental change in the way young people communicate, socialize, create and learn. The
Internet has reshaped the way we search for information and the way we think.
Digital natives see everyone on the equal level and are not dividing the world into hierarchies, they view
the world horizontally. They cross boundaries and embrace the benefits of sharing with each other. Those
values exist because of what they are driven by. We can learn a lot about digital native generations
because their world is a genuine democracy and equality. They reject centralized and control-based forms
of governance. More aggressive, competitive and result-obsessed generation, the advantage is their
productivity. The difference between digital natives and digital immigrants is that digital immigrants are
goal oriented and digital natives are value oriented. Digital natives like to parallel process and multi-task.
Because of interacting with technology, digital natives “think and process information fundamentally
differently” (Prensky) to digital immigrants. Digital natives, according to Prensky, process information
quickly, enjoy multi-tasking and gaming, while digital immigrants process information slowly, working on
29
UNIT
1
one thing at a time and do not appreciate less serious approaches to learning. This divide, Prensky argued,
is the greatest problem facing education today and teachers must change the way they teach in order to
engage their students. Children raised with the computer think differently. They develop hypertext minds.
There is a need for education to change in order to create better generation expectations. Prensky
claims the digital native is becoming the dominant global demographic, and the digital immigrant
is in decline.
The thing is that digital natives first check their social platforms, not TV. They would rather be engaged
than marked to something, they do not care if the content is professionally produced, but that it is
authentic and on their level. They develop their culture — IT culture.
Reflection of learning: Activity # 2: Identify your learning style:

VARK tells you something about yourself that you may or may not know. It can be used to
understand yourself. It is a short, simple inventory that has been well-received because its
dimensions are intuitively understood and its applications are practical. It has helped people
understand each other and assists them to learn more effectively in many situations.
The VARK Questionnaire Scoring Chart Use the following scoring chart to find the VARK
category that each of your answers corresponds to. Circle the letters that correspond to your
answers e.g. If you answered b and c for question 3, circle V and R in the question 3 row.
Scoring Chart
Question A B C D Question A B C D
1 K A R V 9 R A K V
2 V A R K 10 K V R A
3 K V R A 11 V R A K
4 K A V R 12 A R V K
5 A V K R 13 K A R V
6 K R V A 14 K R A V
7 K A V R 15 K A R V
8 R K A V 16 V A R K
30
UNIT
1
1. You are helping someone who wants to go to your airport, the center of town or railway
station. You would:
a. go with her.
b. tell her the directions.
c. write down the directions.
d. draw, or give her a map.
2. You are not sure whether a word should be spelled `dependent' or `dependant'. You
would:
a. see the words in your mind and choose by the way they look.
b. think about how each word sounds and choose one.
c. find it online or in a dictionary.
d. write both words on paper and choose one.
3. You are planning a vacation for a group. You want some feedback from them about the
plan. You would:
a. describe some of the highlights.
b. use a map or website to show them the places.
c. give them a copy of the printed itinerary.
d. phone, text or email them.
4. You are going to cook something as a special treat for your family. You would:
a. cook something you know without the need for instructions.
b. ask friends for suggestions.
c. look through the cookbook for ideas from the pictures.
d. use a cookbook where you know there is a good recipe.
5. A group of tourists want to learn about the parks or wildlife reserves in your area. You
would:
a. talk about, or arrange a talk for them about parks or wildlife reserves.
b. show them internet pictures, photographs or picture books.
c. take them to a park or wildlife reserve and walk with them.
d. give them a book or pamphlets about the parks or wildlife reserves.
6. You are about to purchase a digital camera or mobile phone. Other than price, what would
most influence your decision?
a. Trying or testing it.
31
UNIT
1
b. Reading the details about its features.
c. It is a modern design and looks good.
d. The salesperson telling me about its features.
7. Remember a time when you learned how to do something new. Try to avoid choosing a
physical skill, eg. riding a bike. You learned best by:
a. watching a demonstration.
b. listening to somebody explaining it and asking questions.
c. diagrams and charts - visual clues.
d. written instructions – e.g. a manual or textbook.
8. You have a problem with your heart. You would prefer that the doctor:
a. gave you a something to read to explain what was wrong.
b. used a plastic model to show what was wrong.
c. described what was wrong.
d. showed you a diagram of what was wrong.
9. You want to learn a new program, skill or game on a computer. You would:
a. read the written instructions that came with the program.
b. talk with people who know about the program.
c. use the controls or keyboard.
d. follow the diagrams in the book that came with it.
10. I like websites that have:
a. things I can click on, shift or try.
b. interesting design and visual features.
c. interesting written descriptions, lists and explanations.
d. audio channels where I can hear music, radio programs or interviews.
11. Other than price, what would most influence your decision to buy a new non-fiction book?
a. The way it looks is appealing.
b. Quickly reading parts of it.
c. A friend talks about it and recommends it.
d. It has real-life stories, experiences and examples.
12. You are using a book, CD or website to learn how to take photos with your new digital
camera. You would like to have:
32
UNIT
1
a. a chance to ask questions and talk about the camera and its features.
b. clear written instructions with lists and bullet points about what to do.
c. diagrams showing the camera and what each part does.
d. many examples of good and poor photos and how to improve them.
13. Do you prefer a teacher or a presenter who uses:
a. demonstrations, models or practical sessions.
b. question and answer, talk, group discussion, or guest speakers.
c. handouts, books, or readings.
d. diagrams, charts or graphs.
14. You have finished a competition or test and would like some feedback. You would like to
have feedback:
a. using examples from what you have done.
b. using a written description of your results.
c. from somebody who talks it through with you.
d. using graphs showing what you had achieved.
15. You are going to choose food at a restaurant or cafe. You would:
a. choose something that you have had there before.
b. listen to the waiter or ask friends to recommend choices.
c. choose from the descriptions in the menu.
d. look at what others are eating or look at pictures of each dish.
16. You have to make an important speech at a conference or special occasion. You would:
a. make diagrams or get graphs to help explain things.
b. write a few key words and practice saying your speech over and over.
c. write out your speech and learn from reading it over several times.
d. gather many examples and stories to make the talk real and practical.
Reflection Of Learning (Activity # 3: To Explore: What Is Technology Enabled Learning?)
Put yourself in the place of student so that you may understand what he learns and the way he
understands it.
Hard but True Facts of Life
33
UNIT
1
# 1: What students learn is always less than what we teach.
# 2: How much they learn is determined by their
a) Native ability ; b) Background in the course topic ; c) Motivation for taking the course
d) Match between their learning style and our teaching style.
# 3: We can’t do much about their ability, background, motivation, or learning style.
Questions to be explored:
1. What is the Conclusion to maximize student learning?
2. What are the different ways students take in information and process it?
3. Which learning styles are favored by (i) most students, (ii) the teaching styles of most
professors?
4. What are the consequences of mismatches between teaching and learning styles?
34
UNIT
1
5. What can we do to reach students with the full spectrum of learning styles?
6. What can we do to empower faculty members with the full spectrum of technology enabled
teaching?
35
UNIT
1
Assignment # 1: Watch – Think - Reflect
Kindly watch the TED Talk and reflect your thoughts about the documentary “changing
education paradigms” spurred by Sir Ken Robinson's video.
1. What is the main take away message from this talk?
2. When and why should we change what we are doing in education?
3. What are your beliefs about your ability to deliver effective instruction while operating
under education institute reforms?
4. We need your views about how your own efficacy will influence student learning?
5. Sir Ken Robinson provides lots of problems with the American education system. What
is your perspective about your (learner) country education system?
36
UNIT
1
Assignment # 2: Think – Pair – Share – Review of the article:
We target at providing a list of readings that are of good quality, essential and reasonable to the
workload we promised. So, we have been very selective when identifying the readings. Most of
them are extensive reviews or contain an extensive review. They are all scholarly written and
evidence-based.
As we have been very selective, there are only limited numbers of readings for the whole course.
Therefore, the references are not labeled as “compulsory reading” or “highly recommended
reading” as I discussed in Compiling Course Outline. All readings are essential.
We deeply understand that not every participant has the access to the electronic resources in
order to identify the paper we list. So, we tried our best to find articles that can be openly
accessed. While such papers are available, we make recommendation as an alternative option.
We will continue to search for such kind of paper and add them to the list. If you come across
any good article, which is scholarly, evidence-based, and of good quality, please recommend it to
us.
Compulsory Reading
Kenn Fisher, Technology-enabled active learning environments: an appraisal, CELE Exchange

2010/7 © OECD 2010; ISSN 2072-7925
Highly recommended reading

Cassidy, S. (2004). Learning Styles: An overview of theories, models, and measures. Educational
Psychology, 24(4), 419-444.
This paper provides an overview of several key learning style theories, clarifying the common areas of
ambiguity. It is very useful for the teachers who are new to the area and teaching.
Curry, L. (1983). An organization of learning styles theory and constructs. ERIC Doc, 235, 185.
This paper reorganizes different learning styles constructs into one structure. Using the metaphor of onion,
Curry made it easy for the practitioners to understand the style concepts.
37
ISSN 2072-7925
Technology-enabled active learning environments: an appraisal
CELE Exchange 2010/7
© OECD 2010
Technology-enabled active
learning environments:
an appraisal
By Kenn Fisher, University of Melbourne, Australia
This article examines the emergence of technology-enabled active learning environments and the
reasons for their appearance. It explores three case studies and considers how effective they are in
enhancing teaching and learning outcomes.
The recent advent of wireless broadband Internet access and mobile communications devices
has provided remarkable opportunities for 21st century blended learning models – simultaneous
online and face-to-face – and seriously called into question the industrial-age traditional “egg crate
classroom” model of teaching and learning. It has also enabled the emergence of a true synchronous/
asynchronous and virtual/physical matrix of learning opportunities for which our existing built learning 1
environment infrastructure is not well suited.1
In response to these developments, many innovative learning environments are being trialed. These
include an increasing focus on the “third space” which supports social forms of student interaction.
The important issue here, especially in universities, is that students can now learn off-campus on line.
Figure 1. Blended learning matrix combining face-to-face physical and online learning
Virtual and physical online learning, time dependent and time independent
Synchronous Asynchronous
Site-specific signage
Face-to-face Exhibitions
Local
meeting places Installations
White board
Internet
Telephone video conference Web
Remote Textmessages
Shared cyberlinks Virtual studio
“Google it”
Source: Mitchell, W. (2003).
1. Mitchell, W. (2003), “21st Century Learning Environments”, presentation at a workshop on new learning environments at Queensland
University of Technology in conjunction with K. Fisher.
This is forcing us to rethink the nature of the 21st century campus, and more specifically what physical
attributes need to be provided to encourage students to attend campuses and to actually meet face-to-
face with their colleagues, rather than interacting through the now prevalent social networking tools.
Interestingly, many of these spatial developments are being instigated – through initiatives lead by
information technology and communications departments – particularly in universities and increasingly
in further education and schools.2
LEARNING TECHNOLOGIES
The above developments are blurring the boundaries between what has traditionally been seen as the
“built learning environment” and the information and communications technologies that support those
spaces. The rapidly emerging models of “technology enhanced learning environments” (TEAL) – first
introduced at MIT in 20033 – emphasises that acoustics, furniture, lighting (both natural and artificial),
mobility, flexibility, air temperature and security must support the educational technologies being
designed for those spaces. The traditional physical elements are technologies as well, but increasingly
these are interdependent with ICTs and audio-visual educational technologies.
In my view, all of these elements should be integrated under the one heading of “learning technologies”
and be considered within the same framework, whether it be budget, design, maintenance or flexibility.
The key issue is that the life cycle of each element and how these vary must be attended to in such a way
that all elements are up to date.4 “Stuff”, as Brand calls the moveable elements, includes technologies
2
such as computers which tend to have a life cycle of 3 years. The space plan may well be 7 years, the
services 10-20 years whilst the structure could be in excess of 100 years. We are, of course, finding that
inserting these new technologies into existing buildings, and especially heritage buildings, is complex.
Figure 2. Stewart Brand’s hierarchy of core building elements
Stuff
Space plan
Services
Structure
Skin
Site
Source: Brand, S. (1995), How Buildings Learn: What Happens After They’re Built, p. 15.
2. See a) Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE) on behalf of JISC (2006), “Designing Spaces for Effective Learning”,
www.jisc.ac.uk/uploaded_documents/JISClearningspaces.pdf; b) Education.au Limited (2009), “21st Century Leaning Spaces”, www.educationau.
edu.au/learning-spaces; c) Scottish Funding Council (2006), “Spaces for learning: a review of learning spaces in further and higher education”,
www.jiscinfonet.ac.uk/Resources/external.../sfc-spaces-for-learning.
3. Technology-enabled active learning (TEAL) is a teaching format that merges lectures, simulations and hands-on desktop experiments to
create a rich collaborative learning experience; see web.mit.edu/8.02t/www/802TEAL3D/teal_tour.htm.
4. Brand, S. (1995), How Buildings Learn: What Happens After They’re Built, Penguin.
CELE Exchange 2010/7 – ISSN 2072-7925 – © OECD 2010

LEARNING AND TEACHING

It is paramount that these new innovations align the physical space with the educational technologies
so that both can support the pedagogies envisaged for those spaces. It is critical that this happen; after
all, the traditional classroom had to evolve from simply meeting the didactive teaching methods which
predominated prior to the emergence of significant educational technology.
I believe that the limitations of the traditional classroom in supporting these learning approaches is a cause
of concern, whether they be in the form of lecture theatres and seminar/tutorial rooms in universities,
or closed boxes for 25-35-40-45 students in schools (depending on the relevant country). The closed
classroom represents a physically outdated teaching model which does not match the inter-connected
virtual world we now live in. Students are learning collaboratively through a vast array of informal learning
spaces both on and off campus, yet are still crammed into outdated traditional models. What we know as
the “knowledge age” is rapidly morphing into a “creative age” yet classrooms, according to the students
I have surveyed, are the least creative space they can learn in.
These learning spaces need to adapt to meet the emerging needs of a wide range of pedagogies. 3
This concept is reflected in the Australian Learning and Teaching Council’s5 recent appointment of
15 discipline-specific teaching and learning advisors.
Although the original TEAL model noted above was launched to rejuvenate the teaching of Physics 1 at
MIT, many versions of it have proliferated in geology, chemistry, engineering, education, architecture
and some other disciplines. It is in engineering that the most advances have been made and this is
largely because of the need for engineers to have a wide range of competencies than cannot be assessed
solely in the examination room.
About the same time as TEAL, MIT’s Aeronautical School initiated a new pedagogical model called
CDIO (conceive, design, implement and operate). This approach has now taken off across the globe. Its
wide use and variations in practice can be seen at www.cdio.org.
These issues are important because engineering schools are preparing students who, as professional
engineers, will be required to work in self-directed ways through problem solving and collaborative
team work.6
A critical notion to understand is the concept of graduate attributes or graduate competencies. For
engineers, these might be expanded to include critical thinking, communicating to peers and the wider
community, working in multi-disciplinary teams and environmental literacy. Engineers are involved
in complex projects involving infrastructure which means they will have to work across – and in
collaboration with – a range of disciplines. To continue to learn in a didactive, teacher-centred way will
not provide students with those competencies.
5. See http://www.altc.edu.au/april2009-altc-discipline-scholars-begin.
6. Chang, R.L. et al., “Places for learning engineering: A preliminary report on informal learning spaces”, proceedings of the Research in
Engineering Education Symposium 2009, Palm Cove, QLD, The University of Melbourne, Australia.
© OECD 2010 – ISSN 2072-7925 – CELE Exchange 2010/7

This was first understood in the teaching of medical students. For some 30 years medical students have
been taught in a collaborative way with groups of ten students being supported by a tutor. This model
is difficult to achieve across all disciplines because of budget constraints, but the approach can be
modeled using the TEAL concept.
CASE STUDIES 7
In order to illustrate how effective they are in enhancing teaching and learning outcomes, three case
studies have been selected and are presented in chronological order, from 2003 to 2010.
The Australian Science and Mathematics School (ASMS) 8

Opened in 2003, this public senior high school for pupils aged 15-18 (the final three years of secondary
school) has been featured in many publications and received many international visitors because of its
innovative design which meets what was then seen as a “radical” pedagogical approach. This school
was planned around the CDIO concept before that concept became common knowledge.
View of Learning Commons

showing transparency
4 throughout the building
© ASMS
7. For further information, see www.woodsbagot.com.

8. Discussed in a previous issue of this newsletter; see http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/46/62/34276712.pdf, pp. 24-26.

Figure 3. A comparison of the stages of the Project of Scientific Enquiry

with the ASMS model for deep learning
t to further lea
itmen rnin
mm g
Co
pm ent of rigorous t
o hin
vel kin
De Unfamiliar
g
context
Transfer and Focus on

application innovation
• Orientation to • Orientation
problem solving to creativity
Familiar Unfamiliar
problem problem
Focus on facts Analysis and
• Orientation interpretation
to mastery • Orientation to
of basics research and
experimentation
Familiar
Co context g
mm
itme ar ni n
De nt to further le g
vel
opm i nkin 5
ent of rigorous th
Source: Oliver, G. (2007), “Scientific Inquiry Promotes Deep Learning”, in “How do we meet the challenges of inspiring learners?”, iNET
online conference.
Key features of the school include:

• It focuses on problem-based learning around mathematics and science but also includes six other
key learning areas.
• Learning principles include New Sciences, Inquiry Learning, Interdisciplinary Curriculum, Standards
of Significance, Authentic Experience and Engagement and Retention.
• It is located on the campus of Flinders University in Adelaide.
• It designs and delivers the curriculum in partnership with the University’s Faculty of Science.
• It acts as a professional development centre for national and international teachers.
• It consists of “learning commons” and “learning studios” collocated to foster seamless theoretical
and practical learning.
• It enables students to organise desks in the learning commons to suit their daily agreed social and
learning needs.
• Students host visitors and explain how the school works.
• It has been used as a model to “de-privatise” teaching practice through the transparent nature of the
internal wall, most of it being glass.

4th Year and Doctoral Engineering Design Studio, the University of New South Wales
This facility, opened in April 2010, was designed for 100 4th year and 30 doctoral engineering students.
Figure 4. 3D view of the concept showing collaborative learning, research students,

gallery space and café informal learning area
©W
ood
6 s Ba
got
The key elements of the studio are as follows:

• It offers integrated collaborative learning for undergraduates, postgraduates and partners in industry
in research-led pedagogy where students work actively on projects with industry.
• It facilitates interaction between undergraduate, postgraduate and academic staff based on real-
world design and research projects.
• It simulates the project-based type of environment students will face when entering industry.
• It comprises a studio, study spaces for 30 doctoral students, a gallery/foyer and functions space, café/
kitchenette for social and other functions involving project partners from the world of industry.
• No fixed technology is used other than plasma screens at the perimeters: the technology used by
students consists of state-of-the-art wireless and battery-powered devices eliminating the need for
clumsy power and data connections which limit flexibility.
• It can accommodate 96 students in groups of 8; its 12 tables fold away to allow alternative uses for
the space.

CDIO in the Faculty of Engineering, University of Melbourne

Conceive, design, implement and operate (CDIO) is the most recent version of collaborative learning
spaces developed in the faculty. The CDIO concept allows students to work on theory and on practice
seamlessly.
© Woods Bagot
Faculty of Engineering,
Learning Collaborative
Classroom
Key points include: 7

• It is designed for ten groups of six (60 students in all), with each group of six able to work in twos or
threes.
• It allows students to work collaboratively on project-based activities in three-hour sessions. Not all
students use the practical studio or laboratory at the same time, but they work on specific set projects
in small groups.
• Social spaces and reflective spaces surround the studios for informal and collaborative study.
• It is used by the Faculty of Architecture, Building and Planning for construction students.
• Students now feel part of a community of learners and are observed within the Faculty for greater
periods of time on campus, including weekends and evenings
EVALUATION OF TEAL
These emerging TEAL models which proliferated since MIT first launched the concept in 2003 are in
the early stages of evaluation. Some publically available articles on evaluation show that these spaces
work well. Although it is difficult to argue that the physical learning environment by itself can enhance
teaching and learning, it is clear that the physical learning environment can inhibit the practice of
some forms of effective pedagogy and therefore limit the extent to which graduate competencies can
be delivered to students.
For example, on average 90% of ASMS’s students go on to university, and yet it has no classrooms. However,
another equivalent but independent senior secondary school, which only has classrooms and uses a tutor
model (but with equally motivated teachers and students) also results in 90% entry to university. The key
question, still to be researched, is whether these respective students are successful at the end of the first
year and can then move effectively through the university system. Specifically, is the TEAL approach more
effective in creating life-long learners compared to the 19th century traditional classroom model?

Some studies suggest that there are significant improvements to learning outcomes in adopting this
approach.
Overall, these Active Learning Classrooms yielded very positive responses from instructors and
students. The instructors who were interviewed enjoyed teaching in the rooms so much that their only
concern was a fear of not being able to continue to teach in these new learning spaces. Similarly, more
than 85% of students recommended the Active Learning Classrooms for other classes. Instructors and
students overwhelmingly found that this space made a difference for them. “I love this space! It makes
me feel appreciated as a student, and I feel intellectually invigorated when I work and learn in it.9
The studio space is also a significant investment and so must clearly improve learning outcomes:
engagement, attitude and collaboration in addition to absorption of the curriculum. Measures of
those outcomes are necessarily qualitative at this point, but based on comments from student and
faculty who actually learned and taught in the space, we would cautiously say that the studio has
met those goals. Of course we will need to continue to evaluate progress in outcomes as people gain
experience with using the space.10
In evaluating teachers’ learning at the ASMS, a recent doctoral graduate found significant connections
between the pedagogical process and the flexibility of the ASMS school design.11 Clearly, evaluation
of the TEAL approach involves both quantitative and qualitative examination. It is also evident that
qualitative studies show significant support for the TEAL model from both teachers and students. Further
8 quantitative study is required to support these qualitative findings and this work is currently underway at
the University of Melbourne’s LEARN centre.12 Findings will be made available as they become public.
What is most pleasing from my viewpoint is that there are exciting alternatives emerging to the traditional
closed classroom and these are gaining increasing acceptance. I certainly look forward to evaluating
and using these findings in future projects and research.
For more information, contact:

Dr. Kenn Fisher
Associate Professor Learning Environments
Faculty of Architecture, Building & Planning
Learning Environments (Action) Research Network
University of Melbourne
Parkville, Victoria
Australia
Tel.: +61424022039
E-mail: [email protected]
9. Alexander, D. et al. (2009), “Active Learning Classrooms Pilot Evaluation: Fall 2007 Findings and Recommendations”, The University of
Minnesota, www.classroom.umn.edu/projects/ALC_Report_Final.pdf.
10. Tom, J., K. Voss and C. Scheetz (2008), “The Space is the Message: First Assessment of a Learning Studio”, www.educause.edu/EDUCAUSE+Quarterly/
EDUCAUSEQuarterlyMagazineVolum/TheSpaceIstheMessageFirstAsses/162874.
11. Bissaker, K. (2009), “The processes and outcomes of professional learning in an innovative school: the construction of an explanatory
model”, unpublished thesis.
12. The Learning Environments Action Research Network is associated with the Smart Green Schools project; see www.abp.unimelb.edu.au/
research/funded/smart-green-schools.

ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION
AND DEVELOPMENT
The OECD is a unique forum where the governments of 31 democracies work together to address the
economic, social and environmental challenges of globalisation. The OECD is also at the forefront of efforts
to understand and to help governments respond to new developments and concerns, such as corporate
governance, the information economy and the challenges of an ageing population. The Organisation provides
a setting where governments can compare policy experiences, seek answers to common problems, identify
good practice and work to co-ordinate domestic and international policies.
The OECD member countries are: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, the Czech Republic, Chile,
Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Korea, Luxembourg, Mexico,
the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, the Slovak Republic, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland,
Turkey, the United Kingdom and the United States. The Commission of the European Communities takes part
in the work of the OECD.
OECD Publishing disseminates widely the results of the Organisation’s statistics gathering and research
on economic, social and environmental issues, as well as the conventions, guidelines and standards agreed by
its members.
This work is published under the responsibility of the Secretary General of the OECD.
The opinions expressed and arguments employed herein do not necessarily reflect the
official views of the Organisation or of the governments of its member countries.
ISSN: 2072-7925
Corrigenda to OECD publications may be found on line at: www.oecd.org/publishing/corrigenda.

© OECD 2010
You can copy, download or print OECD content for your own use, and you can include excerpts from OECD publications, databases and multimedia products in your
own documents, presentations, blogs, websites and teaching materials, provided that suitable acknowledgment of OECD as source and copyright owner is given. All
requests for public or commercial use and translation rights should be submitted to [email protected]. Requests for permission to photocopy portions of this material
for public or commercial use shall be addressed directly to the Copyright Clearance Center (CCC) at [email protected] or the Centre français d’exploitation du droit
de copie (CFC) [email protected].
Digital Initiatives in
Higher Education
Government of India
MHRD Ministry of Human Resource Development
Study Webs of Active Learning for Young Aspiring Minds
https://swayam.gov.in/
SWAYAM is India's own MOOCs platform offering online courses on all disciplines viz. Engineering, Law,
Management, Humanities & Social Sciences and Professional Courses. It is designed to achieve the three
cardinal principles of Education Policy - Access, Equity and Quality. SWAYAM is an indigenously developed Cloud
based IT platform that facilitates hosting of all the courses, taught in classrooms from 9th standard till Post-
Graduation to be accessed by Anyone, Anytime, Anywhere free of cost. All the courses are interactive, prepared
by reputed teachers in the country and accessible through computers / mobile phones.
Launched on 9th July 2017 Anyone, Anytime, Anywhere Learning free of cost
Enrollments » 1.25+ Crores
Courses on SWAYAM » 2,867
Courses in Jan-2020 Semester » 567
No. of Students Certified » 5+ Lac.
National Coordinators
UGC : PG Non Engineering CEC : UG Non Engineering NPTEL : UG & PG Engineering

UGC CEC NPTEL
IGNOU : Certificate &

IIMB : Management NITTTR : Teacher Training
Diploma
IIMB IGNOU NITTTR
th th
AICTE : Annual Refresher
NIOS : Open School 9 to 12 NCERT : School 9th to 12th Programme in Teaching (ARPIT) &
Foreign Universities
NIOS NCERT AICTE
SWAYAM - Continuous Learning Experience
Download SWAYAM applications from popular app stores
Swayam helpline: 18001219025 | email: [email protected] https://swayam.gov.in/

Study Webs of Active Learning for Young Aspiring Minds
https://swayam.gov.in/
Key Features
Credit Transfer
Upto 20% Credit Transfer Facility Available for the Enrolled Students.
Necessary regulations issued by UGC and AICTE.
Integration with Conventional Education

Schedule of SWAYAM Courses aligned with Conventional Semester to facilitate easy
Credit Transfer.
Final Proctored Examination

The SWAYAM final proctored examination is conducted twice in a year
(May & November) across the country in about 200 Centres
(for both Computer Based Test and Pen & Paper Test).
Local Chapter
3800+ Local Chapters established in Educational Institutions for:
• To Spread Awareness among Faculty & Students.
• Facilitate use of SWAYAM Course in Blended or Flip Classroom Mode.
Online Degree Programme

Top Ranking Universities to offer Online Degree Programme through SWAYAM.
Annual Refresher Programme In Teaching (ARPIT)

Faculty Development Programme for 1.3 Million Teachers.
Global Reach
SWAYAM Courses being offered to African Students in more than 20 African Countries
under the e-VBAB Project of Ministry of External Affairs (Govt. of India).
MoU signed with Afghanistan for sharing of SWAYAM resources.
Download SWAYAM applications from popular app stores
Swayam helpline: 18001219025 | email: [email protected] https://swayam.gov.in/

https://www.swayamprabha.gov.in
Launched on 9th July 2017
SWAYAM PRABHA is an initiative to provide 32 high quality

educational channels through DTH (Direct to Home) across the length
and breadth of the country on 24X7 basis. This would enable to deliver
e-education in a most cost effective & inclusive manner.
Higher Education: Curriculum-based course

contents at post-graduate and under-graduate level.
IIT PAL: To assist the student in the

classes 11 and 12 aspiring to join IITs.
School Education (9-12 levels): Modules for teacher's training

as well as teaching and learning aids for children of India.
Curriculum-based courses that can meet the needs of

life-long learners of Indian citizens in India and abroad.
The content for Swayam Prabha
Channels are provided by NPTEL, Freely Available on DD Free Dish , Dish Tv (Zee)
IITs, UGC CEC, IGNOU, and Jio mobile app
NCERT and NIOS
Every day, there will be new content for at least (4) hours
which would be repeated 5 more times in a day.
Channels uplinked from BISAG , Gandhinagar

using 2 transponders of GSAT-15 Satellite.
CONTACT US
[email protected]
+91 79-23268347 (Available on Monday To Friday from 9:30 AM To 6:00 PM)
https://www.swayamprabha.gov.in/
National Digital Library of India (NDLI) (https://www.ndl.gov.in/)
National Digital Library of India (NDL India) provides a framework of

virtual repository of learning resources with a single-window search
facility.
24x7 learning resource
Accessible by any one , from anywhere and anytime
Single window search facility with filters through which users can personalise.
More than 3.8 Crore e-books/journals/audio books/question banks.
Contents are available in 200 + Languages
Registrations : 52 lakh +
Number of institutions: 13,352
Mobile App downloads : 14.1 Lakhs
https://www.ndl.gov.in Launched on 19th June 2018
NATIONAL DIGITAL LIBRARY OF INDIA

Central Library • Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur •
Kharagpur, West Bengal, India - 721302
+91-3222-282435 • [email protected]
VIRTUAL L ABS http://www.vlab.co.in/
Participating Institutes
Virtual Labs provides a fully interactive simulation
environment to perform experiments, collect data, and
answer questions to assess the understanding of the
knowledge acquired. In order to achieve the objectives of
such an ambitious project, it is essential to develop virtual
laboratories with state-of-the-art computer simulation
technology to create real world environments and problem
handling capabilities. IIT Delhi as the Nodal Institute with
other 10 institutes is understanding this initiative.
To provide remote-access to Labs in various

disciplines of Science and Engineering
Implemented by IIT Delhi.
To share costly equipment and resources, which are

otherwise available to limited number of users due
to constraints on time and geographical distances.
Cover 100 Virtual Labs, approximately

1000+ web-enabled experiments.
Wireless Research Lab

Room No - 206/IIA, Bharti School of Telecom
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016
Phone : 011-26582050 | Email : [email protected]
http://www.vlab.co.in/
http://www.e-yantra.org/
E-Yantra enable the effective education across engineering colleges in India on embedded
systems and Robotics. The training for teachers and students is imparted through workshops
where participants are taught basics of embedded systems and programming. Engagement of
teachers and students in hands-on experiments with robots by way of competition-event is
another innovative method of problem-solving with out-of-box solutions. e-Yantra also helps
colleges to set-up Robotics labs/clubs to make it a part of their routine training curriculum.
More than 275 colleges across India have benefited with this initiative. All the projects and code
are available on the e-Yantra web-site www.e-yantra.org as open source content.
F Promoting robotics as multi-disciplinary engineering project

• Supporting innovation by students
• Learning by doing through group work
F Train teachers to teach engineering better
F A project by IIT Bombay
F e-yantra Lab Setup initiative (eLSI) supports infrastructure creation
F e-yantra competitions are held across colleges to create awareness
F 296 Labs established in 32+ regions , propose to establish 500 + labs
F Over 2115 Teachers trained
F 5,932 Total Teams participated in e-Yantra Robotics Competition (eYRC)
ERTS Lab,
First Floor, KReSIT Building,
IIT Bombay, Powai,
Mumbai - 400076, Maharashtra
Phone : 022 2576 4986, 022 25720184

Email : [email protected] http://www.e-yantra.org/
FREE AND OPEN SOURCE SOFTWARE IN EDUCATION
https://fossee.in/
FOSSEE promotes the use of open source software in educational institutions

(http://fossee.in). It does through instructional material, such as spoken tutorials,
documentation, such as textbook companions, awareness programmes, such as conferences,
training workshops, and Internships. Textbook Companion (TBC) is a collection of code for
solved examples of standard textbooks.
FOSSEE project (http://fossee.in ) has been promoting use of open source software in
A project by IIT Bombay.
Textbook Companion (TBC) is a collection of code for solved examples of standard

textbooks. 1,000 TBCs have been created in Scilab and Python alone.
FOSSEE is promoting the well established open source software: Open Foam,
an alternative to the proprietary software Fluent for computational fluid dynamics.
DWSIM, an alternative to the proprietary software Aspen Plus, for chemical process
simulation. eSim, an electronic design automation software, an alternative to ORCAD.
CFD - Lab, Aero. Annex Building,

Below HSS Dept., Opp. Metallurgical Dept.
IIT Bombay, Powai, Mumbai - 400076
Maharashtra
Phone : 022-25764133 | Email : [email protected] https://fossee.in/
Guidebook
for Learners of
Unit # 2: Tools for Creating Learning Environment

UNIT
2
under AICTE-NITTT Programme. The information provided in the text may not be suitable
or appropriate for other categories of course learners.

NITTTR Chennai
Phone / Whatsapp: +91-9445520968
NITTTR Chennai
Email: [email protected]
&
Associate Professor
NITTTR Chennai

Telephone: + 91-44-22545447/460/458/421
Join our Social Media Network:

WhatsAPP, Twitter, Instagram and Pinterest
2
UNIT
2
Table of Contents
Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 4
Expected Outcomes: ...................................................................................................................... 5
Looking into Unit #2 Content: ....................................................................................................... 5
What we mean by Learning Environment?..................................................................................... 8
Participate and Learn from the Poll: ............................................................................................... 8
Reflection of Learning (Activity # 2.1).......................................................................................... 11
Tool # 1: Google Meet ................................................................................................................. 12
Tool # 2: Google Classroom ........................................................................................................ 17
Tool # 3: PADLET ........................................................................................................................ 21
Tool # 4: EdPuzzle ........................................................................................................................ 24
Tool # 5: Flipgrid .......................................................................................................................... 28
Tool # 6: PhET Simulations .......................................................................................................... 33
Assignment # 2.1: Watch – Think - Reflect ................................................................................. 37
Assignment # 2.2: Think – Pair – Share – Review of the article: ................................................. 38
3
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Unit # 2: Tools for Creating Learning Environment
Introduction
F
aculty members and instructors are facing unprecedented change, with often larger
classes, more digitally savvy students. To handle change of this nature, faculty members
need to be digitally equipped along with their content knowledge and skills. This unit
focuses on a how to create digital ecosystem. The focus will be in utilizing “Open and Institutionally
Supported Technologies” and assisting in understanding the benefits and restrictions of both broad
categories of technologies. In this unit we will ask you to think about the reasons why you might want to
use freely available online tools for creating learning environment with the introduction about learning
management system. Various ICT tools viz., Zoom, Google Meet, Google Classroom, Edu puzzle, Ed-TED,
Flip Grid, Schoology., etc., will be explored with structured activities. In this unit, the participants will also
identify important considerations they need to keep in mind when developing online learning activities for
their students. We will offer advice about how to create an online learning environment, and help you
think about which may be appropriate for your own students. This unit, along with a range of case studies,
experiential sharing and activities, will explore the relationship between different technologies and specific
activities in more depth. It will provide the learner with the scope to practice the different tools to
be deployed for creating learning environment. This broader scope of what it is like teaching with
technology, such as, how the faculty responsibilities are redefined in engaging the millennials,
where lies the challenges and opportunities in designing effective classroom engagement.
Introduction to Digital Learning Ecosystem – Traditional vs Digital Learning Environment – SAMR

Model – Online Lecture delivery platform – Zoom; Google Meet; Webex; - ICT Tools for creating
learning environment - Google Classroom; Flip Grid; Ed Puzzle; PADLET; Poll – Demonstration and
Activities for effective implementation (Poll Everywhere, Mentimeter & Silido) – Overview of Learning
Management System – Virtual Laboratory – Simulation laboratories.
4
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Expected Outcomes:
1. List the importance of establishing digital learning environment.

2. Implement the appropriate technology for creating learning environment.
3. Incorporate the differentiated instruction in the classroom / laboratory instruction.
4. Integrate SAMR Model during the selection of ICT Tools.
5. Demonstrate the google classroom, ed puzzle and other tools.
6. Implement the virtual simulation environment for laboratory teaching.
The flow in which the learning needs to be done is provided in the form of table. Kindly follow
it for happy learning.
Reflection Survey
Learning Type of
Sequence Material
01 Overview of Unit 2: Tools for creating learning environment
02 Reading: Unit # 2 Learning Material
03 Self-Evaluation about Learning Environment (Questionnaire Survey)
04 Poll about digital environment
05 Using Online Environments for Teaching
5
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Learning Type of
Sequence Material
06 Characteristics of learning environment
07 Considerations for Choosing Technology
08 Introduction to SAMR Model
09 Tool Demonstration: Zoom, Cisco WebEx
10 Tool Demonstration: Google Meet
11 Reflection of Learning (Activity # 2.1 – Joining or Creation of ZOOM)
12 Reflection of Learning (Activity # 2.2 – Joining or Creation of Google Meet)
13 Tool Demonstration: Google Classroom
14 Tool Demonstration: EdPuzzle
15 Tool Demonstration: PADLET
Reflection of Learning (Activity # 2.3 – Joining or Creation of Google

16
Classroom)
17 Reflection of Learning (Activity # 2.4 – Creation of Edpuzzle)
18 Reflection of Learning (Activity # 2.5 – Creation of PADLET)
19 Tool Demonstration: Flipgrid
20 Tool Demonstration: Schoology
21 Tool Demonstration: Poll everywhere
6
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Learning Type of
Sequence Material
22 Reflection of Learning (Activity # 2.6 – Creation of Flip grid)
23 Reflection of Learning (Activity # 2.7 – Creation of Schoology)
24 Reflection of Learning (Activity # 2.8 – Creation of Poll)
25 Learning Management System
26 Virtual Laboratory Environment
27 Teaching Using Scenario Based Simulations
28 Virtual Laboratories - Online Access to Remote Laboratories
29 Case Study: Experiential Sharing - Virtual Laboratories
30 Reflection of Learning (Activity # 2.9 –Virtual Laboratory)
Discussion # 1
31
What are your reasons for changing in teaching learning spectrum?
Discussion # 2
32 What ideas do you have for conducting technology enabled
classroom instruction?
Discussion # 3
35
What technology challenges will you face in your own teaching?
36 Unit # 2 Conclusion
37 Unit # 2 Assessment
7
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What we mean by Learning Environment?
Hello Learners, we need to understand the real meaning of Technology-Enabled Learning so that learners
will have a clear appreciation and understanding of what is being discussed from the outset. However,
this would also be quite unusual: far too often in the field of educational
technology so much is assumed or taken for granted but basic
educational questions are left unanswered. Technology without
pedagogy will not provide the intended learning outcomes. From the
Core
periphery we need to bring technology to the core and redefine the
Technology
digital learning environment. It is not necessary or worth to get into
discussions about whether the learning context can be thought of as Periphery
formal, non-formal or informal. At this stage, it is sufficient to consider that there is an intention for
learning to result from the human-technology interaction.
The virtual learning environment is mainly influenced by the technologies which we adopt and importantly
new models or designs for teaching and learning. In general, we have observed the adoption of new
technique depends upon the prior knowledge or information. For example; when commercial movies were
first produced, they were basically a transfer or modified version of dramas performed in the hall. The
transformation of movies in the global scenario changed only after the movie ‘Birth of a Nation’, which
introduced and incorporated new techniques that are unique to cinema such as panoramic long shots,
panning shots, realistic battle scenes, and what are now known as special effects. Similarly, during the
inception of digital learning, we adopted the traditional classroom scenario and tried to fit in to the new
mode of environment. It is presumed that over time, the new designs of digital learning will be beginning
to emerge.
Participate and Learn from the Poll:

Awareness about the learning environment (Poll & survey)
Please Indicate your level of agreement with the questions presented in the poll along the five-point scale
presented from 1 (definitely disagree) to 5 (definitely agree). Some statements are not exclusive to digital
learning environment and you can provide a response based on your awareness about the tool in general.
Note that there is no right or wrong answer. There are a variety of teaching beliefs and intentions that
lead to a powerful learning environment for your students.
Completing this questionnaire should take about 10 to 20 minutes of your time and not longer. It is
important to react on your first impression/feeling!
8
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Digital Learning Environment
The success and effectiveness of the digital learning environment requires the
following attributes / types of presence, which in turn enhance the student
learning, viz., social presence, teaching presence, and cognitive presence Social Presence,
Teaching Presence &
(Garrison, Anderson, & Archer, 2000). Let us unveil the meaning of the three
Cognitive Presence
terms:
• Social presence creates connections with learners based on who we are as

three-dimensional persons with families, lives, and favorite ideas, people, and places. Pictures of
ourselves and our hobbies and interests convey these many dimensions of ourselves and help to build
connections and trust. For example: In learning environment theme could be group picture / study
tour picture with the students.
• Teaching presence guides students’ learning experiences. Teaching presence is the sum of all the
behaviors faculty use to direct, guide, and design the learning experiences. Teaching presence is
conveyed through, first, the design of courses and materials prior to teaching the course, and second,
the mentoring, guiding, and directing during the course.
• Cognitive presence supports, mentors, and guides students’ intellectual growth, ideas, and challenges.
Cognitive presence is conveyed by all the interactions with learners that an instructor has to support
the development of skills, knowledge, and understanding in his or her students.
In designing a course and selecting learning environment, the starting point is clearly identifying and stating
the desired learning outcomes. Once the learning outcomes are determined, we design the experiences
for achieving the learning outcomes appropriate for our learners. At this point we make decisions about
the digital environment technologies to best achieve the results. Of course, it doesn’t always work this
way. Sometimes the technology decisions are mostly all in place. Institutions create the learning
infrastructure and the technologies that learners are expected to have, and instructors are expected to
design within this set of tools. There is also growing pressure on both teachers and institutions to offer
their learners online learning options to supplement f2f (face-to-face) classes, due not only to the
spectacular growth of technology and increased access to it over the last decade, but also due to the
increasingly busy lifestyles of our adult learners and the increased ‘tech-sawiness’ of our younger learners.
9
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Components of an effective learning environment:
SAMR Model
The SAMR Model is a framework created by Dr. Ruben Puentedura that categorizes four different
degrees of classroom technology integration. The letters "SAMR" stand for Substitution, Augmentation,
Modification, and Redefinition. The SAMR model was created to share a common language across
disciplines as teachers strive to help students visualize complex concepts.
Image Modified from Original by Lefflerd’s on Wikimedia Commons
10
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The SAMR model is made up of four steps—Substitution, Augmentation, Modification, and Redefinition.
Substitution and Augmentation are considered "Enhancement" steps, while Modification and Redefinition
are termed "Transformation" steps.
Substitution
At this stage, technology is directly substituted for a more traditional one. It is a simple & direct
replacement.
Augmentation
The technology is again directly substituted for a traditional one, but with significant enhancements to the
student experience. In other words, you ask yourself if the technology increases or augments a student's
productivity and potential in some way.
Modification
In this stage, you are beginning to move from enhancement to transformation on the model. Instead of
replacement or enhancement, this is an actual change to the design of the lesson and its learning
outcome. The key question here—does the technology significantly alter the task?
Redefinition
The last stage of the SAMR model is Redefinition and represents the pinnacle of how technology can
transform a student’s experience. In this case, you ask yourself if the technology tools allow educators to
redefine a traditional task in a way that would not be possible without the tech, creating a novel
experience.
Reflection of Learning (Activity # 2.1)
The main aim of reflection of learning segment is to facilitate mentors in assessing the learning of the
learners through various activities documented in the form of portfolios. The learner perspective need to
be uploaded either in the course digital wall – PADLET (https://padlet.com/drgvjana/TELLLSL) or in the
course discussion page.
a) List down the skills that teacher should possess to adopt digital learning environment.
b) Have you in recent years adopted any new digital learning environment tools for your instruction? If
so, what is the motivating factor to do so.
c) In case, if you adopted technology in your teaching, what were the main difficulties you have faced
during the journey of instruction? Whether your colleagues or academic institution provided enough
support to tackle the situation?
11
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Tool # 1: Google Meet
Google and its product became ubiquitous among the teachers and learners due to its flexibility
and versatility. Prior to google meet, the learners connected through Google Hangout and
Google Meet is available to G Suite Enterprise Id. At present, Google extended this enterprise-
grade video conferencing to everyone. Now, anyone with a Google Account can create an online
meeting with up to 100 participants and meet for up to 60 minutes per meeting (up to 24 hours
per meeting through Sept. 30, 2020). Google Meet is a great tool to engage students in
collaboration outside of the classroom. It overcomes geographical barriers and provides more
opportunities for face-to-face interaction.
Google Meet & the SAMR Model
• Substitution: Learners use Google Meet to communicate with other students in the same
classroom (rather than having a face-to-face conversation).
• Augmentation: Learners use multiple modalities, including text, emoticons, photos, or
drawings to enhance face-to-face conversations.
• Modification: Learners in different states share files and screens to collaboratively work
on a class project.
• Redefinition: Learners connect with experts from all over the world beyond the
classroom walls via Google Meet.
12
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The quick feature of the tool:
Price Free
Type of learning Social constructivism; Connectivism
Ease of Use ★★★★✩
Privacy ★★★✩✩
Accessibility ★★★✩✩
Class Size 100 students in Class.
Google Meet – Login Features

1. Go to https://meet.google.com/
2. Click “Sign in” and sign in with your Google account (If you do not have a Google account,
you can simply create one at www.google.com)
3. You can either start a meeting or Join the Meeting (use the code)
4. There are two ways to start a Google Meet

5. Click “Schedule a video Meeting from Google
Calendar” icon, a “Invite people” window will
pop-up
6. Enter the name or email address, click

“INVITE”. Or
13
UNIT
2
7. Enter the name, email or phone number in the search box on the left if the person you
would like to start meet is in your contact list
8. Click the name, email or phone number in the list, it will start a conversation on the right.
9. Send messages in the bottom line, or click the “Video call” icon on the top.
10. After your partners click “Accept”, the “Meet Video Call” window will pop-up.
11. Join the Meeting using the code provided by your teachers/partner/meeting organizer.
12. You will see the presenter in the centre, your own webcam in the lower-right corner.
13. Click on “people icon” on the top-right to invite more people.
14
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14. Click on “gear icon” on the top-right to change general settings (eg. Video, Microphone and
Speaker)
15. Click on “… icon” to explore more options (eg. Share screen, Full screen, Chat, Help, and
Feedback)
16. Click “Leave Call icon” to end the Google Meet.
Learner skills checklist:
As you progress through this training, check off each skill as you learn it:
Sign in to Google Meet – Start a Meeting,
Start / Invite through Google Calendar
Join the Meeting
Share the Screen
Turn on Captions – Look into automatic Subtitle
Adjust the video resolution – Send / Receive
Mute the audience
Adjust the Layout and record the observation
Actively involved in the Chat
Reflection of Learning (Activity # 2.1)

o Start a Google Meet and Deliver the lecture to the students. Record the observation and
share your experience.
o Join the Meeting and actively participate in the discussion. Share your challenges during
the implementation.
o How the synchronous mode of Google Meet could be made more learning / live session,
share your thoughts/opinion/views/suggestion through discussion forum / coordinator
email id: [email protected]
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Source: Smallgroups.com
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Tool # 2: Google Classroom
Google Classroom, facilitates blended learning platform for educational institution by creating,
distributing and grading assignments in a paperless way. Google Classroom is a free application
designed to help students and teachers communicate, collaborate, organize and manage
assignments, go paperless, and much more! It was introduced as a feature of Google Apps for
Education (GAFE) following its public release on August 12, 2014.
Google Classroom and SAMR Model
How Google Apps for Education fit with SAMR Model:

• Substitution:
• Use Google Docs to write a report (instead of writing with pencil and paper).
• Google sheets to prove the concept of shared workspace and live updating.
• Use Google Calendar for due dates, events outside the classroom, and other important
“chronological data.”
• Augmentation:
• Track when students turn-in work.
• Highlight student exemplars: An announcement in Google Classroom can attach student
exemplars from the assignment folder in Google Drive.
• Modification:
• Create your self-grading assessment using Google Forms. Students could use the results
to create new learning goals.
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• Create classroom groups based on readiness, interest, reading level, or other factors for
teaching and learning.
• Google Docs to share documents and work collaboratively on writing projects.
• Google Draw to draw collaboratively.
• Redefinition:
• Invite a Googler into your class to do a guest lecture through Video Chat on the
importance science. Or invite a grandparent who lives in another state to read to the
class during story time.

Price Free
Privacy ★★★★✩
Accessibility ★★★★★
Class Size As per the type of google account.
250 to unlimited.
Google Classroom – Login Features

Creating classes is the first step for teachers
who want to set up an online space with
Google Classroom. Thankfully, this is easy
to do. Here’s how.
1. Navigate
to https://classroom.google.com
2. Choose the “I am a Teacher” option
3. Click the “+” sign in the top right-hand
corner next to your Google account
4. Select “Create Class”, then give it a
name and a section, and click “Create”.
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Customize the appearance of your class:

When you create your class for the first time, you are given a default header image. This is the
image that students will see when they click on your class to access assignments and
announcements. You can customize this image with a few quick steps.
1. Hover your mouse over the banner image
2. Look for the Select Theme link in the bottom right-hand corner
3. Click Select Theme to open a gallery of photos you can choose for your class.
4. Choose a photo from the gallery, then click Select Class Theme to change your header
image.
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Sign in to Google Meet – Start a Meeting,
Start / Invite through Google Calendar
Join the Meeting
Share the Screen
Turn on Captions – Look into automatic Subtitle
Mute the audience
Adjust the Layout and record the observation
Actively involved in the Chat
Learning Reflection
o Start a Google Meet and Deliver the lecture to the students. Record the observation and
share your experience.
o Join the Meeting and actively participate in the discussion. Share your challenges during
the implementation.
o How the synchronous mode of Google Meet could be made more learning / live session,
share your thoughts/opinion/views/suggestion through discussion forum / coordinator
email id: [email protected]
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Tool # 3: PADLET
Padlet is a free, online "virtual wall" tool where learners/users/students can express thoughts on
topics of their choice. It's like a piece of paper pasted on the board/wall, the virtual post placed
on the virtual online wall, you can share with you can share with any student or teacher you
want. Just give them the unique Padlet link. There are different ways we could use Padlet in the
classroom and it is really endless. Padlet allows you to insert ideas anonymously or with your
name. It’s easy to use and very handy.
Padlet is a great tool to use for collaborative group projects, in virtual mode. Students can
participate and post their assignment/views at their own convenience, there is a chance for value
addition during the process.
Padlet & the SAMR Model

• Substitution: Learners create their own Padlet with text-based posts (rather than putting
Post-it notes on a class bulletin board).
• Augmentation: Learners continue to work on the Padlet outside of class.
• Modification: The learners then give one another’s posts feedback directly on the padlet.
• Redefinition: The learners use the feedback to improve their work and then decide whether
or not other posts should be approved or need improvement.
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Price Free
Class Size Unlimited
How to Use Padlet

1. Go to www.padlet.com.
2. Click “Sign up” and register if you would like to have your own account. (Log in using Google,
Microsoft, Apple)
3. Click “Create a Padlet”.
4. Choose the design options of you padlet including your title, description, layout, wallpaper,
icon etc. and click “Next” after you have chosen everything to your liking.
5. Select your padlet’s privacy setting and the privileges that other users with access will have
on your padlet. Click “Next” once you are finished.
6. Now click “Start posting” and you are ready to begin. Click the “+” button or double click
anywhere on the padlet to begin posting. You can also drag and drop files onto the padlet or
paste from the clipboard.
7. You can hit the “Padlet” icon in the top left of the screen if you wish to return to the
homepage or change padlets if you are signed into an account.
Create a new Padlet, and:
Add a customized title and description
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Customize the padlet through unique link
Customize the wallpaper, color scheme and font.
Customize the attribution (whether the students/users need to add their name)
Reorder the order of posting (First / Last appearance)
Set the visibility for comments to posts
Voting to the post (like / rating)
Moderate the post – Content Filtering
Share the Padlet – Through Link
Share the Padlet – Through QR Code
Share the Padlet – Embed in your Google sites / e-portfolio
Share the Padlet – Through Social Media (Twitter / Facebook)
Share the Padlet – to Google Classroom
Export the content – As PDF / CSV / Excel Spreadsheet / Image
Alter the Privacy – Explore the options
Learning Reflection
o Create the PADLET – Explore all the option listed in the learner skill checklist.
o Share your challenges in creating the PADLET –
o Share your success stories in the PADLET –
o Share your challenges during using / implementing PADLET in your classroom –
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Tool # 4: EdPuzzle
EdPuzzle is a free assessment-centered tool that allows teachers and Learners to create
interactive online videos by embedding either open-ended or multiple-choice questions,
audio notes, audio tracks, or comments on a video. It creates an online learning environment
for customizing the video/documentary into the regional language. The complete voice over
is possible on the uploaded/linked videos, it provides better connection to the learners in
grasping and understanding the content EdPuzzle interactive videos can be made with videos
from a number of websites, including YouTube, TED, Vimeo, and National Geographic.
EdPuzzle & the SAMR Model
• Substitution: Learners answer questions on a video, online rather than on paper.

• Augmentation: Teachers can enhance the videos they show in class by adding their own
narration into the video to clarify concepts or highlight key points.
• Modification: Learners use EDPuzzle to add multiple choice and open-ended questions to
a video from the teacher. Once they have created their own interactive videos, learners
can exchange their videos with classmates, complete classmates’ video quizzes, and
provide feedback on the quality of their classmates’ interactive videos.
• Redefinition: Learners and teachers can share their EdPuzzle interactive videos with
people around the world, collect data from the individuals who respond to their
questions, and analyze the data.
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UNIT
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Price Free
Type of learning Behaviorism, Social
constructivism; Cognitive
Constructivism, Connectivism, Teach
ing with technology
Ease of Use ★★★✩✩
Accessibility ★★★★✩
EdPuzzle – Login Features
1. Go to EdPuzzle
2. Choose teacher account
3. Click “Sign Up” and register for an account (Remember, verification email is sent, kindly
verify your account; if school name/educational institute name is not there, you can add
it)
4. Return to EdPuzzle and login
5. Go to my classes option on the top
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UNIT
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6. Click on “add class” option to create a class

7. Name your class; the best option is to link the google classroom. Detailed explanation is
given in the video.
8. Invite your Learners to your class (Best is to add google classroom)
9. Click on search button on the top
10. Search for a video on the channels offered on the left side (e.g., EdPuzzle, YouTube,
Vimeo)
11. Choose the video that you want to edit and click on “use it” button
12. Edit your video by using features on the top of the video
13. Click on “Save” button and go to my content on the top middle on Homepage
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14. Select your video that you just edited and assign it to your learners in your class by
clicking on “assign/share” button on the top. And then, assign it for your class on
EdPuzzle / google classroom
15. Click Edit and add voice over, add inline video quiz and video notes (audio Notes).
16. Assign to the Google classroom and monitor the progress of the learners.
Create EdPuzzle account and add video
Edit the video, with voiceover, audionotes, inline quiz
Assign to Google Classroom
Generate report about learner’s performance
Turn on CC and avoid forward
Assign project and give feedback
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Learning Reflection
o Create the account, add video from the source / upload. Edit the video (Crop, Voiceover,
Audio Notes and Inline Video Quiz).
o Work with data analytics about Learners performance. Share your challenges faced during
the implementation.
Tool # 5: Flipgrid
Flipgrid elevates text-based discussion forums with teacher and Learners constructed videos.
Teachers and Learners can create a grid about a specific topic and encourage peers and even
people from around the world to record a short video about the topic! Flipgrid allows learners
of all ages to find their voices, share their voices, and respect the diverse voices of others.
Flipgrid Learners build and strengthen social learning communities as they discuss their
ideas and experiences with their peers. Flipgrid amplifies Learners voice and supports Learners
development of global empathy as they immerse themselves in each other’s learning processes
and perspectives.
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Flipgrid & the SAMR Model
• Substitution: Learners create a flipgrid video to engage in a discussion instead of instead of
engaging face-to-face in a classroom setting.
• Augmentation: All Learners engage in the discussion, by adding comments and follow-up
videos, over an extended period (e.g., 1-2 weeks).
• Modification: Learners can create their own grids with prompts about a topic, solicit video
responses, and analyze them for class.
• Redefinition: Learners are able to discuss their ideas and experiences with professionals,
experts, and scholars around the world.
Price Free
Flipgrid – Login Features
For Teachers:
1. Go to http://www.flipgrid.com. Click on the “Sign Up for Free” box in the upper right-hand
portion of the screen.
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2. Fill out the information (First Name, Last Name, email, Password, Account Type, Instruction
Type, School, Institution, Organization). When finished, click “Create My Grid.”
3. Next, you’ll want to create a “New Grid” by clicking on the blue “New Grid” button on the
My Grids page. Unless you purchase a classroom version of Flipgrid, you will only be allowed
to have one grid.
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4. Click on the Grid Name to view your topics. To create Topics, click on the blue button titled
“New Topic”. We have two topics on the graphic below. One in which we asked for follow
up on a district wide pilot program and one in which we asked our administrators to reflect
on their first quarter. Notice, each topic has link. If you were to
type http://www.flipgrid.com/classroom8851, you would be able to access and add to the
topic. There are also editing options available for topics as well under the “Actions” button.
5. When creating a topic, you can customize it to fit your needs. Give it a title and date. Choose
a Video Response Time (the default is limited to 1 minute 30 seconds). Type out the
directions of what you’d like the users to contribute.
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6. Share with students: Click “share topic” button on the topic page. You can copy the URL and
paste it in an email. There’s social media interaction with Facebook and Twitter as well as an
integration with Google Classroom.
For Students:
7. Students select a topic and then tap the green plus to start the record process
8. Record a video – flip the camera and pause while recording
9. Review the video – gain confidence with unlimited retakes
10. Take a selfie – customize the image to add style
11. Enter Info – last step before submitting the video
Create Flipgrid account / Add Grid
Managing Grids – Add Coteaches
Activate Responses – Add Mix Tape
Download Video
Spark Response
Innovative Flipgrid Ideas
Learning Reflection
o Create the account, add grid, ask learners to upload video.
o Work with innovative flipgrid ideas. Share your challenges faced during the
implementation.
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Tool # 6: PhET Simulations
PhET simulations are interactive simulations of science and math concepts created by the
University of Colorado Boulder. Students are able to run these simulations, manipulating
different aspects of a construct to understand science and mathematics concepts. Depending on
the simulation, students may also be able to collect, graph, and analyse data to draw conclusions
of their own. PhET simulations are especially useful for creating visual representations of hard to
grasp concepts in science and math while making them engaging through student
manipulation. PhET simulations are easy to access and free to use by anyone with a device and
an Internet connection. There is no account or login required for use, but with a free account,
teachers can also have access to teacher-submitted activities and primer videos.
PhET Simulation & the SAMR Model

• Substitution: Students use a simulation to watch a particular process take place rather than
looking at diagrams or videos.
• Augmentation: Students engage with the simulation and are able to manipulate it, adding
interest to the activity.
• Modification: Students use a simulation to observe, test, and gather data in order to develop
an understanding of a particular concept that they then share with the class. This fuels inquiry
based learning.
• Redefinition: Students are able to use simulations to observe, manipulate and understand
otherwise unobservable phenomena like molecular structures, membrane permeability, or
the photoelectric effect.
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UNIT
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Price Free
Type of learning Constructivism; Cognitivism;
Humanism
Privacy ★★★★★
How to use the PhET Simulation:
1. Login into https://phet.colorado.edu/

2. Click “Play with Simulations”
3. Select your desired subject area from the menu on the left. For Example: Chemistry
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4. Click on the simulation you wish to run
5. Start investigating by running the simulation. The simulation could be linked to Google
Classroom.
6. If you have trouble getting the simulation to run, go to the help center where you will find
answers to many of your questions, if not, contact the PhET.
7. For each simulations, there is teacher support material with the case studies shared by
other educators.
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Select the simulations related to topic of interest
Download simulations
Embed into the LMS
Link to the google classroom
Use teacher support material
Assign project and give feedback
Learning Reflection
o The faculty members will be adopting the virtual simulation either from Phet or related
sites for the classroom laboratory instruction.
o Work with data analytics about Learners performance. Share your challenges faced during
the implementation.
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Assignment # 2.1: Watch – Think - Reflect
Kindly watch the TED Talk and reflect your thoughts about the documentary “Let’s use video
to reinvent education” spurred by Sal Khan video.
1. What is the key take away message from this talk?
2. When and why should we redefine the learning environment?
3. What are your beliefs about your ability to deliver effective instruction while operating
under education institute reforms?
4. In our system, still mathematics is discussed or approached in traditional approach, how
online education of mathematics is possible. What is your perspective about this
condition?
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Assignment # 2.2: Think – Pair – Share – Review of the article:
We target at providing a list of readings that are of good quality, essential and reasonable to the
workload we promised. So, we have been very selective when identifying the readings. Most of
them are extensive reviews or contain an extensive review. They are all scholarly written and
evidence-based.
As we have been very selective, there are only limited numbers of readings for the whole course.
Therefore, the references are not labeled as “compulsory reading” or “highly recommended
reading” as I discussed in Compiling Course Outline. All readings are essential.
We deeply understand that not every participant has the access to the electronic resources in
order to identify the paper we list. So, we tried our best to find articles that can be openly
accessed. While such papers are available, we make recommendation as an alternative option.
We will continue to search for such kind of paper and add them to the list. If you come across
any good article, which is scholarly, evidence-based, and of good quality, please recommend it to
us.
Compulsory Reading
Goodson, C. E., & Miertschin, S. L., & Stewart, B. L. (2018, June), Digital Learning Preferences: What
Do Students Want? Paper presented at 2018 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition , Salt Lake
City, Utah. https://peer.asee.org/30335
Highly recommended reading

Roger G. Hadgraft & Anette Kolmos (2020) Emerging learning environments in engineering
education, Australasian Journal of Engineering Education, DOI: 10.1080/22054952.2020.1713522
38
ISSN 2072-7925
CELE Exchange 2010/7
© OECD 2010
Technology-enabled active
learning environments:
an appraisal
By Kenn Fisher, University of Melbourne, Australia
This article examines the emergence of technology-enabled active learning environments and the
reasons for their appearance. It explores three case studies and considers how effective they are in
enhancing teaching and learning outcomes.
The recent advent of wireless broadband Internet access and mobile communications devices
has provided remarkable opportunities for 21st century blended learning models – simultaneous
online and face-to-face – and seriously called into question the industrial-age traditional “egg crate
classroom” model of teaching and learning. It has also enabled the emergence of a true synchronous/
asynchronous and virtual/physical matrix of learning opportunities for which our existing built learning 1
environment infrastructure is not well suited.1
In response to these developments, many innovative learning environments are being trialed. These
include an increasing focus on the “third space” which supports social forms of student interaction.
The important issue here, especially in universities, is that students can now learn off-campus on line.
Figure 1. Blended learning matrix combining face-to-face physical and online learning
Virtual and physical online learning, time dependent and time independent
Synchronous Asynchronous
Site-specific signage
Face-to-face Exhibitions
Local
meeting places Installations
White board
Internet
Telephone video conference Web
Remote Textmessages
Shared cyberlinks Virtual studio
“Google it”
Source: Mitchell, W. (2003).
1. Mitchell, W. (2003), “21st Century Learning Environments”, presentation at a workshop on new learning environments at Queensland
University of Technology in conjunction with K. Fisher.
This is forcing us to rethink the nature of the 21st century campus, and more specifically what physical
attributes need to be provided to encourage students to attend campuses and to actually meet face-to-
face with their colleagues, rather than interacting through the now prevalent social networking tools.
Interestingly, many of these spatial developments are being instigated – through initiatives lead by
information technology and communications departments – particularly in universities and increasingly
in further education and schools.2
LEARNING TECHNOLOGIES
The above developments are blurring the boundaries between what has traditionally been seen as the
“built learning environment” and the information and communications technologies that support those
spaces. The rapidly emerging models of “technology enhanced learning environments” (TEAL) – first
introduced at MIT in 20033 – emphasises that acoustics, furniture, lighting (both natural and artificial),
mobility, flexibility, air temperature and security must support the educational technologies being
designed for those spaces. The traditional physical elements are technologies as well, but increasingly
these are interdependent with ICTs and audio-visual educational technologies.
In my view, all of these elements should be integrated under the one heading of “learning technologies”
and be considered within the same framework, whether it be budget, design, maintenance or flexibility.
The key issue is that the life cycle of each element and how these vary must be attended to in such a way
that all elements are up to date.4 “Stuff”, as Brand calls the moveable elements, includes technologies
2
such as computers which tend to have a life cycle of 3 years. The space plan may well be 7 years, the
services 10-20 years whilst the structure could be in excess of 100 years. We are, of course, finding that
inserting these new technologies into existing buildings, and especially heritage buildings, is complex.
Figure 2. Stewart Brand’s hierarchy of core building elements
Stuff
Space plan
Services
Structure
Skin
Site
Source: Brand, S. (1995), How Buildings Learn: What Happens After They’re Built, p. 15.
2. See a) Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE) on behalf of JISC (2006), “Designing Spaces for Effective Learning”,
www.jisc.ac.uk/uploaded_documents/JISClearningspaces.pdf; b) Education.au Limited (2009), “21st Century Leaning Spaces”, www.educationau.
edu.au/learning-spaces; c) Scottish Funding Council (2006), “Spaces for learning: a review of learning spaces in further and higher education”,
www.jiscinfonet.ac.uk/Resources/external.../sfc-spaces-for-learning.
3. Technology-enabled active learning (TEAL) is a teaching format that merges lectures, simulations and hands-on desktop experiments to
create a rich collaborative learning experience; see web.mit.edu/8.02t/www/802TEAL3D/teal_tour.htm.
4. Brand, S. (1995), How Buildings Learn: What Happens After They’re Built, Penguin.

LEARNING AND TEACHING

It is paramount that these new innovations align the physical space with the educational technologies
so that both can support the pedagogies envisaged for those spaces. It is critical that this happen; after
all, the traditional classroom had to evolve from simply meeting the didactive teaching methods which
predominated prior to the emergence of significant educational technology.
I believe that the limitations of the traditional classroom in supporting these learning approaches is a cause
of concern, whether they be in the form of lecture theatres and seminar/tutorial rooms in universities,
or closed boxes for 25-35-40-45 students in schools (depending on the relevant country). The closed
classroom represents a physically outdated teaching model which does not match the inter-connected
virtual world we now live in. Students are learning collaboratively through a vast array of informal learning
spaces both on and off campus, yet are still crammed into outdated traditional models. What we know as
the “knowledge age” is rapidly morphing into a “creative age” yet classrooms, according to the students
I have surveyed, are the least creative space they can learn in.
These learning spaces need to adapt to meet the emerging needs of a wide range of pedagogies. 3
This concept is reflected in the Australian Learning and Teaching Council’s5 recent appointment of
15 discipline-specific teaching and learning advisors.
Although the original TEAL model noted above was launched to rejuvenate the teaching of Physics 1 at
MIT, many versions of it have proliferated in geology, chemistry, engineering, education, architecture
and some other disciplines. It is in engineering that the most advances have been made and this is
largely because of the need for engineers to have a wide range of competencies than cannot be assessed
solely in the examination room.
About the same time as TEAL, MIT’s Aeronautical School initiated a new pedagogical model called
CDIO (conceive, design, implement and operate). This approach has now taken off across the globe. Its
wide use and variations in practice can be seen at www.cdio.org.
These issues are important because engineering schools are preparing students who, as professional
engineers, will be required to work in self-directed ways through problem solving and collaborative
team work.6
A critical notion to understand is the concept of graduate attributes or graduate competencies. For
engineers, these might be expanded to include critical thinking, communicating to peers and the wider
community, working in multi-disciplinary teams and environmental literacy. Engineers are involved
in complex projects involving infrastructure which means they will have to work across – and in
collaboration with – a range of disciplines. To continue to learn in a didactive, teacher-centred way will
not provide students with those competencies.
5. See http://www.altc.edu.au/april2009-altc-discipline-scholars-begin.
6. Chang, R.L. et al., “Places for learning engineering: A preliminary report on informal learning spaces”, proceedings of the Research in
Engineering Education Symposium 2009, Palm Cove, QLD, The University of Melbourne, Australia.

This was first understood in the teaching of medical students. For some 30 years medical students have
been taught in a collaborative way with groups of ten students being supported by a tutor. This model
is difficult to achieve across all disciplines because of budget constraints, but the approach can be
modeled using the TEAL concept.
CASE STUDIES 7
In order to illustrate how effective they are in enhancing teaching and learning outcomes, three case
studies have been selected and are presented in chronological order, from 2003 to 2010.
The Australian Science and Mathematics School (ASMS) 8

Opened in 2003, this public senior high school for pupils aged 15-18 (the final three years of secondary
school) has been featured in many publications and received many international visitors because of its
innovative design which meets what was then seen as a “radical” pedagogical approach. This school
was planned around the CDIO concept before that concept became common knowledge.
View of Learning Commons

showing transparency
4 throughout the building
© ASMS
7. For further information, see www.woodsbagot.com.

8. Discussed in a previous issue of this newsletter; see http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/46/62/34276712.pdf, pp. 24-26.

Figure 3. A comparison of the stages of the Project of Scientific Enquiry

with the ASMS model for deep learning
t to further lea
itmen rnin
mm g
Co
pm ent of rigorous t
o hin
vel kin
De Unfamiliar
g
context
Transfer and Focus on

application innovation
• Orientation to • Orientation
problem solving to creativity
Familiar Unfamiliar
problem problem
Focus on facts Analysis and
• Orientation interpretation
to mastery • Orientation to
of basics research and
experimentation
Familiar
Co context g
mm
itme ar ni n
De nt to further le g
vel
opm i nkin 5
ent of rigorous th
Source: Oliver, G. (2007), “Scientific Inquiry Promotes Deep Learning”, in “How do we meet the challenges of inspiring learners?”, iNET
online conference.
Key features of the school include:

• It focuses on problem-based learning around mathematics and science but also includes six other
key learning areas.
• Learning principles include New Sciences, Inquiry Learning, Interdisciplinary Curriculum, Standards
of Significance, Authentic Experience and Engagement and Retention.
• It is located on the campus of Flinders University in Adelaide.
• It designs and delivers the curriculum in partnership with the University’s Faculty of Science.
• It acts as a professional development centre for national and international teachers.
• It consists of “learning commons” and “learning studios” collocated to foster seamless theoretical
and practical learning.
• It enables students to organise desks in the learning commons to suit their daily agreed social and
learning needs.
• Students host visitors and explain how the school works.
• It has been used as a model to “de-privatise” teaching practice through the transparent nature of the
internal wall, most of it being glass.

4th Year and Doctoral Engineering Design Studio, the University of New South Wales
This facility, opened in April 2010, was designed for 100 4th year and 30 doctoral engineering students.
Figure 4. 3D view of the concept showing collaborative learning, research students,

gallery space and café informal learning area
©W
ood
6 s Ba
got
The key elements of the studio are as follows:

• It offers integrated collaborative learning for undergraduates, postgraduates and partners in industry
in research-led pedagogy where students work actively on projects with industry.
• It facilitates interaction between undergraduate, postgraduate and academic staff based on real-
world design and research projects.
• It simulates the project-based type of environment students will face when entering industry.
• It comprises a studio, study spaces for 30 doctoral students, a gallery/foyer and functions space, café/
kitchenette for social and other functions involving project partners from the world of industry.
• No fixed technology is used other than plasma screens at the perimeters: the technology used by
students consists of state-of-the-art wireless and battery-powered devices eliminating the need for
clumsy power and data connections which limit flexibility.
• It can accommodate 96 students in groups of 8; its 12 tables fold away to allow alternative uses for
the space.

CDIO in the Faculty of Engineering, University of Melbourne

Conceive, design, implement and operate (CDIO) is the most recent version of collaborative learning
spaces developed in the faculty. The CDIO concept allows students to work on theory and on practice
seamlessly.
© Woods Bagot
Faculty of Engineering,
Learning Collaborative
Classroom
Key points include: 7

• It is designed for ten groups of six (60 students in all), with each group of six able to work in twos or
threes.
• It allows students to work collaboratively on project-based activities in three-hour sessions. Not all
students use the practical studio or laboratory at the same time, but they work on specific set projects
in small groups.
• Social spaces and reflective spaces surround the studios for informal and collaborative study.
• It is used by the Faculty of Architecture, Building and Planning for construction students.
• Students now feel part of a community of learners and are observed within the Faculty for greater
periods of time on campus, including weekends and evenings
EVALUATION OF TEAL
These emerging TEAL models which proliferated since MIT first launched the concept in 2003 are in
the early stages of evaluation. Some publically available articles on evaluation show that these spaces
work well. Although it is difficult to argue that the physical learning environment by itself can enhance
teaching and learning, it is clear that the physical learning environment can inhibit the practice of
some forms of effective pedagogy and therefore limit the extent to which graduate competencies can
be delivered to students.
For example, on average 90% of ASMS’s students go on to university, and yet it has no classrooms. However,
another equivalent but independent senior secondary school, which only has classrooms and uses a tutor
model (but with equally motivated teachers and students) also results in 90% entry to university. The key
question, still to be researched, is whether these respective students are successful at the end of the first
year and can then move effectively through the university system. Specifically, is the TEAL approach more
effective in creating life-long learners compared to the 19th century traditional classroom model?

Some studies suggest that there are significant improvements to learning outcomes in adopting this
approach.
Overall, these Active Learning Classrooms yielded very positive responses from instructors and
students. The instructors who were interviewed enjoyed teaching in the rooms so much that their only
concern was a fear of not being able to continue to teach in these new learning spaces. Similarly, more
than 85% of students recommended the Active Learning Classrooms for other classes. Instructors and
students overwhelmingly found that this space made a difference for them. “I love this space! It makes
me feel appreciated as a student, and I feel intellectually invigorated when I work and learn in it.9
The studio space is also a significant investment and so must clearly improve learning outcomes:
engagement, attitude and collaboration in addition to absorption of the curriculum. Measures of
those outcomes are necessarily qualitative at this point, but based on comments from student and
faculty who actually learned and taught in the space, we would cautiously say that the studio has
met those goals. Of course we will need to continue to evaluate progress in outcomes as people gain
experience with using the space.10
In evaluating teachers’ learning at the ASMS, a recent doctoral graduate found significant connections
between the pedagogical process and the flexibility of the ASMS school design.11 Clearly, evaluation
of the TEAL approach involves both quantitative and qualitative examination. It is also evident that
qualitative studies show significant support for the TEAL model from both teachers and students. Further
8 quantitative study is required to support these qualitative findings and this work is currently underway at
the University of Melbourne’s LEARN centre.12 Findings will be made available as they become public.
What is most pleasing from my viewpoint is that there are exciting alternatives emerging to the traditional
closed classroom and these are gaining increasing acceptance. I certainly look forward to evaluating
and using these findings in future projects and research.
For more information, contact:

Dr. Kenn Fisher
Associate Professor Learning Environments
Faculty of Architecture, Building & Planning
Learning Environments (Action) Research Network
University of Melbourne
Parkville, Victoria
Australia
Tel.: +61424022039
E-mail: [email protected]
9. Alexander, D. et al. (2009), “Active Learning Classrooms Pilot Evaluation: Fall 2007 Findings and Recommendations”, The University of
Minnesota, www.classroom.umn.edu/projects/ALC_Report_Final.pdf.
10. Tom, J., K. Voss and C. Scheetz (2008), “The Space is the Message: First Assessment of a Learning Studio”, www.educause.edu/EDUCAUSE+Quarterly/
EDUCAUSEQuarterlyMagazineVolum/TheSpaceIstheMessageFirstAsses/162874.
11. Bissaker, K. (2009), “The processes and outcomes of professional learning in an innovative school: the construction of an explanatory
model”, unpublished thesis.
12. The Learning Environments Action Research Network is associated with the Smart Green Schools project; see www.abp.unimelb.edu.au/
research/funded/smart-green-schools.

ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION
AND DEVELOPMENT
The OECD is a unique forum where the governments of 31 democracies work together to address the
economic, social and environmental challenges of globalisation. The OECD is also at the forefront of efforts
to understand and to help governments respond to new developments and concerns, such as corporate
governance, the information economy and the challenges of an ageing population. The Organisation provides
a setting where governments can compare policy experiences, seek answers to common problems, identify
good practice and work to co-ordinate domestic and international policies.
The OECD member countries are: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, the Czech Republic, Chile,
Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Korea, Luxembourg, Mexico,
the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, the Slovak Republic, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland,
Turkey, the United Kingdom and the United States. The Commission of the European Communities takes part
in the work of the OECD.
OECD Publishing disseminates widely the results of the Organisation’s statistics gathering and research
on economic, social and environmental issues, as well as the conventions, guidelines and standards agreed by
its members.
This work is published under the responsibility of the Secretary General of the OECD.
The opinions expressed and arguments employed herein do not necessarily reflect the
official views of the Organisation or of the governments of its member countries.
ISSN: 2072-7925
Corrigenda to OECD publications may be found on line at: www.oecd.org/publishing/corrigenda.

© OECD 2010
You can copy, download or print OECD content for your own use, and you can include excerpts from OECD publications, databases and multimedia products in your
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Guidebook
for Learners of
Unit # 4: Tools & Resources for Creating Assessment

UNIT
4
under AICTE-NITTT Programme. The information provided in the text may not be
suitable or appropriate for other categories of course learners.

NITTTR Chennai
NITTTR Chennai
&
Associate Professor
NITTTR Chennai

Telephone: + 91-44-22545447/460/458/421
Join our Social Media Network:

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2
UNIT
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Table of Contents
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 4
Expected Outcomes: .................................................................................................................................... 4
Looking into Unit #4 Content: ..................................................................................................................... 5
Look and leap into preparation of digital assessment? ............................................................................ 8
Purpose of Assessment ............................................................................................................................... 9
Different types of assessment .................................................................................................................... 9
Selection of right technological tools for assessment ............................................................................. 12
Different ICT Tools...................................................................................................................................... 15
Tool: Google Form .................................................................................................................................. 15
Tool: Hot Potatoes.................................................................................................................................. 16
Tool: Answer Garden.............................................................................................................................. 18
Tool: Socrative ........................................................................................................................................ 20
Tool: Class kick ....................................................................................................................................... 22
Tool: Plickers .......................................................................................................................................... 27
Tool: Quizizz ............................................................................................................................................ 32
Tool: TED-Ed ........................................................................................................................................... 34
Tool: Formative....................................................................................................................................... 36
Tool: Edpuzzle ........................................................................................................................................ 37
Tool: E-Portfolio ...................................................................................................................................... 39
Activities # 4.1............................................................................................................................................ 47
Activities # 4.2............................................................................................................................................ 47
Activities # 4.3............................................................................................................................................ 47
Activities # 4.4............................................................................................................................................ 47
Activities # 4.5............................................................................................................................................ 47
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Module 5: Technology enabled learning
And life-long self-learning
Unit # 4: Tools & Resources for Creating Assessment
I was struck by the way assessment always came at the end, not only in the unit of work
but also in teachers’ planning…Assessment was almost an afterthought….
Teachers … are being caught between competing purposes of….assessment and are often
confused and frustrated by the difficulties that they experience as they try to reconcile the
demand”..
Earle, 2003
Introduction
In this unit, the participants will be provided with some fundamental principles and practical examples
for designing formative and summative assessment that is effective and enhance the students’
learning. It will introduce the purpose of different types of assessment using technology tools will be
dealt along with their design principles, and a number of exemplary practices. How to design the
assessment plan and incorporate the qualitative assessment using rubrics is also dealt in detail. We
will also explore benefits and considerations that need to be considered when we adopt an online
assessment strategy in teaching, and how using technology can improve the efficiency and
effectiveness of the assessment process.
Fundamentals of Assessment – ICT Tools for preparing assessments viz., Google Form, Hot Potatoes,
Answer Garden, Socrative, Class kick, Edpuzzle, Plickers, Rubistar, Poll Everywhere, Quizizz,
Formative, TED Ed, Audio Feedback, e-portfolio.
Expected Outcomes:
1. Implement the appropriate technology tools for developing assessments.

2. Analyze the tools as per SAMR Model.
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The flow in which the learning needs to be done is provided in the form of table. Kindly follow it for
happy learning.
Reflection Survey
Learning Type of
Sequence Material
01 Overview of Unit 4: Tools & Resources for creating assessment
02 Learning Assessment in a digital Age
03 Looking into features of technology tools for assessment
04 Questionnaire Survey – About Assessment Pattern
Discussion Prompt # 1: What ideas do you have for conducting online

05 assessment?
Discussion Prompt # 2: Factors to be aware before implement online

06 assessment?
07 Fundamentals of Assessment
08 Looking into characteristics of Assessment
09 Considerations for Choosing Technology
10 Explore ICT Tool: Google Form
11 Tool Demonstration: Google Forms (Basic)
12 Tool Demonstration: Google Forms (Add on)
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Learning Type of
Sequence Material
13 Explore ICT Tool: Hot Potatoes
14 Tool Demonstration: Hot Potatoes
15 Explore ICT Tool: Answer Garden
16 Tool Demonstration: Answer Garden
17 Explore ICT Tool: Socrative
18 Tool Demonstration: Socrative
19 Explore ICT Tool: Class kick
20 Tool Demonstration: Class kick
21 Explore ICT Tool: Edpuzzle
22 Tool Demonstration: Edpuzzle
23 Explore ICT Tool: Formative
24 Tool Demonstration: Formative
25 Explore ICT Tool: TED Ed
26 Tool Demonstration: TED Ed
27 Explore ICT Tool: Audio Feedback
28 Tool Demonstration: Audio Feedback
29 Explore ICT Tool: e-portfolio
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Learning Type of
Sequence Material
30 Tool Demonstration: e-portfolio
31 Explore ICT Tool: Poll Everywhere
32 Tool Demonstration: Poll Everywhere
33 Explore ICT Tool: Quizizz
34 Tool Demonstration: Quizizz
35 Explore ICT Tool: Inline Video Quiz
36 Tool Demonstration: Inline Video Quiz
37 Explore ICT Tool: Rubi star
38 Tool Demonstration: Framing of Rubrics
39 About ICT Tools demonstration steps
40 Reflection of Learning (Activity # 1 – Google Form)
41 Reflection of Learning (Activity # 2- Answer garden)
42 Reflection of Learning (Activity # 3- Creating Poll)
43 Reflection of Learning (Activity # 4- Framing of Rubrics)
44 Reflection of Learning (Activity # 5- Hot Potatoes)
45 Reflection of Learning (Activity # 6 - Socrative)
46 Reflection of Learning (Activity # 7 - Class kick)
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Learning Type of
Sequence Material
47 Reflection of Learning (Activity # 8- Edpuzzle)
48 Reflection of Learning (Activity # 9 - Formative)
49 Reflection of Learning (Activity # 10 - TED Ed)
50 Reflection of Learning (Activity # 11 - e-portfolio)
53 Unit # 4 Assessment
Look and leap into preparation of digital assessment?
Hello Learners, we need to understand the real meaning of Technology-Enabled Learning assessment
so that learners will have a clear how to facilitate learning through assessment. 'Which mode of
assessment is best suited for the theory, laboratory and project work?' I wish to provide those
resources as sort of 'setting the table' so to speak for conducting assessment. I wish to reiterate the
analogy, “Cooking is easy, but washing the utensils is difficult; similarly lecturing is easy but
conducting assessment is difficult. Not all student’s own responsibility for their learning, but given
the competing pressures on student’s time in a digital age, most “Successful” learners focus on what
will be examined and how they can most effectively meet the assessment requirements. Therefor
decisions about methods of assessment will in most contexts be fundamental to building an effective
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Purpose of Assessment
To measure the effectiveness of learning, assessment becomes the incredible tool. There are variety
of reason to assess the learners. As an instructor, faculty member or facilitator, we wish to
understand the basic tenets of assessment, because it is unlikely that one single assessment
instrument will meet all assessment needs.
It influences the student and helps him
• Know the strengths and weaknesses and direct the student to channelize is study efforts to
make up for gaps of knowledge and understanding.
• Compare the progress with that of peers and get motivated to do better.
• Develop regular and good study habits (if assessment is continuous)
It helps the teacher
• assess how effective his instructional methods and strategies are
• detect students’ learning difficulties and provide remedial help
• identify individual student differences and suitably adapt his teaching strategies
• grade the students
It helps the administrators
• find the overall effectiveness of the course.
• introduce modifications in the administrative process, if required
• identify additional financial resources required for improving the overall effectiveness and
accountability.
Different types of assessment
The main reason to use computers for assessment should be to enhance student learning. Technology
integration is a whole-of-curriculum matter and it depends upon the ICT policy of the educational
institution. It can support all aspects of assessment: you can present content and tasks, assess
students individually and in groups, provide feedback, and share and manage information about
assessment. The term “Technology enabled assessment (TEA)” encompasses the use of computers to
deliver, mark, assess and analyse assignments, assessments or examinations”. It is most suitable for the
objective testing, which includes Multiple Choice Questions, Match the following, True or False, or to
put it simple for the questions that have a clear correct or incorrect answer. In the case of subjective
assessment, where faculty intervention is required for the grading of individual answers, it is not
suitable for marking by the computer. However, the TEA helps us in enable submission of assignment
on time, detection of plagiarism and to promote collaborative work.
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You can use it for diagnostic assessment, presenting low-stakes tasks that show students
and teachers, what students are ready for in terms of learning activities. To understand, exactly
where the learners stand (assess exact entry level of behavior).
Formative assessment activities (ungraded or graded assessments that help students manage their
learning) can also be presented online. Graded, summative assessments (contributing to the final
course grade) lend themselves to online presentation. Some tests can be partly or completely
computer-marked; others allow students to review each other's work. You can also
create integrative assessment activities on digital devices, so that students can review their work
and assess how well they've learned, reflect on how closely they've met discipline standards and
teacher expectations, and analyze their own work in relation to sample good-quality responses to
online tasks.
Prepare your students for an online assessment
• Make sure the students had practice using the relevant online tool. It helps us in avoiding
any failure during the implementation phase. The tenets of online learning are equity,
equality and access.
• Trial the task with at least few people to check that the instructions are clear and
comprehensive.
• Explain why you are using online assessment. Be clear to your educational institution, why
you adopted online assessment.
• Ensure that the timeframe is realistic for students to complete the task. Anticipate all
learners are not versatile in using the digital tools. Learners difference need to be
acknowledged.
• Evaluate whether the weighting of the assessment warrants the time required to
successfully complete the online task.
• Provide support materials such as guidelines, templates and marking criteria to help
students manage the task successfully
• Provide instructions on what to do if the technology fails.
Ensure that the process of learning online is appropriately assessed, as well as the outcomes of
learning activities.
Clearly communicate assessment requirements
• Using a system such as flipgrid, padlet, or a voice tool in a Moodle course, record a general
lecture about assessment in which you provide background information about tasks and
answer students' frequently asked questions.
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• Create an assessment activity gateway within your Moodle course where you integrate
task requirements, assessment rubrics, related readings (based on the copyright, the material
must be linked; it is preferable to have OER common licensing materials), access to other
resources and support, and tools to facilitate group work.
• Provide online worked examples of an electronic assessment rubric to illustrate
performances at different levels of attainment.
Create a place for students
• Use computer-based interactive assessment activities in campus laboratories and during
the routine classroom to engage students actively in learning.
• Set up online discussion forums and monitor and assess students' contributions to the
threads.
• Provide students with authentic learning challenges using online simulations, games and
virtual worlds.
• Use web conferencing tools to involve international experts, leading scholars and
stakeholders in discussions.
• In between face-to-face meetings, use online groups to brainstorm assessment tasks.
• Set up wikis to facilitate multiple contributions to the preparation of an assessment
product, and enable assessment of individuals' contributions.
Encourage demonstration of higher order thinking and reasoning
• Use integrated blogs and wikis in your online course to facilitate students' reflective
contributions as they prepare for assessment tasks.
• Set up groups in virtual worlds to enable students to contribute creatively to authentic
assessment tasks.
• Design assessment tasks to require students to produce digital artefacts—for example,
videos or websites.
• Have students present their work for assessment using ePortfolios such as Google sites
(commercially paid version of Mahara). This can increase the portfolios' accessibility, so that
you can more easily involve peers and external experts in giving feedback.
Create learning communities around assessments
• Set up the groups yours for group work projects in the online course, to help ensure that
group memberships reflect the diversity of the class.
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• Enable your students to communicate about assessment tasks with students studying the
same material in another university, or even in another country. This can foster a more
globalized learning perspective.
• Invite off-shore students to join a synchronous virtual classroom with local students,
where the teacher provides generic feedback on assessment and then students break out into
small discussion groups.
Selection of right technological tools for assessment
The use of ICT tools for assessment is selected, if and only it improves the quality of the student
learning experience. The main purpose of integrating technology to assessment processes can:
• Facilitate student to make self-assessment and decide their learning path
• Facilitate students to submit assignments online
• To keep students at ease during assessment and make them to feel it as learning experiences
• give students more ways to learn and to demonstrate their learning
• help faculty members reconsider learning and teaching approaches
• help faculty members to adopt the methods in an innovative way to attract learners
• help faculty members to provide timely and more comprehensive feedback, and
• make it easier to manage large volumes of marking and administration.
Often if you improve assessment management using technologies, you also benefit students
educationally. For example, setting online multiple-choice quizzes with automated marking and
feedback can reduce staff marking loads and give students immediate feedback on their learning
performance. Technology tools aid faculty members in reducing their work load on evaluating
student performance when it comes to larger number. Plan carefully, and manage assessment-by-
technology to ensure that it enhances learning. Check also that it doesn't disadvantage students,
especially students with a disability. Be strategic about the integration, so that faculty workloads
remain sustainable and the university continues to comply with statutory and legislative
frameworks.
Table 4.1: Selection of ICT Assessment Tools
S.No Scenarios Tools
01 Diagnostic Assessment Google Form, Hotpotatoes, Plickers
02 Formative Assessment Classkick, Hotpotatoes, JeopardyLabs,
Formative, Socrative, Plickers,
Answergarden
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S.No Scenarios Tools
03 Summative Assessment Hotpotatoes
04 Feedback Classkick, Flipgrid, e-portfolio
05 Project Work / Laboratory Work Rubistar, e-portfolio
06 Collaborative Learning Assessment Flipgrid, JeopardyLabs, e-portfolio
There are different types of question format could be developed using ICT tools for
assessment. The question types include:
S.No Type of Question Purpose
1 Multiple choice and variantsMultiple choice questions require the participant to select
one or more options from a list of possible answers.
2 Anatomy of a Multiple- There is a specific terminology to describe the different
Choice Question (With components of a question, which is useful when
Diagrams) discussing and evaluating questions. Can you drag the
label onto the question below to show the correct name
for each of its components?
3 True or False A True or False question is similar in format to a multiple
choice question, except that there are only 2 options, True
or False,
4 Multiple response A standard type of Multiple Response, or Multiple
Answer question looks like an MCQ except that the
student can choose more than one answer. Online, an
MCQ will use a radial button, only one of which can be
chosen, whereas a Multiple Answer can easily be
identified by the check boxes, which allow more than
one to be selected.
5 True False Don't Know (TFD) This looks rather like a Multiple Answer question, but has
a crucial difference. With a Multiple Answer question the
student selects the items s/he thinks are correct.
However if an item is left blank, it is ambiguous whether
this means the student thinks it is wrong, or if s/he is not
sure. In a TFD question each item requires a definite
response, avoiding this ambiguity. This also enables TFD
questions to be used in conjunction with negative
marking, where if the student selects True or False s/he
receives 1 mark if correct and -1 if incorrect. If they
respond Don't Know they receive 0 marks. Another way
of looking at this type of question is that it is a series of
T/F questions. By using negative marking one eliminates
the problem of students being able to get 50% by guessing
the answer.
6 Extended MCQ This question style is similar to a multiple answer
question in that it allows more than one option to be
chosen. Where it differs is that it presents a long list of
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S.No Type of Question Purpose
options. It can be used to present a list of equivalent
options, e.g. possible investigations. In this example it has
been used in conjunction with negative marking. This
question is considered to be a way of replacing a
traditional short answer question where the student
would be required to list all the appropriate
investigations.
7 Matching and variants A matching question essentially presents two lists of
items and requires the student to match one item from the
first list to an item from the second. Matching questions
are very versatile and can be used to present a broad
range of exercises. They can also use three different ways
of interacting with the computer. The example below
requires the text label to be matched to the letter on the
diagram, by selecting from a pull-down list.
8 Extended matching Extended matching questions are a form of questions
popular for testing. They follow a very specific format,
which makes them easier to write and tends to result in
more consistent questions.The use of vignettes, or
scenarios to which the student has to match a
methodology, introduces an element of problem-solving
into the question and tests the application of the
student's knowledge at a deeper level than simple
recollection of facts.
9 Matching: Ranking/Ordering If you want to test students' knowledge of a sequence,
for example the order in which the stages of a process
occur, or the different levels of a hierarchy, a
conventional way of doing this with a pen and paper test
is to use a Multiple choice question containing correct
and incorrect versions of the sequence
10 Matching: Drag and drop Here the student drags the picture of the items into the
box that corresponds to its name
11 Free response questions and Our final category of questions is those where the
variants student is not presented with a choice, but is shown a
blank box into which text or numbers are entered.
12 Cloze tests A cloze test involves a piece of text, from which a
number of words have been removed. The student is
required to insert the missing words. In some cases the
missing words are supplied as a single list, from which
the student has to select. In this case one is effectively
matching a word with the space where it belongs - thus
it is a matching question.
In the activity session, the learners will be advised to develop questions in above mentioned different
format, with the ICT tools discussed in this unit.
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Different ICT Tools
The tools discussed in this section, obtained/reproduced from the various sources based on the
creative common license to share alike.
Tool: Google Form

Google Forms is a free online tool from Google* which allows users to create forms, surveys, and
quizzes as well as to collaboratively edit and share the forms with other people. Educators can use
Google forms to assess their students at the beginning of the class and gauge pre-existing knowledge.
Furthermore, Google forms can be used to give feedback to and receive feedback from students and
parents. Similarly, students can use Google forms to assess their own learning and set the learning
goals as well as to collect data for their research projects.
Price Free
Type of learning Behaviorism
Login Required Yes
Empowered learning, Global

ISTE Standards for Students
collaborator Computational thinker
Google Form & the SAMR Model

The SAMR model, developed by Dr. Ruben, is a framework for examining how technology is adopted
in a classroom. As you strive to incorporate online tools into your classroom, we encourage you to
use this model as an analytic tool.
Here is an example of how Google Forms might fit within the SAMR model:
• Substitution: Students can fill out the forms online (instead of using paper and pen).
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• Augmentation: Teachers can curate the students’ responses on the spreadsheet
automatically. Moreover, absent students also can complete the Google form out of school.
Teachers can design self-grading quizzes the offer students instant feedback.
• Modification: Teachers and students can collaboratively analyze, contrast, and compare
results immediately after individuals fill out the form.
• Redefinition: Teachers can reach unlimited learners all around the world and can share the
results with them. Likewise, students can collect data from individuals all around the world
for their research projects. Both teachers and students can reach thousands of people in their
country and across the world.
How to Create Google Form

1. Go to https://www.google.com/forms
2. Click “Go to Google Forms” and register for an account
3. Return to Google Forms and sign in
(a) Setup your profile page
(b) Click on the people silhouette icon in the top right corner (next to the “navigation menu”
button)
(c) Click on “My account”
(d) Add a photo and change the settings to which you want
4. Click the “Google Apps” icon at the top right of the page then go to the “Drive “
5. Through Google Drive click the “New” button at the top left corner of page
6. Then click the “More” in the drop-down menu
7. Finally, click the “Google Forms” on the pop-up menu
(a) Type name of your Google form clicking on the “Untitled Form”
(b) You can change the name anytime
(c) Finally, begin to create and edit your Google Form
Tool: Hot Potatoes

Google Forms is a free online tool from Google* which allows users to create forms, surveys, and
quizzes as well as to collaboratively edit and share the forms with other people. Educators can use
Google forms to assess their students at the beginning of the class and gauge pre-existing knowledge.
Furthermore, Google forms can be used to give feedback to and receive feedback from students and
parents. Similarly, students can use Google forms to assess their own learning and set the learning
goals as well as to collect data for their research projects.
16
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Price Free
Login Required Yes
Empowered learning, Global

collaborator Computational thinker
Google Form & the SAMR Model

Here is an example of how Google Forms might fit within the SAMR model:
• Substitution: Students can fill out the forms online (instead of using paper and pen).
• Augmentation: Teachers can curate the students’ responses on the spreadsheet
automatically. Moreover, absent students also can complete the Google form out of school.
Teachers can design self-grading quizzes the offer students instant feedback.
• Modification: Teachers and students can collaboratively analyze, contrast, and compare
results immediately after individuals fill out the form.
• Redefinition: Teachers can reach unlimited learners all around the world and can share the
results with them. Likewise, students can collect data from individuals all around the world
for their research projects. Both teachers and students can reach thousands of people in their
country and across the world.
How to Create Google Form
17
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8. Go to https://www.google.com/forms
9. Click “Go to Google Forms” and register for an account
10. Return to Google Forms and sign in
(e) Setup your profile page
(f) Click on the people silhouette icon in the top right corner (next to the “navigation menu”
button)
(g) Click on “My account”
(h) Add a photo and change the settings to which you want
11. Click the “Google Apps” icon at the top right of the page then go to the “Drive“
12. Through Google Drive click the “New” button at the top left corner of page
13. Then click the “More” in the drop down menu
14. Finally, click the “Google Forms” on the pop-up menu
(d) Type name of your Google form clicking on the “Untitled Form”
(e) You can change the name anytime
(f) Finally, begin to create and edit your Google Form
Tool: Answer Garden

AnswerGarden is an easy-to-use online feedback app that can be used to elicit brief answers from
your respondents. It adopts a minimalist design that allows users to create, share, answer, and
manage topic questions without signing up for accounts. Although a simple app, it has the
potential to be used to accomplish a wide range of education tasks, such as brainstorming, polling,
synchronous and asynchronous communication, and formative assessment. For example,
teacher can post a warm up question to activate students’ prior knowledge.
Price Free
Accessibility ★★★✩✩
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ISTE Standards for Students Empowered Learner
AnswerGarden & the SAMR Model

in a classroom. Here is an example of how Answer Garden might fit within the SAMR model:
For the Urban Environmental Management class, which I handled for PG Course:
• Substitution: Teacher posts the question, “What are the reason for Groundwater
Depletion in Urban Areas,’ on AnswerGarden and sends the link to students. Students
click on the link to add their inputs.
• Augmentation: Over the course of two weeks, students keep finding and adding reason
for GW depletion while reading books of their choices.
• Modification: Every other day, students review the answers in their AnswerGarden page
and analyze special reasons added by their peers which were not known to them
previously.
• Redefinition: The class can invite another class from another country to join their
activity. They can be peer tutors and teach these words to the students from the other
country.
How to use AnswerGarden

1. Go to https://answergarden.ch/
2. Click on Create New AnswerGarden, or click on the addition sign, as shown in the picture below.
3. Enter a topic
4. Change settings. These choices are optional.
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5. Select a Mode:
• In Brainstorm Mode, respondents can submit an unlimited number of answers, including
unlimited copies of the same answer.
• In Classroom Mode respondents can submit an unlimited number of answers, but may only
submit each answer once.
• In Moderator Mode each answer will be submitted to the AntiGarden, so you can manually
approve these entries to your AnswerGarden.
• In Locked Mode the AnswerGarden is closed and no new answers can be submitted.
• Spam Filter: The spam filter option detects and blocks ‘common unwanted answers’. These
include a range of swearwords in the English and Dutch language.
You have now created your AnswerGarden with the topic questions on the top and a rectangle
as the “answer garden.” The keywords of the responses will show in the “garden.”
Tool: Socrative
Socrative is a quiz-based, formative assessment tool with multiple features that can enrich teaching
and learning. Teachers can design quizzes, space races (picture being at the county fair and squirting
water at a target to move a horse across the field…just like that but for quizzes!), exit tickets, and
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UNIT
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more to collect and analyze student data in real-time to make on-the-spot teaching changes and
improve student learning.
Price Free & Paid
Privacy ★★✩✩✩
Accessibility ★★✩✩✩
Class Size 50 students (Free Version)
Socrative & the SAMR Model

Here is an example of how Socrative might fit within the SAMR model:
• Substitution: Learners can complete Socrative quizzes, quick questions, or exit tickets, and
compare their results to their peers instantaneously. Learners no longer have to wait for
teachers to tabulate classroom performance, since it is done digitally in real-time.
• Augmentation: Socrative allows teachers and learners to track their progress as individuals
and as a members of a learning community through formative assessments. Outcomes can
then be compared to other learning communities located across town, in another state, or
half-way around the world.
• Modification: Teachers have access to data-enriched reports that measure learning in three
spheres: individual students, class, and quiz questions. Reports are accessible across time
and place.
• Redefinition: Socrative’s Space Race feature can help learners engage in deep learning
activities, either alone or in groups. Learners may feel a sense of euphoria and
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accomplishment when learning activities are made into a fun challenge. Teachers can
seamlessly create a challenge, without worrying about score-keeping or tabulating results, as
these functions are handled by Socrative.
How to Create Socrative

1. Type www.socrative.com in your web browser
2. The site requires all teachers to create a free account.
3. Complete the “get account” web page.
4. Socrative will send new users an e-mail establishing the account.
5. After signing in with account credentials, the user home page provides several clickable
options:
6. To access a tutorial, click on the Getting Started icon
7. To design a quiz, quick question, space race, or exit ticket, click on the icon labeled Quizzes
8. To activate a quiz, quick question, space race, or exit ticket for student access, click on the
icon labeled Launch
9. To design a room, click on the icon labeled Rooms
10. To review student and classroom performance, click on the icon labeled Reports
11. To apply solutions for common problems encountered by users, click on the icon labeled
Troubleshooting
Tool: Class kick

Classkick is a free digital formative assessment tool that allows teachers to create lessons and
assignments that students work through on their devices at their own pace. Teachers can
observe student progress in real time and provide immediate feedback. In addition to receiving
help and feedback from the teacher, Classkick allows students to anonymously request help from
their peers. Text, images, video, and audio can be easily integrated into assignments. It is a great
tool for synchronous and asynchronous communication, blended classrooms, personalized
learning, and cooperative learning. Classkick is now both web- and app-based, it can be used from
a web-browser, Chromebook, or iPad. Some functionality in the web-based version is still under
development.
Price Free
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Cognitivism; Social
Type of learning
constructivism; Behaviorism
Ease of Use ★★★★
Privacy ★★
Accessibility ★★
Unlimited (Note: Classkick suggests keeping

rosters at 36 students or less to keep loading
Class Size times smooth and fast, but there is no limit
on the number of rosters and it is easy to
switch between rosters).
Empowered Learner, Knowledge

Constructor, Creative Communicator
Classkick & the SAMR Model

Here is an example of how Classkick might fit within the SAMR model:
• Substitution: Students use Classkick to complete assignments (as opposed to completing
assignments on paper).
• Augmentation: Teachers can also provide real-time feedback to students instead of waiting
to have papers graded the next day, allowing students to move on and continue learning
within a lesson/assignment rather than getting stuck at a certain place.
• Modification: Students can include an image, video, or audio recording in their response to
an assignment question. This gives students an opportunity to synthesize their analysis and
response in multiple modalities. Teachers embed video and text into lessons and
assignments, providing information in multiple mediums and allowing students to learn by
reading, listening, and/or watching.
• Redefinition: Students can anonymously request help from peers in real-time, and peers can
switch roles from student to teacher to assist fellow students. This challenges more advanced
students to achieve a level of understanding such that they can teach others, and provides
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additional students who are struggling more. The anonymity of requesting help makes it
easier for students who need the additional support feel comfortable asking for it.
How to Use Classkick

As a Teacher:
1. Go to http://app.classkick.com/
2. Click Teacher Login
3. Enter email and password
4. Click Sign Up
5. To create a new assignment: click plus sign in the top right hand corner.
“Classkick Teacher Dashboard” [Screenshot].

Retrieved from https://www.classkick.com
6. Give the assignment a name and a description
7. Create slides or upload a PDF.
8. “Classkick Assignment Edit” [Screenshot].

9. Slides can include text, audio, video, links, and drawings. If a slide contains a question, assign a
point value to that slide.
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UNIT
4
“Classkick Tools” [Screenshot].

10. Provide students with the class code or send them the class code hyperlink to join the class.
11. Click View Student Work to look at student progress and provide feedback. This screenshot
shows two students from Period 1: Joe and Susie. Clicking a white rectangle opens the student’s
slide. There are 3 slides in the assignment (and thus 3 shown for each student). Each slide is
worth 10 points. The yellow hand indicates that Susie is requesting help on slide two, which
you can provide by clicking on the slide. The two green slides have been given feedback and
scored.
“Classkick View Student Work” [Screenshot].

As a Student:
12. Go to http://app.classkick.com/ or the hyperlink provided by your teacher.
13. Type in your Class Code and your name
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UNIT
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“Classkick Student” [Screenshot].

Retrieved from https://app.classkick.com
14. Click on the first slide, and work through the lesson and assignment
“Classkick Student View” [Screenshot].

15. You can write on the slides with a pen (drawing) or text. You can also add photos, video, and
audio to your responses.
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UNIT
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“Classkick Student View” [Screenshot].

16. If you need to get help or would your response checked, click the hand in the top right corner.
“Classkick Student Hand Raise” [Screenshot].

Tool: Plickers
Plickers is an assessment tool made by a teacher who was looking for a quick and simple way to check
student understanding. This assessment tool allows teachers to collect on-the-spot formative
assessment data without the need to have students use devices or paper and pencil. Teachers can use
this tool with previous planning or on the go as needed. This tool provides teachers with the data
needed to inform their instruction. “It provides students with the opportunity to participate and
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engage in learning without feeling self-conscious.” (Plickers.com) It’s a data collection tool that’s
helpful for teachers and fun for the students.
Price Free
Ease of Use ★★★★★
Privacy ★★★★✩
Class Size Up to 63 students per class
ISTE Standards for Students Empowered learner
Plickers & the SAMR Model

Here is an example of how Plickers might fit within the SAMR model:
• Substitution: Students use Plickers as a formative assessment instead of a paper and
pencil formative assessment. Teachers also use Plickers as a formative assessment tool
instead of asking students to raise their hands to answer a question.
• Augmentation: Teacher can be made aware of instantly if a student hasn’t answered a
question.
• Modification: Teacher can instantly see who has the correct answer and have the student
revise their answer. Teachers can share how other students have answered without
giving away the correct answer so that students can re-think their answer and change it
instantly.
• Redefinition: Students can all be part of a formative assessment versus calling on
different students at a time or not having some students participate at all. Teachers can
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ask a question mid-way through a lesson to check for student understanding in real time,
in order to inform instruction instantly.
How to Use Plickers

1. Adding a class
a. Sign In
b. Go to Classes
c. Here you will see a Demo Class, and any classes already added to your account, and a tab
that says “Add new class”
Screenshot classes page Plickers.org

d. Click on Add new class
i. You will be asked to Name the class, select grade level, select subject, and assign
a color to identify the new class
ii. Click Save

iii. The new class should now appear on your Classes page
2. Creating a Folder
a. Sign In
b. go to Library
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c. Look for New Folder logo and click on it
d. You can use up to 30 characters to name the New Folder
e. Press Save
3. Adding new questions
a. Sign In
b. Go to Library
c. Click on desired Folder
d. You will see previous questions and a New Question icon , click on New
Question
e. You will be asked to
i. Add question text
ii. Choose between Multiple Choice or True/False
iii. Write in A, B, C, D answers
iv. Click on all possible correct answers
v. Click Save to leave Click Save and create new to add more questions
4. Printing the Plickers cards
a. Sign In
b. Go to Cards
c. Select desired Plickers card that suit your class needs
d. Print
5. Scanning the Plickers cards on your phone or tablet
a. Press the Plickers icon

b. Press Sign In
c. Write in Email, and Password
d. Press Done
e. Choose class
f. In Queue, you will see available questions that haven’t been used for assessment
g. In History, you will see already used questions
h. Press on the question you wish to assess students with
i. Using Live View post the question on screen
j. Press blue Scan button
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k. You will see an overlay of the students
l. Make sure the cards are visible, you may move phone to capture all cards
m. Green indicates correct answers, Red indicates incorrect answers, Dark Grey indicates
invalid answers and Light Grey indicates students have not been scanned.
i. Press the checkmark when complete
ii. Answers can be seen by teacher, using the web site you may also post students
names with answers, or chart graph without the students names with the answers
How to Sign Up for Plickers

1. Open your browser
2. In the address box type Plickers
Screenshot Homepage Plickers
3. Click on the button to create a new account.

4. You will be asked for your First name, Last name, email, and to create a password.
5. After completing the form, press Sign Up at the bottom of the form.
6. You will then shortly get an email from Plickers asking you to validate your email.
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UNIT
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7. Go to your email account, look in your inbox for the Plickers email, and follow directions to
validate your email.
8. Once this step is completed you can log back to Plickers.com and click on the Sign In icon.
9. Sign in using your email and password. Press Sign In.
10. You will be taken to your Library.
Screenshot Plickers Library page

11. From here you can Create New Folders for your classes, add new questions, or review your
history.
12. You may also go to: Reports, Classes, Live View, Cards, Help or your account settings.
How to download Plickers app
1. In order to scan your students’ answers you need the Plickers mobile app.
2. Go to and search for the Plickers app that’s compatible

with your phone.
3. Once you find the plickers app, press the download icon.
4. After download is complete, press the OPEN button.
5. Press SIGN IN.
6. Type your email and password, and press sign in.
Tool: Quizizz
Quizziz is an online assessment tool that allows to teachers and students to create and use one
another’s quizzes. After providing students with a unique access code, a quiz can be recorded live
as a timed competition or used as a homework with a specific deadline. After the quizzes have
been completed, students can review their answers. Furthermore, the resulting data is compiled
into a spreadsheet to give the instructor a clear visual of the students’ performance in order to
analyze trends in which areas might need the most focus in the future. This immediate feedback
can be used by teachers to revise future learning activities and altar the focus of material by
putting a larger emphasis on concepts that students are struggling with.
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UNIT
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Price Free
Unlimited (high speed internet connection

Class Size
needed for 100+) (source)
Quizziz & the SAMR Model

Here is an example of how Quizizz might fit within the SAMR model:
• Substitution: Students take an online quiz on Quizizz rather than on a piece of paper.
• Augmentation: As they take the quiz, the students can see how their responses compare to
the rest of the class while remaining anonymous.
• Modification: The students are able to review their responses immediately while still fresh in
their minds rather than having to wait for a teacher to grade each individually.
• Redefinition: The instructor reviews the trends in the class’s data (i.e. which problems took
students longest to answer, which questions the most students got wrong, etc.) and uses these
results to determine which topics need further attention.
How to Create Quizziz

1. Go to Quizizz.com and hit “GET STARTED”.
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2. If you want to use an existing quiz, you can use the “Search for quizzes” box and browse. Once
you have selected a quiz, skip to step 8. If you want to create your own quiz, select the “Create”
panel, then the “Sign Up” panel and fill in the form.
3. Enter a name for the quiz and an image if you like. You can also select its language and make it
either public or private.
4. Fill in a question, as well as answers, and be sure to click the “incorrect” icon next to the correct
answer in order to change it to “correct”. You can also add a corresponding image if you would
like.
5. Select “+ New Question” and repeat step 4. Do this until you have made all of your questions.
6. Hit “Finish” in the top right corner.
7. Select the appropriate grade range, subject(s), and topic(s). You can also add tags to make it
easier to search for.
8. You can either select “PLAY LIVE!” or “HOMEWORK” and choose the desired attributes.
9. Students can go to Quizizz.com/join and type in the 6-digit code to participate in the live quiz or
complete the homework. They will be asked to enter a name to be identified by.
10. Once the students are finished, refresh your page and you will be able to view the results of the
quiz. Click the “+” next to a name to expand and get more detailed, question-by-question results.
Tool: TED-Ed
TED-Ed is a “lesson creator” platform that allows you to structure an assignment around a video and
assess students’ engagement with the material. The lesson format consists of a lesson title, a written
introduction (“Let’s Begin”), a series of multiple choice or open-ended questions (“Think”), a place
for additional resources to encourage further exploration (“Dig Deeper”), an interactive class
discussion (“Discuss”), and a closing (“And Finally”).
Price Free
Cognitivism; Cognitive Constructivism; Social

Type of learning
Constructivism.
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Empowered Learner, Knowledge

Constructor
TED-Ed & the SAMR Model

Here is an example of how TED-Ed might fit within the SAMR model:
• Substitution: Students will independently watch a video, answer written questions, and
participate in online discussion — this takes the place of showing a video in class and having
students discuss or be quizzed in class.
• Augmentation: As students discuss and answer questions about the video, a teacher can
respond privately and individually. There is also a written record of the discussion and
exchange which can be referenced as an assessment tool.
• Modification: Through embedded “video hints,” students’ attention can be easily drawn to
specific segments of the video for independent review of complex elements of the video. The
use of the “Dig Deeper” section of the lesson plans promotes independent exploration of
curated resources.
• Redefinition: Students use TED-Ed to create their own lessons and share the link with
classmates, peers in other schools, and experts in order to broaden the discussion.
How to Create TED-Ed
1. Go to http://ed.ted.com.
2. Click “Register” to sign-up for an account.
3. View the featured lessons, click through to all existing lessons, or click “Create a Lesson.”
4. On the “Create a Lesson” page, enter a keyword to search for possible videos or a url if you know
what video you want to use.
5. After selecting a video you will be moved to the “Create a Lesson” page. Note there are currently
two versions of the page with different interfaces, but they have the same functionality and you
can switch back and forth by using the link in the upper right hand corner.
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6. Change the lesson title, if needed. Add the following content: introduction, questions,
discussion, supplemental info, and conclusion.
7. Use the “More” button to preview the lesson or get help.
8. Use the “Publish” button when you are ready to share the lesson by generating a link or sending
the lesson to entered email addresses.
9. Watch your email or login to your account to see your dashboard, which will include all the
lessons you’ve created or begun to create, as well as lessons and discussions you’ve participated
in. You can also control settings and notifications in this area.
10. The tab beneath each video on your dashboard tells you what actions you might take, e.g.,
review students work, starting a lesson, or finishing a lesson.
Tool: Formative
Formative is a real-time, interactive assessment tool. A formative assessment is a formal or

informal opportunity to do two things: identify which students are struggling AND intervene. “If an
educator does not make an intervention, then they have not done anything formative. However, if a
teacher is looking at every moment of the day as an opportunity to make an intervention, then they are in
fact always formative” .
Price Free
Type of learning Behaviorism.
Privacy ★★✩✩✩
ISTE Standards for Students Analyst
Formative & the SAMR Model
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Here is an example of how Formative might fit within the SAMR model:
• Substitution: Substitution materializes when technology supplants an analog process. The
exams provided by Formative can substitute exams that have traditionally been distributed
using pencil and paper.
• Augmentation: Augmentation occurs when technology functionally improves an analog
process. Uploading an answer key to Formative makes grading seamless, rather than
requiring the teacher to dutifully check the answer key for each student submission.
• Modification: Modification is realized when technology notably overhauls an analog or
digital process. Formative’s highly participatory community forums enables teachers to
enrich their professional learning networks with others who hold diverse, deep, and dynamic
backgrounds and experiences.
• Redefinition: Redefinition takes place when technology creates a product that was not
previously possible. The tool’s ability to let teachers observe students’ work in real-time,
from one screen, is a significant redefining characteristic.
Tool: Edpuzzle
EdPuzzle is a free assessment-centered tool that allows teachers and students to create interactive
online videos by embedding either open-ended or multiple-choice questions, audio notes, audio
tracks, or comments on a video. Edpuzzle interactive videos can be made with videos from a number
of websites, including YouTube, TED, Vimeo, and National Geographic.
Price Free
Behaviorism, Social constructivism; Cognitive

Type of learning
Constructivism, Connectivism, Teaching with technology
Ease of Use ★★★✩✩
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ISTE Standards
Empowered learner, Creative Communicator
for Students
Edpuzzle & the SAMR Model

Here is an example of how EdPuzzle might fit within the SAMR model:
• Substitution: Students answer questions on a video rather than on paper.
• Augmentation: Teachers can enhance the videos they show in class by adding their own
narration into the video to clarify concepts or highlight key points.
• Modification: Students use EDPuzzle to add multiple choice and open-ended questions to a
video from the teacher. Once they have created their own interactive videos, students can
exchange their videos with classmates, complete classmates’ video quizzes, and provide
feedback on the quality of their classmates’ interactive videos.
• Redefinition: Students and teachers can share their EdPuzzle interactive videos with people
around the world, collect data from the individuals who respond to their questions, and
analyze the data.
How to Create Edpuzzle
1. Go to EdPuzzle
2. Choose teacher account
3. Click “Sign Up” and register for an account
4. Return to EdPuzzle and login
5. Go to my classes option on the top
6. Click on “add class” option to create a class
1. Name your class
2. Invite your students to your class
3. Click on search button on the top
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7. Search for a video on the channels offered on the left side (e.g., EdPuzzle, YouTube,
Vimeo)
1. Choose the video that you want to edit and click on “use it” button
2. Edit your video by using features on the top of the video
3. Click on “Save” button and go to my content on the top middle on Homepage
4. Select your video that you just edited and assign it to your students in your class
by clicking on “assign/share” button on the top. And then, assign it for your class
on EdPuzzle.
Tool: E-Portfolio
Steps to Creating an ePortfolio
(modified from Elements of a Professional Academic ePortfolio, Bauer, 2010)
1. Collect and save documents that represent your activities, accomplishments and best work in
your area. Sometimes these are called “artifacts”.
2. Reflect and think about your growth as a teacher as you look over documents.
3. Select from the collected documents those that are representative of your work as a teacher
scholar in your field and that demonstrate competencies such as effective teaching, creativity,
collaboration, research, presentation, publication, mentoring, scholarly teaching, etc. Create a
reflection on each document that incorporates these components: (based on Gibbs Reflective
Cycle, 1988)
• DESCRIBE: What happened to create that activity, teach that class, design that lesson?
• FEEL: What were you thinking or feeling as you were creating, teaching or designing?
• EVALUATE: What was good and bad about that activity, class or lesson?
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• ANALYZE: What else can you make of the situation? Why did it go well or not so well? Do
you think students were experiencing the same thing? What kind of feedback do you have
about this activity, class or lesson?
• CONCLUDE: What conclusions can you draw? What specific (personal) conclusions do you
have?
• PLAN: What will you do the next time? What will you do differently, the same?
4. Connect and create cohesion among the various portfolio elements so that the various
elements build on each other and support each other. Make the organization clear to your reader
so they know the journey, pathway or direction they should take.
5. Collaborate and seek constructive feedback from peers, faculty, administrators, etc. both
within your institution and beyond.
6. Locate documents in digital format - maybe on your computer, shared drive, cloud drive or in
your learning management system.
7. Build a skeleton framework in a digital website tool (e.g., WordPress, Weebly) to start
uploading your content.
How to Create E-Portfolio (using Google Sites)
Step 1: Create an Eportfolio Site
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• Sign into your Google account and click on the App launcher
• Go to Sites to create your eportfolio
• Click the create button to start
• Then follow these steps to finish site creation
1. Choose a template
2. Name your site
3. Select a theme
4. Click "create" button
Add TipAsk QuestionCommentDownload
Step 2: Create Pages Within Your Site
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• From the Homepage, click the create page button to get started.
• Continue in the following order:
1. Name the page
2. Choose a page template
3. Choose where to put the page in the site
4. Click the "create" button
Step 3: Page Layout
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• To change your page layout, open "editor" mode by clicking on the pencil icon
• Choose a design option from the dropdown menu and fill in your contents. Don't forget to click save
button after entering you contents.
Step 4: Site Layout
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• Start editing your site layout by clicking on the gear at the top right corner of your browser window
• Choose Edit Site Layout and click on any of the header to enable/disable it. Changes are saved
instantly.
Step 5: Customize Site Appearance
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• Go to the gear button at the top right corner of your site

• Choose Manage Site, then General tab
• You can then edit the following
1. Site title (name)
2. Language
3. Landing page
Step 6: Add Text and Images
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How to add image to your eportfolio

Step 7: Insert Google Drive Files
You can embed Google Drive files (documents, drawings, folders, forms, images, presentations,
spreadsheets, and videos) into your e-portfolio site.
To embed a file:
• Go to the page where you want to embed the file
• At the top right, click Edit page button
• Place the cursor where you want the file to go.
• Click Insert > Drive. In the Insert window, search for a file to insert, or paste a Google file's web
address at the bottom. Click Select.
• Choose a border, title, size, and other options, then click Save.
• At the top right, click Save to save the page.
When the original Google file is updated, it updates automatically on the site.
Note: For visitors to see the embedded file on your website, make sure "sharing" is turned on from
the Share menu. It will display as view-only within the page.
Step 8: Control Access to Your Eportfolio
If your site is private, you can share your site to allow individual people to view or edit your site. If
your site is public, your site will already be viewable by anyone, but you can share your site to allow
other people to edit your site. Follow these steps to share your site with other people:
• From the gear button (More drop-down menu), select Sharing and Permissions.
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• In the Invite people text box, enter the email addresses of the people you wish to share your site
with.
• Choose the level of access you wish to give them. (Anyone you set to Can view can look at the site.
Anyone you set to Can edit can change the look and content of the site. Anyone you set to Is
owner can change the look and feel of the site as well as make administrative changes, such as
deleting the site or adding new owners.)
• Click Send
Activities # 4.1
Using Google Forms, I request the learner may kindly attempt following options:
a) Prepare the Quiz – Make it Automatic Graded

b) In the same Quiz – Try the option, Automatic but release the score after manual
review.
c) Activate the option of sending the copy of response to the learners.
d) Try to explore the following add on: (a) Form Limiter (b) Form Ranger; (c) Choice
Eliminator; (d) Control Accepting Response; (e) Form Scheduler; (f) Certify’em
and (g) Timify.me
Activities # 4.2
Create Rubrics for qualitative assessment using for the laboratory instruction. Use Rubistar
and create the same in the google form.
Activities # 4.3
Prepare e-Portfolio using google sites, documenting all the activities which has been
performed using the ICT tools discussed in this Unit.
Activities # 4.4
Select any Youtube video related to the topic which you handle in your institution, and prepare
in line video quiz at every five minutes of the video. Let the selected video duration be
minimum of 15 minutes. Use appropriate ICT Tool.
Activities # 4.5
Create a quiz using appropriate ICT tools and ask the students to mark the answer in the
digital environment.
*********Happy Learning *************
47
OER FOR EMPOWERING
TEACHERS OER BASICS
NITTTR,
CHENNAI
1
OER for Empowering Teachers Instructional Material by P. Malliga is licensed under a Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. Based on a work at
iastate.pressbooks.pub/oerstarterkit.
2
1. OPEN EDUCATIONAL
RESOURCES
Learning
Objectives:
By the end of this chapter, you will be able

to:
• Define open educational resources.

• Explain the difference between OER and other free educational materials.
• Describe the challenges and benefits of using OER in a class.
In this chapter, we will introduce you to the concept of OER and the benefits and challenges
of using them.
1.1 BACKGROUND
The open education movement was originally inspired by the open source community, with a
focus on broadening access to information through the use of free, open content. As Bliss &
Smith (2017) explain in their breakdown of the history of open education:
“much of our attention focused on OER’s usefulness at providing knowledge in its original form to those
who otherwise might not have access. The implicit goal was to equalize access to disadvantaged and
advantaged peoples of the world – in MIT’s language, to create ‘a shared intellectual Common.’
Following the rise of open education in the early 2000s, growing interest in MOOCs, open
courseware, and particularly open textbooks catapulted the movement to new heights; however,
there are still many instructors who have never heard of open educational resources (OER)
today.
1.2 WHAT IS AN OER?
Open educational resources (OER) are openly-licensed, freely available educational

materials that can be modified and redistributed by users. They can include any type of
educational resource, from syllabi to full courses.
• Openly-licensed:
• Freely Available: The resources must be freely available online with no fee to access.
Physical OER may be sold at a low cost to facilitate

printing.
• Modifiable: The resource must be made available under an open license that allows for
editing. Ideally, it should also be available in an editable

format.
The most comprehensive definition of OER available today is provided by the

Hewlett Foundation:
“Open Educational Resources are teaching, learning and research materials in any medium –
digital or otherwise – that reside in the public domain or have been released under an open license
that permits no cost access, use, adaptation and redistribution by others with no or limited
restrictions.”
With a definition so broad that it includes any educational material so long as it is free to
access and open, it might be easier to ask, “What isn’t an OER?”
1.3 WHAT IS NOT AN OER?
If a resource is not free or openly licensed, it cannot be described as an OER. For

example, most materials accessed through your library’s subscriptions cannot be altered,
remixed, or redistributed.
These materials require special permission to use and therefore cannot be considered
“open.”
Table 1 below explains the difference between OER and other resources often misattributed
as OER.
reserved copyright
Material Type Openly

License
d
Freely Available Modifiable Materials available
through the University
Library
Open
educational
resources
Yes Yes
Open access articles
and monographs
Free online resources
e
under all rights
Note: Although some materials are free to access for a library’s users, that does not mean that
they are free to access for everyone (including the library). Similarly, while some open access
resources are made available under a copyright license that enables modification, this is not
always the case.
4
1.4 BENEFITS OF USING
OER
1.4.1 BENEFITS FOR STUDENTS
One of the first aspects of OER to be praised by the general public was the cost savings that
they could bring to students. The price of college textbooks has risen greatly over the past 35
years, outpacing all other consumer goods in the Consumer Price Index by a great margin as
shown in Figure 1.
The cost of textbooks has a profound impact on college students, many of whom must wait to
purchase their course materials until well into the semester or choose not to purchase them at
all. However, the unexpected additional cost of textbooks can make the difference between a
student persisting in college or dropping out.
Access to a Quality
Education
When you choose to share course materials openly, you are providing students with the
opportunity to engage with your content before, during, and after your course. Because OER
are always free to access online, students who are interested in taking a course you teach can
read up on the course ahead of time and ensure that they are ready and interested in the
material. Moreover, students who have already taken your course can be safe in the knowledge
that their course materials will not evaporate at the end of the semester and that they can
continue to review the materials you provided to them for years to come.
The students who benefit from access to OER are not just the ones in your classroom. Unlike
affordability initiatives like course reserves, OER are free for anyone in the world to access,
whether they have a college affiliation or not.
1.4.2. BENEFITS FOR INSTRUCTORS
Although cost savings are a major talking point in favor of adopting open educational resources,
instructors can utilize OER effectively without replacing paid resources at all. In fact, the
freedom to adapt OER to instructional needs is often the most attractive aspect of OER. Since
OER are openly licensed, educators are free to edit, reorder, and remix OER materials in many
ways.
Use, Improve, and

Share
• Adapt and revise resources that have already been created to fit your course syllabus.
• Create an updated second edition of an existing OER.
• Tailor resources to fit your specific course context (e.g., translation, local examples).
Network and Collaborate with

Peers
• Access educational resources that have been peer-reviewed by experts in your field.
• Create a new open educational resource with a team of your peers.
• Explore user reviews for a more in-depth understanding of the resources available.
Lower Costs to Improve Access to

Information
• Enable all students to have equal access to your course materials.

• Provide students with the opportunity to explore course content before enrolling.
Instructors can implement the most innovating and interactive teaching methods like
flipped learning and blended learning.
1.5 CHALLENGES OF USING OER
There are many benefits to using OER in the classroom; however, there are also some
drawbacks. The biggest challenge that instructors face when adopting OER is best
encapsulated by the phrase “availability may vary.”
SUBJECT
AVAILABILITY
Many of the largest OER projects funded over the past fifteen years targeted high cost, high
impact courses to save students money. Because of this, most of the OER available today are
for general education courses such as Psychology, Biology, and Calculus. This does not mean
that there are no OER available for specialized subject areas or graduate level courses;
however, there are more resources to choose from for instructors who teach Introduction to
Psychology than for those who teach Electronic Systems Integration for Agricultural Machinery
& Production Systems.
FORMAT & MATERIAL TYPE

AVAILABILITY
6
As with subject availability, the format and types of OER that have been developed over time
have largely been targeted at high enrollment courses which could see substantial cost savings
for students. There are many open textbooks available today, but fewer options for ancillary
materials. You can find lecture slides, notes, and lesson plans online, but ancillary content such
as homework software and test banks are harder to find.
TIME & SUPPORT

AVAILABILITY
Although the other challenges to OER use are inherent to the resources themselves, this
final drawback is a concern for you as a user and creator. It takes time and effort to find OER
that might work for your course, and if you want to create and publish new resources, that
takes exponentially more time. Time constraints are always going to be an issue for
instructors who want to try something new in their course. Luckily, there are resources
available to help you locate, adopt, and implement OER.
1.6
SUMMARY
This chapter has provided a brief overview of what OER are, why they are used, and the
movement surrounding them. In the next chapter, we will review some items you should keep
in mind when adopting or creating an OER for the first time.
7
2. COPYRIGHT AND OPEN LICENSING
Learning Objectives
Learning
Objective
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Define copyright and open licenses.

• Explain the purpose of copyright law.
An open license is a vital component of an open educational resource. Because of this, it is

important that you understand how open licenses work within copyright law. This chapter will
provide an overview of copyright law, fair use, and licensing to help you navigate this topic.
2.1 COPYRIGHT LAW
U.S. copyright law protects an author’s rights over their original creative works (e.g., research
articles, books and manuscripts, artwork, video and audio recordings, musical compositions,
architectural designs, video games, and unpublished creative works).1 As soon as something is
“fixed in a tangible medium of expression,” it is automatically protected by copyright.
According to Wex Legal Dictionary, a resource is fixed

when:
“its embodiment ...by or under the authority of the author, is sufficiently permanent or stable to permit it to
be perceived, reproduced, or otherwise communicated for a period of more than transitory duration.”
In other words, an idea for a book you want to write is not protected by copyright, but the first
draft of your manuscript is. Copyright protection ensures that the creator of a work has complete
control over how their work is reproduced, distributed, performed, displayed, and adapted. You
do not need to register your resource with the U.S. Copyright Office for this to come into effect;
it is automatic.
2.2 PUBLIC DOMAIN
Works that are no longer protected by copyright are considered part of the public domain. Items
in the public domain can be reused freely for any purpose by anyone, without giving attribution
to the author or creator.
Public domain works in the U.S. include works whose creator died 70 years prior, works
published before 1924, or works dedicated to the public domain by their rights holder. The
Creative Commons organization created a legal tool called CC 0 to help creators dedicate their
work to the public domain by releasing all rights to it.
2.3 LICENSING
The copyright status of a work determines what you can and cannot do with it.6 As you begin to
explore OER for use in your classroom, it is important that you understand your rights over the
works you create and what it means to give those rights away.
Most copyrighted works are under full, “all rights reserved” copyright. This means that they
cannot be reused in any way without permission from the work’s rights holder (usually the
creator). One way you can get permission to use someone else’s work is through a license, a
statement or contract that allows you to perform, display, reproduce, or adapt a copyrighted
work in the circumstances specified within the license. For example, the copyright holder for a
popular book might sign a license to provide a movie studio with one-time rights to use their
characters in a film. ?

If an OER is available under a copyright license that restricts certain (re)uses, you can make a
fair use assessment for reproducing or adapting that work. However, having explicit permission
is preferable. We do not recommend using fully copyrighted works in OER projects without
written permission from the work’s rights holder.
2.4 OPEN LICENSES
All OER are made available under some type of open license, a set of authorized permissions
from the rights holder of a work for any and all users. The most popular of these licenses are
Creative Commons (CC) licenses, customizable copyright licenses that allow others to reuse,
adapt, and republish content with few or no restrictions. CC licenses allow creators to explain in
plain language how their works can be used by others.
Creative Commons licenses will be explored in more detail in the next chapter. However, there
are other open licenses that can be applied to educational materials. A few of these licenses
are described below:
GNU Free Documentation

License:
a copyleft license that grants the right to copy, redistribute, and modify a resource. It requires all
copies and derivatives to be available under the same license. Copies may be sold
commercially, but the original document or source code must be made available to the user as
well.
Free Art
License:
The FAL “grants the right to freely copy, distribute, and transform creative works without
infringing the author’s rights.” It is meant to be applied to artistic works, not documents. If you’re
interested in learning more about open licenses, feel free to explore the Free Software
Foundation’s information on copy left licenses, some of the first licenses used for open content.
2.5 WHY OPEN LICENSES?
Open licenses are an integral part of what makes an educational resource an OER. The
adaptability and reusability of OER make it so that they are not just free to access, but also free
for instructors who want to alter the materials for use in their course. For example, in the figure
below an openly licensed image has been traced to make it more readable for users.
One of the tenets of OER laid out early on in the open education movement was the idea of the
5 Rs (originally the 4 Rs) introduced by David Wiley (2014). These five attributes lay out what it
means for something to be truly “open,” as the term is used in open education. The 5 Rs
include:
• Retain = the right to make, own, and control copies of the

content.
• Reuse = the right to use the content in a wide range of
ways
• Revise = the right to adapt, adjust, modify, or alter the content
itself
• Remix = the right to combine the original or revised content with other open content
to
create something new
• Redistribute = the right to share copies of the original content, your revisions, or
your
remixes with
others
While the “redistribute” and “revise” rights are the most commonly exercised rights in open
education, each of the five plays an important role in the utility of an open educational resource.
For example, without the right to “remix” materials, an instructor who teaches an
interdisciplinary course would not be able to combine two disparate OER into a new resource
that more closely fits their needs.
In the next chapter, we’ll look at Creative Commons licenses and how they facilitate the
expression of the 5 Rs in unique ways.
1
0
3. CREATIVE COMMONS LICENSES

Learning Objective Learning Objectives
Learning Objectives By the end of this

section, you will be able to:
• Describe the four different Creative Commons License components.

• Explain why some CC-licensed content might not be considered OER.
As we mentioned in the previous chapter, Creative Commons (CC) licenses allow you to
explain, in plain language, how your creative works can be reused. These licenses act as
explicit, standing permissions for all users.
3.1 THE FOUR COMPONENTS OF CREATIVE COMMONS LICENSES

Attribution (BY) Proper attribution must be given to the original creator of the work
whenever a portion of their work is reused or adapted. This includes a link to the
original work, information about the author, and information about the original
work’s license.
Share-Alike (SA) Iterations of the original work must be made available under
the same license terms.
Non-Commercial (NC) The work cannot be sold at a profit or used for

commercial means such as for-profit advertising. Copies of the work can be
purchased in print and given away or sold at cost.
No Derivatives (ND) The work cannot be altered or “remixed.” Only identical

copies of the work can be redistributed without additional permission from the
creator.
These elements can be mixed and matched to create a total of six Creative
Commons licenses.
3.2 CHOOSING A LICENSE
1
1
Choosing a CC license can be confusing at first, but the online Choose a License tool can help.
This tool generates a license based on which rights you want to retain and which you would like
to give to users. For example, if you want to share your work and allow others to adapt it, but
you do not want others to be able to sell your work, you might consider using the CC BY NC
license. Attribution: “Wileys 5Rs and Creative Commons Licensing” is by Krysta McNutt, CC-BY 4.0
Before you choose a license, keep in mind that an OER should be able to exercise all the 5 Rs
of open content we discussed in the previous chapter. Not all of the CC licenses meet this
definition. Specifically, the CC BY ND and CC BY NC ND licenses do not allow revising or
remixing content, two of the most significant freedoms of OER for many instructors.
3.3 IMPLEMENTING A CC LICENSE
Creative Commons has an online Marking Guide that demonstrates how to mark your CC
license on different types of media. Making your license obvious on whatever item you are
sharing is an important part of the dissemination process for OER: otherwise, users won’t know
what license you’ve chosen! No matter the format, there are some standards you can follow:
• Make it clear
• Make it visible
• Provide links (to the license and the work)
3.3.1. THE FOUR “OPEN” CC LICENSES
There are strengths and weaknesses to each Creative Commons license you might apply to
your OER. To help you make an informed decision, a short description of each license that
can be applied to OER is provided below.
1
2
CC BY
Strengths
• The CC BY license is the most popular and open license provided by Creative
Commons.
• By requiring attribution and nothing else, your CC BY work will be easy for others to
adapt and build upon.
• CC BY is often the default choice for open publications. Youtube uses the CC BY license
as their single “Creative Commons” option.
Weaknesse
s
• Because CC BY allows for easier sharing and adaptation, it also leaves the creator with
less power over their work. When you use a CC BY license, you cannot be certain that
your work will remain open or that your work will be reused for projects you support.
CC BY
SA
Strengths
• The CC BY SA combines the openness of CC BY license with the caveat that an item
remains open under the same license when adapted.
• The CC BY SA license is the second most popular license, and the license used by
Wikipedia for their articles.
Weaknesse
s
Because the CC BY SA license requires that adapted content be shared under the
•
same license, it can be difficult to adapt or to remix works licensed CC BY SA.
1
3
CC BY
NC
Strengths
• The CC BY NC license gives the creator of a work complete control over any
commercial reuse of their work.
• As a user, you can adapt and remix CC BY NC works so long as your new works
provide attribution to the original author and do not turn a profit.
Weaknesse
s
• Someusers may be concerned about what they are allowed to do with your CC BY NC
work and where the commercial “line” is drawn.
CC BY NC
SA
Strengths
• CC BY NC SA is the most restrictive license that can be used for OER and gives you the
most control over its adaptations.
• Some creators apply this license out of concern for their works being “scooped” by
commercial publishers.
Weaknesse
s
• Because of its requirements, the CC BY NC SA license is the hardest to adapt, remix, or

build upon
• If you hope to leverage the open community to promote and share your content, this
license may be a deterrent for potential partners.
You can learn more about the individual CC licenses on the Creative Commons
website.
If you want to reuse an existing OER, there are some aspects of CC licenses you should keep
in mind. Although there are different rules for each, every CC license includes the Attribution
component which requires that users provide proper attribution for an original work being
shared or adapted.
1
4
ATTRIBUTION VS
CITATION
Attribution is a similar process to citing academic works in a paper, but there are some key
differences. The following table outlines some of the ways in which citations and attribution
are similar and different:

Citation Attribution
Purpose is academic (e.g. avoiding plagiarism) Purpose is legal (e.g. following licensing
regulations)
CC licenses)
Does NOT typically include
licensing information for the work
Typically includes licensing information for Many citation styles are
the work available (e.g., APA, Chicago,
and MLA)
Used to quote or paraphrase a limited Attribution statement styles are still
portion of a work emerging, but there are some defined best
Used to quote or paraphrase all or a portion practices
of a work
Cited resources are typically placed in
Can paraphrase, but cannot typically a reference list
change the work’s meaning Attribution statements are typically found
Can change the work under Fair Use or near the work used (e.g., below an image)
with advance permission (e.g., under most
Attribution: This table was adapted by Abbey Elder from “Citation vs. Attribution” by Lauri Aesoph, licensed
CC BY 4.0.
In this chapter, we have discussed how Creative Commons licenses work and how you can
use these licenses for publishing or sharing open content. In the next chapter, we’ll explore
how you can find existing OER to use in your course.
1
5
REFERENCES
:
1. Elder, A.K. (2019). The OER Starter Kit. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Digital Press.
Retrieved from iastate.pressbooks.pub/oerstarterkit The OER Starter Kit by Abbey
Elder is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
2. Bliss, T J and Smith, M. 2017. A Brief History of Open Educational Resources. In:
Jhangiani, R S and Biswas-Diener, R. (Eds.) Open: The Philosophy and Practices that
are Revolutionizing Education and Science (pp. 9–27). London: Ubiquity Press. DOI:
https://doi.org/10.5334/bbc.b.
3. William & Flore Hewlett Foundation. (n.d.). OER defined. Retrieved from
https://hewlett.org/strategy/open-educational-resources
/
4. Free Sotware Foundation. (2008). GNU Free Documentation License. Retrieved from
https://www.gnu.org/licenses/fdl.htm
l
5. Copyleft Attitude. (2007). Free Art License 1.3. Retrieved from

http://artlibre.org/licence/lal/en
/
6. Free Software Foundation. (n.d.). What is copyleft? Retrieved from

https://www.gnu.org/copyleft/copyleft.htm
l
1
6
Chapter 19
Technology in Education
Objective: Appropriate integration of technology into all
levels of education - to support teacher preparation and
development; improve teaching, learning and evaluation
processes; enhance educational access to disadvantaged
groups; and streamline educational planning, administration
and management.
India is a global leader in ICT and in other cutting-edge domains such as

space. The Digital India Campaign is helping to transform the entire nation
into a digitally empowered society. Quality education will play a critical
role in this transformation, and technology itself will play an important
role in the improvement of educational processes and outcomes. Thus, the
relationship between technology and education at all levels is bidirectional.
The use of technology in education can be classified broadly into four
categories, three of which are concerned directly with students, teachers
and classroom processes. The first and most important area is teacher
preparation and their CPD. It is essential for teachers to receive adequate
training in how to leverage technology to improve educational outcomes.
Teacher preparation may itself leverage technology (e.g. through the
use of online courses), but the quality of training must be of the highest
quality. A second important area where technology can be impactful is in
the classroom processes of teaching, learning and evaluation. Technology-
based tools must be created in response to challenges in these areas, in a
continuous process. The tools must be carefully evaluated to ensure that they
address the challenges without creating additional new ones. The third area
is the use of technology to improve access to education for disadvantaged
groups, including differently-abled students, girls and women, and students
living in remote areas. The fourth area is the planning, administration and
management of the entire education system.
339
Since technological change is rapid, it is essential to acknowledge key

technology trends in order to identify ways in which education can leverage
not just current technologies but emerging technologies as well. The first
technology trend of relevance is the increasing access to electricity, partly due
to ongoing government initiatives to expand electricity networks, and partly
due to falling costs of locally generated power such as solar energy. In view
of this trend, this Policy advocates focused electrification of all educational
institutions at the earliest, since access to electricity is a basic requirement
for all technology-based interventions. The second technology trend is the
falling cost of computation, data storage, and data connectivity. This trend is
largely driven by market forces, and it enhances the feasability of sophisticated
educational applications that can gather, process and share data (as opposed
to simpler, stand-alone applications). This immediately links to the third
technology trend, namely the increasing importance of data. Not only is it
becoming easier to gather and process data, but tools to perform sophisticated
data analysis are becoming easier to use. It is therefore important to ensure
that data is secured against misuse and that privacy concerns are carefully
addressed. A suitable institution must be empowered to analyse this data and
this task has been assigned to the CESD that is to be set up at NIEPA (see
P6.1.5). Finally, an important technological trend is the accelerated rate at
which disruptive technologies are emerging.
In view of these trends, it is worth highlighting their implications for
infrastructure, end-user hardware, software development, deployment and
data. The use of technology in education is likely to require considerable
investment in basic infrastructure such as electricity, hardware and connectivity.
The bulk of schools and colleges in remote and rural areas do not have access
to the basics (electricity, hardware and reliable connectivity) and, government
must ensure that this situation is remedied at the earliest, if not at the level of
each individual school then certainly at the level of school complexes.
With regards to end-user hardware, it is important to draw a distinction
between institutional devices such as desktop computers, classroom
projectors, WiFi routers, etc. and personal devices (such as smartphones and
laptops). Educational institutions must be allowed to purchase and maintain
institutional devices to support technology-based educational activities such
as blended learning and computer-based laboratories. A key area of concern is
the non-availability of local expertise to help use and maintain all the relevant
hardware and software at these locations. Funding for hiring trained IT staff,
at school complexes for instance, must be provided as needed. However, this
effort can be complemented imaginatively by stationing trained local youth,
either engineers or those with adequate technical training in hardware and
software, at these locations. They must be provided with special, named,
fellowships lasting two to three years during which time they can be associated
with schools, school complexes and other educational institutions in rural
areas to help them with the induction and use of technology. [see P19.4.5]
The success of solutions that require institutional devices has been limited, in
part due to non-uniform availability of resources for procuring them and in
part due the lack of knowhow available locally for maintaining equipment. For
340
this reason, the increasing availability of personal devices needs to carefully

considered. Today, low-cost personal devices provide data communication,
computation and multimedia on a single platform, and students generally
learn to operate them quickly and effectively. Hence, personal devices have
the potential to support technology-based educational interventions. There
is a need to recognise however, that access to such devices is not universal,
and that they can also be addictive and distracting, and hence detrimental
to learning. A well thought out approach to making use of personal devices
in educational institutions is needed.
Several models for the creation of software for education exist, ranging from
software platforms such as SWAYAM commissioned by the MHRD for use
by the entire country, to applications and software developed and tested
by educational institutions such as IIT Bombay that need to be scaled, and
software applications created by entrepreneurs that need to be evaluated
and inducted if found to be useful. Although several innovative software
solutions have been created over the past 2-3 decades and are in use, a
mechansim to drive the cycle of:
• Identifying stakeholder (student, teacher, administrator) needs,

• Creating technology-based solutions that address these needs,
• Assessing these solutions in meaningful pilots, and
• Deploying them at scale, with government funding as needed,
is missing in the system. This lacuna can be filled by setting up of special

body that can be assigned this task (see P19.1.1).
Both top-down and bottom up approaches to software development and
induction need to be supported on a continuous basis. The proliferation of
cloud computing technologies makes it relatively easy to scale successful
software solutions across all educational institutions, either on a State-by-
State basis or at the National level. Examples that illustrate this principle
well include software created as part of the National Mission on Education
through ICT (NMEICT), such as Virtual laboratories that provide remote-
access to laboratories in various disciplines of Science and Engineering, and
Spoken Tutorials that help students learn and use open source software
by listening to audio commentary in Indian languages. Certain types of
educational software can be standardised (at State/National levels), which
can leverage scale to reduce development and operational costs per person/
institution.
Promotion of the use of open source software in education is another area
that requires considerable support, and the existing effort of FOSSEE (Free
and Open Source Software in Education) needs to become much more
widespread. The challenge with the use of free and open source software
of course is the higher level of technical competence that is required at
each individual institution, and this challenge must be addressed too (see
P19.4.5). In addition, there must be active encouragement for faculty in
educational institutions, those who are involved in the development of key
341
pieces of software in education, to incubate companies so as to ensure that

these solutions are evaluated and inducted / actively marketed to educational
institutions. In the past, entrepreneurship among faculty, in technology or in
other areas, has been actively discouraged. This is changing now but much
more encouragement is needed for faculty and student teams to engage in
entrepreneurship. Faculty must be rewarded for this in their performance
appraisals.
While it is natural that many software initiatives are seeded by the Government
of India at premier institutions such as IIT Bombay or Homi Bhabha Centre for
Science Education (HBCSE), adequate attention needs to also be paid to the
task of making these software solutions available to all educational institutions
in the country. This can be done in more than one way and the appropriate
choice needs to be made based on considerations of the size of the target group,
the urgency and the costs:
• They can be popularised by the developers themselves as is being done now,

which is best for niche solutions in technology;
• They can be handed over to institutions such as the Centre for Development
of Advanced Computing (CDAC) so that they can maintain them with a
24x7 helpdesk that educational institutions can avail of;
• A new company is incubated by the developer institution to actively
popularise the solution and provide support for adoption and maintenance
to the educational institutions.
PPP models for these can also be explored, and government can also consider
paying for solutions created by the private sector to be deployed at scale.
Recipient educational institutions can either receive budgetary allocations
to evaluate and adopt specific technologies in the ‘PULL’ model), or have it
made available to them through the State or Central government in the ‘PUSH’
model. The two options are useful in different contexts and need to be used
appropriately, else hardware and software will remain unused as it does today
in many institutions.
With regards to data, there are at least three categories to consider. Some data
is personal to individuals - teachers and young students. In order to safeguard
privacy, the strictest possible privacy regime is necessary to ensure that
personal data cannot be shared without the explicit consent of the concerned
individuals or their guardians. Some data pertains to groups of individuals (e.g.
all students in a particular class, or all teachers in a particular institution), and
such data can be shared with appropriate safeguards to ensure privacy. A third
category consists of data generated and consumed by educational applications.
Such applications increasingly use advances in artificial intelligence to grow
in sophistication, and the value of such data is therefore growing. This Policy
recognises the need for an evolving set of guidelines related to such data, to
ensure that it is not misused.
342
19.1. Setting up of a new National

Educational Technology Forum
Many experiments and pilot studies on the use of technology for improving
the quality of education in school as well as higher education have been
undertaken all around the country over the last two decades. These need
to be reviewed for their outcomes and carefully evaluated for their benefits,
risks and effectiveness, as well as their potential to scale, in the different
contexts in which they need to be deployed. This is a complex task requiring
a wide range of expertise.
The National Educational Technology

Forum will be a platform for
the free exchange of ideas on
the use of technology to improve
learning, assessment, planning and
administration.
P19.1.1. The National Educational Technology Forum: An autonomous body, the

National Educational Technology Forum (NETF), will be created to provide
a platform for the free exchange of ideas on the use of technology to improve
learning, assessment, planning, administration, and so on. The aim of NETF
will be to facilitate decision making on the induction, deployment, and use
of technology, by providing to the leadership of educational institutions,
State and Central governments and other stakeholders the latest knowledge
and research as well as the opportunity to consult and share best practices
with each other.
P19.1.2. Role and functioning of the National Educational Technology Forum:

The NETF will have the following roles:
a. Provide independent evidence-based advice to Central and State

government agencies on technology-based interventions;
b. Build intellectual and institutional capacities in educational technology;
c. Envision strategic thrust areas in this domain; and
d. Articulate new directions for research and innovation.
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To remain relevant in the fast-changing field of educational technology, the

NETF will maintain a regular inflow of authentic data from multiple sources
including educational technology innovators and practitioners, particularly
at the grass-roots level, and will engage with a diverse set of researchers to
analyse this data. It will act as a forum for harnessing the distributed energy
that democratising technology can unleash, particularly among the youth of
the country who continually prove their capacity to innovate and lead, while
also bringing a scholarly emphasis to ensure that the overall impact of these
efforts is positive.
P19.1.3. Funding and support to the National Educational Technology Forum: To

ensure deep connectivity with the field of education, NETF may be housed
within CIET/ NCERT/ NIEPA or any suitable body determined by the RSA.
While NETF will be supported initially with public funding, it should also be
able to receive funding from other sources such as memberships, and other
neutral technology industry bodies such as NASSCOM among others. The
work of NETF will be supported by decentralised institutional structures at
the State and District levels, whose specifics may be decided by the RSA, in
consultation with the States.
P19.1.4. Collective assessment and adoption of technology solutions: To support

the development of a vibrant body of knowledge and practice, NETF will
organise multiple regional and national conferences, workshops, etc. to solicit
inputs from national and international educational technology researchers,
entrepreneurs and practitioners. NETF will enable educational technology
experts from schools, universities, research institutions and other organisations
to evaluate these inputs against current best practices from multiple
perspectives, including pedagogical, psychological, social and economic, and
distil them into:
a. Necessary interventions, which should complement existing best-practices

and be implemented immediately in specific contexts;
b. Promising interventions, which require additional large-scale studies that
could, for example, be funded by NRF; and
c. Inappropriate interventions, which ought not be considered.
Such analysis will be regularly and publicly disseminated, and may be used
to advise Central and State governmental agencies on all matters related to
educational technology, including interventions that may be continued,
piloted at scale, or discontinued. NETF may also use this analysis to propose
strategic thrust areas and research directions in educational technology for
NRF to consider funding.
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19.2 Approach to the induction of

technology
Global evidence suggests that the effects of technology on classroom
processes and educational outcomes, particularly for very young childen, are
modest and mixed with multiple sociological and psychological side-effects.
However, many other uses of technology, including in teaching, learning and
assessment for older children, have tremendous transformative potential.
Therefore, a positive yet cautious approach to the induction of technology at
scale will be adopted, to ensure that the limited funds available and energies
devoted to educational technology are deployed in an optimal manner.
P19.2.1. Qualified support for educational technology with teachers playing

a central role: All use and integration of technology to improve multiple
aspects of education will be supported and adopted, provided these
interventions have been rigorously and transparently evaluated in relevant
contexts before they are scaled up. Education technology is amongst the
most powerful array of tools and methods that a teacher may potentially use
in her/his work. Teachers will be completely empowered through adequate
training and support to lead the activities and initiatives related to the use of
appropriate technologies in classrooms, and for all other uses of technology
in educational institutions.
P19.2.2. Technology use and integration in educational settings: Technology use

and integration will be pursued as an important strategy for improving the
overall quality of education. Thus, the focus will not just be on creating and
delivering high quality content, but also on using technology to: support
translation of content into multiple languages; assist differently-abled
learners; improve the quality of pedagogy and learning processes through
the use of intelligent tutoring systems and adaptive assessment systems;
create new types of interactive and immersive content (e.g. using augmented
and virtual reality); strengthen educational planning and management and
bring greater transparency and efficiency to the examination system as well
as to administrative and governance processes; assist in the management of
education such as supporting teacher development programmes; and scale up
the ODL system so that it can respond to the growing demand for education
from all age groups, across school education, higher education, professional
and vocational education, adult education, and lifelong learning.
P19.2.3. Centres of Excellence in Educational Technology: Centres of Excellence in

Educational Technology will be established at prominent Universities and
other institutions to perform research as well as support functions for the
uptake of appropriate technology solutions. These Centres of Excellence
will be represented at the NETF and they will engage themselves in a two-
way interaction with other members of the NETF for sharing of knowledge
and knowhow.
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P19.2.4. General guidelines for technology-based interventions: Three main

components will form an integral part of most technology-based interventions:
hardware, software and data. In general, the following guidelines will be used.
Exceptions to these guidelines, if any, will be carefully and publicly justified.
a. Hardware: Commodity hardware solutions such as cloud-based commercial

infrastructure and personal computing devices for end-users will be
preferred.
b. Software: Software for educational use will preferably be FOSSEE. Where
necessary, the government will pay for professionally developing and
maintaining the software, and will acquire the rights to distribute it to
learners, teachers and institutions for free-and-unlimited offline usage.
Steps will be taken to ensure that this software remains compatible with
popular and affordable end-user computing devices.
c. Data: All public data will be owned by the government and will be used for
improving educational standards (see Section 19.6). Individuals will retain
full ownership of their own data, which may not be used without their
explicit permission. In line with the Open Data Initiative, educational data
that has been anonymised, as per the best-practice in data security, will be
made publicly available on a regular basis for research purposes.
19.3 Teacher preparation and continuous

professional development
A very large effort towards the CPD of teachers will be needed if the
implementation of this Policy is to succeed. Many online learning experiments
do not work very well for first-time student learners who really need a classroom
environment that provides oportunities for peer learning, as well as mentoring
and guidance from faculty. However, this is not true for existing faculty who
are mature enough to be able to make the most of online courses. Most faculty
members will require upgradation of their subject knowledge, which can just
as well be done through online education.
With regard to school teacher preparation through the four-year integrated
B.Ed. programme, the considerations are similar to all undergraduate
programmes. Online, open and distance education, can both be used, but
extremely judiciously. Teachers will also need to be prepared to use education
technology in classrooms.
P19.3.1. Teacher preparation in the use of educational technology: To skill teachers

at all levels in the use of educational technology, all teacher preparation
programmes will include hands-on training in leveraging technology-based
resources, including addressing common problems related to connectivity,
maintenance of equipment and its safe operation, pedagogical strategies for
utilising e-content (including conducting classes effectively in a flipped mode
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and leveraging MOOCs), and using appropriate tools to enhance teaching-

learning processes (e.g. tools to assist CWSN and tools to help teachers
reflect on their pedagogical styles by capturing classroom practices).
Videos in the open educational repository (see P19.5.2) will be used for
teacher training discussions in every subject. Appropriate technology-based
tools will be developed to assess competencies of teacher trainees, including,
but not limited to, competence in the use of educational technology for
improving teaching, learning, and evaluation processes.
Initially, a large number of certified master teachers will be trained to
provide training to all teacher trainees in a phased manner. Hence, a suitable
initiative will be launched and run in a mission mode for 5-6 years by the
CIET.
P19.3.2. Use of educational technology for continuous teacher professional

development: An online training platform - linked to appropriate
mechanisms to certify trainees in specific areas - will be developed to
empower in-service teachers at all levels of education to stay at the cutting
edge of pedagogical techniques.
Since teachers will have increasing access to personal computing devices
(e.g. smartphones), all in-service teachers will be provided with sufficient
connectivity to access this training platform, explore high quality online
educational resources to incorporate into their pedagogy, and participate in
online teacher communities where best practices can be shared. The online
platform will also allow teachers to share ideas and showcase their pedagogy;
teachers with outstanding portfolios will be awarded due recognition,
including financial support for participating in national and international
training sessions, conferences, workshops, etc., and invitations to present
their work at NETF events.
P19.3.3. Specific technology related policy actions: The necessary interventions

must include customised courses for faculty development programmes on
a platform such as SWAYAM. Both for school teachers and for faculty in
higher education, SWAYAM can cover the theoretical aspects of learning.
At the same time, DIETs and and HRDCs will continue to provide academic
support to school teachers and faculty in higher education, respectively.
The course contents must be reengineered for the online mode and not be
simply recordings of classroom interactions. Similarly, the assessment for
certification must be designed in a way that is convenient for teachers, but
also rigorous enough to create value.
The development and widespread use of teacher professional learning
communities, where teachers can interact with other teachers teaching the
same subjects and exchange knowhow, experience, and even educational
content is a promising intervention that is already in use in some States with
great impact. This must be encouraged and expanded to cover many States
and different subjects.
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19.4 Improving teaching, learning and

evaluation processes
The Internet is a veritable treasure house of text, audio and video that can
be used for educational purposes. Availability of an adequate number of
access devices (rapidly becoming smart phones or iPads and equivalents) and
controlled access (for safety purposes) to the Internet can empower teachers as
well as students to make use of these resources and even contribute to creating
more. They can engage in many forms of active learning, using the available
material to do projects, engage in self as well as group learning methods that
can completely transform the delivery of education from the present ‘chalk-
and-talk’ models prevalent in most classrooms in India today.
P19.4.1. Integrating educational technology into the school curriculum: To prepare

school students for the digital age and bolster efforts in STEAM (Science,
Technology, Engineering, Art & Design, and Mathematics) education, the
following steps will be taken:
a. From age 6 onwards, computational thinking (the thought processes

involved in formulating problems and solutions in ways that computers can
effectively execute) will be integrated into the school curriculum. This is
a fundamental skill in the digital age, and it can be effectively taught with
well-designed paper worksheets.
b. Given the diffusion of devices and their affordability, all students are likely
to have access to connected personal computing devices by 2025. The
school curriculum will promote digital literacy using these personal devices
as well as available digital infrastructure (computer laboratories, tinkering
laboratories, makerspaces, etc.).
c. The school curriculum will offer optional subjects focused on programming
and other advanced computer-based activities at the late upper primary and
secondary stages.
P19.4.2. Developing educational software: A rich variety of educational software will

be developed and made available for students and teachers at all levels. All such
software will be available in all major Indian languages and will be accessible
to a wide range of users including CWSN and differently-abled students, and
will include:
a. Software to assist learners with disabilities (e.g. text-to-speech software in

all major Indian languages for blind/partially sighted students).
b. Intelligent Tutoring Systems to promote numeracy and foundational
literacy in all major Indian languages.
c. Educational software in the form of serious games, simulations, and
applications using augmented and virtual reality.
d. Software to create personalised learning trajectories for each learner based
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on curriculum, with content (readings, videos, interactive worksheets,

etc.) arranged in learning ladders.
e. Adaptive assessment tools that provide formative feedback to help
learners take remedial steps, such as self-study or learning collaboratively
with fellow students.
Software to help teachers create adaptive assessments, formative as well as

summative, evaluate the assessments, and provide appropriate feedback to
learners. Such assessments will minimise the importance of rote memory,
and will instead focus on 21st century skills including critical and creative
thinking, communication, and collaboration. Data generated by such tools,
that reflects the performance of individual learners and overall institutional
performance, will be appropriately recorded in the NRED for subsequent
analysis and research (see P6.1.5).
P19.4.3. Video viewing equipment: For maximal use of content in the open
educational repository, institutions will be supported with inexpensive and
portable video viewing equipment (e.g. solar powered video playback and
projection devices). Teachers will be encouraged to integrate such videos
into teaching-learning processes, along with their own teaching, where ever
they add value.
P19.4.4. Advanced online courses: Educational institutions will be encouraged to

offer course credits to students who complete specified courses (especially
advanced electives) online, e.g. via SWAYAM or other such platforms
developed in the future. This will include courses on topics such as IT
Enabled Services (ITES) and other such areas of vocational education and
adult education that can benefit from online courses.
P19.4.5. Support for appropriate information and communication technology

usage: Most educational institutions have difficulty maintaining and using
their hardware and software. This problem can be addressed through the
creation of a large number of prestigious ‘IT Ambassador’ Fellowships for
students who have completed their senior secondary courses. They can
support school complexes with managing their IT infastructure in a version
of rural service that is similar to military service in some countries. Computer
hardware and maintenance, as well as training in software installation and
maintenance (especially for open-source software) must be taught to these
students. As far as possible, local people must be given these Fellowships.
This will also help promote entrepreneurship among these Fellows at a later
date.
P19.4.6. Specific technology related policy actions: These are split into two groups,
the necessary interventions and the promising interventions. Some of
the necessary interventions in teaching, learning and assessment are the
following:
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a. Content repositories in Indian languages for educational content: along

with editorial processes for uploading content, and rating methods that will
allow the best content to surface to the top. The content must be made
available under the Creative Commons Licensing. The National Repository
for Open Educational Resources (NROER) is one such example, but it needs
to be supplemented with much more awareness building so that a lot more
content comes online and more people find it useful. A suitable financial
model to sustain such a repository needs to be selected. The content
repository could optionally be integrated with payment systems so that, in
time, content creators can be compensated in a small way for contributing
content. This will incentivise many teachers to create innovative age
appropriate content. The decision to create separate repositories for each
State, or hold all content in a single repository, can be made by the NETF
based on appropriate financial models.
b. Machine translation of content uploaded into any content repository:
This should be supplemented with editorial processes to check the quality
of translation, so that good quality content in any language can be translated
into multiple Indian languages.
Some of the promising interventions are the following:
c. Publishing software for educational material: Teachers must be able

to compile free content from one or more content repositories to devise
interesting courses for which material can be shared with students in pdf
form. Many older universities have printing divisions which can be used to
print relatively inexpensive hard copies of educational material for students
who would like to have them.
d. Online assessments: Assessments can be partly online multiple-choice
examinations combined with projects and other hands on work that
is evaluated separately by teachers. Some app-based multiple-choice
examination systems are already available now that make it very easy for
faculty to conduct quizzes.
19.5. Enhancing educational access

Appropriate use of ICT can help ensure that no student is left behind, by
helping to reach students in remote areas, women, CWSN, students who have
dropped out of schools, adults, and many others looking for lifelong education.
However, it is critical that educational content for these purposes is developed
keeping the specific requirements in mind.
P19.5.1. Access to technology in remote areas: School complexes must become the
nodal agency for reaching out to the unreached. For this, they must be equipped
with electricity, computers/ smart phones or other access devices, and Internet
access else the promise of reaching the unreached will not be realised.
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P19.5.2. High quality specialised content to be made available in open educational

repositories: To ensure that all learners have access to high quality educational
content, copyright-free educational resources including textbooks, reference
books, videos (ideally with subtitles), teaching-learning materials, etc. will
be created and curated from national and global sources at all levels of
education and in multiple Indian languages, and made available in a single
online digital repository e.g. the National Digital Library or NROER. This
repository must be organised so that anyone can quickly and easily locate
and download all relevant content. In order to reach the maximum number
of students and teachers, distributing this content in any form for a nominal
fee will be facilitated and encouraged.
P19.5.3. Maintaining content quality: It is critical to ensure that the repository in

P19.5.2 remains a high quality and up-to-date resource so that it will be of
value not only to teachers and students in the formal education system, but
will also be a powerful enabler of lifelong learning. Hence a mechanism
for creating and reviewing these learning resources will be devised (e.g.
through online feedback on quality, relevance, and usefulness of content
from users, both teachers and students, as well as competitions leading to
national recognition for outstanding content creation). Thus, the platform
will showcase the work of the best teachers, teaching in exemplary styles,
across the country in every subject, level, and language. The platform itself
(as in the case of all shared resources) once piloted and identified to be more
widely usable by NETF, must be maintained by specialist organisations such
as the CDAC or by private industry. The funding for this kind of professional
maintenance of shared resources will be provided by the Central government.
P19.5.4. Development of tools for automated language translation of educational

content: NRF will prioritise research and development of tools for automated
and/or crowd-sourced language translation of educational content into all
major Indian languages, so that additional content created in one language
can be made rapidly available in other languages.
P19.5.5. Specific technology related policy actions: In terms of necessary

interventions, software for adaptive learning for children of all ages with
special needs must be prepared. Considerable research into pedagogy will be
required for this purpose, and this can be funded by NRF at the Departments
of Education in universities. Similarly, with intelligent tutoring systems, and
many others.
The NRED will maintain all records related to institutions, teachers and
students in digital form.
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19.6. Streamlining educational planning

and management
Arguably, the most important benefits from ICT are in the area of governance
and management, where ICT tools can help with data-gathering and analysis,
and record-keeping. ICT can also help in mainstreaming education by providing
relatively simple and inexpensive solutions to problems that have plagued the
sector for a long time, such as the problem of fake degrees among others.
P19.6.1. National Repository of Educational Data: ICTs will be fully leveraged for
efficient and safe maintenance of educational information. All records related
to institutions, teachers, and students will be maintained by a single agency
in digital form in the NRED, which may be set up as part of the Digital India
programme (see P6.1.5). NRED will be tasked with:
a. Developing appropriate systems for authorised institutional users to enter

and update data. Teachers would be asked to enter data at most four times
per year, in order to ease the significant burden on teachers in collecting,
managing and transmitting data on an ongoing basis. This will be the only
mechanism for institutions to disclose data to government agencies (both
State and Central) for purposes of monitoring, accreditation, ranking,
rating, and eligibility for government schemes.
b. Validating employment records of teachers and credits earned by learners
(who will be, e.g. identified by their Aadhar numbers). This will simplify
the process for learners and teachers seeking scholarships, employment,
transfers between institutions, and re-entry into the education system. It
will also minimise the manual effort in tracking details of students and
teachers.
c. Complementing efforts to assess learning outcomes (e.g. NAS) by analyzing
the performance of individual learners and institutions, and attempting to
predict failures to meet outcomes so that proactive assistance measures can
be undertaken.
d. Maintaining records while adhering to national norms, best-practices, and
laws related to privacy of data. Practices based on “security by obscurity” will
be explicitly rejected. This Policy further states that laws be strengthened to
preserve the privacy of all individuals at the earliest.
e. Developing appropriate mechanisms to ensure the timeliness and reliability
of data, so that policies can be based on high quality data. Current best
practices employed by State and Central agencies can be studied and used
as a baseline.
f. Alerting concerned governmental agencies about important trends (both
positive and negative) as they are developing, for immediate action where
necessary, and making these analyses public on an annual basis. These
analyses will also include assessments of the quality of school education at
the district level.
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g. Monitoring migrant learners, and tracking their health and educational

progress in order to mitigate the negative impact of disruptions to their
well-being due to frequent displacement.
The National Repository of

Educational Data will maintain
all records related to institutions,
teachers and students in digital form.
P19.6.2. Technology for improving governance and administration: Educational

information management systems for community monitoring will
be created and integrated with NRED. These systems will be used to
streamline manual processes related to educational planning, admissions,
attendance, assessments, etc. Local communities, panchayats, and SMCs
will be able to look at the data and make sense of it themselves. ICT-based
tools will be used immediately for all administrative tasks where they can
improve efficiency and accuracy, including systems related to admissions,
scholarships, assessments, counselling, placements, accreditation, etc. ICT
will also be used for more efficient information dissemination and data
gathering towards decision making. To facilitate information exchange
between stakeholders, all educational institutions will provide all relevant
stakeholders (students, parents, teachers, staff, etc.) with access to official
institutional communication channels (e.g. institutional email).
P19.6.3. Specific technology related policy actions: Well over 30 years after the advent
of email, many of our educational institutions do not offer institutional email
to their faculty and students. The efficiency of communications that can be
brought in through institutional email and list servers must be provided to
all educational institutions without any further delay.
The problem of fake degrees can now be solved very elegantly by the new
Blockchain technology. Each State government must commission its own
depository of certificates, like the ‘National Academic Depository’, for all
educational institutions within the States.
A considerable degree of computerisation of the administration and
management of education has already taken place, with many aspects such
as admissions, student records and even online assesment of examinations
taking place in many universities in the State. These need to be scaled out to
all educational institutions.
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19.7. Disruptive technologies

Technology is increasingly disrupting multiple aspects of human society,
including education. Some disruptive technologies will have clear applications
to education, and methods to integrate such technologies into the education
system through the involvement of the NETF have alredy been discussed. This
section focuses on policies to address the broader consequences of disruptive
technologies that are relevant to education, namely research, de-skilling, and
awareness raising.
When the National Policy on Education 1986/1992 was formulated, it was
difficult to predict the disruptive effect that the internet was about to have,
particularly in boosting the development rates and impacts of other disruptive
technologies. Our present education system’s inability to cope with these
rapid and disruptive changes places us (individually and nationally) at a
perilous disadvantage in an increasingly competitive world. For instance, while
computers have largely surpassed humans in leveraging factual and procedural
knowledge, our education at all levels excessively burdens students with such
knowledge at the expense of developing their higher order competencies.
This Policy comes at a time when the Fourth Industrial Revolution is already
underway, and disruptive technologies such as artificial intelligence have
emerged. At its core, artificial intelligence lowers the cost of prediction tasks
that use existing data (such as, “This patient’s symptoms”) to fill information
gaps (such as, “What disease does this patient have?”). As the cost of artificial
intelligence based prediction falls, artificial intelligence will be able to match
or outperform even skilled professionals such as doctors in certain predictive
tasks and will therefore be a valuable aid to them in their work. Hence, artificial
intelligence’s disruptive potential is clear.
NITI Aayog recently produced a timely discussion paper entitled “National
Strategy for Artificial Intelligence: #AIForAll”, drawing on several prior
investigations by MHRD and other national and international institutions,
to identify challenges in leveraging artificial intelligence in India, and to
articulate a national perspective and action agenda for artificial intelligence.
This Policy broadly endorses the recommendations of NITI Aayog that pertain
to education. It further notes that artificial intelligence provides an excellent
example of how the Policy actions related to disruptive technologies can be
applied to specific technologies. Thus, each of the Policy actions below is
followed by comments on its application to artificial intelligence.
Other disruptive technologies such as Blockchain and Virtual Reality are just
two of the many new technologies that are likely to have a sizeable impact on
education.
P19.7.1. Monitoring potentially disruptive technologies: One of the permanent

tasks of the Advisory Council of the RSA (see Chapter 23) will be to categorise
emergent technologies based on their potential and estimated timeframe for
disruption, and to periodically present this analysis to the RSA. Based on these
inputs, the RSA will formally identify those technologies whose emergence
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demands responses from the education system. Given the increasing pace of
technological development, the traditional cycle of education policy revision
may be too slow to respond to such disruptions. The Advisory Council
of the RSA will propose technology-specific responses based on national
and international perspectives, which will be refined in consultation with
academia, industry and the wider public. These responses will be guided by
the EC of the RSA. While some agility in the education system is necessary, the
need for careful deliberation while assessing a specific technology’s disruptive
potential is well illustrated by artificial intelligence (which encompasses
several distinct technologies). Decades ago, some experts viewed rule-based
expert systems as an imminent disruptive artificial intelligence technology.
Artificial intelligence’s recent gains are in fact based on different techniques
developed in the 1990s (multilayer neural networks with feedback) and were
primarily triggered by recent advances in computation and the availability of
large data-sets. NITI Aayog’s discussion paper models one way in which the
Advisory Council can propose technology-specific policy changes.
P19.7.2. Research in disruptive technologies: In response to the RSA’s formal

recognition of a new disruptive technology, the NRF will initiate or expand
research efforts in appropriate areas including fundamental research in
the domain, advancing the technology’s development, and assessing the
technology’s socio-economic impact. For certain disruptive technologies,
NRF may fund mega-projects with international collaborations.
In the context of artificial intelligence, the NRF may consider a three-

pronged approach:
a) Advancing core artificial intelligence research,
b) Developing and deploying application-based research, and
c) Establishing international research efforts to address global challenges in
areas such as healthcare, agriculture, and climate change using artificial
intelligence.
P19.7.3. Skilling and re-skilling: The new institutional structure in higher education
is well suited to skilling students and re-skilling the current workforce
rapidly. Type 1 and Type 2 institutions will play an active role not only in
conducting research on disruptive technologies, but also in creating initial
versions of instructional materials and courses (including online courses) in
cutting-edge domains and assessing their impact on specific areas such as
professional education. Once the technology has attained a level of maturity,
Type III institutions are ideally placed to scale these teaching and skilling
efforts, which will include targeted training for job readiness. Disruptive
technologies will make certain jobs redundant, and hence approaches to
skilling and de-skilling that are both efficient and ensure quality will be of
increasing importance to create and sustain employment. Institutions will
have autonomy to approve institutional and non-institutional partners
to deliver such training, which will be integrated with skills and higher
education frameworks.
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In the context of artificial intelligence, Type I and Type II institutions may

offer PhD and Masters programmes in core areas (such as Machine Learning)
as well as multidisciplinary fields (“artificial intelligence + X”) and professional
areas (healthcare, agriculture and law). They may also develop and disseminate
authoritative courses in these areas via platforms such as SWAYAM. For rapid
adoption, Type III institutions may initially blend these online courses with
traditional teaching in undergraduate and vocational programmes. Type
III institutions may also offer targeted training in low-expertise tasks for
supporting the artificial intelligence value chain such as data annotation,
image classification and speech transcription. In the context of Natural
Language Processing (NLP), certain low-expertise tasks (such as translating
simple sentences) may also be valuable from a pedagogical standpoint. Thus,
efforts to teach languages to school students should be dovetailed with efforts
to enhance NLP for India’s diverse languages.
P19.7.4. Raising awareness: As disruptive technologies emerge, schooling and
continuing education will assist in raising the general populace’s awareness
of their potential disruptive effects, and will also address related issues. This
awareness is necessary to have informed public consent on matters related
to these technologies. In school, the study of ethical issues (see Section 4.6.8)
and current affairs (see Section 4.6.10) will include a discussion on disruptive
technologies such as those identified by RSA. Appropriate instructional and
discussion materials will also be prepared for continuing education.
Data is a key fuel for artificial intelligence based technologies, and it is critical
to raise awareness on issues of privacy, laws and standards associated with data
handling and data protection, etc. It is also necessary to highlight ethical issues
surrounding the development and deployment of artificial intelligence based
technologies. Education will play a key role in these efforts to raise awareness
around these issues.
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Concepts of Educational Testing
Testing is neither assessment nor appraisal, but at the same time it may become a
means to getting information, data or evidences needed for assessment and appraisal. Testing
is one of the significant and most usable technique in any system of examination or
evaluation. It envisages the use of instruments or tools for gathering information or data. In
written examinations, question paper is one of the most potent tools employed for collecting
and obtaining information about pupils’ achievement.
Context of Educational Testing

A test of educational achievement is one designed to measure knowledge,
understanding, or skills in a specified subject or group of subjects. The test might be
restricted to a single subject, such as arithmetic, yielding a separate score for each subject and
a total score for the several subjects combined.
Tests of educational achievement differ from those of intelligence in that the former
are concerned with the quantity and quality of learning attained in a subject of study, or group
to subjects, after a period of instruction and the latter are general in scope and are intended
for the measurement and analysis of psychological processes, although they must of necessity
employ some acquired contentthat resembles the content found in achievement tests.
In student assessment and evaluation, it is necessary to understand that teaching is a
process where effective teachers can organize the environment to provide students with
active, hands-on learning and authentic tasks which aims to meet the outcomes at end of the
instruction. Opportunities for “active” learning experiences, in which students are asked to
use ideas by writing and talking about them, creating models and demonstrations, applying
these ideas to more complex problems, and constructing projects that require the integration
of many ideas, have been found to promote deeper learning. So, learning theories are playing
an important role in the educational system.
Learning Theory
Learning theories are conceptual frameworks describing how information is absorbed,
processed and retained during learning. Cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences,
as well as prior experience, all play a part in how understanding, or a world view, is acquired
or changed and knowledge and skills retained.
Behaviorists look at learning as an aspect of conditioning and will advocate a system of
rewards and targets in education. Educators who embrace cognitive theory believe that the
definition of learning as a change in behavior is too narrow and prefer to study the learner
rather than their environment and in particular the complexities of human memory. Those
who advocate constructivism believe that a learner's ability to learn relies to a large extent on
what he already knows and understands, and the acquisition of knowledge should be an
individually tailored process of construction. Transformative learning theory focuses upon
the often- necessary change that is required in a learner's preconceptions and world view.
Behaviorism
Behaviorism is a philosophy of learning that only focuses on objectively observable
behaviors and discounts mental activities. Behavior theorists define learning as nothing more
than the acquisition of new behavior. Experiments by behaviorists identify conditioning as a
universal learning process. There are two different types of conditioning, each yielding a
different behavioral pattern: Classic conditioning occurs when a natural reflex responds to a
stimulus.
The most popular example is Pavlov's observation that dogs salivate when they eat or even
see food. Essentially, animals and people are biologically "wired" so that a certain stimulus
will produce a specific response. Behavioral or operant conditioning occurs when a response
to a stimulus is reinforced. Basically, operant conditioning is a simple feedback system: If a
reward or reinforcement follows the response to a stimulus, then the response becomes more
probable in the future. For example, leading behaviorist B.F. Skinner used reinforcement
techniques to teach pigeons to dance and bowl a ball in a mini-alley.
How Behaviorism impacts learning:
• Positive and negative reinforcement techniques of Behaviorism can be very effective.
• Teachers use Behaviorism when they reward or punish student behaviours.
Cognitivism
Jean Piaget authored a theory based on the idea that a developing child builds
cognitive structures, mental "maps", for understanding and responding to physical
experiences within their environment. Piaget proposed that a child's cognitive structure
increases in sophistication with development, moving from a few innate reflexes such as
crying and sucking to highly complex mental activities.
The four developmental stages of Piaget's model and the processes by which children
progress through them are: The child is not yet able to conceptualize abstractly and needs
concrete physical situations. As physical experience accumulates, the child starts to
conceptualize, creating logical structures that explain their physical experiences. Abstract
problem solving is possible at this stage. For example, arithmetic equations can be solved
with numbers, not just with objects. By this point, the child's cognitive structures are like
those of an adult and include conceptual reasoning. Piaget proposed that during all
development stages, the child experiences their environment using whatever mental maps
they have constructed. If the experience is a repeated one, it fits easily - or is assimilated -
into the child's cognitive structure so that they maintain mental "equilibrium". If the
experience is different or new, the child loses equilibrium, and alters their cognitive structure
to accommodate the new conditions. In this way, the child constructs increasingly complex
cognitive structures.
How Piaget's theory impacts learning:

• Curriculum - Educators must plan a developmentally appropriate curriculum that
enhances their students' logical and conceptual growth.
• Instruction - Teachers must emphasize the critical role that experiences, or
interactions with the surrounding environment, play in student learning. For example,
instructors have to consider the role that fundamental concepts, such as the
permanence of objects, play in establishing cognitive structures.
Constructivism
Constructivism is a philosophy of learning founded on the premise that, by reflecting
on our experiences we construct our own understanding of the world we live in. Each of us
generates our own "rules" and "mental models," which we use to make sense of our
experiences. Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting our mental models to
accommodate new experiences.
The guiding principles of Constructivism:

Learning is a search for meaning. Therefore, learning must start with the issues
around which students are actively trying to construct meaning. Meaning requires
understanding wholes as well as parts and parts must be understood in the context of wholes.
Therefore, the learning process focuses on primary concepts, not isolated facts. In order to
teach well, we must understand the mental models that students use to perceive the world and
the assumptions they make to support those models. The purpose of learning is for an
individual to construct his or her own meaning, not just memorize the "right" answers and
repeat someone else's meaning. Since education is inherently interdisciplinary, the only
valuable way to measure learning is to make assessment part of the learning process, ensuring
it provides students with information on the quality of their learning.
How Constructivism impacts learning:

• Curriculum - Constructivism calls for the elimination of a standardized curriculum.
Instead, it promotes using curricula customized to the students' prior knowledge. Also,
it emphasizes hands-on problem solving.
• Instruction - Under the theory of constructivism, educators focus on making
connections between facts and fostering new understanding in students. Instructors
tailor their teaching strategies to student responses and encourage students to analyze,
interpret and predict information. Teachers also rely heavily on open-ended questions
and promote extensive dialogue among students.
• Assessment - Constructivism calls for the elimination of grades and standardized
testing. Instead, assessment becomes part of the learning process so that students play
a larger role in judging their own progress.
Different forms of Assessment
Assessment frames learning, creates learning activity and orients all aspects of learning
behavior. Tests and other assessment procedures can also be classified in terms of their
functional role in classroom instruction. The functional role explains the sequence of
assessment procedures are likely to be used in the classroom. This kind of sequencing and
categorization is continuing today. According to David Miller, the classification are
Placement assessment: To determine student performance at the beginning of instruction
Formative assessment: To monitor learning progress during instruction
Diagnostic assessment: To diagnose learning difficulties during instruction
Summative assessment: To assess achievement at the end of instruction
Placement Assessment
Placement assessment is concerned with the student's entry performance and typically focuses
on questions such as (a) Does the student possess the knowledge and skills needed to begin the
planned instruction? For example, beginning algebra, student should have a sufficient
command of essential mathematics concepts (b) To what extent has the student already
developed the understanding and skills that are the goals of the planned instruction? Sufficient
levels of comprehension and proficiencies might indicate the desirability of skipping certain
units or of being placed in a more advanced course. (c) To what extent do the student's interests,
work habits, and personality characteristics indicate that one mode of instruction might be
better than another (e.g., group instruction versus independent study)? The goal of placement
assessment is to determine for each student the position in the instructional sequence and the
mode of instruction that is most beneficial.
Formative Assessment
Assessment for learning is a formative assessment. Formative assessment is used to monitor
learning progress during instruction. Its purpose is to provide continuous feedback to both
students and teachers concerning learning successes and failures. The wide variety of
information that teachers collect about students’ learning processes provides the basis for
determining what they need to do next to move student learning forward. It provides the basis
for providing descriptive feedback for students and deciding on groupings, instructional
strategies, and resources The feedback to students provides reinforcement of successful
learning and identifies the specific learning errors and misconceptions that need correction.
Formative assessment depends heavily on specially prepared tests and assessments for each
segment of instruction that is unitwise or chapterwise. Tests and other types of assessment tasks
used for formative assessment are most frequently teacher made, but customized tests made
available by publishers of textbooks and other instructional materials also can serve th.is
function. Observational techniques are, of course, also useful in monitoring student progress
and identifying learning errors. Because formative assessment is directed toward. improving
learning and instruction, the results are typically not used for assigning course grades.
teachers have eye to eye contact with students and it may give complete monitoring of student
Role of faculty member in formative assessment

Assessment for learning occurs throughout the learning process. It is interactive, with teachers:
aligning instruction
• identifying particular learning needs of students or groups
• selecting and adapting materials and resources
• creating differentiated teaching strategies and learning opportunities for helping
individual students move forward in their learning
• Providing immediate feedback and direction to students this furthers learning
Diagnostic Assessment
Diagnostic assessment is a highly specialized procedure. It is concerned with the
persistent or recurring learning difficulties that are left unresolved by the standard corrective
prescriptions of formative assessment. If a student continues to experience failure in reading,
mathematics, or other subjects despite the use of prescribed alternative methods of instruction,
then a more detailed diagnosis is indicated. To use a medical analogy, formative assessment
provides first-aid treatment for simple learning problems, and diagnostic assessment searches
for the underlying causes of those problems that do not respond to first-aid treatment. Thus,
diagnostic assessment is much more comprehensive and detailed. It involves the use of
specially prepared diagnostic tests as well as various observational techniques. Serious learning
disabilities also are likely to require the services of educational, counsellors, and medical
specialists. The aim of diagnostic assessment is to determine the causes of persistent learning
problems and to formulate a plan for remedial action.
Summative Assessment
The last kind of assessment is called summative assessment and it is also called as
assessment of learning. Summative assessment typically comes at the end of a course of
instruction. It is designed to determine the extent to which the instructional goals have been
achieved and is used primarily for assigning course grades or for certifying student mastery of
the intended learning outcomes. The techniques used in summative assessment are determined
by the instructional goals, but they typically include teacher made achievement tests, ratings
on various types of performance, and assessments of products. These various sources of
information about student achievement may be systematically collected into a portfolio that
may be used to summarize or showcase the student’s accomplishments and progress. Although
the main purpose of summative assessment is grading or the certification of student
achievement, it also provides information for judging the appropriateness of the course
objectives and the effectiveness of the instruction.
Faculty member role in Summative Assessment

Faculty members have the responsibility of reporting student learning accurately and
fairly, based on evidence obtained from a variety of contexts and applications. Effective
assessment of learning requires that faculty members provide:
• a rationale for undertaking a particular assessment of learning at a particular point in
time
• clear descriptions of the intended learning
• processes that make it possible for students to demonstrate their competence and skill
a range of alternative mechanisms for assessing the same outcomes
• public and defensible reference points for making judgements
• transparent approaches to interpretation
• descriptions of the assessment process
• strategies for recourse in the event of disagreement about the decisions
So, sequencing of assessment is more sensible in Teaching – Learning process. Among the all
forms of assessment formative assessment is more powerful assessment for the improvement
teaching – learning process. In the formative assessment questioning to the students is an art.
General Principles for Evaluation Process
Some general principles that provide direction to the evaluation process are:
• Evaluation is a systematic process to determine the extent to which objectives are
achieved. This means that formulating objectives in clear terms is an important
prerequisite, as that will spell out 'what to evaluate'.
• Evaluation procedures are selected in terms of the purposes to be served. The question
is not 'should this procedure be used?' but rather 'when this procedure be used?' A
particular procedure is suitable for certain purposes and not appropriate for others.
• A variety of procedures are needed for evaluation. Tests (different types), self-report
techniques and observation are some of the procedures available.
• Appropriate procedures are to be used depending on the nature of
objectives(cognitive, psychomotor; and affective) for ensuing comprehensive
evaluation.
• Knowledge of limitations as well as strengths of different evaluation procedures is
needed for their proper use- A teacher/trainer should develop skills in minimizing
errors in evaluation by being able to design and use different procedures appropriately
• Evaluation is a means to an end and not an end in itself. Evaluation has to be looked
upon as a process of obtaining reliable information upon which to base educational
decisions (instructional, guidance or administrative). It is not the end of the teaching
learning process.
Consequences of Testing on Students

Critics of testing argue that testing is likely to have certain undesirable effects on
students. Some of the most commonly mentioned charges directed toward the use of aptitude
and achievement tests are listed here with brief comments.
Criticism 1: Tests Create Anxiety. There is no doubt that anxiety increases during testing.
For most students, it motivates them to perform better. For a few, test anxiety may be so great
that it interferes with test performance. These typically are students who are generally
anxious, and the test simply adds to their already high level of anxiety. A number of steps can
be taken to reduce test anxiety, such as thoroughly preparing for the test, taking practice
exercises, and using liberal time limits. Fortunately, many test publishers in recent years have
provided practice tests and shifted from speed tests to power tests. This should help, but it is
still necessa1y to observe students carefully during testing and to discount the scores of
overly anxious students.
Criticism 2: Tests Categorize and Label Students. Categorizing and labeling individuals can
be a serious problem, particularly when those labels are used as an excuse for poor student
achieve men t rather than a means of providing the extra-services and help to ensure better
achievement. It is all too easy to place individuals in pigeonholes and apply labels that
determine, at-least in part, how they are viewed and treated. Classifying students in terms of
levels of mental ability has probably caused the greatest concern in education. When students
are classified as mentally retarded, for example, it influences how teachers and peers view the
m, how they view themselves, and the kind of institutions programs they receive. When
students are mislabeled as mentally retarded, as has been the case with some racial and ethnic
minorities, the problem is compounded. At least some of the support for mainstreaming
handicapped students has come from the desire to avoid the categorizing and labeling that
accompanies special education classes. Classifying students into various types of learning
groups can more efficiently use the teacher 's time and the school's resources. However, when
grouping, teachers must consider that tests measure only a limited sample of a student 's
abilities and that students are continuously changing and developing. By keeping the
groupings tentative and flexible and regrouping for different subjects (e.g., science and math),
teachers can avoid most of the undesirable features of grouping. It is when the categories are
viewed as rigid and permanent that labeling becomes a serious problem. In such cases, it is
not the test that should be blamed but the user of the test.
Criticism 3: Tests Damage Students' Self-Concepts. This is a concern that requires the
attention of teachers, counselors, and other users of tests. The improper use of tests may
indeed contribute to distorted self-concepts. The stereotyping of students is one misuse of
tests that is likely to have an undesirable influence on a student's self-concept. Another is the
inadequate interpretation of tst scores that may cause students to make unwarranted
generalizations from the results. It is certainly discouraging to receive low scores on tests,
and it is easy to see how students might develop a general sense of failure unless the results
are properly interpreted. Low-scoring students need to be made aware that aptitudeand
achievement tests are limited measures and that the results can change. In addition, the
possibility of over generalizing from low test scores will be lessened if the student's positive
accomplishments and characteristics are mentioned during the interpretation. When properly
interpreted and used, tests can help students develop a realistic understanding of their
strengths and weaknesses and thereby contribute to imp roved learning and a positive self-
image.
Criticism 4: Tests create Self-fulfilling prophecies. This criticism has been directed primarily
toward intelligence or scholastic aptitude tests. The argument is that test scorescreate tead1er
expectations concerning the achievement of individual students; the tead1er then teaches in
accordance with those expectations, and the students respond by achieving to their expected
level- a self-fulfilling prophecy. Thus, those who are expected to achieve more do achieve
more, and those who are expected to achieve less do achieve less. The belief that teacher
expectations enhance or hinder a student's achievement is widely held, and the role of testing
in creating these expectations is certainly worthy of further research.
In summary, there is some merit in the va1ious criticisms concerning the possible
undesirable effects of tests on students; but more often than not, these criticisms should be
directed at the users of the tests rather than the tests themselves. The same persons who
misuse test results are likely to misuse alternative types of information that are even less
accurate and objective. Thus, the solution is not to stop using tests but to start using tests and
other data. sources of information more effectively.
Graduate Attributes leads to programme outcome
Every student become a graduate at end of their programme and each graduate should
possess appropriate graduate attributes. The term Graduate Attribute by itself has been
defined differently by educationalists.
The most popular one is graduate attributes as the qualities, skills and understandings an
institution community agrees its students would desirably develop during their time at the
institution. Another expert gave an explanation is the term Graduate Attribute GA is abstract
and demonstrates broad concepts for employability, lifelong learning, preparation for an
uncertain future.
National Board of Accreditation, Govt of India listed the graduate attributes for different
programmes. The details are available in http://www.nbaind.org. The following list is
graduate attributes leads to programme outcome for the UG Engineering programme.
Engineering Graduates will be able to ( Source : http://www.nbaind.org)
1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex
engineering problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze
complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first
principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering
problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs
with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural,
societal, and environmental considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data,
and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent
responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities
and norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member
or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with
the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to
comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective
presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a
member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary
environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological
change.
Graduate attributes can be assessed indirectly in a programme. The assessment starts from the
micro level as course outcome. Achievements of all the course outcomes leads to programme
outcome (PO) and programme specific outcomes (PSO). The achievement of PO and PSO
indirectly linking with the graduate attributes.
Introduction to Student Assessment and Evaluation
INTRODUCTION
Evaluation of educational programmes is a global issue. It involves the effectiveness of

proposals, curricula, instructional materials, organizations, administration, resources, utilization,
facilities, duration etc. Though a progressive evaluator will be concerned with many issues in
evaluating educational programmes, the practicing teacher will mainly be concerned with student
assessment and evaluation.
From this point of view evaluation is defined as a systematic process of determining the extent to
which the learners achieve instructional/training objectives. It may include either quantitative or
qualitative description of learner behavior plus value judgement concerning its worth. It is
imperative that we make judgements based on proper information (qualitative or quantitative)
through suitably designed tools and techniques for the purpose.
A sound evaluation programme will include both measurement and non-measurement

techniques, each to be used as appropriate.
Evaluation may be based on information obtained by

1. presenting an individual with a task/set of tasks to perform
2. asking him/her questions about himself/herself
3. by asking others to appraise his/her behaviour
Role of Evaluation
The relationship between evaluation and other components of the teaching

learning process is shown in the following diagram:
Figure 1.1 : Instructional System
Evaluation involves value judgement with respect to actual achievement of objectives in

comparison with the proposed ones. The tools for gathering the needed information are therefore
to be necessarily designed, using the proposed objectives as reference points.
Purposes of Evaluation
Feedback provided by evaluation influences the student to
• know his/her strengths and weaknesses and direct his/her study efforts to
make up for gap or knowledge and understanding
• compare his/her progress with that of his/her peers and get motivated to
do better
• develop regular and good study habits if assessment is continuous)
It helps the teacher to
• assess how effective the instructional methods and strategies used are
• detect students' learning difficulties and provide for remedy
• identify individual student differences and suitably adapt teaching
strategies
• grade students
It helps administrators to
• make any structural changes in the system such as providing more resources,
revision of curriculum etc., to improve the system
General Principles
Some general principles that provide direction to the evaluation process are:
• Evaluation is a systematic process to determine the extent to which objectives
are achieved. This means that formulating objectives in clear terms is an
important prerequisite, as that will spell out 'what to evaluate'.
• Evaluation procedures are selected in terms of the purposes to be served. The
question is not 'should this procedure be used?' but rather 'when this
procedure be used?' A particular procedure is suitable for certain purposes
and not appropriate for others.
• A variety of procedures are needed for evaluation. Tests (different types), self-
report techniques and observation are some of the procedures available,
Appropriate procedures are to be used depending on the nature of objectives
(cognitive, psychomotor; and affective) for ensuing comprehensive
evaluation.
• Knowledge of limitations as well as strengths of different evaluation
procedures is needed for their proper use- A teacher/trainer should develop
skills in minimizing errors in evaluation by being able to design and use
different procedures appropriately
• Evaluation is a means to an end and not an end in itself. Evaluation has to be
looked upon as a process of obtaining reliable information upon which to base
educational decisions (instructional, guidance or administrative). It is not the
end of the teaching learning process.
Questioning Skill
Questioning skill is an important skill need to be developed among the faculty
members. Questioning plays a major role in all forms assessment particularly placement,
formative and diagnostic. Much classroom practice can be described as assessment activities.
Teachers set tasks and activities and pose questions to learners. Learners respond to the tasks,
activities and questions, and the teachers make judgements on the learners’ knowledge,
ùnderstanding and skills acquisition as evidenced in the learners’ responses. These judgements
on learners’ performance happen quite naturally in the course of any teaching and learning
session and require two-way dialogue, decision-making and communication of the assessment
decision in the form of quality feedback to the learner on their performance. Depending on how
successfully these classroom practices have been undertaken, learning will have taken place in
varying degrees from learner to learner.
Testing the learning is an important part of classroom practice, and questioning is one of the
most common methods of checking learner understanding. Questioning is something teachers
do naturally as part of their daily routine, but developing the skills associated with questioning
techniques presents many challenges for teachers and it is something that is developed over
time. Teachers need to review what is to be learnt in any one teaching and learning session and
plan for the inclusion of questioning accordingly. When to pose open and closed questions,
teacher must know, how to develop a question distribution strategy and when to use questions
to check learners’ knowledge.
So, the following points we have to remember

• the learning aims and objectives are clearly defined and shared with the learner and
• methods of testing for learning are appropriately identified.
As a faculty member you need to be aware that :
• questioning is a skill which needs to be developed
• communication is a two-way process
• questioning is a good way to develop an interaction style of communication
• you need confidence to develop questioning skills
• when you pose a question, you have no idea as to what the learner is going to say,
despite your hopes
• you need to have the courage and confidence to deal with any answer, no matter how it
is completely strange
• when you ask questions, you have to be prepared for the learner asking you a wide
range of searching questions in response
• you have to be confident in their subject matter and be well prepared
• one of the first stages of questioning is getting the learner to talk, which may seem
strange as teachers spend a lot of time trying to get the learner to be quiet
• some teachers tend to talk far too much without checking that learners understand what
they are saying.
• When you questioning the student,
• First, Ask the question leave some time then identify the student to get the answer. This
kind of questioning make the every student to think the answer.
• Identify the student and ask question directly when the student didn’t attentive to the
class. We should not mix the questioning directly to the student and questioning and
give time for thinking.
• Now can you tell me the difference between the two way of asking questions. Yes you
are correct. The first one is to get the feedback on learning and the second one to bring
the attention of the specific learner.
So,
• Pose the question to the whole group.
• Pause – allowing all learners to think of the answer Pose, Pause, Pounce (PPP)
• Name a learner to answer.
• Listen to the answer.
• Reward correct answers.
• Incorrect answers should not be ridiculed either by the teacher or the remainder of the
group of learners.
• Spread the questions around the class so that all can participate.
The distribution of the question is again very important.
• If teachers work around the class in an obvious systematic order, those who have
answered tend to relax a little, and sometimes ‘switch off’.
• Use a technique which is not obvious.
• Be conscious of the tendency to choose the same learners when asking questions.
• Most teachers tend to concentrate their attention on those learners, so deliberately pay
attention to those normally omitted.
The Languages of Assessment
Test: A test is a procedure in which a sample of an individual’s behavior is obtained, evaluated

and scored using standardized procedures. It is a method to determine a student's ability to
complete certain tasks or demonstrate mastery of a skill or knowledge of content. Some types
would be multiple choice tests, or a weekly spelling test. While it is commonly used
interchangeably with assessment, or even evaluation, it can be distinguished by the fact that
a test is one form of an assessment.
Assessment: It is systematic procedure for collecting information that can be used to make
inferences about the characteristics of people or object. It is a process of gathering
information to monitor progress and make educational decisions if necessary. As noted in my
definition of test, an assessment may include a test, but also includes methods such as
observations, interviews, behavior monitoring, etc.
Measurement: Measurement is a set of rules or procedures for assigning numbers to

represent objects, traits, attributes or behaviors. Measurement, beyond its general definition,
refers to the set of procedures and the principles for how to use the procedures in educational
tests and assessments. Some of the basic principles of measurement in educational
evaluations would be raw scores, percentile ranks, derived scores, standard scores, etc.
Evaluation: Basically, evaluation is the process of making judgments based on criteria and
evidence. Also, Procedures used to determine whether the subject (i.e. student) meets a
preset criteria, such as qualifying for special education services. This uses assessment
(remember that an assessment may be a test) to make a determination of qualification in
accordance with a predetermined criterion.
Two-Dimensional Approach
Teachers traditionally have struggled with issues and concerns pertaining to education,
teaching, and learning. Here are four of the most important organizing questions:
• What is important for students to learn in the limited school and class room time
available? (the learning question)
• How does one plan and deliver instruction that will result in high levels of learning for
large numbers of students? (the instruction question)
• How does one select or design assessment instruments and procedures that provide
accurate information about how well students are learning? (the assessment question)
• How does one ensure that objectives, instruction, and assessment are consistent with
one another? (the alignment question)
Once an objective has been placed into a particular cell of the Taxonomy Table shown in fig 2,
we can begin systematically to attack the problem of helping students achieve that objective
through learning question can be answered. Different types of objectives (that is, objectives in
different cells of the table) require different approaches to deliver the instruction and
assessment. Similar types of objectives (that is, objectives in the same cells ofthe table) likely
involve similar approaches to assessment. For example, To assess students' learning with
respect to the number systems, we could provide each student with a list of, say, six numbers,
all of which are either rational or irrational numbers, and ask the student to answer questions
about the list of numbers. The numbers selected should be as different as possible from the
numbers in the textbook or discussed during class. Three example questions follow:
• To what number system, rational or irrational, do all of these numbers belong?
• How do you know that it is the type of number system you say it is?
• How could you change each number so it is an example of the other number system?
That is, if it is an irrational number, change it to a rational number, and if it is a rational
number, change it to an irrational number.
So, it is necessary to understand the two-dimensional framework for mapping two-dimensional
approach of preparing instructional objectives and assessment procedure and complexity. The
framework can be represented in a two-dimensional table that we call the Taxonomy Table.
The rows and columns of the table contain carefully delineated and defined categories of
knowledge and cognitive processes, respectively. The cells of the table are where the
knowledge and cognitive process dimensions intersect. Objectives, either explicitly or
implicitly, include both knowledge and cognitive processes that can be classified in the
Taxonomy framework. Therefore, objectives can be placed in the cells of the table. It should
be possible to place any educational objective that has a cognitive emphasis in one or more
cells of the table.
Categories of the knowledge dimension
After considering the various designations of knowledge types, especially
developments in cognitive psychology that have taken place since the original framework's
(Bloom’s Taxonomy) creation, it settled on four general types of knowledge: Factual,
Conceptual, Procedural, and Metacognitive. Table-1 summarizes these four major types of
knowledge and their associated subtypes.
Factual knowledge is knowledge of discrete, isolated content elements "bits of information".
It includes knowledge of terminology and knowledge of specific details and elements. In
contrast, Conceptual knowledge is knowledge of "more complex, organized knowledge forms".
It includes knowledge of classifications and categories, principles and generalizations, and
theories, models, and structures. Procedural knowledge is "knowledge of how to do something''
(p. 52). It includes knowledge of skills and algorithms, techniques and methods, as well as
knowledge of the criteria used to determine and/or justify "when to do what" within specific
domains and disciplines. Finally, Metacognitive knowledge is "knowledge about cognition in
general as well as awareness of and knowledge about one's own cognition". It encompasses
strategic knowledge; knowledge about cognitive tasks, including contextual and conditional
knowledge; and self-knowledge. Of course, certain aspects of metacognitive knowledge are
not the same as knowledge that is defined consensually by experts.
Factual Knowledge
Factual knowledge encompasses the basic elements that experts use in communicating
about their academic discipline, understanding it, and organizing it systematically. These
elements are usually serviceable to people who work in the discipline in the very form in which
they are presented; they need little or no alteration from one use or application to another.
Factual knowledge contains the basic elements students must know if they are to be acquainted
with the discipline or to solve any of the problems in it. The elements are usually symbols
associated with some concrete referents, or "strings of symbols" that convey important
information. For the most part, Factual knowledge exists at a relatively low level of abstraction.
Because there is a tremendous wealth of these basic elements, it is almost inconceivable that a
student could learn all of them relevant to a particular subject matter. As our knowledge
increases in the Engineering and Technology, sciences, and mathematics, even experts in these
fields have difficulty keeping up with all the new elements. Consequently, some selection for
educational purposes is almost always required. For classification purposes, Factual knowledge
may be distinguished from Conceptual knowledge by virtue of its very specificity; that is,
Factual knowledge can be isolated as elements or bits of information that are believed to have
some value in and of themselves. The two subtypes of Factual knowledge are knowledge of
terminology (Aa) and knowledge of specific details and elements (Ab).
Knowledge of terminology
Knowledge of terminology includes knowledge of specific verbal and nonverbal la
bels and symbols (e.g., words, numerals, signs, pictures). Each subject matter contains a large
number of labels and symbols, both verbal and nonverbal, that have particular referents. They
are the basic language of the discipline the shorthand used by experts to express what they
know. In any attempt by experts to communicate with others about phenomena within their
discipline, they find it necessary to use the special labels and symbols they have devised. In
many cases it is impossible for experts to discuss problems in their discipline without making
use of essential terms. Quite literally, they are unable to even think about many of the
phenomena in the discipline unless they use these labels and symbols. The novice learner must
be cognizant of these labels and symbols and learn the generally accepted referents that are
attached to them. As the expert must communicate with these terms, so must those learning the
discipline have a knowledge of the terms and their referents as they attempt to comprehend or
think about the phenomena of the discipline. Here, to a greater extent than in any other category
of knowledge, experts find their own labels and symbols so useful and precise that they are
likely to want the learner to know more than the learner really needs to know or can learn. This
may be especially true in the sciences, where attempts are made to use labels and symbols with
great precision. Scientists find it difficult to express ideas or discuss particular phenomena with
the use of other symbols or with "popular" or "folk knowledge" terms more familiar to a lay
population.
Examples of knowledge of terminology

• Knowledge of the information security
• Knowledge of scientific terms in Data mining
• Knowledge of the electrical power meter
• Knowledge of android operating system
• Knowledge of the standard representational symbols on maps and charts
• Knowledge of the symbols used to indicate the correct pronunciation of words
Knowledge of specific details and elements

Knowledge of specific details and elements refers to knowledge of events, locations,
people, dates, sources of information, and the like. It may include very precise and specific
information, such as the exact date of an event or the ex act magnitude of a phenomenon. It
may also include approximate information, such as a time period in which an event occurred
or the general order of magnitude of a phenomenon. Specific facts are those that can be isolated
as separate, discrete elements in contrast to those that can be known only in a larger context.
Every subject matter contains some events, locations, people, dates, and other details that
experts know and believe to represent important knowledge about the field. Such specific facts
are basic information that experts use in de scribing their field and in thinking about specific
problems or topics in the field. These facts can be distinguished from terminology, in that
terminology generally represents the conventions or agreements within a field (i.e., a common
language), whereas facts represent findings arrived at by means other than consensual
agreements made for purposes of communication. Subtype Ab also includes knowledge about
particular books, writings, and other sources of information on specific topics and problems.
Thus, knowledge of a specific fact and knowledge of the sources of the fact are classified in
this subtype.
Again, the tremendous number of specific facts forces educators (e.g., curriculum specialists,
textbook authors, teachers) to make choices about what is basic and what is of secondary
importance or of importance primarily to the expert. Educators must also consider the level of
precision with which differ ent facts must be known. Frequently educators may be content to
have a stu dent learn only the approximate magnitude of the phenomenon rather than its
precise quantity or to learn an approximate time period rather than the precise date or time of
a specific event. Educators have considerable difficulty deter mining whether many of the
specific facts are such that students should learn them as part of an educational unit or course,
or they can be left to be acquired whenever they really need them.
Examples of knowledge of specific details and elements
• Knowledge of major facts about particular version of engine
• Knowledge of practical facts important to health, citizenship, and other human needs
and concerns
• Knowledge of the more significant development of automobile sector
• Knowledge of the reputation of a given author for presenting and interpreting facts on
Online application problems
• Knowledge of major products and exports of countries
• Knowledge of reliable sources of information for wise purchasing
CONCEPTUAL KNOWLEDGE
Conceptual knowledge includes knowledge of categories and classifications and the
relationships between and among them-more complex, organized knowledge forms.
Conceptual knowledge includes schemas, mental models, or implicit or explicit theories in
different cognitive psychological models. These schemas, models, and theories represent the
knowledge an individual has about how a particular subject matter is organized and structured,
how the different parts or bits of information are interconnected and interrelated in a more
systematic manner, and how these parts function together. For example, a mental model for
why the seasons occur may include ideas about the earth, the sun, the rotation of the earth
around the sun, and the tilt of the earth toward the sun at different times during the year. These
are not just simple, isolated facts about the earth and sun but rather ideas about the relationships
between them and how they are linked to the seasonal changes. This type of conceptual
knowledge might be one aspect of hat is termed "disciplinary knowledge," or the way experts
in the discipline think about a phenomenon-in this case the scientific explanation for the
occurrence of the seasons.
Conceptual knowledge includes three subtypes: knowledge of classifications and
categories, knowledge of principles and generalizations, and knowledge of theories, models,
and structures. Classifications and categories form the basis for principles and generalizations.
These, in turn, form the basis for theories, models, and structures. The three subtypes should
capture a great deal of the knowledge that is generated within all the different disciplines.
Knowledge of classifications and categories

Subtype Knowledge of classifications and categories includes the specific categories,
classes, divisions, and arrangements that are used in different subject matters. As a subject
matter develops, individuals who work on it find it advantageous to develop classifications and
categories that they can use to structure and systematize the phenomena. This type of
knowledge is somewhat more general and often more abstract than the knowledge of
terminology and specific facts. Each subject matter has a set of categories that are used to
discover new elements as well as to deal with them once they are discovered. Classifications
and categories differ from terminology and facts in that they form the connecting links between
and among specific elements.
When one is writing or analyzing a story, for example, the major categories include
plot, character, and setting. Note that plot as a category is substantially different from the plot
of this story. When the concern is plot as a category, the key question is What makes a plot a
plot? The category "plot" is defined by what all specific plots have in common. In contrast,
when the concern is the plot of a particular story, the key question is What is the plot of this
story? Knowledge of a specific details and elements.
Sometimes it is difficult to distinguish knowledge of classifications and categories from Factual
knowledge. To complicate matters further, basic classifications and categories can be placed
into larger, more comprehensive classifications and categories. In mathematics, for example,
whole numbers, integers, and fractions can be placed into the category rational numbers. Each
larger category moves us away from the concrete specifics and into the realm of the abstract.
For the purposes of our Taxonomy, several characteristics are useful in distinguishing
the subtypes of knowledge. Classifications and categories are largely the result of agreement
and convenience, whereas knowledge of specific details stems more directly from observation,
experimentation, and discovery. Knowledge of classifications and categories is commonly a
reflection of how experts in the field think and attack problems, whereas knowledge of which
specific details become important is derived from the results of such thought and problem
solving.
Knowledge of classifications and categories is an important aspect of developing
expertise in an academic discipline. Proper classification of information and experience into
appropriate categories is a classic sign of learning and development. Moreover, recent
cognitive research on conceptual change and understanding suggests that student learning can
be constrained by misclassification of information into inappropriate categories. For example,
students may have difficulty understanding basic science concepts such as heat, light, force,
and electricity when they classify these concepts as material substances rather than as
processes. Once concepts are classified as substances or objects, students invoke a whole range
of characteristics and properties of "objects." As a result, students try to apply these object-like
characteristics to what are better described in scientific terms as processes. The naive
categorization of these concepts as substances does not match the more scientifically accurate
categorization of them as processes. The categorization of heat, light, force, and electricity as
substances becomes the basis for an implicit theory of how these processes are supposed to
operate and leads to systematic misconceptions about the nature of the processes. This implicit
theory, in turn, makes it difficult for students to develop the appropriate scientific
understanding. Accordingly, learning the appropriate classification and category system can
reflect a "conceptual change" and result in a more appropriate understanding of the concepts
than just learning their definitions (as would be the case in the Factual knowledge category).
For several reasons, it seems likely that students will have greater difficulty learning
knowledge of classifications and categories than Factual knowledge. First, many of the
classifications and categories students encounter represent relatively arbitrary and even
artificial forms of knowledge that are meaningful only to experts who recognize their value as
tools and techniques in their work. Second, students may be able to operate in their daily life
without knowing the appropriate subject matter classifications and categories to the level of
precision expected by experts in the field. Third, knowledge of classifications and categories
requires that students make connections among specific content elements (i.e., terminology and
facts). Finally, as classifications and categories are combined to form larger classifications and
categories, learning becomes more abstract. Nevertheless, the student is expected to know these
classifications and categories and to know when they are appropriate or useful in dealing with
subject matter content. As the student begins to work with a subject matter within an academic
discipline and learns how to use the tools, the value of these classifications and categories
becomes apparent.
Examples of knowledge of classifications and categories

• Knowledge of the variety of building structures
• Knowledge of the various forms of inheritance in Object Oriented Programming
• Knowledge of the parts of sentences (e.g., nouns, verbs, adjectives)
• Knowledge of different kinds of challenges in risk management
Knowledge of principles and generalizations

As mentioned earlier, principles and generalizations are composed of classifications
and categories. Principles and generalizations tend to dominate an academic discipline and are
used to study phenomena or solve problems in the discipline. One of the hallmarks of a subject
matter expert is the ability to recognize meaningful patterns (e.g., generalizations) and activate
the relevant knowledge of these patterns with little cognitive effort (Bransford, Brown, and
Cocking, 1999).
Subtype of Knowledge of principles and generalizations includes knowledge of
particular abstractions that summarize observations of phenomena. These abstractions have the
greatest value in describing, predicting, explaining or determining the most appropriate and
relevant action or direction to be taken. Principles and generalizations bring together large
numbers of specific facts and events, describe the processes and interrelationships among these
specific details (thus forming classifications and categories), and, furthermore, describe the
processes and interrelation ships among the classifications and categories. In this way, they
enable the expert to begin to organize the whole in a parsimonious and coherent manner.
Principles and generalizations tend to be broad ideas that may be difficult for students to
understand because students may not be thoroughly acquainted with the phenomena they are
intended to summarize and organize. If students do get to know the principles and
generalizations, however, they have a means for relating and organizing a great deal of subject
matter. As a result, they should have more insight into the subject matter as well as better
memory of it.
Examples of knowledge of principles and generalizations

• Knowledge of major generalizations about particular cultures
• Knowledge of the fundamental laws of physics
• Knowledge of the principles of chemistry that are relevant to life processes and health
• Knowledge of the major principles involved in learning
• Knowledge of the principles of compilers
• Knowledge of the principles that govern rudimentary arithmetic operations (e.g., the
commutative principle, the associative principle)
Knowledge of theories, models, and structures

Subtype Knowledge of theories, models, and structures includes knowledge of
principles and generalizations together with their interrelationships that present a clear,
rounded, and systemic view of a complex phenomenon, problem, or subject matter. These are
the most abstract formulations. They can show the interrelationships and organization of a great
range of specific details, classifications and categories, and principles and generalizations. This
subtype, Be, differs from Bb in its emphasis on a set of principles and generalizations related
in some way to form a theory, model, or structure. The principles and generalizations in subtype
Bb do not need to be related in any meaningful way.Subtype Knowledge of theories, models,
and structures includes knowledge of the different paradigms, epistemologies, theories, and
models that different disciplines use to describe, under stand, explain, and predict phenomena.
Disciplines have different paradigms and epistemologies for structuring inquiry, and students
should come to know these different ways of conceptualizing and organizing subject matter
and areas of research within the subject matter. In biology, for example, knowledge of the
theory of evolution and how to think in evolutionary terms to explain different biological
phenomena is an important aspect of this subtype of Conceptual knowledge. Similarly,
behavioural, cognitive, and social constructivist theories in psychology make different
epistemological assumptions and reflect different perspectives on human behaviour. An expert
in a discipline knows not only the different disciplinary theories, models, and structures but
also their relative strengths and weaknesses and can think "within" one of them as well as
"outside" any of them.
Examples of knowledge of theories, models, and structures

• Knowledge of the interrelationships among chemical principles as the basis for
chemical theories
• Knowledge of the overall structure of top-down approach
• Knowledge of a relatively complete formulation of the theory of evolution
• Knowledge of the theory of plate tectonics
• Knowledge of genetic models (e.g., DNA)
Procedural knowledge
Procedural knowledge is the "knowledge of how" to do something. The "something"
might range from completing fairly routine exercises to solving novel problems. Procedural
knowledge often takes the form of a series or sequence of steps to be followed. It includes
knowledge of skills, algorithms, techniques, and methods, collectively known as procedures.
Procedural knowledge also includes knowledge of the criteria used to determine when to use
various procedures. In fact, as Bransford, Brown, and Cocking (1999) noted, not only do
experts have a great deal of knowledge about their subject matter, but their knowledge is
"conditionalized" so that they know when and where to use it. Whereas Factual knowledge and
Conceptual knowledge represent the "what" of knowledge, procedural knowledge concerns the
"how." In other words, Procedural knowledge reflects knowledge of different "processes,"
whereas Factual knowledge and Conceptual knowledge deal with what might be termed
"products." It is important to note that Procedural knowledge represents only the knowledge of
these procedures.
In contrast to Meta-cognitive knowledge (which includes knowledge of more general
strategies that cut across subject matters or academic disciplines), Procedural knowledge is
specific or germane to particular subject matters or academic disciplines. Accordingly, we
reserve the term Procedural knowledge for the knowledge of skills, algorithms, techniques, and
methods that are subject specific or discipline specific. In mathematics, for example, there are
algorithms for performing long division, solving quadratic equations, and establishing the
congruence of triangles. In science, there are general methods for designing and performing
experiments. In social studies, there are procedures for reading maps, estimating the age of
physical artifacts, and collecting historical data. In language arts, there are procedures for
spelling words in English and for generating grammatically correct sentences. Because of the
subject-specific nature of these procedures, knowledge of them also reflects specific
disciplinary knowledge or specific disciplinary ways of thinking in contrast to general
strategies for problem solving that can be applied across many disciplines.
Knowledge of subject specific skills and algorithms

As we mentioned, Procedural knowledge can be expressed as a series or sequence of
steps, collectively known as a procedure. Sometimes the steps are followed in a fixed order; at
other times decisions must be made about which step to per form next. Similarly, sometimes
the end result is fixed (e.g., there is a single pre-specified answer); in other cases it is not.
Although the process may be either fixed or more open, the end result is generally considered
fixed in this sub type of knowledge. A common example is knowledge of algorithms used
with mathematics exercises. The procedure for multiplying fractions in arithmetic, when
applied, generally results in a fixed answer (barring computational mistakes, of course).
Although the concern here is with Procedural knowledge, the result of using Procedural
knowledge is often Factual knowledge or Conceptual knowledge. For example, the algorithm
for the addition of whole numbers that we use to add 2 and 2 is Procedural knowledge; the
answer 4 is simply Factual knowledge. Once again, the emphasis here is on the student's
knowledge of the procedure rather· than on his or her ability to use it.
Examples of knowledge of subject-specific skills and algorithms

• Knowledge of the skills used in painting with watercolors
• Knowledge of the skills used to determine word meaning based on structural analysis
in NLP
• Knowledge of the various algorithms for solving quadratic equations
Knowledge of subject specific techniques and methods

In contrast with specific skills and algorithms that usually end in a fixed result, some
procedures do not lead to a single predetermined answer or solution. We can follow the general
scientific method in a somewhat sequential manner to design a study, for example, but the
resulting experimental design can vary greatly depending on a host of factors. In this subtype,
Knowledge of subject specific techniques and methodsof Procedural knowledge, then, the
result is more open and not fixed, in contrast to subtype Knowledge of skills and algorithms.
Knowledge of subject-specific techniques and methods includes knowledge that is
largely the result of consensus, agreement, or disciplinary norms rather than knowledge that is
more directly an outcome of observation, experimentation, or discovery. This subtype of
knowledge generally reflects how experts in the field or discipline think and attack problems
rather than the results of such thought or problem solving. For example, knowledge of the
general scientific method and how to apply it to different situations, including social situations
and policy problems, reflects a "scientific" way of thinking. Another example is the
"mathematization" of problems not originally presented as mathematics problems. For
example, the simple problem of choosing a checkout line in a grocery store can be made into a
mathematical problem that draws on mathematical knowledge and procedures (e.g., number of
people in each line, number of items per person).
Examples of knowledge of subject-specific techniques and methods
• Knowledge of research methods relevant to the social sciences
• Knowledge of the techniques used by scientists in seeking solutions to problems
Knowledge of criteria for determining when to use appropriate procedures

In addition to knowing subject-specific procedures, students are expected to know when
to use them, which often involve knowing the ways they have been used in the past. Such
knowledge is nearly always of a historical or encyclopaedic type. Though simpler and perhaps
less functional than the ability to actually use the procedures, knowledge of when to use
appropriate procedures is an important prelude to their proper use. Thus, before engaging in an
inquiry, students may be expected to know the methods and techniques that have been used in
similar inquiries. At a later stage in the inquiry, they may be expected to show relationships
between the methods and techniques they actually employed and the methods employed by
others.
Here again is a systematization that is used by subject matter experts as they attack
problems in their field. Experts know when and where to apply their knowledge. They have
criteria that help them make decisions about when and where to use different types of subject-
specific procedural knowledge; that is, their knowledge is "conditionalized," in that they know
the conditions under which the procedures are to be applied (Chi, Feltovich, and Glaser, 1981).
For example, in solving a physics problem, an expert can recognize the type of physics problem
and apply the appropriate procedure (e.g., a problem that involves Newton's second law, F =
ma). Students therefore may be expected to make use of the criteria as well as have knowledge
of them.
Examples of knowledge of criteria for determining when to use appropriate procedures

• Knowledge of the criteria for determining which of several types of essays to write
(e.g., expository, persuasive)
• Knowledge of the criteria for determining which method to use in solving algebraic
equations
• Knowledge of the criteria for determining which statistical procedure to use with data
collected in a particular experiment
Knowledge of the criteria for determining which technique to apply to create a desired effect
in a particular watercolour painting
META-COGNITIVE KNOWLEDGE
Meta-cognitive knowledge is knowledge about cognition in general as well as
awareness of and knowledge about one's own cognition. One of the hallmarks of theory and
research on learning since the publication of the original Hand book is the emphasis on making
students more aware of and responsible for their own knowledge and thought. Regardless of
their theoretical perspective, researchers generally agree that with development students will
become more aware of their own thinking as well as more knowledgeable about cognition in
general, and as they act on this awareness they will tend to learn better (Bransford, Brown, and
Cocking, 1999). The labels for this general developmental trend vary from theory to theory but
include meta-cognitive knowledge, meta-cognitive aware ness, self-awareness, self-reflection,
and self-regulation.
Recognizing this distinction, in this chapter we describe only students' knowledge of
various aspects of cognition, not the actual monitoring, control, and regulation of their
cognition. In Flavell's (1979) classic article on meta-cognition, he suggested that metacognition
included knowledge of strategy, task, and person variables. We have represented this general
framework in our categories by including students' knowledge of general strategies for learning
and thinking (strategic knowledge) and their knowledge of cognitive tasks as well as when and
why to use these different strategies (knowledge about cognitive tasks). Finally, we include
knowledge about the self (the person variable) in relation to both cognitive and motivational
components of performance (self-knowledge).
Strategic knowledge
Strategic knowledge is knowledge of the general strategies for learning, thinking, and
problem solving. The strategies in this subtype can be used across many different tasks and
subject matters, rather than being most useful for one particular type of task in one specific
subject area (e.g., solving a quadratic equation or applying Ohm's law).
This subtype, Strategic knowledge includes knowledge of the variety of strategies that stu
dents might use to memorize material, extract meaning from text, or comprehend what they
hear in classrooms or read in books and other course materials. The large number of different
learning strategies can be grouped into three general categories: rehearsal, elaboration, and
organizational (Weinstein and Mayer, 1986). Rehearsal strategies involve repeating words or
terms to be recalled over and over to oneself; they are generally not the most effective strategies
for deeper levels of learning and comprehension. In contrast, elaboration strategies include the
use of various mnemonics for memory tasks as well as techniques such as summarizing,
paraphrasing, and selecting the main idea from texts. Elaboration strategies foster deeper
processing of the material to be learned and result in better comprehension and learning than
do rehearsal strategies. Organizational strategies include various forms of outlining, drawing
"cognitive maps" or concept mapping, and note taking; students transform the material from
one form to another. Organizational strategies usually result in better comprehension and
learning than do rehearsal strategies.
In addition to these general learning strategies, students can have knowledge of various
meta-cognitive strategies that are useful in planning, monitoring, and regulating their cognition.
Students can eventually use these strategies to plan their cognition (e.g., set sub-goals), monitor
their cognition (e.g., ask themselves questions as they read a piece of text, check their answer
to a math problem), and regulate their cognition (e.g., re-read something they don't understand,
go back and "repair'' their calculating mistake in a math problem). Again, in this category we
refer to students' knowledge of these various strategies, not their actual use. Finally, this
subtype, Strategic knowledge includes general strategies for problem solving and thinking
(Baron, 1994; Nickerson, Perkins, and Smith, 1985; Sternberg, 1985). These strategies
represent the various general heuristics students can use to solve problems, particularly ill-
defined problems that have no definitive solution method. Examples of heuristics are means-
ends analysis and working backward from the desired goal state. In addition to problem-solving
strategies, there are general strategies for deductive and inductive thinking, including
evaluating the validity of different logical statements, avoiding circularity in arguments,
making appropriate inferences from different sources of data, and drawing on appropriate
samples to make inferences (i.e., avoiding the availability heuristic-making decisions from
convenient instead of representative symbols).
Examples of strategic knowledge

• Knowledge that rehearsal of information is one way to retain the information
• Knowledge of various mnemonic strategies for memory
• Knowledge of various elaboration strategies such as paraphrasing and summarizing
• Knowledge of various organizational strategies such as outlining or diagramming.
• Knowledge of planning strategies such as setting goals for reading
• Knowledge of comprehension-monitoring strategies such as self-testing or self-
questioning
• Knowledge of means-ends analysis as a heuristic for solving an ill-defined problem
• Knowledge of the availability heuristic and the problems of failing to sample in an
unbiased manner
Knowledge about cognitive tasks, including contextual and conditional knowledge

In addition to knowledge about various strategies, individuals accumulate knowledge
about cognitive tasks. In his traditional division of Meta-cognitive knowledge, Flavell (1979)
included knowledge that different cognitive tasks can be more or less difficult, may make
differential demands on the cognitive sys tem, and may require different cognitive strategies.
For example, a recall task is more difficult than a recognition task. The recall task requires the
person to search memory actively and retrieve the relevant information, whereas the
recognition task requires only that the person discriminate among alternatives and select the
correct or most appropriate answer.
As students develop knowledge of different learning and thinking strategies, this knowledge
reflects both what general strategies to use and how to use them. As with Procedural
knowledge, however, this knowledge may not be sufficient for expertise in learning. Students
also need to develop the conditional knowledge for these general cognitive strategies; in other
words, they need to develop some knowledge about the when and why of using these strategies
appropriately (Paris, Lipson, and Wixson, 1983). All these different strategies may not be
appropriate for all situations, and the learner must develop some knowledge of the different
conditions and tasks for which the different strategies are most appropriate. Conditional
knowledge refers to knowledge of the situations in which students may use Meta-cognitive
knowledge. In contrast, Procedural knowledge refers to knowledge of the situations in which
students may use subject-specific skills, algorithms, techniques, and methods.
If one thinks of strategies as cognitive "tools" that help students construct
understanding, then different cognitive tasks require different tools, just as a carpenter uses
different tools for performing all the tasks that go into building a house. Of course, one tool,
such as a hammer, can be used in many different ways for different tasks, but this is not
necessarily the most adaptive use of a hammer, particularly if other tools are better suited to
some of the tasks. In the same way, certain general learning and thinking strategies are better
suited to different tasks. For example, if one confronts a novel problem that is ill defined, then
general problem-solving heuristics may be useful. In contrast, if one con fronts a physics
problem about the second law of thermodynamics, then more specific Procedural knowledge
is more useful and adaptive. An important aspect of learning about strategies is the conditional
knowledge of when and why to use them appropriately.
Another important aspect of conditional knowledge is the local situational and general social,
conventional, and cultural norms for using different strategies. For example, a teacher may
encourage the use of a certain strategy for monitoring reading comprehension. A student who
knows that strategy is bet ter able to meet the demands of this teacher's classroom. In the same
manner, different cultures and subcultures may have norms for the use of different strategies
and ways of thinking about problems. Again, knowing these norms can help students adapt to
the demands of the culture in terms of solving the problem. For example, the strategies used in
a classroom learning situation may not be the most appropriate ones to use in a work setting.
Knowledge of the different situations and the cultural norms regarding the use of different
strategies within those situations is an important aspect of Meta-cognitive knowledge.
Examples of knowledge about cognitive tasks, including contextual and conditional knowledge
• Knowledge that recall tasks (i.e., short-answer items) generally make more demands on
the individual's memory system than recognition tasks (i.e., multiple-choice items)
• Knowledge that a primary source book may be more difficult to under
• stand than a general textbook or popular book
• Knowledge that a simple memorization task (e.g., remembering a phone number) may
require only rehearsal
• Knowledge that elaboration strategies like summarizing and paraphrasing can result in
deeper levels of comprehension
• Knowledge that general problem-solving heuristics may be most useful when the
individual lacks relevant subject- or task-specific knowledge or in the absence of
specific Procedural knowledge
• Knowledge of the local and general social, conventional, and cultural norms for how,
when, and why to use different strategies
Self knowledge
Along with knowledge of different strategies and cognitive tasks, Flavell (1979)
proposed that self-knowledge was an important component of meta-cognition. In his model
self-knowledge includes knowledge of one's strengths and weaknesses in relation to cognition
and learning. For example, students who know they generally do better on multiple-choice tests
than on essay tests have some self-knowledge about their test-taking skills. This knowledge
may be useful to students as they study for the two different types of tests. In addition, one hall
mark of experts is that they know when they do not know something and they then have some
general strategies for finding the needed and appropriate in formation. Self-awareness of the
breadth and depth of one's own knowledge base is an important aspect of self-knowledge.
Finally, students need to be aware of the different types of general strategies they are likely to
rely on in different situations. An awareness that one tends to over-rely on a particular strategy,
when there may be other more adaptive strategies for the task, could lead to a change in strategy
use.
In addition to knowledge of one's general cognition, individuals have beliefs about their
motivation. Motivation is a complicated and confusing area, with many models and theories
available. Although motivational beliefs are usually not considered in cognitive models, a fairly
substantial body of literature is emerging that shows important links between students'
motivational beliefs and their cognition and learning.
A consensus has emerged, however, around general social cognitive models of motivation that
propose three sets of motivational beliefs (Pintrich and Schunk, 1996). Because these beliefs
are social cognitive in nature, they fit into a taxonomy of knowledge. The first set consists of
self-efficacy beliefs, that is, students' judgments of their capability to accomplish a specific
task. The second set includes beliefs about the goals or reasons students have for pursuing a
specific task (e.g., learning vs. getting a good grade}. The third set contains value and interest
beliefs, which represent students' perceptions of their personal interest (liking) for a task as
well as their judgments of how important and useful the task is to them. Just as students need
to develop self-knowledge and awareness about their own knowledge and cognition, they also
need to develop self knowledge and awareness about their own motivation. Again, awareness
of these different motivational beliefs may enable learners to monitor and regulate their
behaviour in learning situations in a more adaptive manner.
Self-knowledge is an important aspect of Meta-cognitive knowledge, but the accuracy
of self-knowledge seems to be most crucial for learning. We are not advocating that teachers
try to boost students' "self-esteem" (a completely different construct from self-knowledge) by
providing students with positive but false, inaccurate, and misleading feedback about their
academic strengths and weaknesses. It is much more important for students to have accurate
perceptions and judgments of their knowledge base and expertise than to have 'inflated and
inaccurate self-knowledge. If students are not aware they do not know some aspect of Factual
knowledge or Conceptual knowledge or that they don't know how to do something (Procedural
knowledge), it is unlikely they will make any effort to learn the new material. A hallmark of
experts is that they know what they know and what they do not know, and they do not have
inflated or false impressions of their actual knowledge and abilities. Accordingly, we
emphasize the need for teachers to help students make accurate assessments of their self-
knowledge and not attempt to inflate students' academic self-esteem.
Examples of self-knowledge
• Knowledge that one is knowledgeable in some areas but not in others
• Knowledge that one tends to rely on one type of "cognitive tool" (strategy)
• in certain situations
• Knowledge of one's capabilities to perform a particular task that are accurate, not
inflated (e.g., overconfident)
• Knowledge of one's goals for performing a task
• Knowledge of one's judgments about the relative utility value of a task
CATEGORIES OF THE COGNITIVE PROCESS DIMENSION
Let us define the cognitive processes within each of the six categories in detail, making
comparisons with other cognitive processes, where appropriate. In addition, sample
educational objectives and assessments in various subject areas as well as alternative versions
of assessment tasks. Each illustrative objective in the following material should be read as
though preceded by the phrase "The student is able to ... " or "The student learns to...."
Remember
When the objective of instruction is to promote retention of the presented material in
much the same form as it was taught, the relevant process category is Remember.
Remembering involves retrieving relevant knowledge from long term memory. The two
associated cognitive processes are recognizing and recalling. The relevant knowledge may be
Factual, Conceptual, Procedural, or Meta-cognitive, or some combination of these. To assess
student learning in the simplest process category, the student is given a recognition or recall
task under conditions very similar to those in which he or she learned the material. Little, if
any, extension beyond those conditions is expected. If, for example, a student learned the
English equivalents of 20 Spanish words, then a test of remembering could involve requesting
the student to match the Spanish words in one list with their English equivalents in a second
list (i.e., recognize) or to write the corresponding English word next to each of the Spanish
words presented in the list (i.e., recall).
Remembering knowledge is essential for meaningful learning and problem solving as
that knowledge is used in more complex tasks. For example, knowledge of the correct spelling
of common English words appropriate to a given grade level is necessary if the student is to
master writing an essay. Where teachers concentrate solely on rote learning, teaching and
assessing focus solely on remembering elements or fragments of knowledge, often in isolation
from their context. When teachers focus on meaningful learning, however, remembering
knowledge is integrated within the larger task of constructing new
knowledge or solving new problems.
Recognizing
Recognizing involves retrieving relevant knowledge from long-term memory in order
to compare it with presented information. In recognizing, the student searches long-term
memory for a piece of information that is identical or extremely similar to the presented
information (as represented in working memory). When presented with new information, the
student determines whether that information corresponds to previously learned knowledge,
searching for a match. An alternative term for recognizing is identifying.
Sample objectives and corresponding assessments: In general studies, an objective could be for
students to recognize the correct dates of important events in Indian history. A corresponding
test item is: "True or false: The Declaration of Independence was on August 15, 1947." In
literature, an objective could be to recognize authors of Indian literary works. A corresponding
assessment is a matching test that contains a list of ten authors and a list of slightly more than
ten novels. In mathematics, an objective could be to recognize the numbers of sides in basic
geometric shapes. A corresponding assessment is a multiple choice test with items such as the
following: "How many sides does a pentagon have? (a) four, (b) five, (c) six, (d) seven."
Assessment formats: As illustrated in the preceding paragraph, three main methods of

presenting a recognition task for the purpose of assessment are verification, matching, and
forced choice. In verification tasks, the student is given some information and must choose
whether or not it is correct. The true-false format is the most common example. In matching,
two lists are presented, and the student must choose how each item in one list corresponds to
an item in the other list. In forced choice tasks, the student is given a prompt along with several
possible answers and must choose which answer is the correct or ''best answer." Multiple-
choice is the most common format.
Recalling
Recalling involves retrieving relevant knowledge from long-term memory when given
a prompt to do so. The prompt is often a question. In recalling, a student searches long-term
memory for a piece of information and brings that piece of information to working memory
where it can be processed. An alternative term for recalling is retrieving.
Sample objectives and corresponding assessments: In recalling, a student remembers

previously learned information when given a prompt. In Computer Science and Engineering,
an objective could be to recall the mother board functions of computer. A corresponding test
item is "What is the function of Motherboard?" In literature, an objective could be to recall the
different components interfaced with motherboard. A corresponding test question is "whether
memory directly interfaced with motherboard" In mathematics, an objective could be to recall
the whole-number multiplication facts. A corresponding test item asks students to multiply 7
X 8.
Assessment formats: Assessment tasks for recalling can vary in the number and quality of cues
that students are provided. With low cueing, the student is not given any hints or related
information (such as "What is a meter?"). With high cueing, the student is given several hints
(such as "In the metric system, a meter is a measure of .").
Assessment tasks for recalling can also vary in the amount of embedding, or the extent to which
the items are placed within a larger meaningful context. With low embedding, the recall task
is presented as a single, isolated event, as in the preceding examples. With high embedding,
the recall task is included within the context of a larger problem, such as asking a student to
recall the formula for the area of a circle when solving a word problem that requires that
formula.
Analyse
Analyse involves breaking material into its constituent parts and determining how the
parts are related to e another and to an overall structure. This process category includes the
cognitive processes of differentiating, organizing, and attributing. Objectives classified as
Analyse include learning to determine the relevant or important pieces of a message
(differentiating), the ways in which the pieces of a message are organized (organizing), and the
underlying purpose of the message (attributing). Although learning to Analyze may be viewed
as an end in itself, it is probably more defensible educationally to consider analysis as an
extension of Understanding or as a prelude to Evaluating or Creating. Improving students' skills
in analyzing educational communications is a goal in many fields of study. Teachers of science,
social studies, the humanities, and the arts frequently give "learning to analyze" as one of their
important objectives. They may, for example, wish to develop in their students the ability to:
• distinguish fact from opinion (or reality from fantasy);
• connect conclusions with supporting statements;
• distinguish relevant from extraneous material;
• determine how ideas are related to one another;
• ascertain the unstated assumptions involved in what is said;
• distinguish dominant from subordinate ideas or themes in poetry or music; and
• find evidence in support of the author's purposes.
The process categories of Understand, Analyze, and Evaluate are interrelated and often used
iteratively in performing cognitive tasks. At the same time, however, it is important to maintain
them as separate process categories. A person who understands a communication may not be
able to analyze it well. Similarly, someone who is skillful in analyzing a communication may
evaluate it poorly.
Differentiating
Differentiating involves distinguishing the parts of a whole structure in terms of their
relevance or importance. Differentiating occurs when a student discriminates relevant from
irrelevant information, or important from unimportant in formation, and then attends to the
relevant or important information. Differentiating is different from the cognitive processes
associated with Understand because it involves structural organization and, in particular,
determining how the parts fit into the overall structure or whole. More specifically,
differentiating differs from comparing in using the larger context to determine what is relevant
or important and what is not. For instance, in differentiating apples and oranges in the context
of fruit, internal seeds are relevant, but color and shape are irrelevant. In comparing. all of these
aspects (i.e., seeds, color, and shape) are relevant. Alternative terms for differentiating are
discriminating, selecting, distinguish ing, and focusing.
Sample objectives and corresponding assessments: In the social sciences, an objective could
be to learn to determine the major points in research reports. A corresponding assessment item
requires a student to circle the main points in an archaeological report about an ancient Indian
city (such as when the city began and when it ended, the population of the city over the course
of its existence, the geographic location of the city, the physical buildings in the city, its
economic and cultural function, the social organization of the city, why the city was built and
why it was deserted). Similarly, in the natural sciences, an objective could be to select the main
steps in a written description of how something works. A corresponding assessment item asks
a student to read a chapter in a book that describes lightning formation and then to divide the
process into major steps (including moist air rising to form a cloud, creation of updrafts and
downdrafts inside the cloud, separation of charges within the cloud, movement of a stepped
leader downward from cloud to ground, and creation of a return stroke from ground to cloud).
Finally, in mathematics, an objective could be to distinguish between relevant and irrelevant
numbers in a word problem. An assessment item requires a student to circle the relevant
numbers and cross out the irrelevant numbers in a word problem.
Assessment formats: Differentiating can be assessed with constructed response or selection
tasks. In a constructed response task, a student is given some material and is asked to indicate
which parts are most important or relevant, as in this example: ''Write the numbers that are
needed to solve this problem: Pencils come in packages that contain 12 each and cost Rs.2.00
each. John has Rs.5.00 and wishes to buy 24 pencils. How many packages does he need to
buy?" In a selection task, a student is given some material and is asked to choose which parts
are most important or relevant, as in this example: "Which numbers are needed to solve this
problem? Pencils come in packages that contain 12 each and cost Rs.2.00 each. John has
Rs.5.00 and wishes to buy 24 pencils. How many packages does he need to buy? (a) 12,
Rs.2.00, Rs.5.00, 24; (b) 12, Rs.2.00, Rs.5.00; (c) 12, Rs.2.00, 24; (d) 12, 24."
Organizing
Organizing involves identifying the elements of a communication or situation and
recognizing how they fit together into a coherent structure. In organizing, a student builds
systematic and coherent connections among pieces of presented information. Organizing
usually occurs in conjunction with differentiating. The student first identifies the relevant or
important elements and then determines the overall structure within which the elements fit.
Organizing can also occur in conjunction with attributing, in which the focus is on determining
the author's intention or point of view. Alternative terms for organizing are structuring,
integrating, finding coherence, outlining, and parsing.
Sample objectives and corresponding assessments: In organizing, when given a description of

a situation or problem, a student is able to identify the systematic, coherent relationships among
relevant elements. A sample objective in the natural sciences could be to learn to analyze
research reports in terms of four sections: hypothesis, method, data, and conclusion. As an
assessment, students are asked to produce an outline of a presented research report. In
mathematics, a sample objective could be to learn to outline textbook lessons. A corresponding
assessment task asks a student to read a textbook lesson on basic statistics and then generate a
matrix that includes each statistic's name, formula, and the conditions under which it is used.
Assessment formats: Organizing involves imposing a structure on material (such as an outline,
table, matrix, or hierarchical diagram). Thus, assessment can be based on constructed response
or selection tasks. In a constructed response task, a student may be asked to produce a written
outline of a pas sage. In a selection task, a student may be asked to select which of four
alternative graphic hierarchies best corresponds to the organization of a presented passage.
Attributing
Attributing occurs when a student is able to ascertain the point of view, biases, values,
or intention underlying communications. Attributing involves a process of deconstruction, in
which a student determines the intentions of the author of the presented material. In contrast to
interpreting, in which the student seeks to Understand the meaning of the presented material,
attributing involves an extension beyond basic understanding to infer the intention or point of
view underlying the presented material. An alternative term is deconstructing.
Sample objectives and corresponding assessments: In attributing, when given information, a

student is able to determine the under lying point of view or intention of the author. For
example, In social studies, a sample objective could be to learn to determine the point of view
of the author of an essay on a controversial topic in terms of his or her theoretical perspective.
A corresponding assessment task asks a student whether a report on Amazon rain forests was
written from a pro-environment or pro-business point of view. This objective is also applicable
to the natural sciences. A corresponding assessment task asks a student to determine whether a
behaviourist or a cognitive psychologist wrote an essay about human learning.
Assessment formats: Attributing can be assessed by presenting some written or oral material
and then asking a student to construct or select a description of the author's or speaker's point
of view, intentions, and the like. For example, a constructed response task is "What is the
author's purpose in writing the essay you read on the Amazon rain forests?" A selection version
of this task is "The author's purpose in writing the essay you read is to: (a) provide factual
information about Amazon rain forests, (b) alert the reader to the need to protect rain forests,
(c) demonstrate the economic advantages of developing rain forests, or (d) describe the
consequences to humans if rain forests are developed." Alternatively, students might be asked
to indicate whether the author of the essay would (a) strongly agree, (b) agree, (c) neither agree
nor disagree, (d) disagree, or (e) strongly disagree with several statements. Statements like
"The rainforest is a unique type of ecological system" would follow.
Apply
Apply involves using procedures to perform exercises or solve problems. Thus, Apply
is closely linked with Procedural knowledge. An exercise is a task for which the student already
knows the proper procedure to use, so the student has developed a fairly routinized approach
to it. A problem is a task for which the student initially does not know what procedure to use,
so the student must locate a procedure to solve the problem. The Apply category consists of
two cognitive processes: executing-when the task is an exercise (familiar)-and implementing-
when the task is a problem (unfamiliar). When the task is a familiar exercise, students generally
know what Procedural knowledge to use. When given an exercise (or set of exercises), students
typically perform the procedure with little thought. For example, an algebra student confronted
with the 50th exercise involving quadratic equations might simply "plug in the numbers and
tum the crank."
When the task is an unfamiliar problem, however, students must determine what
knowledge they will use. If the task appears to call for Procedural knowledge and no available
procedure fits the problem situation exactly, then modifications in selected Procedural
knowledge may be necessary. In contrast to executing, then, implementing requires some
degree of understanding of the problem as well as of the solution procedure. In the case of
implementing, then, to understand conceptual knowledge is a prerequisite to being able to apply
Executing
In executing, a student routinely carries out a procedure when confronted with a
familiar task (i.e., exercise). The familiarity of the situation often provides sufficient clues to
guide the choice of the appropriate procedure to use. Executing is more frequently associated
with the use of skills and algorithms than with techniques and methods (see our discussion of
Procedural knowledge on pages 52-53). Skills and algorithms have two qualities that make
them particularly amenable to executing. First, they consist of a sequence of steps that are
generally followed in a fixed order. Second, when the steps are performed correctly, the end
result is a predetermined answer. An alternative term for executing is carrying out.
Sample objectives and corresponding assessments: In executing, a student is faced with a

familiar task and knows what to do in order to complete it. The student simply carries out a
known procedure to perform the task. For example, a sample objective in elementary level
mathematics could be for students to learn to divide one whole number by another, both with
multiple digits. The instructions to "divide" signify the division algorithm, which is the
necessary Procedural knowledge. To assess the objective, a student is given a worksheet that
has 15 whole-number division exercises (e.g., 784/15) and is asked to find the quotients. In the
natural sciences, a sample objective could be to learn to compute the value of variables using
scientific formulas. To assess the objective, a student is given the formula Density =
Mass/Volume and must answer the question "What is the density of a material with a mass of
18 pounds and a volume of 9 cubic inches?"
Assessment formats: In executing, a student is given a familiar task that can be performed using
a well-known procedure. For example, an execution task is "Solve for x: x2 + 2x - 3 = 0 using
the technique of completing the square." Students may be asked to supply the answer or, where
appropriate, select from among a set of possible answers. Furthermore, because the emphasis
is on the procedure as well as the answer, students may be required not only to find the answer
but also to show their work.
Implementing
Implementing occurs when a student selects and uses a procedure to perform an
unfamiliar task. Because selection is required, students must possess an understanding of the
type of problem encountered as well as the range of procedures that are available. Thus,
implementing is used in conjunction with other cognitive process categories, such as
Understand and Create. Because the student is faced with an unfamiliar problem, he or she
does not immediately know which of the available procedures to use. Furthermore, no single
procedure may be a "perfect fit'' for the problem; some modification in the procedure may be
needed. Implementing is more frequently associated with the use of techniques and methods
than with skills and algorithms. Techniques and methods have two qualities that make them
particularly amenable to implementing. First, the procedure may be more like a "flow chart"
than a fixed sequence; that is, the procedure may have "decision points" built into it (e.g., after
completing Step 3, should I do Step 4A or Step 4B?). Second, there often is no single, fixed
answer that is expected when the procedure is applied correctly.
The notion of no single, fixed answer is especially applicable to objectives that call for
applying conceptual knowledge such as theories, models, and structures, where no procedure
has been developed for the application. Consider an objective such as "The student shall be
able to apply a social psychological theory of crowd behaviour to crowd control." Social
psychological theory is Conceptual not Procedural knowledge. This is clearly an Apply
objective, however, and there is no procedure for making the application. Given that the theory
would very clearly structure and guide the student in the application, this objective is just barely
on the Apply side of Create, but Apply it is. So it would be classified as implementing. To see
why it fits, think of the Apply category as structured along a continuum. It starts with the
narrow, highly structured execute, in which the known Procedural knowledge is applied almost
routinely. It continues through the broad, increasingly unstructured implement, in which, at the
beginning, the procedure must be selected to fit a new situation. In the middle of the category,
the procedure may have to be modified to implement it. At the far end of implementing, where
there is no set Procedural knowledge to modify, a procedure must be manufactured out of
Conceptual knowledge using theories, models, or structures as a guide. So, although Apply is
closely linked to Procedural knowledge, and this linkage carries through most of the category
of Apply, there are some instances in implementing to which one applies Conceptual
knowledge as well. An alternative term for implementing is using.
Sample objectives and corresponding assessments: In mathematics, a sample objective could

be to learn to solve a variety of personal finance problems. A corresponding assessment is to
present students with a problem in which they must choose the most economical financing
package for a new car. In the natural sciences, a sample objective could be to learn to use the
most effective, efficient, and affordable method of conducting a research study to address a
specific research question. A corresponding assessment is to give students a research question
and have them propose a research study that meets specified criteria of effectiveness,
efficiency, and affordability. Notice that in both of these assessment tasks, the student must not
only apply a procedure (i.e., engage in implementing) but also rely on conceptual
understanding of the problem, the procedure, or both.
Assessment formats: In implementing, a student is given an unfamiliar problem that must be

solved. Thus, most assessment formats begin with specification of the problem. Students are
asked to determine the procedure needed to solve the problem, solve the problem using the
selected procedure (making modifications as necessary), or usually both.
Create
Create involves putting elements together to form a coherent or functional whole.
Objectives classified as Create have students make a new product by mentally reorganizing
some elements or parts into a pattern or structure not clearly present before. The processes
involved in Create are generally coordinated with the student's previous learning experiences.
Although Create requires creative thinking on the part of the student, this is not completely free
creative expression unconstrained by the demands of the learning task or situation.
To some persons, creativity is the production of unusual products, often as a result of some
special skill. Create, as used here, however, although it includes objectives that call for unique
production, also refers to objectives calling for production that all students can and will do. If
nothing else, in meeting these objectives, many students will create in the sense of producing
their own synthesis of information or materials to form a new whole, as in writing, painting,
sculpting, building, and so on.
Although many objectives in the Create category emphasize originality (or uniqueness),
educators must define what is original or unique. Can the term unique be used to describe the
work of an individual student or is it reserved for use with a group of students (e.g., "This is
unique for a fifth-grader")? It is important to note, however, that many objectives in the Create
category do not rely on originality or uniqueness. The teachers' intent with these objectives is
that students should be able to synthesize material into a whole. This synthesis is often required
in papers in which the student is expected to assemble previously taught material into an
organized presentation.
Although the process categories of Understand, Apply, and Analyze may involve
detecting relationships among presented elements, Create is different because it also involves
the construction of an original product. Unlike Create, the other categories involve working
with a given set of elements that are part of a given whole; that is, they are part of a larger
structure the student is trying to understand. In Create, on the other hand, the student must draw
upon elements from many sources and put them together into a novel structure or pat tern
relative to his or her own prior knowledge. Create results in a new product, that is, something
that can be observed and that is more than the student's beginning materials. A task that requires
Create is likely to require aspects of each of the earlier cognitive process categories to some
extent, but not necessarily in the order in which they are listed in the Taxonomy Table.
We recognize that composition (including writing) often, but not always, requires the
cognitive processes associated with Create. For example, Create is not involved in writing that
represents the remembering of ideas or the interpretation of materials. We also recognize that
deep understanding that goes beyond basic understanding can require the cognitive processes
associated with Create. To the extent that deep understanding is an act of construction or
insight, the cognitive processes of Create are involved.
The creative process can be broken into three phases: problem representation, in which a
student attempts to understand the task and generate possible solutions; solution planning, in
which a student examines the possibilities and devises a workable plan; and solution execution,
in which a student successfully carries out the plan. Thus, the creative process can be thought
of as starting with a divergent phase in which a variety of possible solutions are considered as
the student attempts to understand the task (generating). This is followed by a convergent
phase, in which the student devises a solution method and turns it into a plan of action
(planning). Finally, the plan is executed as the student constructs the solution (producing). It is
not surprising, then, that Create is associated with three cognitive processes: generating,
planning, and producing.
Generating
Generating involves representing the problem and arriving at alternatives or hypotheses
that meet certain criteria. Often the way a problem is initially represented suggests possible
solutions; however, redefining or coming up with a new representation of the problem may
suggest different solutions. When generating transcends the boundaries or constraints of prior
knowledge and existing theories, it involves divergent thinking and forms the core of what can
be called creative thinking.
Generating is used in a restricted sense here. Understand also requires generative
processes, which we have included in translating, exemplifying, summarizing, inferring,
classifying, comparing, and explaining. However, the goal of Understand is most often
convergent (that is, to arrive at a single meaning). In contrast, the goal of generating within
Create is divergent (that is, to arrive at various possibilities).An alternative term for generating
is hypothesizing.
Sample objective and corresponding assessment: In generating, a student is given a description

of a problem and must produce alternative solutions. For example, in the social sciences, an
objective could be to learn to generate multiple useful solutions for social problems. A
corresponding assessment item is: "Suggest as many ways as you can to assure that everyone
has adequate medical insurance." To assess student responses, the teacher should construct a
set of criteria that are shared with the students. These might include the number of alternatives,
the reasonableness of the various alternatives, the practicality of the various alternatives, and
so on. In the natural sciences, an objective could be to learn to generate hypotheses to explain
observed phenomena. A corresponding assessment task asks students to write as many
hypotheses as they can to explain strawberries growing to extraordinary size. Again, the teacher
should establish clearly defined criteria for judging the quality of the responses and give them
to the students. Finally, an objective from the field of mathematics could be to be able to
generate alternative methods for achieving a particular result. A corresponding assessment item
is: "What alternative methods could you use to find what whole numbers yield 60 when
multiplied together?" For each of these assessments, explicit, publicly shared scoring criteria
are needed.
Assessment formats: Assessing generating typically involves constructed response formats in

which a student is asked to produce alternatives or hypotheses. Two traditional subtypes are
consequences tasks and uses tasks. In a consequences task, a student must list all the possible
consequences of a certain event, such as "What would happen if there was a flat income tax
rather than a graduated income tax?" In a uses task, a student must list all possible uses for an
object, such as "What are the possible uses for the World Wide Web?" It is almost impossible
to use the multiple-choice format to assess generating processes.
Planning
Planning involves devising a solution method that meets a problem's criteria, that is,
developing a plan for solving the problem. Planning stops short of carrying out the steps to
create the actual solution for a given problem. In planning, a student may establish sub-goals,
or break a task into subtasks to be performed when solving the problem. Teachers often skip
stating planning objectives, instead stating their objectives in terms of producing, the final stage
of the creative process. When this happens, planning is either assumed or implicit in the
producing objective. In this case, planning is likely to be carried out by the student covertly
during the course of constructing a product (i.e., producing). An alternative term is designing.
Sample objectives and corresponding assessments: ln planning, when given a problem
statement, a student develops a solution method. In history, a sample objective could be to be
able to plan research papers on given historical topics. An assessment task asks the student,
prior to writing a research paper on the causes of the Indian Revolution, to submit an outline
of the paper, including the steps he or she intends to follow to conduct the research. In the
natural sciences, a sample objective could be to learn to design studies to test various
hypotheses. An assessment task asks students to plan a way of determining which of three
factors determines the rate of oscillation of a pendulum.. In mathematics, an objective could be
to be able to lay out the steps needed to solve geometry problems. An assessment task asks
students to devise a plan for determining the volume of the frustum of a pyramid (a task not
previously considered in class). The plan may involve computing the volume of the large
pyramid, then computing the volume of the small pyramid, and finally subtracting the smaller
volume from the larger.
Assessment formats: Planning may be assessed by asking students to develop worked-out

solutions, describe solution plans, or select solution plans for a given problem.
Producing
Producing involves carrying out a plan for solving a given problem that meets certain
specifications. As we noted earlier, objectives within the category Create may or may not
include originality or uniqueness as one of the specifications. So it is with producing objectives.
Producing can require the coordination of the four types of knowledge. An alternative term is
constructing.
Sample objectives and corresponding assessments: In producing, a student is given a functional
description of a goal and must create a product that satisfies the description. It involves carrying
out a solution plan for a given problem. Sample objectives involve producing novel and useful
products that meet certain requirements. In history, an objective could be to learn to write
papers pertaining to particular historical periods that meet specified standards of scholarship.
An assessment task asks students to write a short story that takes place during the Indian
Revolution. In science, an objective could be to learn to design habitats for certain species and
certain purposes. A corresponding assessment task asks students to design the living quarters
of a space station. In all these examples, the specifications become the criteria for evaluating
student performance relative to the objective. These specifications, then, should be included in
a scoring rubric that is given to the students in advance of the assessment.
Assessment formats: A common task for assessing producing is a design task, in which students
are asked to create a product that corresponds to certain specifications. For example, students
may be asked to produce schematic plans for a new institution that include new ways for
students to conveniently store their personal belongings.
Evaluate
Evaluate is defined as making judgments based on criteria and standards. The criteria
most often used are quality, effectiveness, efficiency, and consistency. They may be
determined by the student or by others. The standards may be either quantitative (i.e., Is this a
sufficient amount?) or qualitative (i.e., Is this good enough?). The standards are applied to the
criteria (e.g., Is this process sufficiently effective? Is this product of sufficient quality?). The
category Evaluate includes the cognitive processes of checking judgments about the internal
consistency) and critiquing judgments based on external criteria). It must be emphasized that
not all judgments are evaluative. For example, students make judgments about whether a
specific example fits within a category. They make judgments about the appropriateness of a
particular procedure for a specified problem. They make judgments about whether two objects
are similar or different. Most of the cognitive processes, in fact, require some form of judgment.
What most clearly differentiates Evaluate as defined here from other judgments made by
students is the use of standards of performance with clearly defined criteria. Is this machine
working as efficiently as it should be? Is this method the best way to achieve the goal? Is this
approach more cost effective than other approaches? Such questions are addressed by people
engaged in Evaluating.
Checking
Checking involves testing for internal inconsistencies or fallacies in an operation or a
product. For example, checking occurs when a student tests whether or not a conclusion follows
from its premises, whether data support or disconfirm a hypothesis, or whether presented
material contains parts that contradict one another. When combined with planning (a cognitive
process in the category Create) and implementing (a cognitive process in the category Apply),
checking· involves determining how well the plan is working. Alternative terms for checking
are testing, detecting, monitoring, and coordinating.
Sample objectives and corresponding assessments: In checking, students look for internal
inconsistencies. A sample objective in the social sciences could be to learn to detect
inconsistencies in persuasive messages. A corresponding assessment task asks students to
watch a television advertisement for a political candidate and point out any logical flaws in the
persuasive message. A sample objective in the sciences could be to learn to determine whether
a scientist's conclusion follows from the observed data. An assessment task asks a student to
read a report of a chemistry experiment and determine whether or not the conclusion follows
from the results of the experiment.
Assessment formats: Checking tasks can involve operations or products given to the students
or ones created by the students themselves. Checking can also take place within the context of
carrying out a solution to a problem or performing a task, where one is concerned with the
consistency of the actual implementation (e.g., Is this where I should be in light of what I've
done so far?).
Critiquing
Critiquing involves judging a product or operation based on externally imposed criteria
and standards. In critiquing, a student notes the positive and negative features of a product and
makes a judgment based at least partly on those features. Critiquing lies at the core of what has
been called critical thinking. An example of critiquing is judging the merits of a particular
solution to the problem of acid rain in terms of its likely effectiveness and its associated costs
(e.g., requiring all power p1ants throughout the country to restrict their smokestack emissions
to certain limits). An alternative term is judging.
Sample objectives and corresponding assessments: In critiquing, students judge the merits of a
product or operation based on specified or student-determined criteria and standards. In the
social sciences, an objective could be to learn to evaluate a proposed solution (such as
"eliminate all grading") to a social problem (such as "how to improve K-12 education") in
terms of its likely effectiveness. In the natural sciences, an objective could be to learn to
evaluate the reasonableness of a hypothesis (such as the hypothesis that strawberries are
growing to extraordinary size because of the unusual alignment of the stars). Finally, in
mathematics, an objective could be to learn to judge which of two alternative methods is a more
effective and efficient way of solving given problems (such as judging whether it is better to
find all prime factors of 60 or to produce an algebraic equation to solve the problem "What are
the possible ways you could multiply two whole numbers to get 60?").
Assessment formats: student may be asked to critique his or her own hypotheses or creations
or those generated by someone else. The critique could be based on positive, negative, or both
kinds of criteria and yield both positive and negative consequences.
Understand
As we indicated, when the primary goal of instruction is to promote retention, the focus
is on objectives that emphasize Remember. When the goal of instruction is to promote transfer,
however, the focus shifts to the other five cognitive processes, Understand through Create. Of
these, arguably the largest category of transfer-based educational objectives emphasized in
institutions is Understand. Students are said to Understand when they are able to construct
meaning from instructional messages, including oral, written, and graphic communications,
however they are presented to students: during lectures, in books, or on computer monitors.
Examples of potential instructional messages include an in-class physics demonstration, a
geological formation seen on a field trip, a computer simulation of a trip through an art
museum, and a musical work played by an orchestra, as well as numerous verbal, pictorial, and
symbolic representations on paper.
Students understand when they build connections between the "new" knowledge to be
gained and their prior knowledge. More specifically, the incoming knowledge is integrated
with existing schemas and cognitive frameworks. Since concepts are the building blocks for
these schemas and frameworks, Conceptual knowledge provides a basis for understanding.
Cognitive processes in the category of Understand include interpreting, exemplifying,
classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing, and explaining.
Interpreting
Interpreting occurs when a student is able to convert information from one
representational form to another. Interpreting may involve converting words to words (e.g.,
paraphrasing), pictures to words, words to pictures, numbers to words, words to numbers,
musical notes to tones, and the like. Alternative terms are translating, paraphrasing,
representing, and clarifying.
Sample objectives and corresponding assessments: In interpreting, when given information in
one form of representation, a student is able to change it into another form. For example, an
objective could be to learn to paraphrase important functions of compiler phases. A
corresponding assessment asks a student to check the email grammar. In science, an objective
could be to learn to draw pictorial representations of various natural phenomena. A
corresponding assessment item asks a student to draw a series of diagrams illustrating
photosynthesis. In mathematics, a sample objective could be to learn to translate number
sentences expressed in words into algebraic equations expressed in symbols. A corresponding
assessment item asks a student to write an equation that corresponds to the statement "There
are twice as many boys as girls in this class."
Assessment formats: Appropriate test item formats include both constructed response (i.e.,
supply an answer) and selected response (i.e., choose an answer). Information is
presented in one form, and students are asked either to construct or to select the same
information in a different form. For example, a constructed response task is: "Write an
equation that corresponds to the following statement, using T for total cost and P for
number of bundles. The total cost of mailing a package is Rs. 2.00 for the first bundle
plus Rs.1.50 for each additional bundle." A selection version of this task is: "Which
equation corresponds to the following statement, where T stands for total cost and P for
number of bundles?
The total cost of mailing a package is Rs. 2.00 for the first bundle plus Rs.1.50 for each
additional bundle (a) T = Rs.3.50 + B, (b) T = Rs. 2.00 + Rs. 1.50(B), (c) T = Rs. 2.00 +
Rs.1.50(B-1)."
To increase the probability that interpreting rather than remembering is being assessed,
the information included in the assessment task must be new. "New" here means that
students did not encounter it during instruction. Unless this rule is observed, we cannot
ensure that interpreting rather than remembering is being assessed. If the assessment task
is identical to a task or example used during instruction, we are probably assessing
remembering, despite our efforts to the contrary. Although we will not repeat this point
from here on, it applies to each of the process categories and cognitive processes beyond
Remember. If assessment tasks are to tap higher-order cognitive processes, they must
require that students cannot answer them correctly by relying on memory alone.
Exemplifying
Exemplifying occurs when a student gives a specific example or instance of a general
concept or principle. Exemplifying involves identifying the defining features of the general
concept or principle (e.g., an isosceles triangle must have two equal sides) and using these
features to select or construct a specific instance (e.g., being able to select which of three
presented triangles is an isosceles triangle). Alternative terms are illustrating and instantiating.
Sample objectives and corresponding assessments: In exemplifying, a student is given a

concept or principle and must select or produce a specific example or instance of it that was
not encountered during instruction. In art history, an objective could be to learn to give
examples of various artistic painting styles. A corresponding assessment asks a student to select
which of four paintings represents the impressionist style. In science, a sample objective could
be to be able to give examples of various kinds of chemical compounds. A corresponding
assessment task asks the student to locate an inorganic com pound on a field trip and tell why
it is inorganic (i.e., specify the defining features). In literature, an objective could be to learn
to exemplify various play genres. The assessment may give the students brief sketches of four
plays (only one of which is a romantic comedy) and ask the student to name the play that is a
romantic comedy.
Assessment formats: Exemplifying tasks can involve the constructed response format in which
the student must create an example or the selected response format in which the student must
select an example from a given set. The science example, "Locate an inorganic compound and
tell why it is inorganic," requires a constructed response. In contrast, the item "Which of these
is an inorganic compound? (a) iron, (b) protein, (c) blood, (d) leaf mold" requires a selected
response.
Classify
Classifying occurs when a student recognizes that something (e.g., a particular instance
or example) belongs to a certain category (e.g., concept or principle). Classifying involve s
detecting relevant features or patterns that "fit" both the specific instance and the concept or
principle. Classifying is a complementary process to exemplifying. Whereas exemplifying
begins with a general concept or principle and requires the student to find a specific instance
or example, classifying begins with a specific instance or example and requires the student to
find a general concept or principle. Alternative terms for classifying are categorizing and
subsuming.
Sample objectives and corresponding assessments: In social studies, an objective could be to

learn to classify observed or described cases of mental disorders. A corresponding assessment
item asks a student to observe a video of the behaviour of a person with mental illness and then
indicate the mental disorder that is displayed. In the natural sciences, an objective could be to
learn to categorize the species of various prehistoric animals. An assessment gives a student
some pictures of prehistoric animals with instructions to group them with others of the same
species. In mathematics, an objective could be to be able to determine the categories to which
numbers belong. An assessment task gives an example and asks a student to circle all numbers
in a list from the same category.
Assessment formats: In constructed response tasks, a student is given an instance and must
produce its related concept or principle. In selected response tasks, a student is given an
instance and must select its concept or principle from a list. In a sorting task, a student is given
a set of instances and must determine which ones belong in a specified category and which
ones do not, or must place each instance into one of multiple categories.
Summarizing
Summarizing occurs when a student suggests a single statement that represents
presented information or abstracts a general theme. Summarizing involves constructing a
representation of the information, such as the meaning of a scene in a play, and abstracting a
summary from it, such as determining a theme or main points. Alternative terms are
generalizing and abstracting.
Sample objectives and corresponding assessments: In summarizing, when given information,

a student provides a summary or abstracts a general theme. A sample objective in history could
be to learn to write short summaries of events portrayed pictorially. A corresponding
assessment item asks a student to watch a videotape on the Indian freedom fight phases and
then write a short summary. Similarly, a sample objective in the natural sciences could be to
learn to summarize the major contributions of famous scientists after reading several of their
writings. A corresponding assessment item asks a student to read selected writings about poet
Bharathiyar and summarize the major points. In computer science, an objective could be to
learn to summarize the purposes of various subroutines in a program. An assessment item
presents a program and asks a student to write a sentence describing the sub-goal that each
section of the program accomplishes within the overall program.
Assessment formats: Assessment tasks can be presented in constructed response or selection

formats, involving either themes or summaries. Generally speaking, themes are more abstract
than summaries. For example, in a constructed response task, the student may be asked to read
an untitled passage on software versus hardware growth and then write an appropriate title for
the comparison. In a selection task, a student may be asked to read a passage on software versus
hardware growth and then select the most appropriate title from a list of four possible titles or
rank the titles in order of their "fit" to the point of the passage.
Inferring
Inferring involves finding a pattern within a series of examples or instances. Inferring
occurs when a student is able to abstract a concept or principle that accounts for a set of
examples or instances by encoding the relevant features of each instance and, most important,
by noting relationships among them. For example, when given a series of numbers such as 1,
2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, a student is able to focus on the numerical value of each digit rather than on
irrelevant features such as the shape of each digit or whether each digit is odd or even. He or
she then is able to distinguish the pattern in the series of numbers (i.e., after the first two
numbers, each is the sum of the preceding two numbers).
The process of inferring involves making comparisons among instances within the
context of the entire set. For example, to determine what number will come next in the series
above, a student must identify the pattern. A related process is using the pattern to create a new
instance (e.g., the next number on the series is 34, the sum of 13 and 21). This is an example
of executing, which is a cognitive process associated with Apply. Inferring and executing are
often used together on cognitive tasks.
Finally, inferring is different from attributing (a cognitive process associated with
Analyze). As we discuss later in this chapter, attributing focuses solely on the pragmatic issue
of determining the author's point of view or intention, whereas inferring focuses on the issue
of inducing a pattern based on presented information. Another way of differentiating between
these two is that attributing is broadly applicable to situations in which one must "read between
the lines," especially when one is seeking to determine an author's point of view. Inferring, on
the other hand, occurs in a context that supplies an expectation of what is to be inferred.
Alternative terms for inferring are extrapolating, interpolating, predicting, and concluding.
Sample objectives and corresponding assessments: In inferring, when given a set or series of
examples or instances, a student finds a concept or principle that accounts for them. For
example, In mathematics, an objective could be to learn to infer the relationship expressed as
an equation that represents several observations of values for two variables. An assessment
item asks a student to describe the relationship as an equation involving x and y for situations
in which if x is 1, then y is 0; if x is 2, then y is 3; and if x is 3, then y is 8.
Assessment formats: Three common tasks that require inferring (often along with
implementing) are completion tasks, analogy tasks, and oddity tasks. In completion tasks, a
student is given a series of items and must determine what will come next, as in the number
series example above. In analogy tasks, a student is given an analogy of the form A is to B as
C is to D, such as "nation" is to "president" as "state" is to ____________. The student's task
is to produce or select a term that fits in the blank and completes the analogy (such as
"governor"). In an oddity task, a student is given three or more items and must
determine which does not belong. For example, a student may be given three physics problems,
two involving one principle and another involving a different principle. To focus solely on the
inferring process, the question in each assessment task could be to state the underlying concept
or principle the student is using to arrive at the correct answer.
Comparing
Comparing involves detecting similarities and differences between two or more objects,
events, ideas, problems, or situations, such as determining how a well known event (e.g., a
recent political scandal) is like a less familiar event (e.g., a historical political scandal).
Comparing includes finding one-to-one correspondences between elements and patterns in one
object, event, or idea and those in another object, event, or idea. When used in conjunction with
inferring (e.g., first, abstracting a rule from the more familiar situation) and implementing (e.g.,
second, applying the rule to the less familiar situation), comparing can con tribute to reasoning
by analogy. Alternative terms are contrasting, matching, and mapping.
Sample objectives and corresponding assessments: In comparing, when given new information,
a student detects correspondences with more familiar knowledge. For example, in social
studies, an objective could be to understand historical events by comparing them to familiar
situations. A corresponding assessment question is "How is the Indian culture revolution like
a family fight or an argument between friends?" In the natural sciences, a sample objective
could be to learn to compare an electrical circuit to a more familiar system. In assessment, we
ask "How is an electrical circuit like water flowing through a pipe?" Comparing may also
involve determining correspondences between two or more presented objects, events, or ideas.
In mathematics, a sample objective could be to learn to compare structurally similar word
problems. A corresponding assessment question asks a student to tell how a certain mixture
problem is like a certain work problem.
Assessment formats:A major technique for assessing the cognitive process of comparing is
mapping. In mapping, a student must show how each part of one object, idea, problem, or
situation corresponds to (or maps onto) each part of another. For example, a student could be
asked to detail how the battery, wire, and resistor in an electrical circuit are like the pump,
pipes, and pipe constructions in a water flow system, respectively.
Explaining
Explaining occurs when a student is able to construct and use a cause-and effect model
of a system. The model may be derived from a formal theory (as is often the case in the natural
sciences) or may be grounded in research or experience (as is often the case in the social
sciences and humanities). A complete explanation involves constructing a cause-and-effect
model, including each major part in a system or each major event in the chain, and using the
model to determine how a change in one part of the system or one "link" in the chain affects a
change in another part. An alternative term for explaining is constructing a model.
Sample objectives and corresponding assessments: In explaining, when given a description of

a system, a student develops and uses a cause-and-effect model of the system. For example, in
social studies, an objective could be to explain the causes of important eighteenth-century
historical events. As an assessment, after reading and discussing a unit on the Indian
Revolution, students are asked to construct a cause-and-effect chain of events that best explains
why the war occurred. In the natural sciences, an objective could be to explain how basic
physics laws work. Corresponding assessments ask students who have studied Ohm's law to
explain what happens to the rate of the current when a second battery is added to a circuit, or
ask students who have viewed a video on lightning storms to explain how differences in
temperature affect the formation of lightning.
Assessment formats: Several tasks can be aimed at assessing a student's ability to explain,
including reasoning, troubleshooting, redesigning, and predicting. In reasoning tasks, a student
is asked to offer a reason for a given event. For example, "Why does air enter a bicycle tire
pump when you pull up on the handle?" In this case, an answer such as "It is forced in because
the air pressure is less inside the pump than outside" involves finding a principle that accounts
for a given event. In troubleshooting, a student is asked to diagnose what could have gone
wrong in a malfunctioning system. For example, "Suppose you pull up and press down on the
handle of a bicycle tire pump several times but no air comes out. What's wrong?" In this case,
the student must find an explanation for a symptom, such as "There is a hole in the cylinder"
or "A valve is stuck in the open position." In redesigning, a student is asked to change the
system to accomplish some goal. For example, "How could you improve a bicycle tire pump
so that it would be more efficient?" To answer this question, a student must imagine altering
one or more of the components in the system, such as "Put lubricant between the piston and
the cylinder."
In predicting, a student is asked how a change in one part of a system will effect a change in
another part of the system. For example, "What would hap pen if you increased the diameter
of the cylinder in a bicycle tire pump?" This question requires that the student "operate" the
mental model of the pump to see that the amount of air moving through the pump could be
increased by in creasing the diameter of the cylinder.
Assessment Procedures
Assessment methods are the strategies, techniques, tools and instruments for collecting
information to determine the extent to which students demonstrate desired learning outcomes.
Several methods should be used to assess student learning outcomes. Relying on only one
method to provide information about the program will only reflect a part of students’
achievement. Additionally, student learning outcome may be difficult to assess using only one
method. For each student learning outcome, a combination of direct and indirect assessment
methods should be used. For example, responses from student surveys may be informative,
however, when combined with students’ test results they will be more meaningful, valid, and
reliable.
Principles of Assessment
Assessment will be valid
Assessment will be explicitly designed to measure student achievement of the intended
learning outcomes, and all intended learning outcomes will be summatively assessed. The
processes for the approval of new modules and programmes, and for amending existing
modules and programmes, will ensure that assessment is an integral part of module and
programme design, and the ongoing validity of assessment will be considered through annual
and periodic review.
Assessment will be reliable
To ensure the level of consistency that is necessary for assessment to be reliable, all awards at
the same academic level will be aligned with the institution generic qualification descriptor,
level descriptor and assessment criteria for that level of award.
Assessment will be equitable
Different assessment methods may be appropriate for different learning styles, and it therefore
encourages all programmes to employ (in a way that is consistent with the intended learning
outcomes being assessed) a diversity of assessment methods to allow all students to
demonstrate their knowledge, understanding and skills.
Assessment will be explicit and transparent
Prior to undertaking any assessment task, students will be clearly informed of the purpose and
requirements of the task and will be provided with the specific assessment criteria that will be
used for marking it. Feedback to students will be related to the stated learning outcomes and
specific assessment criteria. Clear information on the policies and processes relating to
assessment will be easily available to all involved in the assessment process.
Assessment will support the student learning process
All assessment tasks influence the way in which students approach their learning, and this will
be taken into account in the design of all assessment tasks.
Assessment will be efficient
Assessment will be efficient for both students and staff such that learning outcomes are not
overly assessed and that knowledge and skills can be sampled.
Direct Method of Assessment
Direct method of assessment will provide the exact outcome of the classroom. The evidence of
the direct assessment is concrete like quantifiable, measurable and visible. It clearly shows the
student learning in a course. It gives the direction to the faculty members that what is the
understanding of the subject and with the understanding what they can do?. This method used
commonly by most of the faculty members. There are different methodologies of direct
assessment method.
1. Standardized Examination
2. Quiz
3. Simulations
4. Demonstrations
5. Capstone Projects
6. Portfolios
7. Oral Exams
So, the strength of direct measurement is, the faculty members are getting the concrete evidence
of a sample what students can do with their student learning.
But at the same time, direct measurement has its own weakness as some of the teaching learning
process components cannot be evaluated directly.
Indirect method of assessment
Indirect measurement mostly results the learning experience by the students. It gives
the opinion or survey of student learning. Indirect measurement is completely perception of
their learning. For example, the teacher like to know, what is the interest rate of the students in
a particular subject. This kind of evidence the faculty members could collect only from the
indirect measurement. It gives the affective domain components. The main disadvantage of
the indirect measurement is that it is not useful in identifying specific knowledge and skills of
the student.
Source : Assessment 101: Assessment Tips with Gloria Rogers, Ph.D. Direct and Indirect
Assessment, August 2006
However, considering the evidence parameter, indirect measures are not as strong as
direct measures because assumptions must be made about what exactly the self-report means.
If students report that they have attained a particular learning outcome, how can that report be
validated? An indirect assessment is useful in that it can be used to measure certain implicit
qualities of student learning, such as values, perceptions, and attitudes, from a variety of
perspectives. However, in the absence of direct evidence, assumptions must be made about
how well perceptions match the reality of actual achievement of student learning.
It is important to remember that all assessment methods have their limitations and contain some
bias. A meaningful assessment program would use both direct and indirect assessments from a
variety of sources (students, alumni, faculty, employers, etc.). This use of multiple assessment
methods provides converging evidence of student learning. Indirect methods provide a valuable
supplement to direct methods and are generally a part of a robust assessment program.
The different types of indirect measurements are

1. Survey
2. Exit interviews
3. Placement statistics
Source : http://www.skidmore.edu/assessment/
Examples of Direct and Indirect Measures of Student Learning at the Course, Program,
and Institutional Levels
Level Direct Measurement Indirect Measurement
• Course and homework

assignments
• Exams and quizzes • Course evaluations
• Standardized tests • Test blue prints (outlines of the
• Term papers and reports concepts and skills covered on
• Observations of field work, tests)
internship performance, • Percent of class time spent in
service learning, clinical active learning
experiences • Number of student hours spent
• Research projects on service learning
Course
• Class discussion participation • Number of student hours spent
• Case study analysis on homework
• Rubric scores for writing, oral • Number of student hours spent
presentations, and at intellectual or cultural
performances activities related to the course
• Artistic performances and • Grades that are not based on
products explicit criteria related to clear
• Grades based on explicit learning goals
criteria related to clear
learning goals
• Capstone projects, senior

• Focus group interviews with
theses, exhibits, or
students, faculty members, or
performances
employees
• Pass rates or scores on
• Registration or course
licensure, certification, or
enrollment information
Program subject area tests
• Department or program review
• Student publications or
data
conference presentations
• Job placement
• Employer and internship
• Employer or alumni surveys
supervisor ratings of
• Student perception surveys
students' performance
Level Direct Measurement Indirect Measurement
• Proportion of upper-level
courses compared to the same
program at other institutions
• Graduate school placement
rates
• Performance on tests of
writing, critical thinking, or
general knowledge • Locally developed,
• Rubric scores for class commercial, or national surveys
assignments in General of student perceptions or self-
Education, interdisciplinary report of activities (e.g.,
core courses, or other courses National Survey of Student
required of all students Engagement)
• Performance on achievement • Transcript studies that examine
Institutional
tests patterns and trends of course
• Explicit self-reflections on selection and grading
what students have learned • Annual reports including
related to institutional institutional benchmarks (e.g.,
programs such as service graduation and retention rates,
learning (e.g., asking students grade point averages of
to name the three most graduates, etc.)
important things they have
learned in a program)
CONSTRUCTION OF TEST ITEMS AND QUESTIONS
INTRODUCTION
Teachers are concerned with their students achieving the specified learning outcomes in the
subjects they teach. They have to test the achievement of all those learning outcomes. Any
testing device therefore attempt to test the entire content prescribed and taught by teachers.
Essay questions that are generally used in assignments by their very nature can only cover a
limited content. Objective items are most suitable for a wider coverage of content. In any
assessment of students, teachers must ensure objectivity and reliability of assessment. This unit
describes the rules for constructing different types of test items and questions and their
advantages and limitations.
Types of test items and questions

Teachers are required to find out how their students are progressing in their studies. They would
be keen to get information on whether students have achieved the outcomes spelt out for the
lesson Achievement or otherwise of all outcomes is a necessity. Learning outcomes are spelt
out in three areas. The types of tests, test items and questions would depend upon the learning
outcome. Test items and questions dealt with in this Unit are intended to assess learning
outcomes.
For assessing cognitive domain two categories of test items and questions, are used by teachers.
These are
• Supply Type
• Selection Type
Supply type items are so called because students are required to supply (write) answers to the
items. They supply answers or write them. In the selection type a set of possible answers are
provided for each item. Students are required to select the best] most appropriate answer from
out of the list given,
The Supply question requires students to write their own answers to a question. Supply type
items require students to provide his/her own answer to the question. No answers are given to
students to choose from. Therefore, there is no scope for any guessing by students on answers.
The question may require students to give a one word or one sentence answer. The answer may
be longer also a paragraph or more than a page.
The following are the types of Supply type items
• Completion Choice
• Single answer question
• Short answer/structured essay question
• Numerical Problem Solving
The Selection question provides students with alternate answers from which to choose. The
correct answer. The following are the types of Selection items
• Multiple Choice
• True /false (also called Alternate response)
• Matching
Supply type items are used to test the following

• writing ability
• ability to organise ideas and thoughts
• student’s creativity
• synthesis and evaluation of ideas
• problem solving skills
• recall of a sequence of activities
Selection type items are useful in the following situations
to test recognition of correct answers
• to test products of any mathematical calculation
• to judge the correctness or otherwise of a statement
• to differentiate similar objects, words symbols etc,.
Short Answer Questions
Short-answer questions are open-ended questions that require students to supply their answer.
They are commonly used in examinations to assess the basic knowledge and understanding
(low cognitive levels) of a topic before more in-depth assessment questions are asked on the
topic.
This is a supply type item where the student is given a clear direction to restrict the answer to
2 or 3 sentences. Questions must be such that answers are possible within the limits of specified
lengths.
Example;
Define Poisson's ratio
List three important uses of poor conductors
What is normalization in database?
Construction
• The question must be simple, clear and unambiguous
• Scope of answer must be limited by the use of words such as 'List 'give reasons', 'define'
etc,.
• Questions must be interpretable in the same way by all students.
Advantages of Short Answer Questions

• Short Answer Questions are relatively fast to mark and can be marked by different
assessors, as long as the questions are set in such a way that all alternative answers can
be considered by the assessors.
• Short Answer Questions are also relatively easy to set compared to many assessment
methods.
• Short Answer Questions can be used as part of a formative and summative assessment,
as the structure of short answer questions are very similar to examination questions,
students are more familiar with the practice and feel less anxious.
• Unlike MCQs, there is no guessing on answers, students must supply an answer.
Limitations of Short Answer Questions
• Short Answer Questions are only suitable for questions that can be answered with short
responses. It is very important that the assessor is very clear on the type of answers
expected when setting the questions, because Short Answer Questions is an open-ended
questions, students are free to answer any way they choose, short-answer questions can
lead to difficulties in grading if the question is not worded carefully.
• Short Answer Questions are typically used for assessing knowledge only, students may
often memorize Short Answer Questions with rote learning. If assessors wish to use
Short Answer Questions to assess deeper learning, careful attention on appropriate
questions are required.
• Accuracy of assessment may be influenced by handwriting/spelling skills
• There can be time management issues when answering Short Answer Questions
How to design a good Short Answer Question?

1. Design short answer items which are appropriate assessment of the learning objective
2. Make sure the content of the short answer question measures knowledge appropriate to
the desired learning goal
3. Express the questions with clear wordings and language which are appropriate to the
student population
4. Ensure there is only one clearly correct answer in each question
5. Ensure that the item clearly specifies how the question should be answered (e.g. Student
should answer it briefly and concisely using a single word or short phrase? Is the
question given a specific number of blanks for students to answer?
6. Consider whether the positioning of the item blank promote efficient scoring
7. Write the instructions clearly so as to specify the desired knowledge and specificity of
response
8. Set the questions explicitly and precisely.
9. Direct questions are better than those which require completing the sentences.
10. For numerical answers, let the students know if they will receive marks for showing
partial work (process based) or only the results (product based), also indicated the
importance of the units.
11. Let the students know what your marking style is like, is bullet point format acceptable,
or does it have to be an essay format?
12. Prepare a structured marking sheet; allocate marks or part-marks for acceptable
answer(s).
13. Be prepared to accept other equally acceptable answers, some of which you may not
have predicted
Essay Questions (Long answer questions)
A Long answer question is one that requires students to supply an answer that is longer
than a mere listing, simple computation or a single paragraph. Students are required to write
reasonably lengthy answers.
Merits and Demerits
The essay type questions require the student to express himself/herself in own words.
They can measure certain complex outcomes such as ability to create, to organise, to integrate,
to express and similar behaviors that call for the production and synthesis of ideas, If carefully
prepared they can be used to check for understand, apply, analyze, evaluate and create.
Essay questions take so long to answer that relatively few can be answered in a given
period of time. It is usually very time consuming to score. Essay questions are noted for their
vagueness and ambiguity. They lack reliability They have a limited content coverage.
Many essay questions are so stated that students do not know what kind of answer is expected.
Several kinds of answers may be justified, and some of them may be quite different from what
the teacher had in mind while setting the paper. Invariably students have to guess as to what
the teacher implied by the question. Finally, the diversity of answers makes it difficult to
mark the answers fairly and objectively.
Improving Essay Questions
Essay questions can be improved by
• Structuring the questions properly and demanding a restricted response from the learner
than an extended response
• Stating the mark distribution for each sub division in the question
Scoring of Essay Questions
The main objective of an essay question is that it is difficult to have a reliable scoring, The
following guidelines may be followed to minimize the subjectivity of scoring essay questions
• Evaluate the answers by having a marking scheme and model answer
• Evaluate and score question by question for all students rather than scoring all questions
student by student
• Evaluate the answers in terms of the learning outcomes measured
Structured Essay Questions
It is possible to break the open-ended aspect of an essay question by means of a series
of small tasks/related questions and making them clear and unambiguous.
Example
1. Draw a sketch showing the main parts of an electroslag welding equipment - 5 marks
2. Explain how the flux and filler metal are supplied to the weld pool- 4 marks
3. List the advantages and limitations of the Electroslag welding process - 4 marks
4. State the need for water cooled copper shoes - 4 Marks
5. State how the heat is produced in this process - 3 Marks
Guidelines for Constructing structured Essay Questions

• Decide on a structured essay type question only when an objective item is not suitable
• Consider carefully the content and behaviour before deciding on the wording of the
question
• Structuring of a question by breaking the open-ended aspect of an essay question by
means of a series of tasks to be performed and making them clear unambiguous and
specific. All students and teachers must interpret the questions in the same way.
• Relate the questions directly as much as possible to the learning outcomes being
measured and question must be a valid testing situation for the ability considered
• In a set of structured questions each part should be independent and complete in itself
and the correct answer to one part should not significantly influence the answer to the
other parts. At the same time each of the parts should refer to the same situation and
contribute to the overall purposes of the item. This means that the sub parts in a
structured essay question are not independent questions and put together under the same
main item. They are all part of a bigger question broken down for ease of answering,
providing suitable answering and to ensure that the responses are mutually related.
• Indicate the relative importance of each sub division in a set of structured essay
questions in terms of marks allotted. Arrange the sub divisions in order of increasing
difficulty.
• Tendency to include too many essay questions in a single test as an attempt to overcome
the problem of limited sampling should be avoided. For measuring achievement of
complex learning outcomes, it is better to use fewer questions and to improve the
sample by more frequent testing
• When the statement of the question doesn't impose fairly well defined limits, some
indications of the desired length of the answer should be given ( for ex. answer should
not exceed 200 words, answer must be brief and to the point. It should not exceed one
page in the normal handwriting.
• Directions must be clearly given. Example: using a neatly drawn diagram describe the
working of a four-stroke engine
• To a large extent answers must be such that they are capable of objective assessment
• Avoid phrases such as "discuss briefly", "explain in detail", "what do you mean by"
These terms don't clearly indicate to students what you expect from them. They can be
interpreted differently by different students.
• Avoid items as " write what you know about "
• Clearly define and describe the behaviour that is being tested
• Use case studies, wherever is possible to test higher level abilities
• Ask for justification of reasoning to support an opinion
Suggested terms and situations for essay tests

Following are the types of situation that require higher order ability testing in the form of
structured essay questions
• Comparisons of two things on a single designated basis, distinguish, discriminate, and
differentiate
• Comparison of two things in general
• Decision for or against with reason
• Relationship involving cause and effect
• Explanation of the use
• Summary or inference from known principles and facts
• Analysis
• Illustrations with own examples
• Classification
• Application of rules or principles in new situations
• Discussion by multiple interpretation
• Statement of aim, purpose in his selection or organization of materials
• Criticism as to adequacy
• Criticism on correctness or relevance
• Outline methods and procedures
• Explain or define a problem
• Detailing observations and offering remarks
• Terms that could be used in framing the questions are- define, state, identify, quote,
recite, describe, show how, why, give reasons, prove, disprove, justify
Example:
Poor: Describe the operation and working principle of a silicon controlled rectifier 20 Marks
Better
a) Sketch SCR circuit 4 Marks
b) Draw the transistor equivalent circuit for the SCR 6 Marks
c) Derive an equation for the total current through the transistor equivalent
5 Marks
circuit
d) Explain the valence action with the equation derived in (c) 5 Marks
Examples for Structured Essay Questions

Poor: Write an essay on colloids 20 Marks
Better
a) Define the two phases present in colloidal system. 4 Marks
b) Illustrate at least four types of colloids by naming the two phases present in
4 Marks
each colloids
c) Describe any one method of preplanning colloids with examples 5 Marks
d) Describe any one optical property and any one electrical property of colloids 6 Marks
Poor: Describe the manufacture of sulphuric acid by contact process 20 Marks

Better
a) Draw a neat flow diagram. 5 Marks
b) Write balanced equations for the chemical reactions that take place 3 Marks
c) Predict the optimum conditions for the yield of H2S04 on the
8 Marks
d) basis of the physico-chemical principles involved
e) What is Oleum amd how is it prepared? 2 Marks
f) Why is contract process preferable to chamber process? 2 Marks
Poor: Write an essay on energy and its transformation 20 Marks
Better
Classify the different forms of energy 2 Marks
Distinguish energy from matter. 5 Marks
Distinguish the meaning of loss of energy and gain of energy on the basis of work 5 Marks
State the law of conservation of energy 2 Marks
Give four examples where one form of energy is converted into another 6 Marks
Numerical problems Solving
In examining students undergoing technical programmes the higher order and complex
learning outcomes could be tested by providing numerical problems. The problems with deal
with application of certain formulae, laws to new situations, demanding the abilities of analysis,
synthesis and evaluation (decision making). In setting such questions one must avoid problems
which seek answers by mere substitution of numbers directly into a formula.
Common guidelines for teaching problem solving method for assessment

• Prepare a model for useful problem-solving method. Problem solving can be
difficult and sometimes it is a lengthy procedure.
• Guide within a specific context. Guide problem-solving method in the context in
which they will be used.
• Encourage the students understand the problem. In order to solve problems,
students need to define the end goal. This step is crucial to successful learning of
problem-solving skills. If you succeed at helping students answer the questions “what?”
and “why?”, finding the answer to “how?” will be easier.
• Ask questions and make suggestions. Ask students to predict “what would happen if
…” or explain why something happened. This will help them to develop analytical and
deductive thinking skills.
• Link errors to misconceptions. Use errors as evidence of misconceptions, not
carelessness or random guessing.
Example:
Write the quadratic Equation – Expected factual knowledge of the student
A ball is thrown straight up, from 10 m above from the ground, with a velocity of 20 m/s. When
does the ball will hit the ground? (Ignore the air resistance) – This question will bring the
conceptual knowledge and procedural knowledge by applying quadratic equation, how to solve
the problem. So, problem solving method brings the students conceptual knowledge and
Example:
In a packet switching network, packets are routed from source to destination along a
single path having two intermediate nodes. If the message size is 48 bytes and each packet
contains a header of 3 bytes, then what is the optimum packet size?
The above question will extract the concept knowledge which is behind the packet switching
network. Solving the problem ensure the students understanding clearly.
In software engineering, the problem solving will be split large complex goals into
small, simpler ones, try to think different kind of a parallel solution of each one, make the
problem as abstract so that the problem can be applied in an another same abstract in an another
issue, learn to use the existing solutions instead re-inventing the wheel and think in terms of
data flow. This procedure would give the clear idea to the student to approach a problem in
software engineering.
True / Fa1se items
True/False items give students two choices from which to select the correct answer. A
statement is presented and students are asked to indicate whether the statement is true or false
as stated. There are only two choices for the student. These choices may be altered to suit the
needs of the test situation Yes/No, Right/Wrong, Correct/ln-correct
True/False items are most often used to test a student's ability to
• recognize correctness a statement
• identify relationship
• identify attitudes, values and beliefs
• cause and effect relationship
• identify fact
• identify a new situation where principles are applicable
This type of item is most suitable when
• there are only two alternatives which are plausible
• there is only one correct response to the question
• a large amount of content needs to be tested
• reduction of reading on the test is important
• easy scoring is desired
True/False items are also called constant alternate response type.
Example
A ceiling fan in a room will push warm air downward
Narcotics are painkillers
Insects can be characterized by their three distinct body parts
Construction
The item should include only on central and significant idea.
Example:
The second method that can be used to determine the difficulty of a question is to run a test
analysis programme on test questions.
• This question has two ideas contained in the statement. A student may be able to choose
'yes' or 'no' to both ideas. It may be 'yes' for one idea and 'no' for the other idea or vice
versa. It may be true for both ideas.
• The statement must be precise so that it can be judged as absolutely true or absolutely
false.
Flowers bloom in the springtime.
This statement is partly true in that many flowers do bloom in the spring but flowers also bloom
in other seasons. The statement is neither true nor false. It is partly true and partly false.
• The statements are to be short and written in simple language.
An individual with blood type AB negative may receive blood from any other individual
because there are no antigens in the recipient's blood to cause a reaction with antibodies that
may be in the donor's blood.
This statement is a very long one. It requires considerable time for students to decipher the
meaning of this question. It would be better to ask first if a person with AB negative blood can
receive blood from anyone else. Then ask about the presence of antigens and antibodies.
Advantages of True- False items

• the widest sampling of content or objectives per unit of testing time
• scoring efficiency and accuracy
• versatility in measuring all levels of cognitive ability
• an objective measurement of student achievement or ability
Disadvantages of True -False items
• incorporate an extremely high guessing factor. For simple true-false items, each student
has a 50/50 chance of correctly answering the item without any knowledge of the item
's content
• can often lead a teacher to write unclear items due to the difficulty of constructing items
which are unequivocally true or false
• don't discriminate between students of varying ability as well as other item types
• can often include more irrelevant clues than do other item types
• can often a teacher to favour testing of trivial knowledge
Matching Type Items
The matching item is simply a modification of the multiple-choice form. Instead of the possible
response being listed underneath each individual stem, they are listed in two columns. Each
statement or word in one column is matched to a suitable phrase or word in the second column.
A matching itemgives the student two lists. One list is a guide and the other is a list from which
to choose the answer. Consider the following example of a matching item.
In the above example students have to choose an answer for each item in Column A from those
given in Column B. Column A items are called premises. Column B items are called responses.
Matching type items are useful when testing student's ability to
• identify relationship between two elements/ideas such as parts and their uses, parts and
their location, words and definitions, principles and applications, symbols and
meanings etc,.
• Classify items into categories such as examples and classifications, process and product
• knowledge of facts
• application of principles
• analysis of design
In the matching type the list of premises is given in the left and the list of responses are given
in the right. Each item in the column B must be a response to one of the items in Column A.
However, one or two more items are added to the list in Column B to provide for minimizing
guess. If four items are given in both columns all that the student will be required to do is to
match any three items. The fourth is automatically done. To avoid this situation one or two
additional items are added in Column B.
Construction
• The items should include only homogeneous ones. Non-homogeneous material will
distract the student.
Example:
Column A Column B
(Type of transducers) (Quantities measured)
1. Strain gauge a. Elongation
2. Thermocouple b. Flow
3. Tacho generator c. Temperature
4. Differential Transformer d. Angular velocity
e. Level
The items in Column A are all homogeneous as they are all transducers. Those in Column B
are what these measure
The following example violates the rule
Column A Column B
1. Indian independence a. Bangalore
2. The first Woman Prime Minister b. Nainital
3. Garden City c. 1947
4. Hill Station d. Indira Gandhi
e. Vijayalakshmi Pandit
• Number of responses should be sufficiently large so that the list of premises can still have
some options to choose from.
• Specify in the directions the basis for matching and indicate that each response may be used
once or more than once or not at all, as the case may be.
Example
Column A consists of list of characteristics of objective type test items. Column B has the
names of the test. A bracket ( ) is given before every item of Column A. Choose the response
from Column B for every item of Column A and write the serial number of the response in the
brackets. Each response in Column B may be used once, more than once or not at all.
Column A Column B
1. Best for measuring computational a. Matching item skill
2. Least useful for educational b. Multiple Choice diagnosis
3. Most difficult to score objectively c. True-False item
4. Provides high scores by guessing d. Short answer item alone
5. Measures greater variety of learning outcomes
6. Measures learning at recall level
• Give very clear instructions about how students must write the answers to each item, where
they are to mark their answers.
• The acceptable format for numbering matching questions is to place numbers in front of
the premises on the left place letters in front of the responses on the right
• Keep the lists as short as possible
• Arrange the lists in a logical order. If dates are used it is preferable to put them in a
chronological order.
• Use proper numbering for both columns. Items in Column may be given alphabetical
numbers while those in Column may be given numerical numbers.
Advantages of Matching type items

• require short periods of reading and response time, allowing you to cover more
content
• provide objective measurement of student achievement or ability
• provide highly reliable test scores
• provide scoring efficiency and accuracy
Limitations of Matching type items

• have difficulty measuring learning objectives requiring more than simple recall
of information
• are difficult to construct due to the problem of selecting a common set of stimuli
and responses
Multiple Choice Test Items
The Multiple-Choice questions(MCQ) are one of the most widely used for the
assessment. They are also known to be quite difficult for construction. In a multiple-choice
item, the student is required to select the correct answer for a question from a group of several
alternatives.
An example:
The transfer ofheat in a steel bar from one end to the other end is by
a) Conduction
b) Convection
c) Radiation
d) Fusion
In the above example " the transfer of heat from one end of the steel bar to the other end" is the
main question. This is at the top of the item. This is the question to which the student must
select the correct answer. This statement or question is called Stem. The Stem can be either in
the form of a direct question or an incomplete sentence. This acts as a stimulus to evoke the
correct response from students. The alternatives provided as possible answers are called
Options. In the example four options are given. The student has to choose the correct answer
from the options. There may be four or even five options. In the example given items at a, b, c,
d are options.
The correct answer is called the Key. In the example option (a) is the key. Other than the correct
answer are called Distracters. Options b, c, and d are the distracters.
Construction of a Multiple-Choice Item

The stem must be a direct question or an incomplete statement. If it is a statement it must imply
a question
There must be one and only one correct answer.
Example:
Ex1 :What is the mode of transfer of heat from one end of a steel bar to the other end?
Ex2 :The heat from one end of the steel bar to the other end is transmitted through the process
of
• Distracters must be plausible. They must act as distracters for higher ability
students and attractors for lower ability students.
• The item must test important information and not too trivial ones.
• Use four or five options.
• Stem must be concise and unambiguous, avoiding negatives. If negatives are
unavoidable these must be emphasized.
Example:
Voltage drop in a resistor is NOT proportional to
a) current
b) resistance
c) power dissipation
d) physical dimensions or size
(Notice NOT, the negative. This is given in capital to emphasize. It may also be underlined).
Stem must be a complete question by itself not requiring the student to read the options in order
to discover what is being asked
Example:
When two resistors of value 10 ohms and 30 ohms are connected in series, the net resistance
value will be
a) 3 ohms
b) 20 ohms
c) 40 ohms
d) 300 ohms
In this item, the student could work-out the answer without referring to the response, since the
stem is a complete question by itself.
Content of the question must be made clear to avoid confusion. State the stem of the item in a
simple clear sentence. Use simple language so that students understand the statement without
much difficulty
Example:
Poor construction
The paucity of plausible, but incorrect statement that can be related to a central idea poses a
problem when constructing which one of the following types of test items?
a) Short answer
b) True- False
c) Multiple choice
d) Essay
Better constructed item
The lack of plausible but incorrect alternatives will cause the greatest difficulty when
constructing
a) Short answer question
b) True-False
c) Multiple Choice item
d) Essay
Put as much of the wording as possible in the item of the item and anything that needs repeating
in each option should be included in the stem.
Example:
In objective testing the term objective
a) refers to the method of identifying the learning outcomes
b) refers to the method of selecting the test content
c) refers to the method of presenting the problem
d) refers to the method of scoring the answers.
The phrase 'refers to the method' repeats itself in all the four options. It must be taken to the
stem. The stem must then read In objective testing the term objective refers to the method of '
The options must be closely related to the stem.
Example:
The property of a circuit that tends to oppose a change in current is called
a) Conductance
b) Voltage
c) temperature
d) Inductance
In the above example b and c are not properties of a circuit. These are not good options. Better
options would be to replace b and c by
b) capacitance
c) resistance
The options should be parallel to structure i.e. they should fit grammatically with the stem.
Grammatical consistency ofall options is very important.
Example:
The station where an aircraft is taken for repairs is called an
a) apron
b) hanger
c) tower
d) workshop
In this example only one option fits the grammatical structure of the stem. In order to improve
this stem may end with .... is called an
The item must not contain clue to the student such as combination ofsingulars and plurals in
the options.
Example:
The direction of propagation ofan electromagnetic wave in the free space is
a) along the electric field
b) along the magnetic field
c) in the plane of electric and magnetic field
d) perpendicular to the surface of containing the two fields,
In the above example the precision and length of the key option d makes it stand out from the
rest. To avoid it, the phrase in d must be inserted appropriately in each of the answer.
Example:
An ion is
a) a charged particle
b) an atom which has gained or lost electrons
c) a neutral particle
d) formed in electrolytes
Here the stem is vague and three of the options given are acceptable.
Distracters must be incorrect yet likely to be plausible to weaker students. This means that the
distracters must be believable.
Example:
Waste and overflow fittings for a bathtub are installed
a) before the bathtub is set in place
b) after the bathtub is set in place
c) at the same time as the trap
d) none of the above.
It is unlikely that any student would choose d as the answer; particularly since all the other
options are likely alternatives,
Another example:
A person invested Rs 500 in a business. He sold goods worth Rs 550 in this business. The %
profit he got was
a) Rs.50
b) Rs.10
c) 50%
d) Rs 550
The options a and c are not suitable options

The option "all ofthese " should never be used. "None ofthese " should be avoided Ifthis is not
at all possible then it should be sometimes being the key. In such a case it should be the exact
correct answer.
What instruments can be used to find the mid-point of a 9 inch steel bar?
a) calipers
b) Straightedge
c) protractor
d) all of the above
Another example:
Which of the following acts as a positive reinforce for a polytechnic student?
a) money
b) smile by teacher
c) Scholarship
d) None of the above
Avoid similarity of wording in both the stem and correct answer.
Example:
The amplifier tube was widely used for
a) amplification of voltage
b) regulation of voltage
c) rectification of voltage
d) regulation of current
In this case even without any understanding of the subject anybody can choose a as the correct
response.
Don 't include two responses that have the same meaning
Example:
The normal room temperature in South India during summer month is
a) 300 c to 40 0 c
b) 300c to
c) 1 to 200c
d) None of the above
Here option a is superfluous. B includes the option (a) also.
Each item should be written around a single principle
Which of the following statements is true?
a) wood sinks in mercury
b) All metals except mica are good conductors
c) Thermal expansion of gas is more than that of a liquid
d) Oscillating sander uses only fine grade abrasives.
This type of question should never be given. This has four different ideas.
Items should not be set which require the recall of trivial and unimportant facts.
Example:
In which year did India become independent?
a) 1945
b) 1946
c) 1947
d) 1948
The items should not be very lengthy and involve lengthy calculations Example:
What is the equivalent resistance of 330 K ohms and a 100 K ohm resistor connected in
parallel?
b) 76.74 K ohms
c) 82.05 K ohms
d) 120 K ohms
e) 430 K ohms
The student has to work through lengthy calculations to arrive at the correct answer. The item
should test the understanding of the principle of resistors in parallel. It is not expected to test
the ability of calculation. The item may be reworded suitably.
The level of information required to reject wrong responses should not be higher than that
Coulomb is the unit of measurement of
a) inductive reactance
b) electric charge
c) band width
d) trans conductance
Required selecting a correct response
Here to reject options a, c, and d a higher level of information is required than to select the key.
Hence, a, c, and d are poor distracters. The options for the item may be rewrintten to suit the
level of learning under test. The options may be modified as under
a) resistance
b) charge
c) power
d) potential difference
Advantages of multiple-choice items
• versatility in measuring all levels of cognitive ability
• highly reliable test scores
• scoring efficiency and accuracy
• objective measurement of student achievement or ability
• a wide sampling of content or objectives
• a reduced guessing factor when compared to True-False items
• different response alternatives which can provide diagnostic feedback
Limitations of Multiple-choice items

• are difficult and time consuming to construct
• lead a teacher to favor simple recall of facts
• places a high degree of dependence on students' reading ability and teacher's
writing ability
Pre-validation of Items
Well prepared and used items and questions can be expected to serve the purposes for which
they are used. Teachers have to take care in writing the items so that they are of good quality.
One of the quick and easy ways of checking the quality is by using a checklist. Checklist for
each type of test is given below. A more sophisticated method of checking the quality of items
is by subjecting the items to item analysis.
GENERAL FOR ALL TYPES

• Is the item measuring an important learning outcome?
• Is the item measuring an important content area?
• Is the level of difficulty likely to be reasonable?
• Is the item likely to be answered correctly by higher ability students?
• Is the item independent or does it overlap with other items?
SPECIFIC
Constant Alternative type
1. Does the item include only one significant idea in each statement?
2. Is the statement so precise that it can be judged unequivocally true or false?
3. Is the statement short and in simple language?
4. Does the item use negative statements sparingly and avoid double negatives?
Multiple Choice
1. Is the stem concise and unambiguous? Is the negative(if unavoidable) emphasized?
2. Is the stem a complete question by itself? Does the item require the student to read the
options to discover what is being asked?
3. Is the content of the question clear?
4. Does the stem include anything that needs to be repeated in every option, within itself?
5. Are the options parallel in content?
6. Are the options parallel in structure?
7. Is the item devoid of any clues such as mix up of singular, plural, precision and length
of key option etc.?
8. Is the key option unarguably correct?'
9. Are the distracters plausible?
10. Does the item exclude ' 'all these"?
11. Is the language used in the item appropriate to the vocabulary of students at this level?
12. Does the item avoid similarity of wording in both stem and the correct answer?
13. Does the item exclude responses that are "all inclusive"?
14. Does the item use an efficient format?
Matching type
1. Does the item include only homogeneous material In the premises"?
2. Is the number of responses sufficiently large so that the last of their premises can still
have many options to choose from?
3. Does the item specify the basis of matching, type of matching, kind of entry etc?
Long answer type questions

• In answering this question, in your opinion, does the student need to organise his ideas,
choose the form of his answer in his own words?
• Does the situation presented in the question seem to be new to most of them?
• Is it possible that students can produce memorized answer to this question?
• Does answering this question involve any judgment on the part of the students?
• Is the time limit reasonable?
• Is the length and scope of the answer specified?
• Does it avoid usage of very open verbs?
Design of Question Paper
It is generally agreed that teachers need to evaluate the work of their students and
assess all aspects of their teaching to enhance students’ learning and improve their own
performance. Assessment includes collecting, judging and interpreting information about
students’ performance. It is not a separate add-on activity but an integral part of the learning
and teaching process. Its purpose is to provide reliable information and feedback to improve
and enhance the quality of learning and teaching. Suitable assessment enables
• students to understand their abilities and hence improve their ways of learning;
• teachers to understand the performance of their students so that suitable and timely
measures can be provided; and
• parents to understand the performance of their wards so that they can, in collaboration
with teachers, provide suitable support to help the learning of their wards.
Different modes of assessment serve for different purposes. Assessment for learning,
which is usually formative, focuses on the learning process and learning progress.
Assessment of learning, which is usually summative, focuses on the product of learning. As
both the learning process and product are important. In the summative assessment, frequently
the faculty members are getting the following issues from the students.
• “Too Lengthy paper....... to write”, (Theory Examinations)

• Time was not enough
• “All Questions from specific titles only! No Question from......”, (Theory
Examinations)
• “Questions were too vague, What to write ? What to cut?”, (Theory Examinations)
• “Long Questions were Bouncers! I have not been taught these” (Theory
Examinations)
This is happened due to the Examiner/ Teacher imparts instruction according to what 'she/he
thinks is appropriate or important'. The intended learning outcomes are not stated clearly and
therefore overlooked. Students get confused as they are unaware of what is actually expected
out of them and they suffer. Blueprinting in Assessment, can overcome these issues, if not
completely, to a large extent and hence make the assessment more valid. Blueprint is a map
and a specification for an assessment program that ensures that all aspects of the curriculum
and educational domains are covered by assessment programs over a specified period of time.
It is a two dimensional chart which shows the placement of each question in respect of the
objective and the content area that it test. In simple terms, Blueprint links assessment to
learning objectives. It also indicates the marks carried by each question. It is useful to prepare
a blue print so that the test maker knows which question will test which objective and which
content unit and how many marks it would carry. The blue print concretizes the design in
operational terms and all the dimensions of a question (i.e. its objective, its form, the content
area it would cover and the marks allotted to it) become clear to the test maker. The blue print
is called Table of Specification (ToS).
The purpose of a Table of Specifications is to identify the achievement domains being

measured and to ensure that a fair and representative sample of questions appear on the test.
Teachers cannot measure every topic or objective and cannot ask every question they might
wish to ask. A Table of Specifications allows the teacher to construct a test which focuses on
the key areas and weights those different areas based on their importance. A Table of
Specifications provides the teacher with evidence that a test has content validity, that it
covers what should be covered.
Designing a Table of Specifications
Tables of Specification typically are designed based on the list of course objectives,
the topics covered in class, the amount of time spent on those topics, textbook chapter topics,
and the emphasis and space provided in the text. In some cases a great weight will be
assigned to a concept that is extremely important, even if relatively little class time was spent
on the topic. Three steps are involved in creating a Table of Specifications: 1) choosing the
measurement goals and domain to be covered, 2) breaking the domain into key or fairly
independent parts- concepts, terms, procedures, applications, and 3) constructing the table.
Teachers have already made decisions about the broad areas that should be taught, so the
choice of what broad domains a test should cover has usually already been made. A bit
trickier is to outline the subject matter into smaller components, but most teachers have
already had to design teaching plans, strategies, and schedules based on an outline of content.
Lists of classroom objectives, curriculum guidelines, and textbook sections, and keywords are
other commonly used sources for identifying categories for Tables of Specification. When
actually constructing the table, teachers may only wish to use a simple structure, as with the
first example above, or they may be interested in greater detail about the types of items, the
cognitive levels for items, the best mix of objectively scored items, open-ended and
constructed-response items, and so on.
A Table of Specifications benefits students in two ways. First, it improves the validity of
teacher-made tests. Second, it can improve student learning as well.
A Table of Specifications helps to ensure that there is a match between what is taught and
what is tested. Classroom assessment should be driven by classroom teaching which itself is
driven by course goals and objectives. In the chain below, Tables of Specifications provide
the link between teaching and testing.Tables of Specifications can help students at all ability
levels learn better. By providing the table to students during instruction, students can
recognize the main ideas, key skills, and the relationships among concepts more easily. The
Table of Specifications can act in the same way as a concept map to analyze content areas.
Teachers can even collaborate with students on the construction of the Table of
Specifications- what are the main ideas and topics, what emphasis should be placed on each
topic, what should be on the test? Open discussion and negotiation of these issues can
encourage higher levels of understanding while also modeling good learning and study skills.
For Example, the following table is ToS for the Computer Communication and Networks,
Step 1:
Define the following
1. The type of things the student should be able to do (i.e. ABILITIES)
2. The subject matter in which he should be able to do them (i.e CONTENT)
A Table of Specifications is a two way-chart, which relates CONTENT andABILITIES by
assigning suitable weightages for testing purpose.
Programme : B. Tech – Information Technology

Semester : V Semester
Subject : Computer communication and Networks (Code Number : XXXXX)
Abilities Remember Understand Apply Higher Total
Content order
Recognize Recall 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 3.1 3.2
abilities
(No. and
Name
of the Unit)
Total 100
Step 2:
Assigning weightage to the various units of the content
Factors to be considered:
1. Number of periods allotted for teaching the unit

2. Usefulness of the content matter of the unit in the student’s job or every day life
3. Usefulness of the content matter of the unit in understanding other units of the same
subject
4. Usefulness of the content matter of the unit in understanding other subjects prescribed
for the programme
According to step 2,
Weightage for abilities and content need to be defined.
CATEGORY OF ABILITY WEIGHTAGE
Remember (R) 20%

Understand (U) 60%
Apply(Ap) 20%
Higher order abilities 0%
Total 100%
Imparting Content
Unit / Module No Unit Name
in Percentage
Unit / Module 1 Network Design 18%
Unit / Module 2 LAN Access methods and Standards 15%
Unit / Module 3 Packet Switching Networks 18%
Unit / Module 4 TCP / IP Architecture 22%

Unit / Module 5 Advanced Network Architecture and Security 27%
Protocols
Abilities Remember Understand Apply Higher Total

Content order
(No. and Name Recognize Recall 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 3.1 3.2
abilities
of the Unit)
Network Design 5 2 0 0 0 0 2 4 0 0 18
LAN Access 0 3 0 0 0 4 4 0 4 0 0 15
methods and
Standards
Packet Switching 0 3 0 0 0 0 2 4 4 5 0 18
Networks
TCP / IP 0 2 0 22
Architecture
Advanced 27
Network
Architecture and
Security Protocols
Total 20 60 20 0 100
The ability and content details are updated in the above the table. After updating the details,
you have check the each cell where the question can be designed. Finally, the two
dimensional table will be filled with values
Abilities
Remember Understand Apply Higher
Content order Total
(No. and Name
Recognize Recall 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 3.1 3.2 abilities
of the Unit)
Network 5 5 2 0 0 0 0 2 4 0 0 0 18
Design
LAN Access
methods and 0 3 0 0 0 4 4 0 4 0 0 0 15
Standards
Packet
Switching 0 3 0 0 0 0 2 4 4 5 0 0 18
Networks
TCP / IP 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 3 12 5 0 0 22
Architecture
Advanced
Network
Architecture 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 5 10 5 5 0 27
and Security
Protocols
Total 20 60 20 0 100
Once the values are finalized, the start to design the question paper. The cornerstone of
classroom assessment practices is the validity of the judgments about students’ learning and
knowledge (Wolming&Wilkstrom, 2010). A TOS is one tool that teachers cause to support
their professional judgment when creating or selecting test for use with their students. The
TOS can be used in conjunction with lesson and unit planning to help teacher make clear the
connections between planning, instruction, and assessment.
Analytic Rubric
Introduction
An analytic rubric articulates levels of performance for each criterion to allow the
instructor to assess student performance on each criterion. Thus using analytic rubric, the
instructor is able to provide specific feedback on several dimensions of an assignment (e.g.,
thesis, organization, mechanics, etc.) along specific levels of performance
Advantages
• Provide useful feedback on areas of strength and weakness.
• Each criterion is evaluated specifically.
• Criterion can be weighted to reflect the relative importance of each dimension.
Disadvantages
• Takes more time to develop and apply than a holistic rubric.

• Raters may not arrive at the same score if each point for every criterion is not well
defined.
Analytic or holistic rubrics can be used depending on the purpose of teachers and
performance expected from students in the assessment of student’s writings. However, the
matter as to which one is more reliable is controversial. Some researchers assert that analytic
rubric is more reliable than holistic rubric (e.g. Elbow, 2000; Gunning, 2006).
Template - 1
5 Point Rating Scale
Need to
Criteria Excellent Very Good Good Satisfied
Improve
Criteria - 1 Indicators Indicators Indicators Indicators Indicators
Criteria – n Indicators Indicators Indicators Indicators Indicators

Template - 2
4 Point Rating Scale
Need to
Criteria Very Good Good Satisfied
Improve
Criteria - 1 Indicators Indicators Indicators Indicators
Criteria – n Indicators Indicators Indicators Indicators
Example for Workshop
Collaborative Work Skills : in Mechnical Workshop
Teacher Name: Teacher Teacher
StudentName: ______________________________________
CATEGORY 4 3 2 1
Routinely provides useful Usually provides useful ideas Sometimes provides useful Rarely provides useful
ideas when participating in when participating in the group ideas when participating in the ideas when
the group and in classroom and in classroom discussion. A group and in classroom participating in the
Contributions discussion. A definite leader strong group member who tries discussion. A satisfactory group group and in classroom
who contributes a lot of effort. hard! member who does what is discussion. May refuse
required. to participate.
Provides work of the highest Provides high quality work. Provides work that occasionally Provides work that
quality. needs to be checked/redone by usually needs to be
Quality of Work other group members to ensure checked/redone by
quality. others to ensure
quality.
Routinely uses time well Usually uses time well throughout Tends to procrastinate, but Rarely gets things done
throughout the project to the project, but may have always gets things done by the by the deadlines AND
ensure things get done on procrastinated on one thing. Group deadlines. Group does not have group has to adjust
time. Group does not have to does not have to adjust deadlines to adjust deadlines or work deadlines or work
Time-management adjust deadlines or work or work responsibilities because of responsibilities because of this responsibilities because
responsibilities because of this person\'s procrastination. person\'s procrastination. of this person\'s
this person\'s procrastination. inadequate time
management.
Actively looks for and Refines solutions suggested by Does not suggest or refine Does not try to solve
suggests solutions to others. solutions, but is willing to try problems or help others
problems. out solutions suggested by solve problems. Lets
Problem-solving others. others do the work.
Never is publicly critical of Rarely is publicly critical of the Occasionally is publicly critical Often is publicly
the project or the work of project or the work of others. Often of the project or the work of critical of the project or
others. Always has a positive has a positive attitude about the other members of the group. the work of other
Attitude attitude about the task(s). task(s). Usually has a positive attitude members of the group.
about the task(s). Often has a negative
attitude about the
task(s).
Consistently stays focused on Focuses on the task and what needs Focuses on the task and what Rarely focuses on the
the task and what needs to be to be done most of the time. Other needs to be done some of the task and what needs to
done. Very self-directed. group members can count on this time. Other group members be done. Lets others do
Focus on the task person. must sometimes nag, prod, and the work.
remind to keep this person on-
task.
Almost always listens to, Usually listens to, shares, with, and Often listens to, shares with, Rarely listens to, shares
shares with, and supports the supports the efforts of others. Does and supports the efforts of with, and supports the
Working with efforts of others. Tries to keep not cause \"waves\" in the group. others, but sometimes is not a efforts of others. Often
Others people working well together. good team member. is not a good team
player.
Routinely monitors the Routinely monitors the Occasionally monitors the Rarely monitors the
effectiveness of the group, effectiveness of the group and effectiveness of the group and effectiveness of the
Monitors Group and makes suggestions to works to make the group more works to make the group more group and does not
Effectiveness make it more effective. effective. effective. work to make it more
effective.
When we assess the performance the student each criterion can be considered equally or
unequally. Consider, in the above example all the criteria are treated as equal. The importance
for all the criteria is equal. A student SSS is getting a score as follows
Teacher Name: Class Teacher
StudentName: _______SSS_______________________________
CATEGORY 4 3 2 1
Routinely provides useful Usually provides useful ideas Sometimes provides useful Rarely provides useful
ideas when participating in when participating in the group ideas when participating in the ideas when
the group and in classroom and in classroom discussion. A group and in classroom participating in the
Contributions discussion. A definite leader strong group member who tries discussion. A satisfactory group group and in classroom
who contributes a lot of hard! member who does what is discussion. May refuse
effort. required. to participate.
Provides work of the highest Provides high quality work. Provides work that occasionally Provides work that
quality. needs to be checked/redone by usually needs to be
Quality of Work other group members to ensure checked/redone by
quality. others to ensure
quality.
Routinely uses time well Usually uses time well Tends to procrastinate, but Rarely gets things done
throughout the project to throughout the project, but may always gets things done by the by the deadlines AND
ensure things get done on have procrastinated on one deadlines. Group does not have group has to adjust
time. Group does not have to thing. Group does not have to to adjust deadlines or work deadlines or work
Time-management adjust deadlines or work adjust deadlines or work responsibilities because of this responsibilities because
responsibilities because of responsibilities because of this person\'s procrastination. of this person\'s
this person\'s procrastination. person\'s procrastination. inadequate time
management.
Actively looks for and Refines solutions suggested by Does not suggest or refine Does not try to solve
suggests solutions to others. solutions, but is willing to try problems or help others
problems. out solutions suggested by solve problems. Lets
Problem-solving others. others do the work.
Never is publicly critical of Rarely is publicly critical of the Occasionally is publicly critical Often is publicly
the project or the work of project or the work of others. of the project or the work of critical of the project or
others. Always has a positive Often has a positive attitude other members of the group. the work of other
Attitude attitude about the task(s). about the task(s). Usually has a positive attitude members of the group.
about the task(s). Often has a negative
attitude about the
task(s).
Consistently stays focused on Focuses on the task and what Focuses on the task and what Rarely focuses on the
the task and what needs to be needs to be done most of the needs to be done some of the task and what needs to
done. Very self-directed. time. Other group members can time. Other group members be done. Lets others do
Focus on the task count on this person. must sometimes nag, prod, and the work.
remind to keep this person on-
task.
Almost always listens to, Usually listens to, shares, with, and Often listens to, shares with, Rarely listens to, shares
shares with, and supports supports the efforts of others. Does and supports the efforts of with, and supports the
Working with the efforts of others. Tries to not cause \"waves\" in the group. others, but sometimes is not a efforts of others. Often
Others keep people working well good team member. is not a good team
together. player.
Routinely monitors the Routinely monitors the Occasionally monitors the Rarely monitors the
effectiveness of the group, effectiveness of the group and effectiveness of the group and effectiveness of the
Monitors Group and makes suggestions to works to make the group more works to make the group more group and does not
Effectiveness make it more effective. effective. effective. work to make it more
effective.
In the rubric evaluation, the bold indicators are score for the student SSS. In a simple table
Teacher Name: Teacher Teacher
StudentName: ______________________________________
CATEGORY 4 3 2 1
Contributions *
Quality of
Work *
Time-
management *
Problem-
solving *
Attitude *
Focus on the
task *
Working with
Others *
Monitors
Group
Effectiveness
*
Score = 4 + 3+ 3 + 4 + 3 + 3 + 4 + 3
= 27 / 32
= 84.38%
When we consider all the criteria as equal, then we got the score as 84.38%. But, in some cases
we cannot consider all the criteria as equal. So, we have to give the relative importance to each
criterion.
For example, Teacher’s Teaching competency
CATEGORY 4 3 2 1
Knowledge in
the subject
Communication
Skills
Dress Code
Punctuality
Humor
Anecdotes in
the class
Friendliness
Assignment
Preparation
In the above, table it is not necessary to give equal importance to all the criteria. In the above
example, assume that the faculty member like to give the relative importance as follows.
CATEGORY Importance
Knowledge in the subject 2 mark * indicator rating
Communication Skills 2 mark * indicator rating
Dress Code 1 mark * indicator rating
Punctuality 1 mark * indicator rating
Humor 1 mark * indicator rating
Anecdotes in the class 2 mark * indicator rating
Friendliness 0.5 mark * indicator rating

Assignment Preparation 2 mark * indicator rating
If a teacher is evaluated with an above relative importance then the score is not equal as normal
scoring where every criterion is considered as equal.
Score for the teacher = TTT

CATEGORY 4 3 2 1 Score
Knowledge in
the subject * 4x2=8
Communication
Skills * 3x2=6
Dress Code * 3x1=3
Punctuality * 4x1=4
Humor * 4x1=4
Anecdotes in
the class * 4x2=8
Friendliness * 3 x 0.5 = 1.5

Assignment
Preparation * 3x2=6
In the above sample, the important competencies are considered as more weightage . So, a
teacher is punctual, friendliness and humor cannot be treated as equal to the teacher with
knowledge, communication, anecdotes in the class and etc.,
Score for the teacher TTT

= 8 +6 + 3 + 4+ 4+ 8+1.5 +6
= 40.5 / 46
= 88%
So, the performance is exactly assessed. In addition, the strength and weakness easily
identified.
What Are the Parts of a Rubric?
Rubrics are composed of four basic parts in which the professor sets out the parameters of
the assignment. The parties and processes involved in making a rubric can and should vary
tremendously, but the basic format remains the same. In its simplest form, the rubric includes
a task description (the assignment), a scale of some sort (levels of achievement, possibly in
the form of grades),
Title
Task Description
Scale level 1 Scale level 2 Scale level 3
Criterion 1
Criterion 2
Criterion 3
Criterion 4
Figure 1.1 Basic rubric grid format.
the criteria of the assignment (a breakdown of the skills/knowledge involved in the

assignment), and descriptions of what constitutes each level of performance (specific
feedback) all set out on a grid, as shown in Figure 1.1.
In the rubric, it is created by using a simple Microsoft Word table to create our grids using the
“elegant” format found in the “auto format” section. This sample grid shows three scales and
four criteria. This is the most common kind of rubric, but sometimes it can be further
extended with more criteria with valid label to maximum of five scale levels and six to seven
criteria. In this document, it will look at the four component parts of the rubric and, using an
oral presentation assignment as an example, develop the above grid part-by-part until it is a
useful grading tool (a usable rubric) for the professor and a clear indication of expectations
and actual performance for the student.
Part-by-Part Development of a Rubric
Part 1: Task Description
The task description is almost always originally framed by the faculty member and involves a
“performance” of some sort by the student. The task can take the form of a specific
assignment, such as a laboratory work, paper, a poster, assignment, or a presentation. The
task can also apply to overall behavior, such as participation, use of proper lab protocols, and
behavioural expectations in the classroom. It is necessary to place the task description, usually
cut and pasted from the syllabus, at the top of the grading rubric, partly to remind ourselves
how the assignment was written as we grade, and to have a handy reference later on when
we may decide to reuse the same rubric.
Task Description: Each student will make a 5-minute presentation on an installation and
configuration of the Web Server for web Technologies Lab. The presentation should include
appropriate photographs, presentations, maps, graphs, simulations, and other visual aids
for the audience.
Criterion 1
Criterion 2
Criterion 3
Criterion 4
Figure 1.2 Part 1: Task description.
More important, however, we find that the task assignment grabs the students’ attention in
a way nothing else can, when placed at the top of what they know will be a grading tool. With
the added reference to their grades, the task assignment and the rubric criteria become more
immediate to students and are more carefully read. Students focus on grades. Sad, but true.
We might as well take advantage of it to communicate our expectations as clearly as possible.
If the assignment is too long to be included in its entirety on the rubric, or if there is some
other reason for not including it there, we put the title of the full assignment at the top of the
rubric: for example, “Rubric for Oral Presentation.” This will at least remind the students that
there is a full description elsewhere, and it will facilitate later reference and analysis for the
professor. Sometimes we go further and add the words “see syllabus” or “see handout.”
Another possibility is to put the larger task description along the side of the rubric. For reading
and grading ease, rubrics should seldom, if ever, be more than one page long. Most rubrics
will contain both a descriptive title and a task description. Figure 1.2 illustrates Part 1 of the
sample rubric with the title and task description highlighted.
Part 2: Scale
The scale describes how well or poorly any given task has been performed and occupies yet
another side of the grid to complete the rubric’s evaluative goal. Terms used to describe the
level of performance should be tactful but clear. In the generic rubric, words such as
“mastery,” “partial mastery,” “progressing,” and “emerging” provide a more positive, active,
verb description of what is expected next from the student and also mitigate the potential
shock of low marks in the lowest levels of the scale. Some professors may prefer to use non-
judgmental, non-competitive language, such as “high level,” “middle level,” and “beginning
level,” whereas others prefer numbers or even grades.
Here are some commonly used labels compiled by Huba and Freed (2000):
• Sophisticated, competent, partly competent, not yet competent (NSF Synthesis
Engineering Education Coalition, 1997)
• Exemplary, proficient, marginal, unacceptable
• Advanced, intermediate high, intermediate, novice (American Council of Teachers of
Foreign Languages, 1986, p. 278)
• distinguished, proficient, intermediate, novice (Gotcher, 1997):
• accomplished, average, developing, beginning (College of Education, 1997)
We almost always confine ourselves to three levels of performance when we first construct a
rubric. After the rubric has been used on a real assignment, we often expand that to five. It is
much easier to refine the descriptions of the assignment and create more levels after seeing
what our students actually do. Figure 1.3 presents the Part 2 version of our rubric where the
scale has been highlighted. There is no set formula for the number of levels a rubric scale
should have. Most professors prefer to clearly describe the performances at three or even
five levels using a scale. But five levels is enough. The more levels there are, the more difficult
it becomes to differentiate between them and to articulate precisely why one student’s work
falls into the scale level it does. On the other hand, more specific levels make the task clearer
for the student and they reduce the professor’s time needed to furnish detailed grading notes.
Most professors consider three to be the optimum number of levels on a rubric scale.
for the audience.
Criteria 1
Criteria 2
Criteria 3
Criteria 4
Figure 1.3 Part 2: Scales.
If a faculty chooses to describe only one level, the rubric is called a holistic rubric or a scoring
guide rubric. It usually contains a description of the highest level of performance expected for
each criterion, followed by room for scoring and describing in a “Comments” column just how
far the student has come toward achieving or not achieving that level. Scoring guide rubrics,
however, usually require considerable additional explanation in the form of written notes and
so are more time-consuming than grading with a three-to five-level rubric.
Part 3: Criteria
The criteria of a rubric lay out the parts of the task simply and completely. A rubric can also
clarify for students how their task can be broken down into components and which of those
components are most important. Is it the grammar? The analysis? The factual content? The
research techniques? And how much weight is given to each of these aspects of the
assignment? Although it is not necessary to weight the different criteria differently, adding
points or percentages to each criterion further emphasizes the relative importance of each
aspect of the task. Criteria should actually represent the type of component skills students
must combine in a successful scholarly work, such as the need for a firm grasp of content,
technique, citation, examples, analysis, and a use of language appropriate to the occasion.
When well done, the criteria of a rubric (usually listed along one side of the rubric) will not
only outline these component skills, but after the work is graded, should provide a quick
overview of the student’s strengths and weaknesses in each criterion. Criterion need not and
should not include any description of the quality of the performance. “Organization,” for
example, is a common criterion, but not “Good Organization.” We leave the question of the
quality of student work within that criterion to the scale and the description of the criterion.
Breaking up the assignment into its distinct criteria leads to a kind of task analysis with the
components of the task clearly identified. Both students and faculty members find this useful.
It tells the student much more than a mere task assignment or a grade reflecting only the
finished product. Together with good descriptions, the criteria of a rubric provide detailed
feedback on specific parts of the assignment and how well or poorly those were carried out.
This is especially useful in assignments such as our oral presentation example in which many
different criteria come into play, as shown in Figure 1.4.
Part 4: Description of the criteria
Criteria alone are all-encompassing categories, so for each of the criteria, a rubric
should also contain at the very least a description of the highest level of performance in that
criterion. A rubric that contains only the description of the highest level of performance is
called a scoring guide rubric. Scoring guide rubrics allow for greater flexibility and the personal
touch, but the need to explain in writing where the student has failed to meet the highest
levels of performance does increase the time it takes to grade using scoring guide rubrics. For
most tasks, we prefer to use a rubric that contains at least three scales and a description of
the most common ways in which students fail to meet the highest level of expectations
for the audience.
Knowledge/understanding
20%/20 points
Thinking/inquiry
30%/30 points
Communication
20%/20 points
Use of visual aids
20%/20 points
Presentation skills
10%/10 points
Performance Assessment
Student performance in the laboratory, classrooms, industrial training, Assignment work

workshop and etc., are very much important to learn their subject actively. To measure their
learning in terms of performance is equally important as regular exams what we are conducting
in terms of assessment or examination.
Figure – 1. Performance Assessment

Educational experts prepared some common guidelines for measuring the student performance.
The guidelines are selecting the appropriate performance tasks, developing clear instructions
for students, developing procedures for evaluating students' performance, and implementing
procedures to minimize rating errors.
Selecting Appropriate Performance Tasks

A performance task is an assessment activity that requires a student to produce a written or to
create a product (Nitko, 2001). Here are some factors that should be considered.
Select the performance task that

• Provide the most direct assessment of the educational objectives you want to measure.
• Maximize your ability to generalize the results of the assessment.
• Reflect essential skills.
• Encompass more than one learning objective.
• Focus your evaluation on the processes and/or products you are most interested in.
• Provide the desired degree of realism.
• Measure skill that are "teachable”.
• Fair to all students
• Can be assessed given the time and resources available.
• Can be scored in a reliable manner.
• Reflect educational objectives that cannot be measures using more traditional measures.
Developing Instructions
Generally, performance tasks often require fairly complex student responses, it is
important that your instruction precisely specify the types of responses you are expecting.
Because originality and creativity are seen as desirable educational outcomes, Performance
tasks often give students considerable freedom in how they approach the task. It is the teacher's
responsibility to write instructions clearly and precisely so that students do not need to "read
the teacher's mind" that what the teacher is expecting from the individual.
Here, a list of questions that assessment professionals recommend you to consider when
evaluating the quality of your instructions (e.g., Nitko, 2001):
• Do your instructions match the educational level of your students?

• Do your instructions contain unnecessary jargon and overly technical language?
• Do your instructions clearly specify the purpose or goal of the task?
• Do your instructions clearly specify the type of response you expect?
• Do your instructions specify all the important parameters of the performance task (e.g.,
time limits, the use of equipment or materials)?
• Do your instructions clearly specify the criteria you will use when evaluating the
student responses?
• Will students from diverse cultural and ethnic backgrounds interpret the instructions in
an accurate manner?
Developing Procedures for Evaluating Responses

Whether the teacher is evaluating the process, product, or a combination of the two, it
is imperative that to develop systematic, objective, and reliable procedure for evaluating
student responses.
A rubric is a scoring guide used to evaluate performance, a product, or a process or a
combination of the two. It consists of three components
1. Performance Criteria
2. Rating Scale
3. Indicators
Indicators
Figure -2 – Parts of the Rubric
A rubric is simply a written guide that helps you score constructed-response assessments. In
discussing the development of scoring rubrics for performance assessments, Popham (1999)
identified three essential tasks that need to be completed, discussed in the following
paragraphs.
Select important criteria that will be considered when evaluating student responses.
Start by selecting the criteria or response characteristics that you will employ when
judging the quality of a student's response. The criteria you are considering when judging the
quality of a student's response should be described in a precise manner so that there is no
confusion about what the rating refers to. It is also highly desirable to select criteria that can be
directly observed and judged. Characteristics such as interest, attitude, and effort are not
directly observable and do not make good bases for evaluation.
Specify explicit standards that describe different levels of performance.

For each criterion that to evaluate, it is necessary to develop clearly stated standards
that distinguish among levels of performance. In other words, the standards should spell out
what a student's response must encompass or look like to be regarded as excellent, average, or
inferior. It is often helpful to provide behavioral descriptions and/or specimens or examples to
illustrate the different levels of performance.
Determine what type of scoring procedure you will use.

Scoring rubrics can be classified as either holistic or analytic. With analytic scoring
rubrics the teacher awards credit on a criterion-by-criterion basis whereas with holistic rubrics
the teacher assigns a single score reflecting the overall quality of the student's response.
Analytic scoring rubrics have the advantage of providing specific feedback to students
regarding the strengths and weaknesses of their response. This informs students which aspects
of their responses were adequate and which need improvement. The major limitation of
analytic rubrics is that they can take considerable time to complete. Holistic rubrics are often
less detailed than analytic rubrics and as a result are easier to develop and complete. Their
major disadvantage is that they do not provide specific feedback to students about the strengths
and weaknesses of their responses.
Most experts suggest that including more than seven positions is not useful because raters
usually cannot make finer discriminations than this.
ANALYSIS OF A QUESTION PAPER
The first step to construct a good question paper is to be able to critically look at the
existing question paper and to identify its strengths and deficiencies. The question paper
is a very important component of the assessment system. Since the students are required
to demonstrate the performance that they now become capable after undergoing the
teaching - learning process; it is very necessary that the question paper clearly calls for
the same performance. Thus we see that there needs to be a great deal of relationship
between the instructional objectives and the question paper. The performances that the
question paper asks the student to demonstrate should be the same as those that the
curriculum specifies.
Everv classroom teacher who prepares the student for examinations that are conducted
by bodies that are outside the institution should be capable of analvsing the question
paper and to specify its strengths and weaknesses.
Resources needed
As stated earlier we need some resources for analysis namely

1. The question paper itself
2. The scheme or the pattern of the question paper prescribed by the board
or examination system
3. The table of specifications for the question paper, if available
4. The marking or scoring system together with the marks assigned to
individual questions and sub-divisions
5. The curriculum document with objectives, content details and time
allocation
6. The teacher analysing the question paper should have expert knowledge in
the subject area together with the knowledge and skills in construction and
use of achievement tests and examinations.
1
Qualities of a good paper
Analysing the questions paper in detail we can perhaps discus briefly some desirable
qualities of a paper. These may be stated as follows:
1. In any examination, the paper should be fair to all students. That is those
who have studied more should get more marks than those who have
studied less.
2. The paper should be comprehensive and test or sample the content of the
entire curriculum as also the abilities.
3. Those students who have studied all areas of the curriculum should be able
to get more marks than those who study only selected portions (because of
the open choice given in some question papers) should.
4. The question and the answer expected should be clear and unambiguous.
The language should be easily understandable. If students do not
understand what is expected of them how will they be able to answer?
5. The relative marks for each question and its sub-division should be marked
so that when a student answers he knows how to allocate his time for the
answer.
6. In general the more number of specific questions a paper has the better will
its reliability. So also if the questions are objective, the paper and exam will
be more reliable Scoring of a paper also is easy if the questions of objective
in nature.
7. The instructions given are complete and easy to understand.
2
Analysis
Question paper should be analysed at 2 levels viz.: Micro level and pertains to the
individual questions and items and Macro level in which we consider the question paper
as a whole. Both these analysis are important.
Analysis of question paper at Micro level
Question is considered good if
1 It measures a specific area of content and the achievement of an ability

specified in the curriculum. The performance required from the student
should be the same as that specified in the curriculum.
2. It is well written that there are no technical defects in item construction.
3. It is worded appropriately and it is easy and clear to understand. (The item

or question should be able to check the subject matter and not the students'
abilities in English unless it is question paper in English.
4. The time allocated is appropriate and the marks assigned to the question is
also proportionate to time and performance expected.
5. The difficulty level of the question should be appropriate to the class that
uses the paper. The facility value of around 50% or a bit more may be
recommended (if you have data on item analysis).
6. he instructions given are clear and unambiguous and easy to understand.
7. when checked with other questions and items, this item does not test the
same area of content and abilities and that it does not give clues for
answering other items.
8. the quality of items is good and appropriate.
3
It is not enough that each question and item has been constructed and measures
a specific and important area of content, it must also fit into the question paper
appropriately. The paper as a whole measures the achievement of students. In all
analysis it is the paper that should be considered as a whole more than individual
items and questions. Since the paper cannot measure all areas of curriculum that
is taught it has to necessarily sample content and abilities. How far it is a
representative sample needs to be analysed. So in analysing the question paper
as a whole we should check whether.
1. It samples content and abilities comprehensively and in all areas. The

sample must also be representative.
2. The instructions are clear and that there is no ambiguity.
3. It conforms to the syllabus and table of specifications. If the table of

specifications is available we can check the paper with the table and see
whether it confirms to it. If the table of specifications is not available then
using the questions and marks allocated for each question and sub. division
we need to prepare a table of specifications and check the table to see
whether it is properly balanced or not. Some question papers may not even
have mark allocated. We need to do this before the analysis is made.
4. The time allocated is appropriate. Unless it is a speeded test, where the

candidate's ability to quickly answer is measured, most average students
should be able to complete the paper in the allocated time.
5. The questions expect an answer from the student and it is necessary to

check that the extent and nature of response and the time the student will
take in answering the question is matched properly with the marks allocated
to the question.
4
6. A student who has selectively studied only a few areas of content can get
full marks due to choice. A student who studied more areas of content
should get more marks that will be negotiated if choice is allowed in the
questions. Choice always also results in different students taking different
questions and so that uniformity of assessment of all students is lost.
7. Are there any questions, which are outside the curriculum and syllabus?
5
ESTABLISH THE CHARACTERISTICS OF TEST
Characteristics of a good test
Teachers often use a variety of evaluation Instruments to assess the scholastic

achievement of students. Test instruments are wider used to measure the student
achievement at different stages of the teaching learning process. The
effectiveness or the quality judgement depend upon the equality of the test
instruments, The essential characteristics of a good test are
v Comprehensiveness refers to the quality of the test to be long enough to

measure all areas of content as well as the range of abilities
v Usability refers to the quality of the test suggesting ease of administration,

scoring and interpreting. Most of the characteristics mentioned above are
interrelated.
Objectivity:
The objectivity of a test refers to the degree to which equally competent scorers give the
same score for the same answer paper. If the test contains objective test items, then the
objectivity of the test will be high. Essay type questions where the scorer has to use his
subjective judgement cannot be highly objective. The scores assigned by different
examiners should not be affected by the personal bias of the scorers. Though objectivity
is a desirable quality, it should not be insisted upon where the other more important
characteristic (namely validity) requires subjective items in the test. Essay tests are less
objective. It is known that no two examiners assign the same score for an essay. In
scoring an essay many extraneous factors come into the picture.
1
Discrimination:
A good test should be able to pick out a good student from the poor one, The test should
also be able to detect small differences in students' achievement. This is the ability of a
test to discriminate and we can increase discriminating power of the test by using items
that can discriminate as well as by having items that have all levels of difficulty. A test
having larger range of scores will be able to discriminate better.
Comprehensiveness:
A test measuring student achievement both in the subject content and in behavioural
outcomes must be comprehensive as well as representative in sampling so as to make
the test good.
Usability:
A test should be easy to administer, score and to interpret to make it usable. The test
which takes minimum student time in administering and which can be administered
without much problems in seating etc., is preferable to one which requires elaborate
precautions to administer. Economy in making the test (printing) and economy of time in
its use are desirable characteristics. A test which is easy to score after administration is
also a desirable test. In short, if 2 tests are compared and other things being equal the
test that is easy to design, duplicate, administer and score is desirable.
Relevance:
This relates to the matter of matching the performance measured by the test item or
question to the type of performance specified by the instructional objectives or the
learning outcomes. This is therefore possible only when the curriculum specifies the
intended learning outcomes (objectives) clearly. It is therefore necessary for the test
constructor to use careful judgement in selecting items and questions. If the outcome
calls for supplying the answer then the item should require the student to supply the
answer rather than select an answer. It is more important when higher order abilities are
2
involved. The items or questions should be exactly matched in performance and in the
level of performance with those indicated in the objectives.
Difficulty of the Test:
In norm-referenced tests, if the items are all easy or too difficult, then the spread of scores
of those taking the test tends to be restricted i.e. either all will get high scores or all will
get low scores, Classroom achievement test should be so constructed that the average
score is around 50%.
Other desirable characteristics:
The test that is administered and scored should be fair to the student. It is desirable that
an average student who has learnt the topics taught should be able to do well and pass.
The items and questions should be able to measure his learning and should not be
twisted or made unnecessarily complicated, The question paper as a whole should be a
balanced one in that the different areas must be given appropriate weightage based on
importance and the time spent in teaching. The items themselves should check important
areas of achievement rather than some trivial or obscure areas in the content.
3
Reliability
Reliability refers to the consistency of measurement that is, how consistent are test
scores from one measurement to another. If a test gives a score now and if it is administered
again after lapse of a short time without remedial instruction, gives scores which are
comparable, then the test is said to be reliable. This is called test-retest reliability. The type of
test items in a test can affect reliability also. Items which can be differently scored by different
examiners or by the same examiner at different times will contribute to unreliability (i.e. essay
type items). Factors affecting reliability are
• items that are ambiguous, too easy or too difficult will contribute to unreliability since
all those examined will get the same or nearly same scores.
• a longer test is more reliable than a short one as there is greater scope for a larger spread
of scores.
• test that has greater spread of scores is more reliable, as it discriminates between high
and low achievers.
• Objective tests are more reliable than essay type tests because the subjective judgement
of the scorer does not affect the scores.
Reliability refers to error in measurement. This could be extrinsic error or intrinsic error.
Extrinsic error may be due to:
• test and Examination conditions and situations.
• subjectivity in scanning by the scorers (this can be eliminated by using objective items
or minimised by having a marking scheme and examiners meeting for scoring).
Intrinsic error may be due to:
• the quality of items and questions
• sampling of areas not balanced i.e. it is biased
• time limits set arbitrarily which is not in keeping with the requirements of the test
situation.
The reliability of a test is measured in terms of Reliability coefficient. The following methods
are used to find out the reliability of a test.
Test-Retest Method
The test is administered to a group of students for whom the test is constructed. The
same test is administered to the same group of students after a lapse of time. Test administration
must be under similar conditions. This would mean that the students are retested with the same
test. The scores are compared and coefficient of correlation found out. If there is a high positive
correlation then the test will be valid. However in this method the effect of learning or
unlearning due to the lapse of time cannot be ruled out.
Equivalent form method

This method is also called Parallel form method. Two equivalent forms of the test
(called parallel forms) are constructed. The two tests must be similar in all respects- objectives
tested, number of items, categories of items, length of the test, time for answering, difficulty
level of items, content covered and the type of item used to test a specific content. The tests are
administered to the students for whom the test is designed. Coefficient of correlation of the
scores obtained is calculated. If this is high the test will be reliable. One of the problems of this
method is the difficulty of designing two forms of tests.
Split half method

An easy and much used method for finding the reliability coefficient is the split half method.
The test whose reliability is to be found it is administered to the students for whom the test is
designed. The test is then split into two exact halves. Separating out all odd and all even items
does this. Scores of students on these two forms are found out. The reliability coefficient of
these two scores are found out. If this is high the test would be reliable,
Reliability of a test is closely related to validity. A valid test is usually also reliable but a highly
reliable test need not necessarily be valid. The validity of a test is more important than
reliability and we should not abandon essay type items merely because they contribute to
unreliability of measurements.
Criterion referenced test versus Norm referenced Test
Different kinds of test can be conducted in a teaching – learning process and scores can be
interpreted. Based on the test or interpretation of score the test can be classified as Norm-
referenced Test versus Criterion referenced Test. Norm-referenced test and criterion-
referenced test are differentiated with respect to the ways scores are interpreted and the
purposes of the tests. Norm-referenced test is the process of evaluating or grading the learning
of students by ranking them against the performance of their peer group. Criteria- referenced
test is the process of evaluating or grading the learning of students against a set of defined
criteria. Norm Referenced Test is a test that measures how the performance of a particular
student or a group of students as one group compares with the performance of another student
or group of another set of students as a group whose scores are given as the norm. A test taker‘s
score is, therefore, interpreted with reference to the scores of other test takers or groups of test
takers. Norm referenced test tells that where a student stands compared to other students in
their performance. This position may help the student to take some decisions. The quality of
Norm referenced test is usually good because they are developed by experts, piloted, and
revised before they are used with students. It is also good for ranking and sorting students for
administrative purposes. It is intended to judge the class performance and institutions
accountability of providing learning standards and maintaining quality of education.
Criterion referenced test would be used to assess whether students pass or fail at a certain
criterion. So, Criterion referenced test is an approach of evaluation through which a learner‘s
performance is measured with respect to the same criterion in the classroom. Criterion
referenced test is good to measure specific skills or specific outcome of a student. It provides
the roadmap to the faculty member that how well the students are progressing. It is good to
determine learning progress if students have learning gaps or academic deficits that need to be
addressed . In a paper written by researcher Bond said that Criterion referenced test gives
direction to teaching and re-teaching. Instructors can use the test results to determine how well
they are teaching the curriculum and where they are lagging behind.
In a Military Selection a criterion was set. The Criterion is to climb the wall using a rope and
jump to other side of the wall. The scenario is, consider a wall with a height of 10 metre from
the ground. A rope is hanging in front of the wall. There are 20 candidates are standing in-front
of the wall. The criterion is, each one has to use the rope which is hanging in- front of the wall
and climb the wall using the rope and jump to other side of the wall. Assume that after the test,
some of them not even climbed 50% of the wall. Few of them climbed 75% of the wall and
only three of them touched the top of the wall but they could not jump to other side. So, who
will be selected for military? No body. It is exactly criterion referenced. The criterion need to
succeeded.
Discrimination Index
Probably the most popular method of calculating an index of item discrimination is
based on the difference in performance between two groups. Although there are different ways
of selecting the two groups, they are typically defined in terms of total test performance. One
common approach is to select the top and bottom 27% of test takers in terms of their overall
performance on the test and exclude the middle 46% (Kelley, 1939). Some assessment experts
have suggested using the top and bottom 25%, some the top and bottom 33%, and some the
top and bottom halves. In practice, all of these are probably acceptable. The difficulty of the
item is computed for each group separately, and these are labeled PT and PB (T for top, B for
bottom). The difference between PT and PB is the discrimination
PT - proportion of examinees in the top group getting the item correct index, designated as D,
and is calculated with the following formula (e.g-Johnson, 1951)
D= PT-PB
Where
D = Discrimination index
PT = proportion of examinees in the top group getting the item correct
PB = proportion of examinees in the bottom group getting the item correct
To illustrate the logic behind this index, consider a classroom test designed to measure
academic achievement in some specified area. If the item is discriminating between students
who know the material and those who do not, then students who are more knowledgeable ie.,
students in the top group) should get the item correct more often than students who are less
knowledgeable (ie. students in the bottom group). For example, if PT= 0. 0.80 indicating 80%
of the students in the top group answered the item correctly) and PB=0.30 (indicating 30% of
the students in the bottom group answered the item correctly), then
D= 0.80 – 0.30 = 0.50
Hopkins (1998) provided guidelines for evaluating items in terms of their D values (see Table
1). According to these guidelines, D values of 0.40 and above are considered excellent, between
0.30 and 0.39 are good, between 0.11 and 0.29 are fair, and between 0.00 and 0.10 are poor.
Items with negative D values are likely mis-keyed or there are other serious problems. Other
testing assessment experts have provided different guidelines, some more rigorous and some
more lenient.
Types of Discrimination Index

1. No Discrimination or Zero discrimination: The item of the test is answered correctly by
all examinee’s or an item is not answered correctly by any of the examinee
2. Positive discrimination: An item is correctly answered by superior and is not answered
correctly by inferior.
3. Negative discrimination: An item is correctly answered by inferiors and not answered
correctly by superiors.
As a general rule, we suggest that items with D values over 0.30 are acceptable (the larger the
better), and items with D values below 0.30 should be carefully reviewed and possibly revised
or deleted. However, this is only a general rule and there are exceptions. For example, most
indexes of item discrimination, including the item discrimination index (D), are biased in favor
of items with intermediate difficulty levels. That is, the maximum D value of an item is
Table 1 : Guidelines for Evaluating D Values

Difficulty Item
0.40 and larger Excellent
0.30 – 0.39 Good
0.11 – 0.29 Fair
0.00-0.10 Poor
Negative values Miskeyed or other major flaw

Table 2 : Maximum D values at Different Difficulty Levels
Item Difficulty Index (p) Maximum D value
1.00 0.00
0.90 0.20
0.80 0.40
0.70 0.60
0.60 0.70
0.50 1.00
0.40 0.70
0.30 0.60
0.20 0.40
0.10 0.20
0.00 0.00
related to its p value (see Table 2). Items that all test takers either pass or fail i.e., P values of
either 0.0 or 1.0) cannot provide any information about individual differences and their D
values will always be zero. If half of the test takers perfectly answered an item and half failed
(i.e., p value of 0.50), then it is possible for the item's D value to be 1.0. This does not mean
that all items with p values of 0.50 will have D values of 1.0, but just that the item can
conceivably have a D value of 1.0. As a result of this relationship between p and D, items that
have excellent discrimination power (i.e.., D Value of 0.40 and above) will necessarily have p
values between 0.20 and 0.80. In testing situations in which it is desirable to have either very
difficult items, D values can be expected to be lower than those normally desired. Additionally,
items that measure abilities or objectives that are not emphasized throughout the test may have
poor discrimination due to their unique focus. In this situation, if the item important ability or
learning objective and is free of technical defects, it should be retained (e.g., Linn & Gronlund,
2000)
Scoring System
It is essential that each candidate's progress be watched carefully and reported as accurately as
possible. Scores also prove an important means for stimulating, directing and rewarding the
efforts of candidates. Scores represent the degree of achievement as precisely as possible under
the circumstances. Scores are necessary but they are based on sufficient evidences. There are
two major types of scoring systems have been used for evaluation of the item set.
Absolute Scoring System: A scoring system in which candidate's percent score is independent
of any other candidate's scores called absolute scoring. To evaluate the Item set, teacher present
must be there, whose natural instincts in-clime to be helpful guides and counsellors, to stand in
judgment over some of their fellow. Experts stated that, “It is never difficult to give good scores
to candidate if it is higher than he really expected. But there are likely to be more occasions for
disappointment than pleasure in scores". Scoring standards are often varying from instructor to
instructor and from institution to institution. Due to such reasons, there is no scoring system
available, which will make the process of scoring easy and satisfactory. This is to say that no
new scoring system however cleverly devised and conscientiously followed to solve basic
problem of scoring.
Relative Scoring System: A basic principle of relative scoring is to measure achievement of

candidate by comparing with his /her achievement of peers. Another characteristic is to permit
candidate to set the scoring standard rather than to the teacher. In most areas of human
activities, awards go to individuals, who are outstanding in relative, not in absolute terms.
There are no absolute standards for speed in running the mile or for distance in throwing the
javelin. The winner in any race is determined on a relative basis.
Description of Test Score
A distribution is a set of scores. The score can be obtained from any kind of test conducted.
Statically, The distribution of a statistical data set is a listing or function showing all the
possible values of the data and how often they occur. When a distribution of categorical data
is organized, it provides the number or percentage of individuals in each group. When a
distribution of numerical data is organized, they’re often ordered from smallest to largest,
broken into reasonably sized groups, and then put into graphs and charts to examine the shape,
center, and amount of variability in the data.
Measures of central tendency are used to describe the centre of the distribution. There are three
measures commonly used for obtain the distribution. These measures are mean, median and
mode.
Mean: The "average" number; found by adding all data points and dividing by the number of
data points.
Example: 13, 18, 13, 14, 13, 16, 14, 21, 13
The mean is the usual average, so I'll add and then divide:
(13 + 18 + 13 + 14 + 13 + 16 + 14 + 21 + 13) ÷ 9 = 15
Median: The middle number; found by ordering all data points and picking out the one in the
middle
• Arrange the data points from smallest to largest.

• If the number of data points is odd, the median is the middle data point in the list.
• If the number of data points is even, the median is the average of the two middle data
points in the list.
Example: 13, 13, 13, 13, 14, 14, 16, 18, 21
There are nine numbers in the list, so the middle one will be the (9 + 1) ÷ 2 = 10 ÷ 2 = 5th
number:
13, 13, 13, 13, 14, 14, 16, 18, 21 >>> So the median is 14.
Mode: The most frequent number—that is, the number that occurs the highest number of times.
So, 13 is the mode.
In addition with three measures, range is also one kind of measure which is the difference
between the largest value and smallest value. In the list largest values is 21, and the smallest
is 13, so the range is 21 – 13 = 8.
Standard Deviation (SD): This is one of the measures of variability of scores. It indicates the
spread of scores around the mean score. For standard distribution its value is 1. A greater value
of SD indicates that there is a wide spread of scores around the mean score. It is defined as the
positive square root of the arithmetic mean of the square of deviation of given observation from
their arithmetic mean. In short 𝜎𝜎 is defined as root mean square deviation from mean.
Considered the student score for 20 students
Stu No Marks (10) Score Frequency

Mean = 7.3
A101 7 10 1
A102 8 Median = 7.5 9 4
A103 9 8 5
Mode = 8 7 4
A104 6
6 3
A105 7 5 2
A106 6 4 1
A107 10
A108 8
A109 5
Student Score Distribution
A110 9 6
A111 9 5
A112 9 4
A113 8
3
Frequency
A114 4
2
A115 5
A116 6 1
A117 7 0
A118 8 10 9 8 7 6 5 4
A119 8
A120 7
Figure -1
Normal Distribution
Many distributions fall on a normal curve, especially when large samples of data are
considered. This is important to understand because if a distribution is normal, there are certain
qualities that are consistent and help in quickly understanding the scores within the distribution.
The mean, median, and mode of a normal distribution are identical and fall exactly in the center
of the curve.
The empirical rule tells you what percentage of your data falls within a certain number
of standard deviations from the mean:
• 68% of the data falls within one standard deviation of the mean.
• 95% of the data falls within two standard deviations of the mean.
• 99.7% of the data falls within three standard deviations of the mean.
Figure 2
The standard deviation controls the spread of the distribution. A smaller standard deviation
indicates that the data is tightly clustered around the mean; the normal distribution will be
taller. A larger standard deviation indicates that the data is spread out around the mean; the
normal distribution will be flatter and wider.
Properties of a normal distribution
• The mean, mode and median are all equal.

• The curve is symmetric at the center (i.e. around the mean, μ).
• Exactly half of the values are to the left of center and exactly half the values are to the
right.
• The total area under the curve is 1.
Skewness: Literal meaning of skewness is 'Lack of Symmetry'. It is used to study the shape
i.e. symmetry or asymmetry of the frequency distribution. In a symmetrical distribution,
equal distances on either side of the central value. Both the tails (Left and Right) of the
curve is equal in shape and length. The skewness of normal frequency distribution is Zero.
The frequency curve of the distribution is not a symmetric bell shaped curve but it is
stretched more to one side to the other i.e. it has longer tail to one side (Left or Right) than
to another. A frequency distribution, for which the curve has a longer tail towards the right
side, is said to be positively skewed and if longer tail towards the left side, it is said to be
negatively skewed. The figure - 2 graphs show the symmetrical distribution and flowing
figure -3 and figure -4 shows asymmetrical distribution.
Figure – 3
For a right (positive) skewed distribution, the mean is typically greater than the median.
Also notice that the tail of the distribution on the right hand (positive) side is longer than
on the left hand side.
Figure - 4
A distribution that is skewed left has exactly the opposite characteristics of one that is skewed
right:
• the mean is typically less than the median;

• the tail of the distribution is longer on the left hand side than on the right hand side; and
• the median is closer to the third quartile than to the first quartile.
The following figure shows the comparison of skewness.
Percentile Rank: When different groups appear for the tests, scores are also different for tests.
They have widely different means, standard deviations and distributions. It is useful to have
standard scale to which they are referred. One such scale is percentile rank. The percentile rank
of a test score indicates what percent of the scores falls below the midpoint of that score
interval. In calculating percentile rank of any score, half of the persons receiving that score are
considered to have scored below and half of then to have scored above the midpoint of the
score interval. Percentile rank is used to determine the relation between a particular candidate's
score and score of other candidates tested in the group. It is the range of 0 to 100 regardless of
whether the group as a whole performs well or poorly in the test. Percentile ranks differ from
the original or raw test scores. Percentile ranks are rectangular distribution while row scores
are normal distribution. In normal distribution, the scores are concentrated near the middle with
decreasing score frequencies as one moves out to the high and low extremes. In rectangular
distribution the score frequencies are uniform all along the scale.
Quick Way to Estimate Reliability for Classroom Exams
Saupe (1961) provided a quick method for teachers to calculate reliability for a classroom exam
in Era prior to cay access to calculators or computers. It is appropriate for a test in which each
item is given equal weight and each item is scored either right or wrong. First, the standard
deviation of the exam must be estimated from a simple approximation
First. the standard deviation of

SD = [sum of top 1/6th of scores - sum of bottom 1/6th of scores] / [total # of scores- 1] / 2
Reliability =1 – [0.19 x number of items] /SD2
Thus, for example, in a class with 24 student test scores, the top one-sixth of the scores are 98,
92, 87, and 86, while the bottom sixth of the scores are 48, 72, 74, and 75. With 25 test items,
the calculation are:
SD = [ 98 + 92 + 87 + 86 – 48 – 72 – 74 - 75] / 23 / 2
= [363 – 269] / 11.5
= 94 / 11.5 = 8.17
So,
Reliability = 1 – [0.19 x 25] / 8.172
= 1 – 0.07
= 0.93
A reliability coefficient of 0.93 for a classroom test is excellent.
Reference : Measurement and Assessment in Education by Reynolds, Livingston and Willson Second
Edition
Item Analysis for Constructed –Response Items
Our discussion and example of the calculation of the it difficulty index and discrimination index
used examples that were dichotomously scored (i.e., scored right or wrong: 0 or ). Although this
procedure works fine with selected-response items (e-g. true-false, multiple-choice), you need a
slightly different approach with constructed-response items that are scored in a more continuous
manner (e.g. an essay item that can receive scores between 1 and 5 depending on quality). To
calculate the time difficulty index for a continuously scored constructed-response item, use the
following formula (Nitko, 2001):
Average Score on the Item

P=
Range of Possible Scores
The range of possible scores is calculated as the maximum possible score on the item minus the
minimum possible score on the item. For example, if an item has an average score of 2.7 and is
scored on a l to 5 scale, the calculation would be:
2.7 2.7
P= = =0.675
5-1 4
Therefore, this item has an item difficulty index of 0.675. This value can be interpreted the same
as dichotomously scored items we discussed.
To calculate the item discrimination index for a continuously scored constructed-response item,
you use the following formula (Nitko, 2001)
Average Score for the Top Group Average Score for the Bottom Group
D=
Range of Possible Scores
For example, if the average score for the top group is 4.3, the average score for the bottom group
in 1.7, and the item is scored on a 1 to 5 scale, the calculation would be:
D = (4.3 – 1.7) / (5 -1) = 2.6 /4 = 0.65
Therefore, this item has an item discrimination index of 0.65. Again, this value can be
interpreted the same as the dichotomously scored items we discussed.
Item Difficulty Index ( or Item Difficulty Level)
When evaluating items on ability tests, an important consideration is the difficulty level
of the item. Item difficulty is defined as the percentage or proportion of test takers who
correctly answer the item difficulty level or index is abbreviated as p and calculated with the
following formula:
number of examinees correctly answering the item
P=
Number of examinees
For example, in a class of 30 students, among the 30 students 20 students got the answer
correct and ten are incorrect, the item difficulty index is 0.67. The calculations are illustrated
here.
20
P= =0.67
30
In the same class. if ten students get the answer correct and 20 are incorrect, the item difficulty
index is 0.33.
While calculating the item analysis, if X number of students not appeared for the question, then
we have to subtract the X from the number of Examinees.
For Example, in a of class 30 students, among the 30 students 18 students are submitting the
correct answer, 8 students are submitting the wrong answer and 4 students are not responded
for the questions. So, the value P = 18/(30-4)
The item difficulty index can range from 0.0 to 1.0 with easier items having larger decimal
values and difficult items at lower values. An item answered correctly by all students receives
an item difficulty of 1.0 whereas an item answered in-correctly by all students receives an item
difficulty of 0.0. Items with p values of either 1.0 or 0.0 provide no information about
individual differences and are of no value from a measurement perspective. Some test
developers will include one or two items with p values of 1.0 at the beginning of a test to instill
a sense of confidence in test takers. This is a defensible practice from a motivational
perspective, but from a technical perspective these items do not contribute to the measurement
characteristics of the test. Another factor that should be considered about the inclusion of very
easy or very difficult items is the issue of time efficiency. The time students spend answering
ineffective items is largely wasted and could be better spent on items that enhance the
measurement characteristics of the test.
For maximizing variability and reliability, the optimal item difficulty level is 0.50, indicating
that 50% of test takers answered the item correctly and 50% answered incorrectly. Based on
this statement, you might conclude that it is desirable for all is that items on a test are often
correlated with each other, which means the measurement process may be confounded if all
the items have p values of 0.50. As a result, it is often desirable to select some items with p
values below 0.50 and some with values greater than 0.50, but with a mean of 0.50. Aiken
(2000) recommends that there should be approximately a 0.20 range of these p values around
the optimal value. For example, a test developer might select items with difficulty levels
ranging from 0.40 to 0.60, with a mean of 0.50.
Another reason why 0.50 is not the optimal difficulty level for every testing situation involves
the influence of guessing. On constructed-response items (e.g., essay and short-answer items)
for which guessing is not a major concern, 0.50 is typically considered the optimal difficulty
level.
In general, the difficulty of the items are as follows
Difficulty Value Item Evaluation
0.20 to 0.30 Most Difficult
0.30 to 0.40 Difficult
0.40 to 0.60 Moderate Difficult
0.60 to 0.70 Easy
0.70 to 0.80 Most Easy
However, with selected-response items (e.g., multiple choice and true-false items) for which
test takers might answer the item correctly simply by guessing, the optimal difficulty level
varies. To take into consideration the effects of guessing.
TABLE 1: Optimal p Values for Items with Varying Numbers of Choices
Number of Choices Optimal Mean P Value
2 (e.g., True –False) 0.85
3 0.77
4 0.74
5 0.69
Constructed response (e.g., essay) 0.50
The optimal item difficulty level is set higher than for constructed-response items. For
example, for multiple-choice items with four options the average p should be approximately
0.74 (Lord, 1952). That is, the test developer might select items with difficulty levels ranging
from .64 to 0.84 with a mean of approximately 0.74. Table 6.1 provides information on the
optimal mean p value for selected-response items with varying numbers of alternatives or
choices
Reference : Measurement and Assessment in Education by Reynolds, Livingston and Willson

Second Edition
Reliability: Practical Strategies for Teachers
Now, you are aware of the importance of the reliability of measurement. A common question
is "How can I estimate the reliability of scores on my classroom tests?" Most teachers have a
number of options. First, if you use multiple-choice or other tests that can be scored by a
computer scoring program, the score printout will typically report some reliability estimate
(e.g. coefficient alpha or KR-20). If you do not have access to computer scoring, but the items
on a test are of approximately equal difficulty and scored dichotomously (i.e. correct/incorrect),
you can use an internal consistency reliability estimate known as the Kuder-Richardson
formula 21 (KR-21). To calculate KR-21 you need to know only the mean, variance, and
number of items on the test:
𝑋𝑋 (𝑛𝑛−𝑋𝑋)
KR-21 =1 -
𝑛𝑛𝜎𝜎 2
X = mean
𝜎𝜎 2 = Variance
n = Number of Items
Consider the following set of scores:

50 48 47 46 42 42 40 40 38 37 38 41 49 43 40 32 31 30 28 41
X= 40.15
𝜎𝜎 2 = 39.71
and n=50
So,
40.15(50−40.15)
KR -21 = 1 -
50∗39.71
395.4775
=1-
1985.66
= 1 – 0.1991
=0. 80
Reference : Measurement and Assessment in Education by Reynolds, Livingston and

Willson Second Edication
Self- Assessment
Assessment can be in different purpose and forms.
• To measure achievement (summative assessment/ assessment of learning);
• To stimulate learning (formative assessment/ assessment for learning);
• To enable learners to become conscious of how they learn (assessment as
learning).
However, higher education has generally focused on ‘acquisition of’ rather than
‘participation in’ learning (Boud and Falchikov, 2006). Falchikov (2005) further outlines
the changing definitions of assessment: assessment as measurement, assessment as
procedure, assessment as enquiry, assessment as accountability and assessment as
quality control.
Ideally, assessment is for learning as well as for measuring achievement (of
learning). When students are assessed in activities that seem intrinsically meaningful
or useful, they are more likely to engage and invest in deep learning (Sambell et al.,
2013). However, traditional assessment practices, which focus on grades and
individual certification, can undermine students’ capacity to judge their own work
(Boud and Falchikov, 2006). Students can become passive recipients of externally
imposed assessment practices. Assessment should be perceived of as a fair and
transparent process (Flint and Johnson, 2011). Both peer- and self-assessment can
contribute towards student perceptions of the fairness of assessment (Rust et al.,
2003).
Introduction to Self- Assessment

Self-assessment is a powerful mechanism for enhancing learning. It
encourages students to reflect on how their own work meets the goals set for learning
concepts and skills. It promotes metacognition about what is being learned, and
effective practices for learning. It encourages students to think about how a particular
assignment or course fits into the context of their education. It imparts reflective skills
that will be useful on the job or in academic research.
The underpinning axiom of self-assessment is that the individual student is able
to gain understanding of their own needs, which can then be communicated to fellow
students (leading into peer learning and assessment) and/or the tutor/lecturer. Self-
assessment is a valuable approach to supporting student learning, particularly when
used formatively (Taras, 2010). It is also useful in preparing students for life-long
learning, through discussions about their skills and competencies (including the ability
to assess), not just knowledge (Brew, 1999).
For self-assessment to be effective, students should first become familiar with
the concept. The term ‘self-assessment’ is used to cover all judgements by learners
of their work: it is related to and incorporates terms such as ‘self-evaluation’ and ‘self-
appraisal’. There are several different purposes of self-assessment: to evaluate
understanding of the content, to demonstrate the achievement of outcomes and goals
and the self-development of the learner. These three aspects of self-assessment are
all inter-linked and will receive different emphases at different times during the process
of learning.
Purpose of Self- Assessment

In general, self-assessment supports student learning and is one of the most
important skills that students require for future professional development and life-long
learning, as it develops the capacity to be assessors of learning (Boud and Falchikov,
2006; Taras, 2010). Taras also points out that self-assessment starts from the
perspective of the integration of learning and teaching.
• Promotes the skills of reflective practice and self-monitoring.
• Promotes academic integrity through student self-reporting of learning
progress.
• Develops self-directed learning.
• Increases student motivation.
• Helps students develop a range of personal, transferrable skills
Limitations of Self- Assessment

• Some students are reluctant to self-assess; they feel they lack the necessary
skills, confidence or ability to judge their own work
• Students do not like it and do not see benefit in it
• For some students cultural issues impact on self-assessment because giving
themselves a good grade is considered inappropriate or boasting
MODULE
7
CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING,
INNOVATION AND MEANINGFUL R&D
National Institute of Technical Teachers

Training & Research, Chandigarh
September, 2019
CONTENTS
Sr. Contributor
No.
UNIT I
1. CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING Professor (Dr.) PK Tulsi
2. INNOVATION: CONCEPT, TYPES AND PROCESS Professor (Dr.) PK Tulsi
3. R&D THROUGH TEAM WORK Professor (Dr.) PK Tulsi
UNIT II
1. RESEARCH IN TECHNICAL EDUCATION: AN Professor (Dr.) PK Tulsi
INTRODUCTION
2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Professor (Dr.) PK Tulsi
3. SELECTING AND DEFINING A RESEARCH Professor (Dr.) Sunil Dutt
PROBLEM
4. SELECTING RESEARCH DESIGN AND
DESCRIBING PROCEDURE
4.1 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH:
Professor (Dr.) PK Tulsi
 SURVEY RESEARCH
 CASE STUDY
 CONTENT ANALYSIS RESEARCH
4.2 CORRELATION RESEARCH Er. Amandeep Kaur

4.3 EX-POST-FACTO RESEARCH Professor (Dr.) Sunil Dutt
4.4 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH Professor (Dr.) Sunil Dutt
5. UNDERTAKING ACTION RESEARCH Er. Amandeep Kaur
6. SAMPLING TECHNIQUES Er. Amandeep Kaur
7. MEASURING INSTRUMENTS Professor (Dr.) PK Tulsi
8. COLLECTION OF DATA Professor (Dr.) PK Tulsi
9. ANALYSIS OF DATA: DESCRIPTIVE AND Professor (Dr.) PK Tulsi

INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
10 FORMULATING RESEARCH PROPOSAL Professor (Dr.) Sunil Dutt
11.1 WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT Professor (Dr.) Sunil Dutt
11.2 EVALUATION OF RESEARCH REPORT Professor (Dr.) PK Tulsi

UNIT I
1: Creative Problem Solving

CONTENTS
S. No. Page
Learning Outcomes
1. Introduction 1-2
2. Creative Problem Solving 2-6
Practice Task 7
Feedback 8
3. Blocks to Creativity 9-10
4. Qualities of Creative Person 10-11
5. Process of Creative Problem Solving 11-15
5.1 Lowe’s process of creative problem solving 11
5.2 Isaksen, Dorval and Triffinger process of creative problem solving 12
6. Techniques for Generating and Focusing Ideas/Options 15-20
6.1 Idea generating techniques 15
6.2 Idea focusing techniques 18
7. Benefits of Creative Problem Solving 20
Practice Task 21
Feedback 22
References 23-24
CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING
Learning Outcomes
After reading the learning material, you will be able to:
• Explain the concept of creativity
• Enlist the characteristics of creative person
• List the dimensions of creative climate
• Explain the blocks to creativity
• Explain the concept of creative problem solving
• Describe the process of creative problem solving
• Describe the techniques of creative problem solving
• Apply the techniques of creative problem solving
1. Introduction
There has been increasing emphasis on developing creative problem solving skills among
the learners of 21st century on account of the internationalization of higher education,
increasing competition, rapid technological developments and the global challenges faced
by the mankind. The National Academy of Engineering has identified fourteen grand
challenges that need to be met. These include: Advance Personalized Learning, Make
Solar Energy Economical, Enhance Virtual Reality, Reverse-Engineer the Brain, Engineer
Better Medicines, Advance Health Informatics, Restore and Improve Urban Infrastructure,
Secure Cyberspace, Provide Access to Clean Water, Provide Energy from Fusion, Prevent
Nuclear Terror, Manage the Nitrogen Cycle, Develop Carbon Sequestration Methods and
Engineer the Tools of Scientific Discovery. In addition, United Nations has set seventeen
sustainable development goals as shown in Fig..1.
Fig.1: Sustainable development goals
1
The achievement of these sustainable development goals and an attempt to meet grand
challenges would require a strong base of research, innovation and creative problem
solving.
The existing system of education has been under criticism that it does not develop the
higher-level abilities namely, ability to analyze, evaluate and create or in other words ability
to solve problems among learners. The instructional strategies and the evaluation
techniques used fail to create an environment conducive for development of these higher
level abilities. Even, the practical work and the project work undertaken do not provide
environment of free exploration and experimentation and solving real life problems. The
acceptability of graduates in the world of work is low. There is an urgent need to bring in
changes in the system so as to enable the learners to indulge in out of the box thinking and
solve real life problems. Thus, teachers need to understand the concept and process of
creative problem solving.
2. Creative Problem Solving

Creative problem solving consists of three important words, namely creative, problem and
solving. Let us first clarify these three words.
Creative: It refers to new or novel. The underlying theme is creativity. There are many
definitions of creativity, each emphasizing a different face of creativity. Creativity can be
defined as a product, process and states of being.
As a product, creativity has been defined as the discovery of something novel, but also
useful, relevant, economical, elegant or valuable (Barron, 1969). According to Mackinnon
(1970), in addition to being novel, the product must:
• be adaptive to reality
• solve a problem
• fit the needs of the situation
• accomplish some recognizable goals
• be aesthetically pleasing
• significantly change one’s view of the world.
Creativity has been defined as the process of generating new products by transformation
of existing ones. These products must be unique to the creator and must meet the criteria
of purpose and value established by the creator (Welsch, 1980).
2
In terms of process, Torrance (1962) defined “the process of sensing gaps or disturbing,
missing elements; forming ideas or hypotheses concerning them; testing these
hypotheses and communicating the results, possibly modifying and retesting the
hypotheses”.
Another definition that has pervaded the literature identifies creativity as a process
variable by distinguishing divergent thinking behaviour from convergent thinking (Guilford,
1955, Guilford et al., 1951; 1960). When an individual is reported to be using convergent
processing, he is using logic and seeking a known solution to a problem. In divergent
thinking, an individual moves away from facts and known solutions in processing the
novel, imaginative unknown products. Within the category of thinking divergently, Guilford
found the factors of fluency, flexibility, originality and elaboration to be highly operative.
• Fluency: It refers to ideational fluency, associational fluency and expressional

fluency.
Ideational fluency denotes skills in generating quantities of ideas in a language
context (writing titles for untitled literature, imaging consequences of a change).
Associational fluency is the ability to produce many relationships or meaningful
associations with a given idea (quantity of synonyms to a familiar word).
Expressional fluency refers to juxtaposing words to meet sentence structure
requirements.
• Flexibility: The skill of being able to discontinue an existing pattern of thought and
shift to new patterns of thought is called flexibility. It has two sub skills namely –
spontaneous flexibility and adaptive flexibility.
Spontaneous flexibility deals with changes in direction of thinking when a person is
not instructed to do so (listing uses of bricks, person states uses relating not only to
weight but to colour, size, texture etc.)
Adaptive flexibility deals with changes in direction of thinking to solve problems.
• Originality: The process resembles that of ideational fluency except that the focus
is on ideas and products that are off beat, unexpected, and sometimes amusing.
• Elaboration: The process of elaboration is relevant to skills in planning and
organization (a person demonstrates the ability to fill in all of the various details
necessary to make a brief outlined project).
Still others define creativity with certain states of being. Attempts have been made
to identify traits and abilities that distinguish creative from non-creative person.
3
An omnibus definition of creativity is: the product has novelty for the thinker or the culture;
the thinking is unconventional, highly motivated and persistent; or of great intensity; the
task involves a clear formulation of an initially vague and undefined problem (Newell et al,
1962).
Creativity can be described as the production of useful solutions to problems, or novel
and interesting ideas across domains, which create products and/or artifacts and impact
thinking (Amabile, 1988, 1996; Oldham & Cummings, 1996; Zhou & George, 2003)
Gryskiewicz (1987) defined creativity as novel association that is useful. Ruth Noller
developed a symbolic equation for creativity that Creativity is a function of knowledge,
imagination and evaluation, reflecting an attitude towards the beneficial and positive use
of creativity (Isaksen, Dorval and Triffinger, 2011).
Problem
Problems exist in all aspects of life and are of varied nature-economic, political, social, or
technological. The problems can exist at the level of individual, group, organization or
society as a whole. Problems faced can be structured, semi-structured or ill structured. Or
problems faced can be simple or complex.
Problems, as many of us would think, need to be eliminated. But problems can also be
viewed as a need, challenge or opportunity. When viewed as need, it means the gap that
exist between “what should” and “What is”. For example, if you think that at least 20% of
your students should get placement through campus interviews but only 5% of the
students actually get placed, there exist a gap of 15% in the desired and actual state. The
gap between the two needs to be bridged by finding a suitable solution.
WHAT SHOULD BE (20%)
GAP/ NEED(15%)
WHAT IS (05%)
It can be viewed as a challenge also. For example, the Gross Enrolment in Higher
Education is only 26%, the challenge is how to achieve the three cardinal principles of
access, equity and quality. The challenge may be to increase the reach of teacher training
4
programmes without increasing the cost of training. An individual needs to have keen
observation to identify opportunities or challenges.
Solving
It simply refers to finding a solution to the problem or bridging the gap that exist between
the desired and the actual state.
Creative Problem Solving, in simple words, refers to finding creative solutions to the
problems. There are numerous definitions. A few are stated below:
‘’Creative problem solving is the mental process of creating a solution to a problem. It is a

special form of problem solving in which the solution is independently created rather than
learned with assistance. Creative problem solving requires more than just knowledge
and thinking. In other words, creative problem solving involves creativity’’ (Wikipedia).
www.creative-problem-solving.org/creative-problem-solving-defined/
“Creative Problem Solving is a process, a method, a system for approaching a problem in

an imaginative way resulting in effective action” (Noller, 1979).
CPS is a proven method for approaching a problem or a challenge in an imaginative and

innovative way. ( http://www.creativeeducationfoundation.org/creative-problem-solving/)
Creative problem solving (CPS) is a way of solving problems or identifying opportunities

when conventional thinking has failed. It encourages you to find fresh perspectives and
come up with innovative solutions, so that you can formulate a plan to overcome
obstacles and reach your goals.
In simple words, Creative Problem Solving may be defined as a problem solving

technique that addresses a challenge or problem in a creative manner (Cleverism).
https://www.cleverism.com/what-is-creative-problem-solving/
From the above definitions, it can be concluded that creative problem solving
• Is a process
• Involves a problem, which is ill structured and complex
• Uses tools of creativity or creative thinking
• Involves both divergent and convergent thinking
• The outcome or product is novel or new
5
The more the ill structured and complex problem, the more out of the box thinking or
creative thinking would be required to solve it. Normally, when an individual or an
organization is faced with a problem, it tries to answer the following questions:
• Is there a standard procedure to solve the problem?
• Have I solved a similar problem earlier?
• Has anybody else solved a similar problem?
• Is there an expert who can solve the problem?
When the answer to the above questions is “No”, an individual tries to explore various
options or alternatives and tries to indulge in creative thinking. Or when the solution
thought of is not feasible, an individual tries to indulge in creative thinking process.
6
Practice Task
1. Write in one minute as many uses of brush as you can.
2. Count the number of uses you could write.
3. Identify the variety of uses you could write.
4. identify any unique idea you could write.
5. Elaborate how you will use your original idea.
6. Join the following nine dots with four straight lines without lifting the pen or pencil.
7. Define creative problem solving.
7
Feedback
1. Write in one minute as many uses of brush as you can.
You may have written uses and some of these may be:
• Cleaning teeth
• Cleaning jewellery
• Cleaning bottles
• Threading
• Painting
• Support
• As an arm
• Colouring hairs
• Spray painting
• Cleaning AC
• Use for threading salwars/pyjamas
2. Count the number of uses you could write.
Say, you have written 8 uses. It represents your fluency.
3. Identify the variety of uses you could write.
The variety of uses include:

cleaning, painting/ colouring hair, arm, support, for threading salwars or pyjamas.
Say 5. This represents your Flexibility.
4. Identify any unique idea you could write.
Originality refers to uniqueness of idea.
5. Elaborate how you will use your original idea.

If you can elaborate on your unique idea and explain how it will be implemented, it
refers to elaboration.
6.
Many a times we fail to do a task because either we assume things on our own or impose our
own conditions. While joining these nine dots, many of us might have assumed that we have
to draw a square and complete the task.
7.It is a process of solving a problem creatively.
8
3. Blocks to Creativity
Khandwalla (1992) has identified the following blocks to creative thinking, which inhibit an
individual to indulge in creative thinking:
Fear of failure Allergy to ambiguity
Rigidity Touchiness
Blocks to
Creativity
Starved Sensibilities Resource Myopia
Conformity
Fig.2: Blocks to Creativity

• Fear of Failure: The fear of failure makes us avoid risks and indulge in new
activities, tasks or thinking.
• Allergy to ambiguity: Ambiguity or uncertainty can be discomforting to many.
Most of the people look for structure, orderliness and simplification. For
example, when planning for a tour, a person would normally make all
reservations before hand and would not like to take chances without reservation.
• Touchiness: Touchiness is a serious block in collaborating activities. An
individual who is touchy about criticism or rejection will not approach others for
help or guidance. They tend to look at others with suspicion when they approach
for help or guidance.
• Conformity: Conformity to social norms and fear of social disapproval is another
major block to creativity.
• Resource Myopia: The most common reply, in case of a new idea is, we do not
have the resources. Inability to recognize one’s strengths and identify resources
in the environment act as barriers to creativity.
• Starved Sensibilities: As we grow, use of fantasy, imagination, emotions etc.
gets reduced due to environmental pressures for being rational. Due to this,
many a times we are not able to indulge in creative thinking.
9
• Rigidity: Rigidity can occur on account of stereotyping, dogmatism and
functional fixedness.
These blocks can be removed by training individuals in creative thinking. If the persons
involved in generating creative solution possess the following qualities, there will not be
blocks or chances are more that you will get creative solutions.
4. Qualities of Creative Person
The research studies conducted by Lowerfield and Guilford identified following eight key
characteristics of creative persons:
• Sensitivity: The creative individual is sensitive to problems, needs, attitudes and
feelings of others. He has an acute awareness of anything odd, unusual or
promising in the person, material, or situation with which he is dealing.
• Fluency: This refers to the ability to take continuous advantage of a developing
situation – to use each completed step as a new advantage point from which to
assess the problem and move on.
• Flexibility: People with high creative ability adjust quickly to new developments
and changed situations. Unforeseen obstacles in a problem solving situation are
often used to advantage by the creative person.
• Originality: This refers to uncommonness of individual’s responses to problematic
situation and number and diversity of solution given.
• Redefinition Skill: They have unusual ability to rearrange ideas, concepts, people
and things – to shift function of objects and use them in new ways.
• Ability to Abstract: It refers to the ability in analyse components of a problem i.e.
getting details from the whole.
• Ability to Synthesise: It means ability to combine several components to arrive at
a creative whole.
• Coherence of Organisation: The ability to organise a project, express an idea, or
create a design in such a way that nothing is superfluous.
Other research findings indicate that creative persons possess the following traits:
• High level of intelligence (defined in broad terms).
• Openness to experience.
• Freedom from inhibitions and stereotyped thinking.
• Aesthetic sensitivity.
• Flexibility in thought and nature
10
• Independence in thought and action.
• Love of creation for creation sake.
• Endless quest for new challenges and solutions.
In addition, an organization needs to provide conducive environment to nurture creativity.

The dimensions of creative organizational climate identified based on Ekvall (!988)
include: Challenge, Freedom, Dynamism/liveliness, Trust/openness, Idea time,
Playfulness/humour, Conflicts, Idea Support, Debates and Risk Taking.
5. Process of Creative Problem Solving

Creative problem solving is based on the work of Alex O. Osborn (1953-Father of
brainstorming) and Parnes (1967). Osborn gave three stages in problem solving namely
fact finding, Idea finding, and solution finding. He also proposed the idea of deferred
judgement during idea finding. Parnes (1967) recognized the potential of technique
suggested by Osborn for creative problem solving and introduced two more stages in the
process. Problem finding stage was introduced before fact finding and acceptance finding
stage after the solution finding stage. There are variations in the steps identified in the
process of creative problem solving by different authors. The procedure specified by Lowe
(1996) and Isaksen, Dorval and Triffinger (2011) are discussed below.
5.1 Lowe’s process of creative problem solving

Lowe (1996) proposed a very simplified process of creative problem solving consisting of
the following steps:
• Problem Identification and Definition
• Decision Making:
• Planning and organizing
Problem Identification and Definition

• Identify Apparent Problem: The very first step in creative problem solving is to
identify the apparent problem. For example, the apparent problem may be that the
organization intends to have 40% of the market share for given product but has
only 20% of the market share. There is a gap between “What should be” and “What
is”. The problem needs to be understood in its context.
• Seek and analyse the causes: The problem may be on account of number of
reasons. Diagnosis needs to be carried out to identify or arrive at the
reasons/causes for the problem. Critical thinking is needed to arrive at the causes
11
of the problem. The techniques that can be used to identify the causes include fish
bone diagrams and force field analysis and affinity diagram.
• Define the real problem: On the basis of analysis of the causes, specific problem
statement is formulated. The problem may now be stated as how to tap the
unexplored market to increase the market share to 40%.
Decision making: creating and selecting options

• Creating alternative solutions: The second step involves generation of creative
ideas to bridge the gap. This stage requires use of creativity tools to generate new
ideas. The techniques that can be used include: Brainstorming, Random Word
Generating, Morphological Analysis. At the Idea generation stage, the principle of
deferred judgement is used. Ideas are generated without any evaluation.
• Selecting the best option: After generation of alternate solutions to the problem,
the best solution is to be selected. This involve evaluation and selection of a
potential solution which can be developed and implemented to achieve the
desirable state. Criteria for evaluation of various options/ideas need to be evolved.
In addition, risk/pay off (High/Low) and/or quality/acceptance (High/Low) matrix can
be used to evaluate the potential solutions.
Planning and organizing

• Plan a course of action: Once the best solution is chosen, an action plan is
prepared for implementation of the solution. The action plan must answer the
questions-
o What major activities need to be performed to implement the selected
solutions?
o Who needs to be involved?
o Whose approval needs to be taken?
o How long might be needed for implementation?
o What is the likely cost?
o Are there any implications for working practices, systems etc. in the
organization?
o What type of resources are required for implementation?
• Implement: Once the action plan is prepared the idea is ready for implementation
5.2 Isaksen, Dorval and Triffinger process of creative problem solving

Isaksen, Dorval and Triffinger (2011) has given three different stages in the process of
creative problem solving. These include:
12
Understanding the Challenge
• Constructing Opportunities
• Exploring data
• Framing problem
Generating Ideas
Preparing for Action
• Developing Solutions
• Building Acceptance
Understanding the challenge

It involves constructing opportunities, exploring data and framing problem. Constructing
opportunities refer to identifying and understanding the gaps that may exist between the
current reality and your images for the desired future state. Envisioning exercise may help
in clarifying and stating the vision. Exploring data means clear understanding of the
current situation. This would require gathering data from various sources, making
observations, having discussions with stakeholders and understanding their perceptions
and reactions. After the collection of data and identification of the gap between the
desired and the current state, specific problem statement needs to formulated. To arrive
at the specific statement, broad statement is broken down into a number of sub
statements or a number of reasons/causes are identified and relevant causes/reasons are
sifted. This process would lead to formulating a specific problem which needs to be
addressed.
Generating ideas
Generating idea involves production of many options, varied possibilities and novel or
new ideas for solving a problem or effecting a change (Isaksen, Dorvel and Triffinger,
2011). Ideas need to be characterized by fluency, flexibility, originality and elaboration. A
number of techniques can be used to generate creative ideas for finding a solution to the
problem. These techniques include:
• Attribute listing
• Brainstorming
• Brain Writing
• Forced fitting
• Imagery trek
13
• Morphological Matrix
• SCAMPER (Substitute, Combine, Adapt, Modify, Eliminate, re-arrange and
Reverse)
The principle of deferred judgment is used while generating ideas so as to encourage the
team members to generate variety of ideas. After the generation of the ideas, ideas are
evaluated to identify promising or potential ideas. Techniques such as short term versus
long term, fit in existing system versus new system, must versus want, simple versus
complex and useful versus novel are used at this stage. This stage is referred to as
focusing.
Preparing for action

This stage involves transforming your ideas into action. The two sub activities to be
undertaken are developing solution and building acceptances. Developing solution
involves analysing, evaluating and prioritizing and refining a promising solution. The
factors that need to be taken into account at this stage are quantity of options, level of
ownership, quality of options and task demands. Evaluation criteria needs to generated to
evaluate various options and selecting the best option. The criteria may be implicit or
explicit. Implicit criteria are based upon the perceptions, prejudices and preferences of the
people while explicit criteria are based on data. For developing solution to the problem,
different techniques can be used based upon the number of options generated. If there is
large number of options, techniques such as highlighting, must versus want and short
term versus medium term versus long term can be used. If there is moderate number of
options, techniques such as evaluation matrix, selecting hits and paired comparison
analysis can be used. If there is small number of options ALUo (Advantage, Limitations,
Unique qualities and Overcoming limitations) can be used. The use of these techniques
will help you in prioritizing solutions to the problem. The next steps is to build acceptance
of the solution. Building acceptance involves answering of question related to who, what,
when, where, why and identification of assisters and resisters. Assisters are the ones who
will support the solution and resisters are the ones who will oppose or resist the change.
The various action steps to be undertaken to implement the solution are generated and
limitations to be overcome are identified. The next step is to sequence the action steps
into short, medium and long term actions.
Planning for implementation: A detailed implementation plan indicating the tasks to be

performed, person responsible for the job, procedure for doing the job, timing of the job
etc. is prepared. In addition, how the success will be measured is indicated. In order to
ensure that plan implemented yields the desired results/outcomes, an implementation
14
checklist can be prepared. Rogers (1995) identified five factors that are likely to increase
the adoption of a solution. These include:
• Relative advantage – being better than previous idea
• Compatibility – consistent with values, experiences, and needs
• Complexity – being difficult to understand and use
• Trialability – may be experimented with on a limited basis
• Observability- results are visible to others
Once implementation plan is ready, feedback can be obtained from various stakeholders
who will be involved in the implementation of the plan. This will insure smooth
implementation.
6. Techniques for Generating and Focusing Ideas/Options

Some of the techniques that can be used for generating and focusing ideas/ options in
creative problem solving process include the following:
Generating Techniques
• Brainstorming
• Brain writing
• Forced fitting
• Imagery trek
• Ladder of abstraction
• Morphological matrix
• Relational algorithm
• SCAMPER
• Synectics
• Visually identifying relationships
Focusing Techniques
• ALUo (Advantage, Limitations, Unique qualities and Overcoming limitations can
be used).
• Evaluation matrix
• Highlighting
• Must versus wants
• Paired comparison analysis
• Selecting hits
• Short versus medium versus long term
6.1 Ideas Generating Techniques:

• Attribute listing (Crawford, 1954): The basic premise of this method is that all
ideas originate from previous ideas that have been modified in some way. There
are four major steps involved in attribute listing (Van Gundy, 1981).
! State the problem and its objectives
! List all the parts of a product, object or idea relate to the problem
! List the essential, basic characteristics of the product, object or idea
15
! Withholding all evaluation, systematically modify the characteristics or
attributes to meet the objectives of the problem.
• Brainstorming (Osborn, 1963): It is an idea generation method with deferred

judgment. Criticism is ruled out, freewheeling is welcomed and quantity is
emphasized. The ideas generated by the group are evaluated separately by a
small committee. The rules of brainstorming (Lowe, 1996) are enlisted below:
• Limit the length of the session
• Don’t interrupt
• Don’t evaluate
• Elect chairperson and scribe
• Have a structure
• Use tools
• Brain writing technique (Gueschka et al, 1975): It consists of:

• Silent recording and elaborating: Each member is provided a sheet of
paper containing several cues. The members read it and add their ideas
until ideas are exhausted. The members can exchange their current list
with one placed in the centre to get cues for generating more ideas.
• Round – robin recording: as is done in nominal technique
• Discussion: Group Technique
• Prioritization
• Forced fitting: Forced fitting is a technique by which a challenge or a problem is

related to randomly selected objects. The technique involves creating a new idea
out of two partially connected or totally unconnected ones.
• Imagery trek: The technique involves moving away from the problem i.e. taking a
mental or physical journey, and returning back to the problem to relate images or
impression of your journey to problem and generate new options. The technique
involves generating a list of 10 to 20 words, selecting words that suggest positive
images, taking one word at a time and indulging in mental journey and generating
a novel connection between the image and the problem. The images are then
refined and developed.
• Ladder of abstraction: This technique provides a framework to solve problems

and to solve them correctly at varying levels of focus. It gives a path to
understanding, (Autodesk.com, medium.com). The ladder of abstraction is a
technique that helps in clarifying the problem. It considers the problem at various
levels of abstractions or concreteness. If you move down the ladder you are trying
to specify a concrete statement of the problem. While moving down the ladder one
needs to provide real world tangible examples for theories and ideas, use sensory
language, be specific, tell stories and anecdotes, site data statistics and case
16
study and answer how questions. Moving up the ladder means increasing the level
of abstraction. While moving up the ladder, answer the question why is this
important, provide the big picture, reveal patterns and relationships, draw
diagrams, draw inferences, summarize into principle and guidelines.
• Morphological analysis: The steps involved in morphological analysis include the

following:
• List three to four parameters related to the problem
• Generate four to five qualities that identified parameters can have
• Prepare a matrix preparing parameters on the top and qualities on Y
axis
• Complete the matrix by brainstorming the possibilities in relation to
various combination of parameters and qualities
• Generate as many possibilities as you can
• Relational algorithm: Crontz (1978) and Van Gundy (1981) suggest several
relational words that enable an individual to consider systematically ideas that are
often over looked and facilitate comparison of several things at the same time.
Some of the relational words are: about, across, among, above, before, between,
below, down, during, except, for, from, near, out, over, still, since, throughout,
them, upon, up, when, where and without. The technique involves:
• Conducting a problem/objective review
• Inserting a relational word between each problem/objective element
pair
• Examining for ideas
• SCAMPER: Eberle (1971,1997) coined mnemonics SCAMPER to stimulate new

possibilities with respect to a product. The full form of SCAMPER is:
• S: Substitute
• C: Combine
• A: Adapt
• M: Modify/Magnify/Minify
• P: Put to other use
• E: Eliminate
• R: Re-arrange
• R: Reverse
Questions related to the above are posed and answered and list of ideas
generated.
• Synectics (Gordan, 1961): The facilitator uses the technique to get a group of
experts to visualize a new perspective and purge preconceived notions. Analogies
17
and metaphors are studied to generate new ideas. It consists of the following
steps:
• Problem as given (Description of problem and objectives)
• Analysis (Purpose is to make the strange familiar. Analogies and
metaphors are used).
• Purge (Verbalization of suggestions lead to elimination of rigid and
superficial solutions and promote innovative ideas).
• Problem as understood (Each member is asked to describe the
problem as he sees it and offer wishful solution, which are
recorded).
• Excursion (Conscious thinking on problem is stopped and facilitator
question each member evoking analogical answer. Unfamiliar is
made familiar. Some analogies are selected for further
examination).
• Forced Fit (The last analogy used in Excursion is connected to the
problem).
• View point (Synectic process ends up with a new view point that
could lead to a solution).
• Visually identifying relationships: This technique involves use of images, a

minimum of four. The group members are asked to identify and share new
options for dealing with a problem. Other variant of this technique is to ask the
group members to create their own visual images.
6.2 Ideas Focussing Techniques

• ALUo (Advantage, Limitations, Unique Qualities and Overcoming
Limitations): ALUo is used to analyse, develop and refine options. The steps
involved include:
• Identifying the strength of each option
• Identifying limitations or areas for improvement
• Identifying unique qualities (answer the question what is the
uniqueness about the option)
• Identifying the limitation which need to be overcome
A series of questions are posed related to the above and various possibilities are
identified.
• Evaluation matrix: Evaluation matrix helps in evaluating the various options

with respect to an evaluation criterion. The very first step is to identify the
options, then to evolve a criterion for evaluating the options. Each option is
evaluated against the criterion and rated on a 3-point or 5-point scale. Once the
options are rated against the criterion, identify which option is strong on which
criteria and week on which criteria. Answering questions why and how can
strengthen the options.
18
• Paired comparison analysis: Paired comparison analysis technique helps in
prioritizing the options. It involves comparison of each option with all other
options. At a time, two options are compared with each other and given a score
on either 3-point scale or 5-point scale. At the end, total score for each option is
calculated and the option with highest score is selected. There are six steps in
this technique:
Step 1: List the options to be compared as rows and column and a table
Step 2: A sign a letter to each option.
Step 3: Block out cells in the table which involve comparing an option with
itself.
Step 4: Compare each option with other option.
Step 5: A sign a score based on its importance in comparison to the other
option slightly more important (1) moderately more important (2) much more
important (3)
Step 6: Add up the total score for each option.
Option A B C D E
A A2 C1 A1 A2
B C2 D1 C1
C C2 C1
D D1
Total Score
Option A: 5
Option B: 0
Option C: 7
Option D: 2
Option E: 0
Option C gets selected.
• Selecting hits: Selecting hits is used to screen a large number of options and
identifying essential data. Internal requirements, personal experiences or
judgement and gut reaction may be used (Isaksen, 2011).
19
• Highlighting: After selecting hits and identifying hot spot is re stated as problem
statement or opportunities or reframe them as single group of data or idea,
promising solution or possible direction to proceed (Isaksen, 2011 and Treffinger
et.al 2006).
• Must versus wants: Must and want technique is used for quick sorting of options.
• Short versus medium versus long term: Action steps are grouped into short
term, medium term and long term. It takes in to account the starting and ending of
an action step.
These techniques facilitate generating solutions that are creative, that is, solutions
characterized by freshness, appropriateness, imagination, new relationships, and
significant transformation of initial definition of problem (Khandwalla, 1992).
7. Benefits of Creative Problem Solving

The following figure shows the benefits of creative problem solving to an organization (Van
Gundy, 1987).
Uncover the unexplored

areas
Generate and improve Achieve competitive

interaction among edge
employees
Benefits of
Support R & D, new CPS Reduce stress and
product development uncertainty
etc.
Identify and recognize

Explore new possibilities
employees ‘strengths
Fig.3: Benefits of Creative Problem solving
20
Practice Task
1. Enlist the various stages in the process of creative problem solving.
2. Explain any three techniques for generating ideas and selection of ideas.
21
Feedback
1. Enlist the various stages in the process of creative problem solving.
• Identifying and selecting a problem
• Decision making: generating ideas/options and selecting the best idea to solve the
problem
• Preparing for action: Preparing an action plan and implementation
2. Techniques for generating and selecting ideas/options

Compare your answers with techniques explained on page
22
References
• Amabile, T.M. (1988) A Model of Creativity and Innovation in Organizations. Research
in Organizational Behavior, 10, 123-167.
• Amabile, T. M. (1996). Creativity in context. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
• Barron, F. (1969). Creative person and creative process. Oxford, England: Holt,
Rinehart, & Winston.
Cliffs, NJ.
• Grykiewicz, S. S. (1987). Predictable creativity. In S. G. Isaksen (Ed.), Frontiers of
creativity research: Beyond the basics (pp. 305-313). Buffalo, NY: Bearly.
• Guilford, J.P., Christensen, P.R., Merrifield, P.R., and Wilson, R.C., 1960. Alternative
Uses Manual. Sheridan Supply Co.
• Isaksen, Scott G.; Dorval, K. Brain; and Treffinger, Donald J. (2011). Creative
Approaches to Problem Solving; A Framework for Innovation and Change. New Delhi,
Sage Publications India Pvt. Ltd.
• Khandwalla, Pradip N. (1992). Fourth Eye; Excellence Through Creativity. Allahabad
A.H Wheeler and company limited.
• Lowe, Phil (1996). Creativity and Problem Solving. Published in Association with
Harbridge Consulting Group Limited.
• MacKinnon, D. (1970). Creativity: A multi-faceted phenomenon. In J. D. Roslansky
(Ed.), Creativity: A discussion at the Nobel conference (pp. 17–32). Amsterdam:
North-Holland.
• NAE. Grand Challenges. https://www.nae.edu/
• Newell, A.; Shaw, J.C.; and Simon, H.A. (1962). The processes of creative thinking. In
H.E. Gruber, G. Terell and M. Wertheimer (Eds.), Contemporary approaches to
creative thinking: A symposium held at the University of Colorado (pp.63-119). New
York: Atherton.
• Noller, R.B. (1979). Scratching the surface of creative problem solving: A bird’s eye
view of CPS. Buffalo, NY: DOK.
• Oldham, G.R. and Cummings, A. (1996) Employee Creativity: Personal and
Contextual Factors at Work. Academy of Management Journal, 39, 607-634.
Parnes, S.J. (1967) Creative Behavior Guidebook. Scribners, New York.
• Torrance, E. P. (1962), Guiding creative talent, Prentice-Hall, Englewood
• UNESCO (2015). Sustainable Development Goals. https://en.unesco.org/sdgs
• Van Gundy Arthur B. (1981). Techniques of Structured Problem Solving. NY: Van
Nostrand Reinhold Company.
• Welsch, P.K. (1980). The nurturance of creative behavior in educational
environments: A comprehensive curriculum approach. Unpublished doctoral
dissertation, University of Michigan.
• Zhou, J. and George, J. M. (2003). Awakening Employee Creativity: The Role of
Leader Emotional Intelligence. The Leadership Quarterly, 14, 545-568.
Web resources for further reading

• Creative Education Foundation. Creative Problem Solving Tools & Techniques
Resource Guide.
https://www.creativeeducationfoundation.org/.../ToolsTechniques-Guide-FINAL-web-...
• Creative Problem Solving. https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/creative-problem-
solving.htm
• Halsey, Michelle (2016). Creative Problem Solving (90-Minute Guide Book 11) Kindle
Edition, Silver City Publication.
• Prabhu, T.L. ( 2019 ). Creative Problem Solving: How to Use Creativity to Develop New
Ideas and Solutions to Your Problems. (Skills Development Book 1) Kindle Edition.
23
UNIT I
2: Innovation: Concept, Types & Process

CONTENTS
S. No. Page
Learning Outcomes
1. Introduction 1
2. Creativity, Invention and Innovation 1
Practice Task 2
Feedback 4
3. Innovation: Concept & Types 5-7
3.1 Concept 5
3.2 Types of Innovation 6
Practice Task 8
Feedback 10
4. Process of Innovation 11-13
5. Design Thinking 13-14
6. Benefits of Innovations 14
Practice Task 15
Feedback 16
References 17-18
INNOVATION CONCEPT, TYPES AND PROCESS
Learning Outcomes
After reading the learning material, you will be able to;
• Differentiate among creativity, invention & innovation
• Explain the concept of innovation
• Differentiate between incremental and radical innovation
• Describe the process of innovation
1. Introduction
Economic growth of any country depends on the knowledge, innovations and
entrepreneurship. There has been increasing emphasis on creativity and innovation in
organizations due to technological development and intense global competition.
Innovations are required in processes, products, services and business models.
Innovations help the organization to remain relevant, successful and create a niche for
itself. Artificial Intelligence, Cloud Computing, Robotics, Additive Manufacturing, Online
Courses, E-commerce etc. are some of the examples of innovations that have changed
our lives and also the way the business is done. Innovations are the result of creative
thinking and inventions. Creativity is considered fuel for innovation and invention when
commercialized becomes innovation. Let us distinguish among the three terms that is
creativity, invention and innovation
2. Creativity, Invention and Innovation
Table1 summarizes the difference between the three terms creativity, invention and
innovation/
Table1: Creativity, Invention & Innovation

Creativity Invention Innovation
• Thinking of novel ideas • Creation of novel services • Involves Implementation of
(Trott, 2008; Levitt, 2002; products or production innovative ideas generated
Davila, Epstein and techniques (Maital and through creative thinking.
Sherton, 2006) Seshadri, 2007) • Put ideas into action or turn
• Idea is novel and useful • Strongly supported by R & ideas into market offering
and has value for the D • Process that involves creation
individual or the society and diffusion
• May not lead to innovation • Involves commercialization of
invention (Maitall and Seshadri,
2007)
• All innovations involve creativity
1
Practice Task
1. The list given in column A includes creative ideas, inventions and innovations. Please
indicate which one of these is creative ideas, inventions and innovations by putting ‘C’,
‘In’ and ‘Inn’ against each one of them in column B.
Sr. List Creative

No idea/Invention/Innovation
1. Mechanized car parking
2. Robotics
3. Driverless cars
4. Polio Vaccine
5. Telephone
6. Printing Press
7. Artificial intelligence
8. Electricity
9. Roof Gardens
10. Telephone
11. iPhones
12. Anti-biotics
13. PCs
14. Sofa –cum-bed
15. Mobile Phones
2
Feedback next page
3
Feedback
1.
Sr. No List Creative

idea/Invention/Innovation
1. Mechanized car parking C
2. Robotics Inn
3. Driverless cars Inn
4. Polio Vaccine In
5. Telephone In
6. Printing Press In
7. Artificial intelligence Inn
8. Electricity In
9. Roof Gardens C
10. Telephone In
11. iPhones Inn
12. Anti-biotics In
13. PCs Inn
14. Sofa –cum-bed C
15. Mobile Phones Inn
4
3. Innovation: Concept & Types
3.1 Concept
The word innovation has been derived from Latin word ‘nova’ meaning new. According to
Oxford Dictionary of Business and Management (2008), innovation is a new approach to
designing, producing and marketing goods that give the innovation or its company an
advantage over the competitors. Innovation means introduction of new thing or a
method.
Schumpeter (1935) defined innovation as “new combinations” of new or existing

knowledge, resources, equipment, and other factors.
Peter Drucker defined “innovation” in his 1985 book “Innovation and Entrepreneurship”
as: “Innovation is the specific tool of entrepreneurs, the means by which they exploit
change as an opportunity for a different business or a different service. It is clear from
this definition that (1) innovation is about creating new business opportunities through
new technologies, products, services, processes, business models, etc.; (2) is a
structured or systematic process and (3) one needs to be proactive and search for the
sources of innovation and exploit them (http://scitechconnect.elsevier.com/wp-
content/uploads/2015/02/Chapter-1.pdf).
Tim et al. (1998) described innovation as “any change in inputs, methods, or outputs
which improves the commercial position of a firm and that is new to the firm’s operating
market”.
Harvard Business Review (2003) defined innovation “as the embodiment combination or
synthesis of knowledge in original, relevant and valued new products, processes or
services”.
Mulgan and Albery (2003) described innovation “as “new ideas that work” that is the
creation and application of new processes, products, services which as a result brings
noteworthy improvements inefficiency, effectiveness or quality as an outcome”.
Carter (2007) defines “innovation” as any kind of change in the production process that
contributes to significant improvements within the firm. Innovation, according to her,
which is new to a particular firm may or may not be new to the world.
According to Maital and Seshadri (2007) “innovation is the application of invention into a
product or a process to drive value for the organization and customers”.
5
Rabe (2008) defined innovation “as the application of an idea that results in a valuable
improvement”.
Innovation is a process for creating and introducing something new, novel, or advanced
with the intention of creating value or benefit (Hisrich and Kearney, 2014).
Innovations may result in new technology, products, services, re-organization of a firm,

combining core competences of firms or expand/generate new markets (Page and Toft,
2009) or social technology innovation (Nelson, 2003).
3.2 Types of Innovation

Innovations can be broadly classified into incremental innovations and radical
innovations.
The incremental innovation refers to improving existing products, services and process
(Leonard and Rayport, 1997). Incremental innovation is the one that improves upon
something that already exists or re-configures an existing firm or technology to serve
some other purpose (Harvard Business Review, 2003). Incremental innovation refers to
small changes or improvement in existing products or firm or process. Whereas radical
innovation is the one that has potential to upset an organization or an industry’s existing
business model (Harvard Business Review, 2003). Some of the examples of radical
innovations include: Personal Computers, iPads, Smart Phones, Digital Engine,
Mapping of Genomes. Artificial Intelligence, Robotics, Cloud Computing, Additive
Manufacturing, 3D Printing and Video Conferencing. In education sector the emergence
of Massive Open Online Course (MOOCs) is one of the disruptive technologies of 21st
century.
Radical innovations are represented by the fundamental re-conceptualization of a

business (Markide, 1998). This type of innovation can be approached on three levels:
Product, Process and the combination of two (Tushman and Nadler, 1986).
Thompson (2004) classified innovations into creative innovation and adoptive

innovation. According to him, creative innovation refers to the ability of the organization
to implement and carry out technological innovation through its own system, usually
materializing in new products and services. Adoptive innovation refers to the ability to
use new ideas from outside the organization, adapting those ideas to implement change
in the management system of the organization or the relationships among the
components of the system.
6
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD, 2016) classified
innovations into: a) product innovation is the application of an idea or service that has
undergone substantial development, the feasibility of which may be related to its
functionality or other techniques that make new uses for that idea or service possible; b)
process innovation, refers to the development of new methods to achieve a given
production; c) organizational innovation, or new types of organization or means of
administering organizations; and d) marketing innovation whereby new methods are
used to obtain the development of products and their associated packaging, forms of
cost and promotional publicity. Fig.1 shows the various types of innovations.
Types of Innovation
Incremental Innovations Radical innovations
Product Process Organizational Market Product Process Organizational Market

Fig.1: Classification of Innovations
Table1 shows the comparison among models of innovations used in various generations.
Table 1 : Models of Innovations Used

First Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth
Generation Generation Generation Generation model Generation Generation
model model model model Model
Technology Market pull Coupling Interactive model Network Open
push (phase- model innovation
review- Model similar Uses stage gate Consists of parallel developed in model
processes) to first approach activities across 1990
generation Idea originates the organizational Both internal
Developed by except that the from creativity, functions Creating and external
NASA in 1960 innovation idea customer knowledge from ideas are taken
is drawn from feedback or Stages in the industrial or
Process was the market basic research process: public research External and
broken down to Initiations stage internal paths
systematize the Evaluation of Development Product to market are
work and ideas is based stage development considered
controlling upon ‘Should Implementation process
contractors and meet’ and ‘Must stage
suppliers meet’ criteria Product
Assumption success in the
technological Develop the market
advances from product
scientific prototype and Both internal
discovery and R evaluate and external
& D come before prototype environment is
pushed taken in to
technological Validation of account
innovation product
through Plan for
engineering etc. marketing
launch and
production
Source: Martin, 2017. https://www.cleverism.com/innovation-process-definition-models-tips/
7
Practice Task
1. Explain the concept of innovation.
2. Differentiate between radical and incremental innovation.
8
Feedback next page
9
Feedback
1. Innovation: Innovation involves implementation of creative idea or invention for
creating value or commercialization of a creative idea to meet customer needs
and expectations. The process of innovation usually involves identifying market
needs, trends, developing competencies, and finding financial support.
2. Difference between Radical and Incremental Innovation.
Radical Innovation Incremental Innovation

A radical innovation, which is also Refers to small improvements or
known as a disruptive innovation is upgrades that often occur as a series
one that produces a significant impact made to an organization’s current
on the market or the economic activities products, services, processes or even
of the market. Radical innovation can methods. Improvements brought about
even produce new markets, make by incremental innovation are usually
existing markets obsolete or change the centered on improving the efficiency,
structure of an existing market. The productivity and differentiation of
impact is much more evident rather products.
than the novelty.
10
4. Process of Innovation
The process of innovation passes through the following five stages (Desouza et al.,
2007):
• Idea Generation and Mobilization
• Advocacy and Screening
• Experimentation
• Commercialization
• Diffusion & Implementation
Idea Generation and Mobilization
The very first stage in the process of innovation is to generate new ideas. An innovation
potential is newly discovered opportunity for innovation. An individual need to have
keen observation of the surroundings to identify opportunities for innovation. It may
include: an unfulfilled customer requirement, problem with the customer, possible new
market or a new technical solution. Various creativity techniques can be used to
generate new ideas. These include:
• Brainstorming
• Brain Writing
• SCAMPER (Substitute, Combine, Add, Modify, Eliminate, re-arrange and
Reverse)
• Forced fitting
• Imagery trek
• Morphological Matrix
Advocacy and Screening
Idea is evaluated against criteria to determine its novelty, usefulness, relevance and
practicability in the light of organizational policy, structure, processes and resources.
This will help in selection of potential innovative idea. Techniques such as short term
versus Long term, fit in existing system versus new system, must versus want, simple
versus complex and useful versus novel can be used at this stage. The goal and
expectations are clarified.
Experimentation
At this stage, the potential idea is tested. Prototype if required, is developed and tested
in the field. Experimentation does not test an idea’s objective merits but the suitability for
a particular organization at a particular time. Experimentation may lead to new ideas or
refinement of already generated idea. In other words, refinement and re-evaluation
occur at this stage.
11
Commercialization
This stage aims at creating market value for an idea by focusing on its impact. It is
verified whether the innovation actually meet the customers’ needs or solves the
problems. Cost-benefit analysis is carried out. Invention when commercialized become
an innovation.
Diffusion & Implementation
Diffusion is the process of gaining final, company or organization wide, acceptance of

innovation and implementation is the process of setting up structures, maintenance and
resources needed to produce it. Diffusion happens at all levels in the organization and
use or application of innovation needs to be demonstrated. Implementation of an
innovation calls forth for an open culture in addition to market plan, resources,
structures, technology etc.
Manuylenko, Mishchenko, Bigday, Putrenok and Savtsova (2015) have given an

elaborated process of innovation as shown in Fig. 2 and detailed various actions to be
taken at various stages in the process of innovation.
Fig.2: Process of Innovation
12
Rapid Innovation Cycle
Rapid innovation cycle was developed in 2011 to assess the market potential of a new
product in Spain and to improve the economic conditions of the country (McCoy,
Chagper and Tacit, 2014). It consists of four phases: opportunity recognition, solution
selection, market experimentation and experimental results. Opportunity recognition
involves identifying the problems or pain points of customers and generating a list of
those problems. Solution selection involves selecting the solution that can meet the
need of the customers and is within the constraints of the organization. At the third
stage, the solution prototype is tested in the market to obtain customers’ reactions. On
the basis of the feedback, decision is taken as to whether commercialization will be
done or not. The authors have used this model successfully in developing two products
namely: www.BuddyGripper.com and www.you3Dit.com. For detailed study, please see
additional web resources.
5. Design Thinking: An approach to new product development and innovation
Luchs (2016) defines design thinking as a creative problem solving approach or more
completely as systematic and collaborative approach for identifying and creatively
solving problem. In case of new product development, problem can be replaced by the
word opportunity. The process includes two major phases identifying problems and
solving problems. The steps involved in identifying problems include discover and define
while solving problems include create and evaluate. Each of these four steps are
detailed below:
• Discover
• Define
• Create
• Evaluate
Discover: Discover means gaining insight into customers’ thinking, feeling, experience
and. It involves gathering and synthesizing qualitative data gathered in form of pictures,
audio recordings, transcript etc. Techniques such as coding transcripts, drafting
personas, constructing empathy maps and journey maps are used. The process
continues till the team has collected all the important customer insights.
Define: Define means arriving at a specific statement of the problem based on

customers’ insights. The problem statement is the unaddressed need of customers that
need immediate attention. The team converges on the subset of problem statement
using the technique of motivating.
13
Create: Creating involves generating ideas and developing a rough prototype to obtain
customers’ feedback and improve the porotype. The method of Visualizing, Empathizing
and Ideating is used to arrive at user inspired product design. Visualization means
having a deeper understanding of users based on ethnographic research. Empathizing
refers to identifying the pain points of the users. On the basis of visualization and
empathizing, solutions are generated which are user specific. The team can use a broad
criteria to identify the potential solution(s). The criteria may include: desirability,
feasibility, and viability.
Evaluate: Once the prototype is created, customer feedback is obtained. Prototype

simulates the experience for the customer. After obtaining the feedback, it is
synthesized and decision is taken to go ahead with full development of the prototype.
The whole process is iterative. Design thinking is based on three principles namely: it is
people centric, cross-disciplinary and holistic and integrative. IBM uses design Thinking
workshops to transform the existing business models or products or services.
6. Benefits of Innovations
Figure 1 shows the benefits that will accrue to the organization on account of
innovations.
Competing with other

organizations
Solving problems Involving work place
dynamic
Benefits of
Adapting to change Innovations
Meeting customers’
needs
Increases efficiency and Maximizing on

effectiveness globalization
Fig.1: Benefits of Innovations
14
Practice Task
1. The process of innovation involves the following stages:

• Experimentation
Write the steps in the process of innovation in a correct sequence.
2. Enlist the four phases of rapid innovation cycle.
3. Describe the stages in design thinking approach to new product

development.
4. Read any two cases enlisted in web resources. Try to classify them in
various types of innovations and identify the factors that contributed to

innovation.
15
Feedback
1. Process of Innovation
• Experimentation
2. Stages in the process of rapid innovation

• opportunity recognition,
• solution selection,
• market experimentation
• experimental results
3. Stages in the design thinking approach to new product development.

Compare your answer with the stages explained on page.
4. Upload your answers on Discussion Forum for feedback from others.
16
References
• Carter, Anne P. (2007). Measurement of the Clustering and Dispersion of Innovation.

Edited by Karen R. Polenske. The Economic Geography of Innovation. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
• Davila, Tony; Epstein, Marc J., and Shelton, Robert D. (2006). Making Innovation
Work How to Manage It, Measure It, and Profit from It. NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
• Hisrich, R.D. and Kearney, C. (2014). Managing Innovation and Entrepreneurship.
SAGE Publications.
• Jauhari, Vinnie and Bhushan, Sudhanshu, (2014). Innovation Management. New
Delhi, Oxford University Press.
• Luchs G. Michael; Swan Scott.K and Griffin, Abbie (2015). Design Thinking: New
Product Development Essentials. New Jersey, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
• Landry, Lauren (2017). The Innovation Process: A Step-By-Step Guide. Northeastern
University. https://www.northeastern.edu/graduate/blog/innovation-process/
• Leonard, Dorathy A. and Raypor, Jeffery F. Spark (1997). Innovation Through
Empathic Design. Harvard Business review 75(6):102-13
• Levitt, T. (2002) Creativity Is Not Enough - Harvard Business Review.
https://hbr.org/2002/08/creativity-is-not-enough
• Manuylenko, Viktoriya Valeryevna; Mishchenko, Andrey Aleksandrovich; Bigday,
Olga Borisovna; Putrenok, Yekaterina Leonidovna and Savtsova, Anna Valeryevna
A Comprehensive Definition of the Concept of Innovation in Russian and
International Science. International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues,
2015, 5(4), 1029-1037.
• Martin (2017). The Innovation Process: definition, Models and Tips.
https://www.cleverism.com/innovation-process-definition-models-tips/
• McCoy, Chris D; Chagper, Zubin and Tasic, Igor (2014)
The Rapid Innovation Cycle—An innovation and market testing process for new
products and services development.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/234066207_The_Rapid_Innovation_Cycle-
An_innovation_and_market_testing_process_for_new_products_and_services_develo
pment
• Maital, S. and D.V.R Seshadri (2007). Innovation Management: Strategies, Concepts
and Tools for Growth Response, New Delhi.
• Markides, C. (1998). Strategic Innovation in established companies. Sloan
Management Review, 39:3, pp. 31-42
• Mulgan G.and Albury, D. ( 2003). Innovation in the Public Sector, London: Strategy
Unit, Cabinet O_ce,
• OECD (2016). Defining Innovations.
www.oecd.org/site/innovationstrategy/defininginnovation.htm
• Padmore, Tim; Schuetze, Hans and Gibson, Hervey (1998). Modeling Systems of
Innovation: An
Enterprise-Centered View. Research Policy (Journal) 26, 605–624
• Popa, Ioan Lala; Preda, Gheorghe and Boldea, Monica (2010). A Theoretical
Approach of The Concept of Innovation. https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-
detail?id=248353
• Rabe, Barton Cynthia (2008). New Delhi; Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd. The
Innovation Killer.
• Schumpeter, Joseph A. 1935. “The Analysis of Economic Change,”
in Clemence, Richard V., ed., Essays on Entrepreneurs, Innovations, Business
Cycles, and the Evolution of Capitalism, Transaction Publishers, New
Jersey, 1991, 134–49
• Thompson, N.J., (2004), Innovativeness and performance: evidence from
manufacturing sectors, Journal of Strategic Marketing, No.12
17
• Tushman, M. and Nadler, D. (1986), “Organizing for innovation”. California
Management Review, 28:2, pp. 74-92
• Design Case Studies. https://www.insight.com/en_US/solve/digital-innovation/case-

studies.html
• http://www.indjst.org/index.php/indjst/article/view/57441/44818 Innocase1
• https://www.hypeinnovation.com/hubfs/content/case-studies/nokia-case-study-en.pdf
INNOCase2
• https://i.hypeinnovation.com/hubfs/Content/Case_Studies/airbus-case-study-en.pdf
Innocase3
• Innovation case studies library. https://www.business.qld.gov.au/running-
business/growing-business/becoming-innovative/innovation-library
• Innovation Case Studies. https://www.london.edu/lbsr/innovation-icons
• Innovation video3M. https://youtu.be/I6eIV42vTcw
• https://www.london.edu/lbsr/innovation-icons
• Mostert, Nel M. (2015) Belbin – the way forward for innovation teams Journal of
Creativity and Business Innovation, Vol. 1, www.journalcbi.com
• Nokia Case Study. https://www.hypeinnovation.com/hubfs/content/case-
studies/nokia-case-study-en.pdf INNOCase2
• OECD (2016) G20 INNOVATION REPORT 2016. https://www.oecd.org/china/G20-
innovation-report-2016.pdf
• OECD (2019) Innovation statistics and indicators-2017.
http://www.oecd.org/innovation/inno/inno-stats.htm
• Service Innovation. https://youtu.be/6hrqsPGNPZM
• Tree House Foods: 2018 R&D Teams of the Year.
https://www.foodprocessing.com/articles/2018/rd-team-treehouse-foods/
• Tesla Innovation Car Product. https://youtu.be/y6A3gYwrK-4
• The Open University (2016). The Concept of innovation. Kindle edition. UK: The
Open University
• The Open University (2016) Creativity and innovation. Kindle edition. UK: The Open
University.
• UNESCO (2018) Skills and Innovations in G20 Countries. Information Paper No. 50
June 2018 UIS/2018/STI/IP/50.
http://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/files/documents/ip50-skills-innovation-g20-
countries-2018-en.pdf
18
UNIT I
3: R&D Through Team Work

CONTENTS
S. No. Page
Learning Outcomes
1. Introduction 1
2. Team: Concept & Characteristics 1-2
2.1 Concept 1
2.2 Characteristics of a Team 2
3. Stages in the Development of a Team 2-3
4. Principles of Running a High Performance Team 3-7
Practice Task 8
References 9
R&D Through Team Work
Learning Outcomes
After reading the material, you will be able to:
 Explain the concept of a team

 Enlist the characteristics of team
 Apply the principles to build effective teams for R&D
1. Introduction
In the present context, teams play a very important role in organizations. Effective teams
are able to accomplish worthwhile things and generate satisfaction among the members
of the team and in turn helps the organizations to achieve their goals and objectives.
Teams are constituted within organization for various reasons. The reason may be to
solve a problem, develop certain new product or a service or chalk out a strategy for
initiating an action. The teams can be of people from single discipline or multi-discipline.
Teams can either be functional or cross-functional, organizational or inter-organizational
or sometimes teams can be national or international. Now-a-days, there exist virtual
teams also. Teams can be small or large depending upon the purpose and they can be
temporary or permanent.
With increasing cost of R&D, shorter life cycle period of products and increasing risks
and uncertainties, return on investment and productivity are being adversely affected.
Unprecedented shifts are set to disrupt the R&D ecosystem (KPMG, 2018). Teams are
constituted for undertaking R&D work in organizations. Team dynamics play an
important role in determining success of a team. A study on more than 2000 R&D
projects at more than 75 companies indicated that leaders underestimate how the
dynamics of team affect the output of R&D (Aboagye, Pyle and Silbey, 2015). It is
essential to understand the team dynamics and the factors that can affect the R&D
output.
2. Team: Concept & Characteristics
2.1 Concept
“Team work is the ability to work together towards a common vision. The ability to direct
individual accomplishments towards organizational objectives. It is the fuel that allows
common people to attain uncommon results” (Andrew Carnegie).
1
“A team can also be defined as two or more people working interdependently towards a
common goal. The products of a team are the results of collective effort and involves
synergy, where the whole is greater than the parts” (WHO, 2007).
“Team can be defined as a small number of people with complementary skills, who are
committed to a common purpose, performance goals, and approach for which they hold
themselves mutually accountable” (Katzenbach and Smith, 1994).
2.2 Characteristics of a Team
A team is characterized by:
 A small group of people

 Common task or objective
 Synergy
 Collaboration and cooperation
 A shared understanding and purpose
 Mutually agreed upon operating principles
 Distinguishing task from processes
3. Stages in the Development of a Team

A team is a living and dynamic entity and passes through the following five
stages as shown in the Fig. 1 (Tuckman, 1975);
ADJOURNING
PERFORMING
NORMING
STORMING
FORMING
Fig. 1: Stages in the development of a team
Forming: At this stage, there is high dependence on leaders for guidance and direction,
little agreement on team aims and goals, lack of clarity of individual roles and
2
responsibilities. Leader directs and members test tolerance of system and leaders. The
stage is complete when the members begin to see themselves as a part of the group.
Storming: Team members vie for position as they attempt to establish themselves in
relation to other team members and the leader. Clarity of purpose increases but plenty
of uncertainties exist. There may exist power struggles. Compromises may be needed
to enable progress. This is the start of intra-group conflicts.
Norming: Team members begin to use their past experiences to solve their problems
and put together as a cohesive group. This process results in the team establishing
procedures for handling conflicts, decisions, and methods to accomplish the project.
Roles and responsibilities are clear and accepted. For example, team may identify the
helpful behaviour (be on time be honest, be courteous, listen, stay on track, complete
your work etc.) and harmful behaviour (being critical, manipulative, dominating, or
engaging in sub conversation or going off on a tangent etc.).
Performing: In this phase, the team has achieved harmony, defined its tasks, worked out
its relationships and has started producing its results. Members have learnt how to work
together, manage conflicts and contribute resources to meet the team’s purpose.
Adjourning: When the purpose is fulfilled and task is completed or goals are achieved,
team adjourns. Formal adjournment of team is essential to give a feeling to members to
work again in the same team. Contribution of members is acknowledged and goal
accomplishment is celebrated.
4. Principles of Running a High Performance Team
The quality of output or the performance of team depends upon a number of factors.
These factors include size of team, capabilities of team members, location of teams,
focus of team on type of project/innovation, clarity of purpose, mission and approach,
clarity of procedure, commitment of team members, mechanisms for decision making,
problem solving and conflict resolution, leadership, communication, coordination,
balance of members’ contributions, mutual sport, effort and cohesion (Hoegi, 2008).
3
Size and Location of Team
In a large scale study having design teams across 2000 R&D projects, it was found that
increasing the size of R&D teams and having R&D teams across multiple sites actually
diminish the productivity. Expanding from one site to three can lead up to a 20% drop in
productivity (Aboagye, Pyle and Silbey, 2015). The size of the team, if it is too large,
leads to problems in coordination and communication. Smaller the size of the team,
higher is quality of the team work.
Selection of Team
The task to be accomplished needs to be analysed to arrive at knowledge, skills and

attitude set required to accomplish the task. Accordingly, team members need to be
selected. The team members should complement each other rather than having a
similar knowledge and skill set. It should be seen that members possess favourable
attitude and are committed to task. While selecting team members, the following points
should be taken into consideration:
 Concerned about and committed to common purpose & goals

 Enthusiastic
 Optimistic
 Creative, flexible and open-minded
 Proactive
 Willing to interact, cooperate, share respect others point of view
 Credibility (in terms of competencies)
 Devote time (WHO, 2007)
In other words, it is essential that team members possess both hard skills and soft skills.
Soft skills such as communication, interpersonal skills, conflict resolution skills etc are
much more important to work in teams.
Clarity of purpose, mission and approach
All the team members need to have common and clear understanding of the purpose,
the mission statements and strategies to be adopted to achieve the same. The goals,
objectives and approach to be followed achieve the goals and objectives need to be
clearly spelt out.
Assign task to team members as per their capabilities
While assigning tasks to team members, their strengths and capabilities should be taken
into account so as to ensure successful completion of the assigned tasks and also to
build confidence among team members.
4
Well defined norms
Successful teams have well defined norms. There is shared leadership, respect for
others, playfulness and celebration of success.
Communication
The quality of communication can be described in terms of formalization, structure and

openness of the information exchange. Informal and spontaneous communication have
been found to be crucial to team work. In addition, it has been found that more open the
communication more effective is the team. All types of communication that is vertical
horizontal and diagonal communication and all channels of communication should be
available as every member requires clear and effective communication to accomplish
the tasks assigned to him/her.
Coordination
Leader is normally responsible for coordinating the task. The team has to develop and
agree upon common task related goal structure with clear sub- goals for each member,
free of gaps and overlap. Teams need to agree on common schedules, budget and
deliverables.
Balance of members’ contribution
Team requires contribution from each and every team member. Work load of each
member should be specified and the knowledge and expertise of each member need to
be utilized for the team task. There should not be domination by a few.
Mutual Support
There should be an environment of collaboration and cooperation rather than

competition. The inter dependence of task need to be built in to promote cooperation
and mutual support. Highly innovative projects would seek greater collaboration among
the team members to deal with uncertainties, frequent changes and issues and
problems.
Cohesion
Cohesion in teams depends upon sense of togetherness and belonging. Team

members need to respect and recognize each other’s expertise and effort. The more the
consensus among the members regarding the purpose, mission, approach, norms etc.,
the greater will be the cohesion among the team members.
5
Positive attitude
Attitude determines one’s altitude. If team members possess favourable attitude towards
the goal, task, other members of the team, they will be able to put in the desired effort,
adhere to team norms and complete their assigned tasks to accomplish the goal. The
team member should remain accessible 24x7 and should not consider team activity as a
part-time activity.
Walk the Talk
Leader should set an example before the team members through ‘walk the talk’. He
should preach what he practices and whatever commitments he makes he should fulfil
those.
Trust
Leader should have trust in the strengths and capabilities of the team members and
should give positive regard to them in order to ensure maximum participation and
contribution from the members. Likewise, team members should have trust on each
other.
Maintain Peak Performance
The performance of the team should be continuously monitored and corrective feedback
need to be provided in order to ensure peak performance from the team.
Visualize yourself accomplishing the task
Team should be encouraged to visualize the accomplishment of the task in order to

enable the team to foresee any kind of problems or hindrances in the completion of the
task and prepare themselves for eliminating problems or over coming hindrances.
Visualization helps in stimulating creative sub-coconscious, programme brain, draws
resources required for accomplishing the goal and arouses intrinsic motivation.
Capitalize on synergy
Synergy is the creation of a whole that is greater than the simple sum of its parts. A
collaborating team is likely to create synergy and produce stronger results than any
individual. Japanese are the best example of synergy. When they work in teams, their
output is much more then when they work as individuals. Synergy is achieved when
different team members with complementary skills work for the common goal or
objectives. A lack of synergy can show that the most talented individual will not deliver
results due to a culture of discord, turnover, poor results and increasing disharmony.
6
Reward and recognition
The effort put in by the team members must be acknowledged and appropriately
rewarded. External rewards can complement intrinsic motivation for creativity and
innovation. More innovation adept companies have incentive policy in place (Tucker,
2018). This will motivate the individuals to be part of teams and remain committed.
Provide Autonomy
The team should be given autonomy to specify objectives, assign responsibilities to

team members, prepare time schedule, decide about leadership, take decisions, solve
problems and resolve the conflicts as and when required for smooth and efficient
functioning of the team.
Support from Management
Organizational support required in terms of men, money and material and the policy
support should be forthcoming. Many successful companies (60%) invest at least $5
million annually on innovation and almost 25% invest $50 million (Tucker, 2018).
The above stated principles when taken into consideration will lead to achievement of
goals and objectives set for the team.
7
Practice Task
1. Please see the videos;

https://youtu.be/TRZnTfRingg
https://youtu.be/wivErkWTiNc
https://youtu.be/GMh2dSiCugQ
https://youtu.be/bL0nhtDKW8g
https://youtu.be/Fw94Yq07FOw
On the basis of videos you watched, enlist the characteristics of team
2. Please see the video:

https://youtu.be/mR0_SK1K8xY
Enlist the principles of effective team building.
3. Please see the video:

https://youtu.be/eY05UOg6dQA
Write the lessons learnt.
4. Read the article:

Tarricone, Pina and Luca, Joe Successful Teamwork: A case study
http://www.unice.fr/crookall-cours/teams/docs/team%20Successful%20teamwork.pdf
Identify the characteristics of successful team.
Complete the above tasks and upload your answers on the Discussion Forum.
8
References
 Aboagye, Aaron; Pyle, Dorian and Alexander Silbey (2014). By the numbers: R&D
productivity in the semiconductor industry. McKinsey on Semiconductors Number 4,
Autumn 2014
https://www.mckinsey.com/~/media/mckinsey/industries/high%20tech/our%20insights/get
ting%20the%20most%20from%20r%20and%20d%20teams/mosc2014_by_the_numbers_rn
d_productivity_in_the_semiconductor_industry.ashx Paper6
 LaFasto, Frank and Larson, Carl (2002). When Teams Work Best. .New Delhi:
Response Books.
 Hoegl, M. (2008). Teamwork and innovation. Paper presented at PMI® Research
Conference: Defining the Future of Project Management, Warsaw, Poland. Newtown
Square, PA: Project Management Institute.
https://www.pmi.org/learning/library/teamwork-innovative-projects-7108
 WHO (2007). ‘Team Building’. Geneva: World Health Organization,
 Ebrahim, Nader Ale (2015). Virtual R&D Teams: A New Model for Product
Development. International Journal of Innovation, 3:2, 2015, pp.1-27.
eprints.rclis.org/28254/2/43-150-1-PB.pdf Paper4
 Ebrahim, Nader Ale; Rashid, Salwa Hanim Abdul; Ahmed, Shamsuddin & Taha,
Zahari (2011). The Effectiveness of Virtual R&D Teams in SMEs: Experiences of
Malaysian SMEs. IEMS Vol. 10, No. 2, pp. 109-114, June 2011.
https://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1207/1207.6832.pdf Paper5
9
UNIT II
1: Research in Technical Education:

An Introduction
CONTENTS
S. No Page
Learning Outcomes
1. Introduction 1-2
2. Need for Educational Research 2-4
Practice Task 5
Feedback 6
3. Sources of Knowledge 7-9

3.1 Experience 7
3.2 Expert Opinion 7

7
3.3 Reasoning
7
3.3.1 Deductive reasoning
8
3.3.2 Inductive reasoning
3.4 The Scientific Approach to Knowledge Generation 8
4. Educational Research 9-10

4.1 Research: Concept 9
4.2 Educational Research: Concept 10
Practice Task 11
Feedback 12
4.3 Types of Research 13-15

4.3.1 Classification of research on the basis of Purpose 13
Practice Task 16
Feedback 18
4.3.2 Classification of research on the basis of method 19-21
Practice Task 22
Feedback 24
5. Steps in Conducting Research 25-26

Practice Task 27
Feedback 28
References 29-30
RESEARCH IN TECHNICAL EDUCATION: AN INTRODUCTION
Learning Outcomes
 Explain the need for undertaking research in technical education
 Enlist questions which can be answered w.r.t various sub-components of technical
education system
 Explain the concept of educational research
 Describe the steps involved in the process of undertaking research in technical
education
1. Introduction
Technical education system is an integral part of higher education and teaching and research
are the two important functions of any institution of higher learning. Educational research is
essential for any individual who joins the profession of teaching which calls forth for knowledge
of the subject matter and knowledge of pedagogy and andragogy as well as understanding of
complex human interaction to optimize learning among the learners. Teaching has been
defined as a continuous stream of decision making to achieve the pre defined instructional
objectives. Decisions are normally based on one’s subjective judgement. Evidence based
decision making can bring lot of improvement in teaching and optimize learning among
learners.
Educational Research can provide laudable support to teachers in various aspects of teaching –
learning and other related activities undertaken by them. For example, research is essential to
understand individual differences among learners, select appropriate methods and media,
select appropriate experiences, select and sequence content, and select appropriate evaluation
techniques. In addition, curriculum design, industry institute interaction, instructional material
development etc. activities would also require research evidence to initiate action to achieve
desired results.
Each discipline or subject per-se requires educational research, as what works best in sciences
or engineering may or may not work at all in humanities and social sciences. The problems
faced by teachers during teaching require systematic problem solving. Instead of engineering
problems, one needs to find evidence based solutions to educational problems. Discipline
based educational research undertaken can thus serve important purposes and benefit the
1
learners. In addition, policy makers and administrators can benefit from research in technical
education to formulate context relvant policies and take decisions.
2. Need for Educational Research

At present, the system of higher education, including technical education, is under severe
criticism due to low acceptability of passouts from the system. The system in vogue has failed to
deliver as there has been criticism that there is
– mismatch between demand and supply
– Unnurtured talent
– inadequate access to education
– inadequate development of essential skills and generic skills
– duplication of efforts
– increasing digital divide
– lack of resources and facilities
– inefficient knowledge delivery mechanism etc.
(MHRD, 2005)
There is an urgent need to prepare graduates with new skills, a broad knowledge base and a
range of competencies to enter a more complex and interdependent world, to set internationally
recognized standards among and between nations due to globalization, for instituting
mechanisms for establishing international comparability, for outcome based higher education,
and comparability of educational qualifications (UNESCO,2009). All these factors demand that
quality of higher education needs to be improved.
Educational research can provide laudable support to policy makers, administrators, and
teachers, to make evidence based decisions and improve the quality of technical education.
Policy makers may need research evidence to decide whether autonomy needs to be granted to
technical institutions or not, accreditation of programmes is to be made compulsory or not, how
to ensure that competent and motivated people join teaching profession, what should be the
qualification and experience requirements for different job positions in teaching profession, what
mechanism needs to be followed for selecting students for various type of institutions, how
funding of an institution can be linked to its performance etc. Administrators require research
evidence to take decisions regarding management structure, processes and practices.
A number of questions can be answered through research to facilitate the process of decision
making. Some of these questions are enlisted in the Table 1.
2
Table1: Questions research can answer
S.No Sub-Component Questions that can be answered
1. Input • What differences exist among the learners w.r.t physical,
cognitive, social and emotional characteristics?
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of learners?
• What is the readiness level of learners to pursue a
programme or a course of study?
• What are the expectations of learners from a programme
or a course or the institution?
2. Curriculum • How many engineers are required in coming ten years?
• What are the competencies required of a civil engineer?
Processes
• Which soft skills are important for different types of
engineers working at different job positions in the
industry?
• What technological changes are expected in ten years?
• How to design the curriculum so as to achieve the desired
course outcomes?
• Which modality is to be preferred to offer the programme-
contact based, online, blended learning approach?
• To what extent the curriculum has been implemented by
the institutions?
• To what extent the desired competencies have been
developed by the specified curriculum ?
3. Instructional • Which instructional strategies are appropriate for teaching
of concepts, principles or theories in a particular course?
Processes
• How to integrate technology in teaching learning to
maximize student learning or enhance access or
efficiency?
• What technology is being integrated in teaching learning
by teachers?
• How active and collaborative learning strategies are used
by teachers?
• What are the reactions of learners towards the
instructional strategies and technology used in teaching
learning of a course or programme?
• What is the teaching effectiveness in technical
institutions?
• What is the level of interaction among teachers and
learners in classrooms?
• How students are evaluated in theory and practical work?
• What techniques of assessment are preferred by teachers
to assess learners performance in theory and practical
work?
• What is the quality of resources used in teaching

learning?
• What is the quality of question papers used in evaluation?
• How do teachers motivate learners?
3
S.No Sub-Component Questions thaty can be answered
4. Resources • How adequate and accessible are the resources(Physical,
information, human and financial) to implement the
curricula for various programmes offered by technical
institutions?
• How optimally the resources are being used by teachers
and students?
• How competent are the human resources to implement
the curricula of various programmes?
5. Management • What are the management processes and practices used

in government and private institutions?
• How decisions are made in the institution?
• How the faculty and staff are recruited in the institutions?
• How do the institutions plan for faculty development?
• How do the the institutions monitor the performance of
faculty and staff?
• What is the academic environment in the technical
institutions?
• What is the level of job satisfaction and stress among
faculty?
• How do the institutions promote collaborative research?
• What are the mechanisms instituted to collaborate with
industry?
• How do the institutions create culture for innovations?
6. Output  What is the extent of development of desired
competencies among passouts from various
programmes?
 What are the jobs offered by the industry to the passouts?
 How do the passouts perform in industyry?
 What are the career paths for graduate engineers?
 How do the passouts keep themselves updated in their
areas of specializations?
 What are the opinions of passouts regarding teaching
effectiveness or relevance of curricula or institution?
7. Linkages with  What mechanisms are effective in strengthening linkages
with world of work?
World of Work
 What are likely benefits of networking with other sister
and other institutions?
institutions  How to ensure maximum benefit from networking?
Different types of research can be undertaken to answer these questions.
4
Practice Task
1. Enlist any three major drawbacks in the technical education system.
2. In the given Table, write the purposes research in technical education would serve for policy
makers, administrators and teachers.
S.No Stakeholder Purposes of Research
1. Policy makers
2. Administrators
3. Teachers
5
Feedback
1. Three major drawbacks

 Mismatch between demand and supply
 Lack of Quality
 Lack of acceptability of passouts
2. Purposes of Educational Research

S.No Stakeholder Purposes of Research
1. Policy makers  To formulate context relevant policies

 To improve quality of technical education
2. Administrators  To decide about management structures , processes and

practices
 To improve efficiency and effectiveness of institutions or
technical education system
3. Teachers  To select appropriate instructional strategies and
technology
 To improve teaching effectiveness
 To facilitate attainment of desired competenicies by learners
6
3. Sources of Knowledge
You acquire knowledge throughout your life through various sources of knowledge. Sources of
knowledge can be broadly classified into (Gay, Mills and Ariasian, 2012):
 Experience
 Expert opinion
 Reasoning
 Scientific method of acquiring knowledge/scientific approach to generation of knowledge
3.1 Experience
One of the major sources of knowledge is experience which you acquire through interaction
with the environment (family, peers, school/college, society). You receive sensory
information and give meaning to that sensory information based upon your previous
experience.and over a period of time develop your personal knowledge. Your attitudes,
values, and beliefs are the result of your interaction with environment. When you make a
statement based on your observation such as I know the colour of flower is red, this
statement can be verified.
3.2 Expert Opinion

You often rely on expert opinion when you are unable to answer some of the questions you
face. As a teacher, you may like to analyze why a student is always commiting mistakes in
spellings. A psychologist or a counsellor may help you in identifying the real problem. In case
of designing instruction for online programme, an instructional designer may help you in
designing the same. What matters is the credibility of the source i.e the expert.
3.3 Reasoning
Deductive and inductive reasoning are the two major kinds of reasoning used by you in
understanding the world around you.
3.3.1 Deductive reasoning is the process of drawing a conclusion that is necessarily

true if the premises are true. For example,
Major Premise: All human beings are mortal.
Minor Premise: Sanjeev is a human being
Conclusion: Therefore, Sanjeev is mortal.
Another simple example is:
7
Major premise: Noble gases are stable.
Minor premise: Neon is a noble gas.
Conclusion: Therefore, neon is stable.
In deductive reasoning, you move from general statement to specific statement based on
logical reasoning.
3.3.2 Inductive reasoning is the form of reasoning in which one tries to arrive at
generalization on the basis of observation of specific instances. It is based on
probabilistic reasoning. For example:you
Management book by Stoner contains a chapter on Motivation
Management by Lazarus conatins a chapter on Motivation
All books on Management contain a chapter on Motivation
3.4 The Scientific Approach to Knowledge Generation

“The goal of any scientific endeavour is to explain, predict, and control phenomena. The
basic assumption is that all behaviours and events are orderly and that they are effects which
have discoverable causes” (Johnson and Christensen, 2008).
Research involves application of scientific method to find solution to problems or answer

questions. Research makes use of both deductive and inductive reasoning. The process
starts with formulation of hypotheses based on certain observations(inductive reasoning),
reasoning out consequences or implications of hypotheses(deductive reasoning) followed by
collection of data or information to verify implications or rejection or acceptance of those
hypotheses.This leads to generation of new knowledge. Further, hypotheses are generated
and tested to add to existing structure of knowledge. The process of research is cyclic and
dynamic as shown in Fig. 1 (CPSC, 1984). It is most reliable way of acquiring or generating
knowledge.
8
Casual Generation of
Observation Hypotheses
Implications
Existing of
Structure of Hypotheses
knowledge
Operationally
Specific
Testing
Situation
Fig. 1: Scientific Method of Acquiring Knowledge(CPSC, 1984)
4. Educational Research
4.1 Research: Concept

Let us see how this term research has been defined. There are numerous definitions. A few
are given below:
Nature of research can best be explained in the words of Mouly (1978) . “Research is best
conceived as the process of arriving at dependable solutions to problems through the
planned and systematic collection, analysis, and interpretation of data. It is a most important
tool for advancing knowledge, for promoting progress, and for enabling man to relate more
effectively to his environment to accomplish his purposes, and to resolve his conflicts”.
Kerlinger (1970) defines scientific research as “systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical
investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relation among natural
phenomena”.
9
“Research is seeking through methodical processes to add to one’s body of knowledge and,
hopefully, to that of others, by the discovery of non-trivial facts and insights” (Howard and
Sharpe, 1983).
“It is a systematic way of asking questions or a systematic method of inquiry. The purpose of
research is to obtain knowledge or information that pertains to some question” (Drew,
Hardman and Hosp, 2008).
In simple words, “It is systematic, empirical and critical investigation and involves application
of scientific method to finding solutions to the problems” (Gay, Mills and Ariasian, 2012).
4.2 Educational Research: Concept
From the definitions of research, one can come to the definition of educational research.
According to Best (1970) “Research is considered to be a formal, systematic, intensive
process of carrying on the scientific method of analysis”. With reference to education,
research is identified with a better understanding of the teaching-learning process, and the
conditions under which it is most successfully carried on.
“Educational Research involves application of principles of science of behaviour to the

problems of teaching and learning within the formal educational framework and to the
clarification of issues having direct or indirect bearing on these concepts” (Mouly, 1978).
One can conclude in the words of Gay, Mills and Ariasian (2012) that “educational research
is a formal, systematic application of scientific method to the study of educational problems”.
10
Practice Task
1.Which of the following is the most reliable source of acquiring knowledge?

a) Experience
b) Expert opinion
c) Reasoning
d) Scientifc method
2. Explain as to how inductive and deductive reasoning are used in research.
3. Write two important characteristics of research
4. Below are enlisted few examples of work undertaken by different individuals.Which of the
following are examples of research?
Yes/No
a) Mr. Singla reviewed literature on e-
learning and wrote a paper
b) Ms Sangeeta collected information
from teachers working in technical
institutions in Chandigarh regarding the
problems faced in teaching learning
and evaluation of students performance
and wrote a paper and sent it to
Director Technical Education with
suggestions for actions reuired.
c) Dr. Singh wrote a note to the principal
regarding his observations of student
behaviour.
d) Dr Gupta collected information from the
employers regarding the job
responsibilities of graduate engineers
in Automobile industry and prepared
competence profile for design of
curriculum.
e) Mr Sodhi wrote an article on MOOCs.
11
Feedback
1. Two characteristics of research are:

 Systematic
 Involves application of scientific method
2. Inductive reasoning is used to formulate hypotheses and deductive reasoning is used for
stating implications of the hypothesis.
Yes/No
f) Mr. Singla reviewed literature on No
e-learning and wrote a paper
g) Ms Sangeeta collected
information from teachers working Yes
in technical institutions in
Chandigarh regarding the
problems faced in teaching
learning and evaluation of
students performance and wrote
a paper and sent it to Director
Technical Education with
suggestions for actions reuired.
h) Dr. Singh wrote a note to the No
principal regarding his
observations of student
behaviour.
i) Dr Gupta collected information Yes
from the employers regarding the
job responsibilities of graduate
engineers in Automobile industry
and prepared competence profile
for design of curriculum.
j) Mr Sodhi wrote an article on No
MOOCs.
12
4.3 Types of Research
There are two ways of classifying research. One way is to classify research on the basis of
its purpose i.e. the degree to which the research findings are applicable to an educational
setting and the degree to which they are generalizable. The other way is to classify
research on the basis of the method employed in research.
4.3.1 Classification of research on the basis of purpose: Taking purpose as the

basis of classification, research is considered to be of four types, basic, applied, action
and evaluation research. This is illustrated in Fig. 2
Types of Research
Based on Purpose
Basic Applied Action Evaluation
Fig. 2: Classification of Research by Purpose
Basic research
The purpose of basic research is to add to the existing body of knowledge by
understanding a process or a phenomena in a controlled situation. It is concerned with
development of theory and refinement of theory. For example: how do people learn?
What is the effect of positive and negative reinforcement on learning? These questions
can be answered by studying the phenomenon in laboratory conditions with rigorous
control of extraneous variables.
Applied research
“The major purpose of applied research is to answer practical and useful questions
about policies, programmes, projects, procedures or organizations” (Mason and
Bramble, 1989). It is undertaken to test a theory or evaluate its usefulness in a given
educational setting. Applied research is thus, undertaken to solve an immediate
practical problem. It aims at finding what works best. The applied scientists try to test
the findings of basic research in applied setting.
13
Educational research and development
Education research & development is concerned with the development of effective
products for use in educational institutions. “Educational research and development is
a process used to develop and validate educational products” (Borg and Gall, 1979). It
takes the findings generated by basic and applied research and uses them to build
tested products and processes that are ready for operational use in the educational
setting. Educational R&D thus bridges the gap between educational research and
educational practice. Examples could be the development of curriculum design reports
(curriculum guides or programme of studies for a technician programme), learning
materials, management systems and teacher training materials. These products are
prepared, field-tested and revised so as to attain the pre-specified level of
effectiveness.
Action research
Halsey (1972) defines action research as “it is small-scale intervention in the
functioning of real world and a close examination of the effects of such intervention”.
Action research is concerned with the solution of a specific problem, in a local situation
and is conducted by a person (the teacher) who is to use the findings of the research. It
is thus,
 situational (problem pertaining to a particular situation)
 participatory (individuals participating in the research are also concerned with
implementing its findings)
 self-evaluative
 aims at solving a specific problems. The results of this kind of research are not
generalizable to other situations.
Action research is often undertaken by teachers to determine the effectiveness of a

specific teaching intervention in a particular setting.
Evaluation research
The purpose of evaluation research is “to collect systematic data to help educators to
make decisions regarding the merit, value or worth of an educational programme,
product or techniques” (Borg and Gall, 1979).
14
The evaluation can either be formative or summative. The function of formative
evaluation is to collect data about educational programmes while they are still being
developed. While the summative evaluation is conducted to determine how worthwhile
the final programme is, especially in comparison with other competing programmes.
The characteristics of types of research based on purpose are given in Table 3.
Table 1 – Characteristics of Basic, Applied, Action and Evaluation Research
Types of Characteristics
Research
Basic Research  Primary purpose is extension of knowledge and
development of theory
 Rigorous control of variables. Generally conducted
in laboratory settings
Applied  Primary purpose is testing of a theory or solving a
Research practical problem
 Development research, a kind of applied research
meant for development of effective products for use
in educational institution
Action Research  Primary purpose is to solve immediate classroom
problems
 Conducted for the purpose of solving specific
problem in specific situations
 Researchers also implements the findings of
research.
Evaluation  It is initiated by someone” s need for a decision.
Research  Evaluation is often done for a limited purpose and
thus, its results cannot be generalized.
 It yield data concerning the worth, merit or value of
educational phenomena.
15
Practice Task
1. Enlist the four different types of research based upon purpose.
2. Differentiate among the three types of research based upon purpose.
3. Write any two examples of Research & Dvelopment.
4. Write any two situations where evaluation research can be used.
16
Feedback next page
17
Feedback
1. Types of research based upon purpose
 Basic research
 Applied Research
 Action Research
 Evaluation research
2. Differences among different types of research
Basic Research Applied Research Action Research

Generate new knoledge Solve a practical problem Solve problem in a specific
situation
Coducted in a laboratory Carried out in field to test Conducted in real situation
setting with rigorous generalizability of findings of with no controls
controls basic research
Generalizability of findings Generalizability of findings is Generalizability of findings is

is low high low
3. Two examples of Research & Development
• Development of self learning material

• Development of CAI package for students
4. Two situations where evaluation research can be used
• Evaluation of online programme in MBA

• Evaluation of faculty development policy
18
4.3.2 Classification of research on the basis of method : On the basis of method,
research can be classified into historical, descriptive correlation, ex-post facto and
experimental and evaluation.
Types of Research
Based on Method
Historical Descriptive Correlation Ex-post Facto Experimental
Case Study Survey Content Analysis
Fig. 3: Classification of Research by Method
(Adopted from Colombo Plan Staff College “Developing Skills in Technician Education
Research” , Module1, 1984)
Historical Research
Borg (1963) defines Historical research as the “systematic and objective location,
evaluation and synthesis of evidence in order to establish facts and draw conclusions
about past events”.
The purpose of historical research is to arrive at conclusions concerning trends, causes
or effects of past occurrences. This may help in explaining present events and
anticipating future events.
Descriptive Research
“Descriptive research is concerned with conditions or relationships that exist, practices
that are held, processes that are going on, effects that are being felt, or trends that are
developing” (Best, 1970).
Descriptive research studies deal with collecting data and testing hypotheses or
answering questions concerning the current status of the subject of study. It deals with
the question `WHAT IS” of a situation.
19
Correlation Research
Correlation research aims at determining the degree of relationship between two or
more quantifiable variables. Secondly, the relationship thus determined could be used
for making predictions.
Ex-post Facto Research/ Causal Comparative Research

There is some research where both the effect and alleged cause have already
occurred and are studied by the researcher in retrospect. Such research is referred to
as EX-POST-FACTO (“ After the fact” ). Kerlinger (1973) defined Ex-post-Factor
research as: “Systematic, empirical inquiry in which the scientist does not have direct
control of independent variables because their manifestations have already occurred or
because they are inherently not manipulable”.
Thus, in ex-post facto research or causal comparative research the researcher has no
control on the variables or he cannot manipulate the variables (independent variables)
which cause a certain effect (dependent variables) being measured. It attempts to
determine reasons or causes for the current status of the phenomena under study.
The procedures involved in this study are quite different than those in descriptive
research.
Experimental Research
The primary characteristic of experimental research is manipulation of at least one
variable and control over the other relevant variables so as to measure its effect on
one or more dependent variables. The variable which is manipulated is also called an
independent variable, a treatment, an experimental variable or the cause. Some of the
examples of an independent variable could be: method of instruction, use of
reinforcement, corrective feedback, type of learning material and size of class.
Experimental research will always have two or more groups for comparison on the
dependent variables. It is the only type of research which can establish true cause and
effect relationship.
Let us now quickly summarize the major features of types of research based on
methods.
20
Table 2: Characteristics of Research Based on Method
Types of Characteristics
Research
A. Historical  A description of past events or facts
 Data not collected through questionnaires, but gathered
from relevant records and meeting eye-witnesses
B. Descriptive  Testing hypotheses or answering questions related to
current status of the phenomena
 Data typically collected through questionnaires, interviews
or observations.
C. Co-relation  Determining the degree of relationship between two or
more quantifiable variables.
D. Ex-post Facto  Establishing tentative cause and effect relationships

 Independent variable or cause is not manipulated,
because cause and effect have already occurred.
E. Experimental  At least one variable manipulated to study effect on
dependent variable(s).
 Groups randomly formed to study comparisons
 Control on variables exercised
 Used for establishing true cause and effect relationship.
21
Practice Task
1. Classify the research studies
S.No Research Study Type of Reserch

1. Analysis of Normal training in pre partition era
2. Teachers” attitude towards integration of
technology in classroom
3. Reactions of final year students of Post
graduation in Engineering towards existing
system of examination
4. Effect of blended learning on the achievement
in the subject of Structural Analysis
5. Comparaive effectiveness of Lecture and Jig
Saw method of instruction for students of
Electrical Engineering
6. Intelligence, Aptitude and Learning Style of
First Year Students of Mechanical Engineering
in the State of Haryana
7. Effect of pre-service training on teaching
effectiveness of teachers working in
Elementary schools in Uttra Khand
8. Correlates of academic achievement at
graduation level
2. Differentiate between ex-post facto and experimental research.
22
Feedback next page
23
Feedback
1. Classify the research studies
S.No Research Study Type of Reserch

1. Analysis of Normal training in pre partition era Historical research
2. Teachers” attitude towards integration of Descriptive research
technology in classroom
3. Reactions of final year students of Post Descriptive research
graduation in Engineering towards existing
system of examination
4. Effect of blended learning on the achievement Experimental research
in the subject of Structural Analysis
5. Comparaive effectiveness of Lecture and Jig Experimental research
Saw method of instruction for students of
Electrical Engineering
6. Intelligence, Aptitude and Learning Style of Descriptive research
First Year Students of Mechanical Engineering
in the State of Haryana
7. Effect of pre-service training on teaching Ex-post facto research
effectiveness of teachers working in
Elementary schools in Uttra Khand
8. Correlates of academic achievement at Correlation research
graduation level
2. Differences between ex-post facto and experimental research
In ex-post facto research, both independent and dependent variable have already occurred
and plausible cause and effect relationship is studied. While in experimental research,
independent variable is manipulated by researcher to establish true cause and effect
relationships.
24
5. Steps in Conducting Research
There are four major steps in conducting research in technical education. These include (CPSC,
1984):
 Selecting and defining the research problem
 Describing the methodology of research
 Collecting the data
 Analyzing and interpreting the result
(i) Selecting and Defining the Research Problem

Selecting and defining the research problem is the most difficult and important step in research.
This involves:
 Identifying and stating the problem in specific terms
 Identifying the variables in the problem situation and defining them adequately
 Generating tentative guesses (hypotheses) about the relation of the variables or in
other words the solution of the problem
 Evaluating the problem for its researchability.
(ii) Describing Methodology of Research

Describing methodology of research requires a researcher to select an appropriate research
design most suited to the nature and purpose of the research study, select the subjects on
whom the study has to be conducted, and select or develop instruments for measuring the
variables in the study. Thus, it involves:
 Identifying the method of research
 Specify the subjects of study (e.g. technician teachers or technician students, etc.)
 Selecting an adequate representative sample of subjects
 Selecting/constructing valid and reliable instruments for measuring the variables in
the problems
 Describing the procedure to be employed for conducting the research study
 Select statistical techniques for analysis of data
(iii) Collecting Data

This step involves conducting the study as per the designed procedure (manipulating the
experimental variables in the case of an experimental method), administering instruments for
25
measuring variables and/or gathering information through observation. It also involves
tabulating the data, thus collected for the purpose of analysis.
(iv) Analysis and Interpreting Results

The data are summarized, in other words analyzed to provide information for testing the
hypotheses. Appropriate statistical methods of analysis- descriptive or inferential , are used to
test the hypotheses. You can perform the analysis manually, by using a hand calculator or a
computer as per the demands of the problem, and the available facilities. After completing the
analysis, results are summarized. The results are interpreted in the light of the hypotheses
and/or the research problem. The results are discussed in relation to: the existing body of
knowledge, consistencies and inconsistencies with the results of other research studies, and
conclusions are drawn. This is followed by writing the research report.
26
Practice Task
1. Enlist the steps involved in undertaking educational research
27
Feedback
1. Steps involved in undertaking educational research
I. Selecting and defining the research problem
II. Describing the methodology of research
III. Collecting the data
IV. Analyzing and interpreting the result
28
References
 Best, J W.(1970). Research in Education. New Jerssey: Prentice Hall.
 Halsey,AH. (1973). Educational Priority, Vol.I:EPA Problems and Policies. London:
HMSO.
 Borg, WR. Educational Research: An Introduction. (1963). London: Longman.
 Borg, WR. And Gall, Meredith, D. (!983). Educational Research: An Introduction.
London: Longman.
 CPSC (1984) Developing Skills in Technician Education: Research Module 1, Colombo
Plan Staff College for Technician Edcation, Singapore.
 Drew, CJ; Hardman, ML and Hosp, JL.(2008). Designing & Conducting Research in
Education.Los Angeles: Sage Publications.
 Emanuel J. Mason and William J. Bramble (1989). Understanding and Conducting
Research: Applications in Education and the Behavioral Sciences. New York: McGraw-
Hill Book Company.
https://www.google.co.in/search?tbo=p&tbm=bks&q=inauthor:%22William+J.+Bramble%
22
 Gay, LR; Mills, GE. and Ariasian, PW (2012). Educational research: Competencies for
Analysis & Application. New York: Pearson.
 Johnson, R.B. and Christensen, L.B. (2008) Educational Research: Quantitative,
Qualitative, and Mixed Approaches. 3rd Edition, Los Angeles: Sage Publications, Inc.,
 Kerlinger, FN (1970). Foundations of Behavioural Research. Holt, Rinehart and Winston
 Kerlinger, FN (1973). Foundations of Behavioural Research. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
 MHRD (2005) National Mission on Education through Information & Communication
Technology: Mission Document. New Delhi: Ministry of Human Resource Development.
 UNESCO (2009) Trends in Global higher Education: Tracking an Academic
Revolution.Paris: UNESCO.
 Educational research.
http://archive.mu.ac.in/myweb_test/ma%20edu/Research%20Methodology%20-
%20III.pdf
 Morrison, Marlene What do we mean by educational research?
www.corwin.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/9629_017546Ch1.pdf
 Opie, Clive. What is educational research.
https://www.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/9464_011245Ch1.pdf
Videos
 Introduction to Education Research. https://youtu.be/PXhdEWfWepk

 Live discussion on "Educational Research: Concept, Definition, Characteristics and
Types" https://youtu.be/RI-KJS_Q0U4
 What is education research. https://youtu.be/eWNpvaIqjKo
 MIS Research Methodologies. http://misresearchmethodologies.blogspot.com
 What is educational research. https://youtu.be/5ucLcy_3jZo
 Research Methodology: Introduction. https://youtu.be/IZLn9_PA_4s
29
 Action Research In Education Part 1 https://youtu.be/JFONu9J_HJ8
 https://youtu.be/0_KOcaLKV5s Part 2
 https://youtu.be/c_FSv8hcpaY Part 3
 Action Research in Education. https://youtu.be/TOrQ-sVTuE0
30
UNIT II
2: Review of Related Literature

CONTENTS
S. No Page
Learning Outcomes
1. Introduction 1
2. Review of Related Literature: Concept 1
3. Purposes of Review of Related Literature 1-2
Practice Task 3
Feedback 4
4. Sources of Information 5-9
4.1 Primary Sources 5
4.2 Secondary Sources 5
4.3 Preliminary Sources 5
Practice Task 10
Feedback 12
5. Steps in Conducting Review of Related Literature 13-14
Practice Task 15
Feedback 16
References 17
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Learning Outcomes

 Explain the concept of review of related literature
 Explain the purposes of review of literature
 Identify the sources of information
 Describe the steps in conducting review of related literature
1. Introduction
Review of related literature is an important step in the process of research. It aims at providing
the necessary theoretical background and the status of research in an area to the researcher so
as to enable him/her to undertake research in the latest area and add to the existing body of
knowledge. Systematic review of the research already undertaken in the area can provide
insight into the topic of research, appropriate methodology for research and interpretation of the
results of research and thus helps in undertaking research, which is worthwhile and feasible.
2. Review of Related Literature: Concept
“It is a systematic, explicit, and reproducible method for identifying, evaluating and synthesizing
the existing body of completed and recorded work produced by researchers, scholars and
practitioners” (Gay, Mills and Airasian, 2012).
3. Purposes of Review of Related Literature

As a researcher, you may have a number of questions to which you would like to find an answer
to before undertaking research or while analyzing the data or interpreting the results. These
questions may include the following:
 Has the problem been researched earlier or not?
 Is there a need for further research in the area?
 What variables have been studied (independent, dependent and control)?
 What research questions have been answered?
 What design(s) has/have been used in various studies?
 In what contexts and on what samples the studies have been conducted?
 What measuring tools have been used for various variables?
 What were the findings of various studies?
 Were the findings conclusive or contradictory?
1
 How do I justify the findings of my study?
 Do findings of previous studies contradict or support the findings of the study?
Review of related literature helps you to find answers to the above questions. In nutshell, review
of literature helps in:
Selecting and defining research problem

Review helps in narrowing down the area of research and finalizing the variables to be included
in the study as well as in the formulation of research questions for the study to be undertaken. It
helps in building rationale for the study or justifying undertaking research in a particular area.
Selecting appropriate research methods and procedure

Review of research can help you in selection of appropriate research design, sample,
measuring tools, and statistical techniques to be used for analyzing the data for the study.
Interpreting the results of study

The findings of previous studies can help you in interpretation of the results of your study.
Justification can be built for the obtained results.
Avoid duplication or repetition

Review of related literature helps in avoiding repetition of research and thus avoids wastage of
resources and effort of researcher
2
Practice Task
1. Enlist the major functions served by review of related literature
2. Write the purposes review of related literature will serve in each situation listed below:
Situation Purpose served by review of related
literature
There is a consensus among findings of
various studies that collaborative learning
leads to greater motivation for learning
among learners.
You are not sure whether impact or effect of
a variable is to studied
As a teacher, you are planning to try new
methods of instruction to develop higher
level abilities among students but are not
sure whether project work can help you in
solving the problem or not
You are bewildered by the number of tests

available for measuring intelligence
You studied organizational climate and job
satisfaction of teachers and results indicate
that more open the climate lesser is the job
satisfaction of teachers
3
Feedback
1. Enlist the major functions served by review of related literature

 Select and define the research problem
 Select appropriate research design, sample and statistical techniques
 Interpret the findings
 Avoid duplication of research
2. Write the purpose served by review of related literature in each situation enlisted in
column A.
Situation Purpose served by review of related
literature
There is a consensus among findings of Avoid duplication of research
various studies that collaborative learning
leads to greater motivation for learning
among learners.
You are not sure whether impact or effect of Defining the problem
a variable is to studied
As a teacher, you are planning to try new Selecting the variable for the study
methods of instruction to develop higher
level abilities among students but are not
sure whether project work can help you in
solving the problem or not
You are bewildered by the number of tests Selection of Measuring tool
available for measuring intelligence
You studied organizational climate and job Interpreting and justifying the findings
satisfaction of teachers and results indicate
that more open the climate lesser is the job
satisfaction of teachers
4
4. Sources of Information
Sources of information for relevant literature can be classified into primary and secondary
sources of information. But in addition, there are preliminary sources of information.
4.1 Primary Source involves direct description of the occurrence by the person who has
conducted the research (for example, research reports, journal articles, conference papers,
dissertations, thesis etc.)
4.2 Secondary Source is one where the author is not directly involved in research (for
example, handbooks, encyclopedia, research reviews, journal articles etc.)
4.3 Preliminary Sources direct the researcher to the location of publication of research
(catalogues, indexes, abstracts, bibliographies, annotated bibliographies, search engines,
databases, clearinghouses etc.)
Table1 gives the various sources of information and their advantages and disadvantages.
Table 1: Advantages and disadvantages of various sources of information

Type of Example Advantages Disadvantages
Source
Primary Journal articles First hand information Dependency on one
Research report Complete details about source
Dissertation variable
Thesis Compare study with
other studies to draw
conclusions
No chance of
misinterpretation
Secondary Books Get consolidated Chances of

Review information misinterpretation
Articles/Conceptual Guide you to primary Biases of the author
papers source of information Details of research
Encyclopedia missing
Handbooks
5
Type of Example Advantages Disadvantages
Source
Preliminary Annotated Clarify terminology Provide limited
Bibliographies Find out synonyms information
Bibliographies Direct the researcher to
References primary and secondary
Indexes sources of information
Catalogues Allow you to determine
Search engines the relevance of
Databases information
Dictionaries
Thesaurus
Purposes served by various sources of information

Table 2 provides at a glance a few examples of the sources of information and the
purposes served by them.
Table 2: Sources of information and purposes served

S. No Source of Example Purposes served
Information
1. Dictionary  A Dictionary of Education, 2014 Clarify meaning of
 The Greenwood Dictionary of
Education, 2003 terminology
 Dictionary of Education, 1973
 International Dictionary of
Education. 1977
2. Thesaurus  Thesaurus by Merriam-Webster. Look for synonyms
 English thesaurus, Oxford and antonyms
 Collins Thesaurus
3. Index  Current Index to Journals in Provides information

regarding journal
Education
 ERIC Index of Journals
 Current Index to Statistics
 Directory of Open Access
Journals
6
Information
4. Encyclopedia  Encyclopedia of Education, Provides detailed
2002
information
 International Encyclopedia of
Education. 2013. Regarding the various
 Oxford Research Encyclopedia aspects of education
on Education.
 Encyclopedia of Evaluation, including brief historical
2005 development, status and
need for further research
5. Handbooks  Handbook of Research on Provides summary of
Teaching, 2016 research in a particular
 The Sage Handbook of Research
on Teacher Education, 2017 area and suggestions for
 Handbook of Research in further research
Learning and Instruction. 2017
6. Journals  The Journal of Technical Provides information
Education
regarding current
 Journal of Engineering and
Technology Education research and issues
 Journal of Engineering
Education Transformation
 International Journal of Higher
Education
 International Journal of
Educational Research
 American Journal of
Engineering Education
7. Abstract  Indian Psychological Abstract &

Review. 2012
 Psychological Abstracts
8. Bibliography Example Provides information

 Richards, L., & Richards, T. about the work referred
(1994). From filing cabinet to
computer. In A. Bryman & R.G. or cited in a particular
Burgess (Eds.), Analysing piece of work
qualitative data (pp. 146-172).
London: Routledge.
 Richards, T. J., & Richards, L.
(1998). Using computers in
qualitative research. In N. K.
Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.),
Collecting and interpreting
qualitative materials (pp. 445-
7
Information
462). London: Sage.
 Russell, C., Gregory, D., Ploeg,
J., DiCenso, A., & Guyatt, G.
(2005). Qualitative research. In
A. DiCenso, G. Guyatt, & D.
Ciliska (Eds.), Evidence-based
nursing: A guide to clinical
practice (pp. 120-135). St.
Louis, MO: Elsevier Mosby.
 Sandelowski, M. (1986). The
problem of rigor in qualitative
research. Advances in Nursing
Science, 8(3), 27-37.
 Sandelowski, M. (1993). Rigor
or rigor mortis: The problem of
rigor in qualitative research
revisited. Advances in Nursing
Science, 16(1), 1-8.
9. Annotated Example Publication details and
Resources on How to Conduct
Bibliography Provide brief information
Content Analysis
 Beard, J., & Yaprak, A. (1989). about the contents of
Language implications for
publication
advertising in international
markets: A model for message
content and message
execution. A paper presented
at the 8th International
Conference on Language
Communication for World
Business and the Professions.
Ann Arbor, MI.
This report discusses the
development and testing of a
content analysis model for
assessing advertising themes
and messages aimed primarily
at U.S. markets which seeks to
overcome barriers in the
cultural environment of
international markets. Texts
were categorized under 3
headings: rational, emotional,
and moral. The goal here was
to teach students to appreciate
differences in language and
8
Information
culture.
 Berelson, B. (1971). Content
analysis in communication
research. New York: Hafner
Publishing Company.
While this book provides an
extensive outline of the uses of
content analysis, it is far more
concerned with conveying a
critical approach to current
literature on the subject. In
this respect, it assumes a bit of
prior knowledge, but is still
accessible through the use of
concrete examples.
 Budd, R. W., Thorp, R.K., &
Donohew, L. (1967). Content
analysis of communications.
New York: Macmillan Company.
Although published in 1967, the
decision of the authors to focus
on recent trends in content
analysis keeps their insights
relevant even to modern
audiences. The book focuses on
specific uses and methods of
content analysis with an
emphasis on its potential for
researching human behavior. It
is also geared toward the
beginning researcher and
breaks down the process of
designing a content analysis
study into 6 steps that are
outlined in successive chapters.
A useful annotated bibliography
is included.
9
Practice Task
1. Classify the following sources of information into primary, secondary and preliminary
source of information
S. No Source of Information Type of Source
2. Dictionary
3. Encyclopedia
4. Journal
5. Handbook
6. Conference paper
7. Dissertation
8. Conceptual paper
9. Index
10. Annotated bibliography
10
Feedback next page
11
Feedback
S. No Source of Information Type of Source

1. Dictionary Preliminary
2. Encyclopedia Secondary
3. Journal Primary
4. Handbook Secondary
5. Conference paper Primary
6. Dissertation Primary
7. Conceptual paper Secondary
8. Book Secondary
9. Annotated bibliography Preliminary
12
5. Steps in Conducting Review of Related Literature
The process of review of related literature involves the following four major stages and a
number of tasks need to be performed by the researcher (CPSC, 1984: Gay, Mills and Ariasian,
2012; Johnson and Christensen, 2008).
– Identifying key words to guide the search
– Identifying sources of information
– Abstracting the information
– Analyzing, organizing and reporting the literature
 Identifying key words to guide the search: Refer to the research questions framed for
the study and you can identify the search terms to be used in accessing databases for
relevant literature. For example, for the research question - What is the relationship
between intelligence and achievement at senior secondary level, the search term will
include intelligence, achievement and correlates of achievement/ or intelligence. To
finalize the search term, one can also refer to thesaurus to look for the similar terms
which can be used and consult experts from the field. Once the keywords have been
identified, you can use three Boolean operators to either narrow down the search or
broaden the search. These include
 AND narrows a search
 OR broadens a search
 NOT narrows a search
 Identifying sources of information: In order to save time, first refer to preliminary

sources of information such as Catalogues, Indexes, Abstracts, Bibliographies and
Annotated Bibliographies to locate the relevant studies, journal articles etc. Scanning
technique can be used to locate the relevant information. Relevance of the information
can be determined against set criteria. Does relevance means: a study conducted in
Indian context, with in last fifteen years or at a secondary school level or only
correlational studies etc. In addition, some of the parameters such as adequacy of
sample, appropriateness of tools used and statistical techniques used can also form a
part of criteria.
Once relevant literature is found in preliminary sources of information; one can go to the
secondary or primary source of information containing the relevant literature.
13
 Abstracting the information: You can now use different reading techniques to prepare
an abstract of the relevant literature. You can use skimming, pre reading and key
reading technique to review the relevant literature. Before preparing the notes, make
sure that you decide which information is to be taken out from each research study. For
example, one may like to include: objectives or research questions, hypotheses, design,
sample, tools used, statistical techniques used, major findings and suggestions for
further research. This will ensure availability of similar information across studies and will
help you in synthesizing your review of relevant literature. While reviewing the relevant
literature, one must prepare complete reference of the article or report or thesis referred
to. In case of students of social sciences, American Psychological Association (APA)
guidelines need to be followed.
 Analyzing, organizing and reporting the literature: The results of review need to be
analyzed and synthesized. One should avoid giving review of relevant literature in
chronological order as it does not involve any analysis on the part of researcher and
encourages reproduction of the available material. Preferably, research studies can be
classified on the basis of variables, results or the context. For example, one may be
interested in findings correlates of job satisfaction. The correlates can be classified into
individual variables- age, qualifications, experience; Organizational Variable such as
Leadership style, organizational climate, opportunities for growth and development and
Job related variables such as task variety, skill variety, autonomy, challenge etc. One
can thus classify studies on the basis of variables. Within a variable, one can classify
studies on the basis of findings such as studies with significant positive correlation
followed by studies with negative correlation and then studies with no correlation. While
synthesizing the review of relevant literature, care must be taken to follow the guidelines
provided by APA. Synthesis of review of related literature will lead you to draw
conclusions, identify gaps in research and formulate the hypotheses for the study,
decide the design, select measuring instruments and also finalize the statistical analysis.
In addition, review helps the researcher in interpreting the findings of study and help in
providing suitable explanation for the results.
14
Practice Task
1. The following tasks are to be undertaken for systematic review of related literature:
(i) Choosing search terms

(ii) Reviewing the Relevant Literature
(iii) Synthesizing Review of literature
(iv) Writing References or Bibliography
(v) Referring to Preliminary Sources of Information
(vi) Referring to Secondary/Primary Sources of Information
Write the correct sequence of the steps to be undertaken in review of related literature.
15
Feedback
The correct sequence of steps to be undertaken in review of related literature is:
(i) Choosing search terms

(ii) Referring to Preliminary Sources of Information
(iii) Referring to Secondary/Primary Sources of Information:
(iv) Reviewing the Relevant Literature
(v) Writing References or Bibliography
(vi) Synthesizing Review of literature
16
References
 CPSC. (1984). Developing Skills in Technician Education: Research Module 2, Colombo
Plan Staff College for Technician Education, Singapore.
 Gay, LR; Mills, GE. and Ariasian, PW. (2012). Educational research: Competencies for
Analysis & Application. New York: Pearson.
Qualitative, and Mixed Approaches. 3rd Edition, Los Angeles: Sage Publications, Inc.,
 Reviewing the Literature: A Short Guide for Research Students

https://www.uq.edu.au/student-services/pdf/learning/lit-reviews-for-rx-students-v7.pdf
 Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: 5. The Literature Review.
http://libguides.usc.edu/c.php?g=235034&p=1559822
 Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper. http://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide
 Literature Review Tutorial. https://libguides.library.cqu.edu.au/litreview
 Taylor, Dena. The Literature Review: A Few Tips On Conducting It.
http://advice.writing.utoronto.ca/types-of-writing/literature-review/
 Literature Review Template
https://www.tru.ca/__shared/assets/Literature_Review_Template30564.pdf
 Literature Review: An Overview. http://web.cortland.edu/shis/651/LitRevOverview.pdf
 The nature and purpose of a literature review.
https://www.mheducation.co.uk/openup/chapters/9780335243686.pdf
17
UNIT II
3: Selecting and Defining a

Research Problem
CONTENTS
S. No Page
Learning Outcomes
1. Introduction 1
2. Selecting a Research Problem 1-8
2.1 Sources of Problems 2
2.2 Criteria for Selecting a Problem 4
2.3 Problem Areas to Avoid 5
2.4 Analysing a Research Problem 5
2.6 Variables- Identification 7
Practice Task 9
Feedback 10
3. Stating the Research Problem 11-12
4. Evaluating the Research Problem 12-14
5. Writing Research Questions 15-16
6. Functions of a Hypotheses 17-26

6.1 Definition of a Hypotheses 19
6.2 Writing Hypotheses 20
6.3 Different Types of Hypotheses 22
6.4 Evaluating a Hypotheses 24
7. Summary 27
Practice Task 28
Feedback 30
References 31
SELECTING AND DEFINING A RESEARCH PROBLEM
Learning Outcomes
 Define a research problem.

 Explain the process of converting a General Problem situation into a Research Problem.
 Describe various sources of research problems.
 Describe the criteria for selecting a Research Problem.
 Evaluate the selected research problem in terms of its feasibility and worthwhileness.
 Describe the steps in Defining Research Problem and writing Research Questions
 Define a hypothesis.
 Differentiate between a null and research hypothesis.
1. Introduction
Dear learners, as you know that research is the way by which we solve problems that bother us
in the workplace or in the environment in our attempt to push back the frontiers of knowledge
and replace them with new ones. The core of research is the problem. It is a sensed gap
between the existing state and a desired state, or a departure from a norm. It is a question
raised for inquiry, consideration, or solution. Now the question arises, how to select and Define
a Research Problem and write research questions of formulate research hypotheses.
The present learning module will enable learners understand the process of selecting and
defining a Research Problem.
2. Selecting a Research Problem
It is the ‘problem’ which is the core of any piece of research. On selecting and defining the problem
adequately, the systematic and scientific process of collection of data can be more rapidly carried out.
Some significant results would be expected in anticipation of finding a solution to the problem from an
analysis of the data so collected. It means that a researcher could say that a solution to the problem lies
in knowing exactly what the problem is. Because, you can solve a problem only if you know what the
problem is.
Thus, it is pertinent to pre-plan a research study if it is to provide significant solution. It means, you need
not only to identify a problem, but it has to be analysed and its exact dimensions need to be specified
before the research can begin to take shape. This is not an easy task (but not impossible), especially for
novel/inexperienced researcher.
1
Now the first question one would ask is: How to select a problem for research?
All of us know that ideas for research problems/topics do not normally emerge instantaneously. Ideas
can, however, arise from puzzling/curious experiences. Once the researcher senses that something is
wrong or feeling unsure about a particular situation, he/she would put on efforts in solving the problem.
Suppose you were appointed to an educational institute and one of the courses you were teaching is ‘Arc
welding’. You observe that some of your students can easily perform the practical tasks to a high level of
competency while others are simply not even performing the tasks to a minimum level of acceptance.
Because of the students - some doing so well, and others so badly - you have a feeling that something is
wrong. You are puzzled.
You ask yourself many questions in an attempt to focus on the cause of the problem. Do I spend more
time with some students that with others? Is there a difference in the equipment being used by the
students? Are some students not given enough time to complete the task?
As a result of your observations (and your professional expertise) you have identified a problematic
situation. Recognising that you are dissatisfied with the skill acquisition of your students is starting point
but, as yet, you don't have a specific problem.
2.1 Sources of Problems
Problem situations like the one above can emerge from the day to day experiences of technician
teacher but problem situations can be generated from a number of sources.
 Personal Practical Experiences

In the course of carrying out various tasks (for example, while teaching in a
classroom/laboratories by a teacher or manufacturing a product by an engineer), a
teacher, administrator, engineer or manager is likely to detect various problems. Some of
these problems often are well within his own specific area of expertise (i.e., known to
him/her so well). Alternatively, he/she may be curious or concerned about a problematic
situation.
In an educational institution, teachers and administrators have to make decisions on the

basis of insufficient facts/evidence. It is because that they do not have sufficient time
available with them for conducting research that would provide the adequate information
for the immediate or even future need. Such problem situations arising would be specially
2
situation for carrying out action research and/or applied research.
Now, can you think about a situation from your own personal/practical experience that
requires further investigation?
 Critical Study of the Literature

A researcher can identify knowledge gaps in the literature while reading in his/her own
subject area or in any area related to either the teaching-learning process or
science/humanities/engineering/technical education. And the researcher has studied the
conflicting points of view presented in the literature and thus feels a need for further
investigation to support one or the other. Research reports, often found in educational
journals, sometimes recommend areas for further study. From reading in your subject area
of about educational theory can you think of a question that you would like answered?
 Interaction with Others

Conferences, seminars, in-service programmes and workshops are normally organized for
specific objectives, but, during the interactions, references are often made to broad
educational issues - standards, unequal educational opportunity, issues of promoting,
employment problems, etc. In addition, these informal interactions with other colleagues
and delegates can provide problem areas to the keen researcher for research. If the
researcher is eager to learn more about the educational process, by adopting a critical
outlook and by taking every opportunity to be part of a research environment, he/she is
more likely to select a problem for research.
Have you been to a conference or workshop lately or have you been talking to people
interested in education? What issues, if any, were discussed? Is there one that stands
out as requiring investigation?
However, in spite of the unlimited range of problems that await the eager researcher,
selecting a problem that is suitable for research is not an easy task. It could, however, be
made easier if you are aware of some of the areas that could give rise to problem
situations. Then, by using the sources available to you, it is more likely that you will arrive
at a problem situation suitable for being developed into a research problem.
3
2.2 Criteria for Selecting a Problem
 Interest
If a researcher, before undertaking a piece of research, is sufficiently interested in the
topic, he/she is researching, only then, he/she is more likely to read widely on the
topic. He/she will then acquire a more thorough knowledge of the situation. Hence, In-
depth reading is necessary for any person, who is willing to undertake a piece of
research. No doubt, your willingness, dedication and commitment rise by being
interested in a topic, but it is not a necessary criterion for identifying a research
problem.
 Size
Very often, problems seem to be too large in size. These are sometimes too macro for
obtaining significant results. Let us take an example, a researcher wishing to
investigate the changing role of engineering education in the world would be faced with
an enormous task. However, a problem situation can be further analyzed to break a
large problem situation into a smaller and manageable research problem. Avoid
problems/subjects whose scope is too narrow or vague.
 Economy
Researchers are usually confronted with practical constraints of time, money, material,
equipment, facilities, availability of subjects (data) etc. Thus, it is wise to tap sources of
receiving some support both financial and non-financial, either from within your
institution or from outside sources at the initial planning stages.
 Researcher's Capabilities and Limitations

A researcher must recognize his own strengths/capabilities and limitations. At the
outset, the researcher must get some guidance/training, if he/she is inexperienced in
undertaking research. In addition, a research should have someone (expert/advisor
interested in research or in your area of study and willing to support you throughout the
research) to monitor your progress, especially in the planning stages, then you are less
likely to get difficulties during the conduct of research.
 Uniqueness
A good researcher would not want to duplicate a study by spending a lot of time, effort
and other resources researching a problem if the answer to the problem already
4
existed. However, you may modify/change the design/method, or use a different
sample, or use different statistical analyses if you want to pursue a study similar to one
already in existence. Hence, the research study would then be considered unique as it
is now not exactly like any other piece of research. In addition, a researcher has to
seek answers to problems/questions that he/she has anticipated while selecting a
problem situation, before progressing any further.
2.3 Problem Areas to Avoid
As you know that there are a vast range of problem situations available to the researcher,
and that there are certain criteria you need to consider while thinking about a problem
situation to investigate. There are, however, some problem areas to avoid. Many interesting
questions considered important by many people cannot be subjected to the scientific and
systematic research process. Questions relating to three areas in particular should be
avoided:
a) Moral, Ethical Questions (such as ‘Should technician students exercise their rights’?
‘Are remedial classes bad for technician students’?). The answers to these questions all
contain value judgements. The actual words used, e.g. "bad", "best way", "exercise their
rights" are value-laden and imply that the questions are value questions requiring
answers that include value judgements. Such questions cannot be investigated
scientifically. Hence, it is difficult to draw conclusions and arrive at solutions using a
scientific and systematic process.
b) Philosophical Questions (What is meant by democracy?), and
c) Theological Questions (such questions should be left for those interested in theology to answer.
For example, a census survey or community survey might ask people to indicate to what religious
group they belong. This could be very relevant information and might be used for
classifying/breakdown of the data).
2.4 Analysing a Research Problem
Research begins with sensing a problem situation and the researcher himself/herself has
only a general idea about what the problem is. The task for the researcher is to remove
some of the vagueness and indeterminacy that exists and turn the "problem situation" into a
5
research problem. Only then will the researcher have a clear picture about the problem of
what he/she is going to investigate and how he/she is likely to conduct the research.
It is necessary for the problem to be stated in precise terms. In many cases, a general problem
situation can, after careful analysis, be stated as a specific problem. Let us take an example:
General Situation: The role of the principal in technician education
Specific Problem: How do the supervisory practices of principals differ in five urban Indian
Polytechnics?
How can a general problem situation be developed into a researchable problem? Let us again take
the puzzling situation you had been appointed to an institute and you had observed extreme
differences in the performance of your students and were anxious to find a solution to the problem.
The solution, however, cannot be found until you have identified exact nature of the problem. The
first task is to collect as much information as possible that may assist you in locating the factors that
might be related to the problem. The information could be a list of facts or possible explanation for
the problem. To do this it will be necessary to peruse the literature and talk to others (especially)
those teaching the same subject and who may have observed a similar phenomenon). Some of the
inclusions in the list would spring from the questions you have already asked yourself (e.g.
Teacher's time with students; Quality of equipment; Time devoted to the task; Poor classroom
arrangement; Level of difficulty of the task; Noise; Communication problems; Size of class; Previous
practical training; Home background etc.
Now you have made a list of as many facts and explanations as possible. Since not all of these will
relate to the problem, it may be possible to eliminate some that do not appear to be relevant. For
example, the class size is smaller than you had previously, so that factor should not be affecting the
students' performance. From questions that you have asked, it appears as if extraneous noise is not
a problem and your voice and instructions are reported to be quite clear. You feel that you spend an
equal amount of time with the students, so that explanation can also be wiped from the list.
This process of questioning goes on until you are left with a list of possible relevant facts and
explanations. Can you relate any of the factors that are left to one another? Maybe the reason for
this present situation has something to do with timetabling the time of day and the amount of time
available. (For justifiable reasons, you eliminate this as a possible explanation.)
6
General Problem situation into a Research Problem?
Research Situation
Preliminary list of possible contributing factors & explanations

(Brainstorming/review of literature)
Elimination of irrelevant facts

(From this list you were able to eliminate certain facts)
List of probable relevant facts & explanations

(Identify variables)
Basic Assumption
(theory)
Research Problem
On the other hand, it may have something to do with the home background, previous training and
age of the students. You consider this as a viable proposition and you attempt to find out more
about the combination of these factors.
This process of going from specific details, e.g. the collection of possible contributing facts and
explanations to a general theory (basic assumption) is called the process of induction. Whereas, the
reverse process is the process of deduction. A deductive process can also be used to refine
a problem that seems to be too large for study. By identifying the component parts of
problems and selecting those parts that could be the basis of a research study (i.e., much
smaller in scope), you are separating the key elements from a broader problem. As such,
the researcher is deducing a more feasible research problem and converting a very general
problem/ situation into something more specific and researchable.
2.5 Variables - Identification

A variable is something that is likely to vary. The researcher may have to take out some of
the variables, or restrict the sample involved or restrict the size of the geographical area (by
keeping the purpose of research in mind), if the research problem is too large. A variable
describes a particular characteristic which all members of a set have, e.g. gender, age,
7
achievement, etc. These are human characteristics possessed by all but members of a set
are expected to vary on the possession of the particular characteristic:
Gender – male, female, transgender;

Age – infant, young, old;
Intelligence – high, average, low
There are different types of variables.
For example,
 Height is a continuous variable as it allows continuous measures from short to tall.
 Gender, being a three-category variable, permits only three characteristics: male, female or
transgender.
 Religion is a multiple-category variable and allows for classification into various
categories – Hindu, Sikhs, Christian, Muslim, Buddhist, etc.
Discrete variables enable you to distinguish between categories but are not possible to distinguish
between degrees of difference, not they be placed in any order.
It is important for a researcher to limit the size of the problem by limiting the number of
variables involved particularly in educational research.
When selecting a problem for study you need to look specifically at the relationship
between variables.
In the previous situation where the classroom problem was analysed using an inductive
approach, the eventual problem concerned the relationship between three variables:
The eventual problem was: ‘How does father's occupation and student's position in the
family affect the skill acquisition of students in manual trades' courses at a new technician
institute?’
8
Practice Task
1. Is the interest in the area only a sufficient Criteria for Selecting a Problem?
2. What are three main sources of problem situations in educational research?
3. Briefly explain why uniqueness in identification of a research problem is an important

criterion?
4. Briefly explain why researcher’s capability & limitations in identification of a research problem
is an important criterion?
5. Which one of the following variables is dichotomous?

a. Age
b. Gender
c. Intelligence
d. Rank in class
6. Which Problem Areas a researcher should to Avoid while selecting a research problem?
a. Moral and Ethical
b. Philosophical
c. Theological
d. All of these
7. Identify the variables in the following research problem: ‘Effect of Computer Assisted
instruction on the achievement of students in Mathematics’.
9
Feedback/Self-evaluation to Practice task
1. No
2. Personal Practical Experiences; Critical Study of Literature; and Interaction with others during seminars,
conferences, in-service programmes.
3. Little is gained by duplicating an existing study as research findings need to expand knowledge.
4. A researcher’s experience will determine the scope of the study as overly ambitious research problem
rarely get completed.
5. b (Gender)
6. d (all of these)
7. there are two variables: Computer Assisted Instruction and Achievement in Mathematics
10
3 Stating the Research Problem
There are two ways of stating the research problem: Question Form OR Statement Form
 Writing the Problem in Question Form

The problem is generally written in question form. For example, what effect has the introduction
of MOOC on Graphics & Animation had on the skill acquisition of graduate students in preparing
Power-point presentations?
 Writing the Problem in Statement Form

Some writers on research methodology suggest that the problem could be written as a
statement. For example, this study is designed to measure the effect of the introduction of
MOOC on Graphics & Animation has had on the skill acquisition of graduate students in
preparing Power-point presentations.
However, one reason why you should favour the question form is because often when problems
are written as statements, they become confused with the purpose. You can see the similarity.
For example, the purpose of this study is to investigate the impact the introduction of an
individualised programme has had on a technician course.
A statement of purpose is a far more generalised statement than a problem statement, but there
is a tendency to let one take the place of the other. For this reason, you are advised to use the
question form for the writing of the research problem as this will enable you to differentiate it from
a statement of purpose. A question also makes it easier to focus on the issue under
investigation.
 Rules to Follow
Problem cab written in a number of ways of - in question form - a single question, several
questions or even one main question with a set of sub-questions or statement form. However,
regardless of which way you write the problem question, there are certain rules to follow.
 Clarity
The problem should be written as explicitly as possible, avoiding unnecessary and ambiguous
words, but at the same time including all those words that are required to make the problem
clear. On analysing your problem clearly, you would know quite specifically what the relevant
variables are and the relationship you would like to investigate.
11
 Avoid Value Statements
It was suggested in the previous unit that you avoid questions relating to moral and
ethical issues. You were also introduced to some value-laden words - "best way",
"bad". Other words in this category include: ‘should’, ‘ought’, ‘better than’, ‘best’, ‘poor’,
etc. Words like these indicate cultural or personal bias, either in the framing of the
question or implied in the answer, and should be avoided at all times.
For example, the question, ‘Should Automotive Engineering students be involved in an

industrial attachment scheme’? is not a well-stated research problem. It could,
however, be re-written as a research problem in a variety of ways, one being: ‘What
effect does an industrial attachment scheme have on the performance of students in an
Automotive Engineering course’? This question implies a particular type of research
that would be designed to measure the "effect" of the scheme on the students’
performance.
On the other hand, the question might become: ‘How do technician teachers perceive
the introduction of an industrial attachment scheme in an Automotive Engineering
course’? To find the results, a completely different type of research would need to be
carried out. In this particular case, technician teachers would be surveyed in a~ attempt
to discover their attitude towards the introduction of an industrial attachment scheme.
 Avoid Dichotomous Questions
Dichotomous questions are those that can be answered in two ways, e.g. Yes or No,
right or wrong, agree or disagree, etc. Problems should not be written as questions
requiring a "yes" or "no" answer. For example, ‘Do automotive engineering students
need an industrial attachment period included in their training course’? Depending on
your point of view, this question could be answered with a simple "yes" or "no". The
question is therefore, not suitable as a research question.
4 Evaluating the Research Problem
After having formulated a well-constructed research question, it is important to consider:

whether the research problem is FEASIBLE, and WORTHWHILE.
It would be most unwise to commence a piece of research without evaluating the problem in
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these terms. As a result of the evaluation you might find that the problem requires further
refinement to make it amenable to research, or it may have to be discarded completely. It is not
unreasonable to expect to have to rewrite your problem question several times before you are
completely satisfied with it as a problem.
 Is the Problem Feasible?
It is the researcher himself/herself, who is the primary source for evaluating he research problem.
He/she should ask himself/herself a number of questions relating to the feasibility of the
investigating the problem, i.e., whether it is possible for the problem to be solved. The researcher
can seek answers to the questions like:
 Has the problem been specified?

If the problem involves a clear statement of the relationship between two or more variables, then it
should be made possible to measure the relationship in some way - in terms of the degree to which
the variables are related. Has the problem been stated correctly, or does it still contain some of the
vagueness and indeterminacy of a problem situation, or the generality of a purpose statement? If
the problem has not been adequately stated, then it is highly likely that any further research work
would be difficult.
 Is the problem amenable to research?

The question is asking whether the problem is capable of being subjected to scientific
measurement.
 Is the problem too large?

Is the problem manageable? It may be necessary to further refine the problem by
breaking it into smaller units or by reducing the number of variables. Other suggestions
have already been put forward - limiting the size of the sample (the number of people
involved in the study), decreasing the geographical district, etc.
 How available are the data?

This question is related to the one above. One of the criteria for deciding whether a
problem is too large or not, is on the basis of the availability of data. How accessible are
the data? Does the collection of data require you to travel long distances? Do you expect
people to be willing to co-operate? Are there enough people available? No matter how
enthusiastic you are as an educational researcher, the realities of the task of data
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collection may force you to modify the problem.
 Am I capable of solving the problem?

Not only does a researcher need certain skills, but he also needs the courage and
determination to carry the study through to completion. You should ask yourself,
 Am I prepared to undertake the research study and complete it?
 Do I possess the necessary skills and abilities required? Or can they be
acquired?
 Can I obtain support and guidance from other more experienced people?
 Do I have sufficient background knowledge in the area?
 Do I have enough time and money?
Consultation with Others
After having considered the above stated questions, it would be wise to consult others
(experienced researchers/interested colleagues or experts in the field) for their informative
feedback. Their feedback might focus on aspects that you have overlooked. They might
suggest alternative approaches or present a different viewpoint or simply help you clarify
your thinking. Their valuable suggestions, at this stage in the research process, would be
most beneficial.
Is the Problem Worthwhile?

The relative worth of a research problem/study may vary from person to person. Teachers,
administrators, curriculum developers and the general public would probably find value in
different research problems. In order to judge whether your research problem is worthwhile,
the researcher may ask himself/herself the question, Will the results be worthwhile, i.e.,
significant?
In answering this question, the researcher is concerned with social factors rather than
focussing on personal factors when looking at the problem feasibility issue.
A researcher would need to ask a few questions when evaluating the worthwhileness of
his/her research problem such as:
 Will the results advance knowledge?

It is necessary to consider the contribution (whether small or large) that the research will
make. If the problem has already been thoroughly investigated, then there is no point in
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continuing - the problem should be abandoned. Duplication of problems has been
considered previously in this module.
 Will the research have some value?

Even if the results do not have practical value, the conclusions should be of value to
education. In some instances, the research results may not have practical implications.
This would be the case if the problem was centred around an investigation into, or a
clarification of, educational theory. Results from a study of this nature may have little
direct value for the technician teacher in his day-to-day work and would more likely have
indirect benefits for technician education in general.
 Will the results be of interest to others?

Although the problem will be of particular interest to the researcher, it is also important
that it be of interest to others. Nevertheless, if it is of no interest to anyone but yourself,
what is the value of the study?
5 Writing Research Questions

Quite often after a research problem has been adequately formulated and evaluated, it is
broken down or segmented. This segmentation may take the form of more specific questions.
These questions, referred to as research questions, help the researcher further define what he
is searching for or exploring.
A parallel activity to research question writing is the writing of specific objectives from a general
objective when a teacher is developing a curriculum. The researcher begins with a problem
statement and the teacher starts with a general objective or goal. Next the researcher develops
research questions and the teacher develops specific objectives. Therefore, the research
questions provide explanation and added focus to the study. The suggestions for writing
research questions are given below:
 Review the Problem Statement for its Parts

By reviewing and analysing the problem statement the researcher may be able to dissect it.
That is, it may be possible to identify what comprises the statement. Usually, in the process of
formulating the problem statement, the researcher has thought about, discussed and otherwise
considered may components or parts. Usually in the delineation process, the researcher
delimits the parts into a problem statement. In this step of research question formulation, it is
necessary to open up the statement and identify its parts.
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Let us consider the following examples:
Problem Statement
Are the fitting and machining skills of mechanical engineers up to the skill level required by local
industry?
By considering and analysing this problem statement it is possible to see three points:
1. The skills of mechanical technicians.

2. The skills required by industry. The real problem leads to a third part which is:
3. The similarities between points one and two. This analysis can lead to the following
three research questions.
Research Questions
1. What level of fitting and machining skills are being taught in institution A?
2. What level of fitting and machining skills are required by local industry in community
A?
3. Is there a between what is taught and what is needed by industry in terms of fitting
and machining skills?
 Review Variables
Another approach to identifying pertinent research questions is to review the list of
variables that you may have considered in writing the problem statement. These
variables account for the major emphases.
Problem Statement
What are the impacts of linkages existing between a technical school and the industry for the
implementation of institutional programmes?
Variables
Impacts
 Employment; Curriculum Content; Skill Performance; Facilities
Linkages
 On-the-job Training; Funding; Communication
From a review of the above variables, it is possible to phrase them into research questions. The
following are two such examples:
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Research Questions
1. What funding linkages exist between school A and industry?
2. What communication linkages exist between school A and industry?
 Think of Hunches or Guesses of Results

With many studies, the researcher has ideas or hunches about solutions to his problem. These
hunches may later be transformed into hypotheses (considered in the next unit) but may provide
valuable input to the writing of research questions as well. The following example presents a
problem with several hunches. The hunches are then refined as research questions.
Problem Statement
What is the effect of using media on the performance of technician students in teaching
geometrical drawing?
Hunches
Students may be more motivated by media.
Media may better explain some drawing concepts.
Research Questions
1.Will media significantly motivate technician students?
2.Will media provide a more effective means of instruction than non-use?
6 Functions of a Hypothesis
Once a problem situation has been identified and a problem stated in a researchable form, the
researcher's task to find an answer to the problem becomes easier. However, it is necessary for
the researcher to develop a hypothesis, if the answer to the question cannot be found from
within the body of knowledge already in existence.
A hypothesis is actually a tentative solution or an educated guess. It attempts to describe the

nature of the relationship between the variables identified in the problem. A hypothesis is an
attempt to suggest a possible answer to the problem based on available facts or information that
the researcher already knows.
All of us construct hypotheses in our everyday life. For example, when items are lost, or when
something does not act in the normal way, people construct hypotheses that direct them to
finding the solution to a question. We ask ourselves questions like, Where did I leave my house
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key? What is that throbbing sound?; Why didn't the parcel by mail arrive?
Perhaps, in order to solve the problem, we attempt to link what is known and what is not known
and suggest a possible reason or solution and hence, in this way we are hypothesising.
For example, consider the problem of the lost scooter key. In an attempt to locate it, you would
probably look in the place where it is normally kept and also in places where the key might have
been lost. If you fail to locate the key, you might retrace your movements and ask others
whether they have seen it. You would be building up a store of information (known facts about
where the key is not located).
You would probably try to think of as many places as possible where it could be. Maybe it has
accidentally been placed inside some of your papers? Or maybe someone is playing a joke. By
eliminating some alternatives that you feel couldn't possibly be locations for the key, you come
up with a tentative solution - a hypothesis, if you like....
You have dropped the key and someone has probably picked it up and handed it in to the
general office! When you have a moment to spare you will walk over to the general office and
enquire. But your problem is still not solved - it won't be solved until you put your suggestion to
the test by walking over to the general office to find out whether the key is there or not.
Problem-solving in educational research also requires hypotheses that direct the researchers in
how to go about solving the problem. Having suggested a possible solution, a researcher can
put his hypothesis to the test. He can collect and analyse his data and, as a result, either
support or reject his hypothesis.
In educational research, problems indicate a relationship between variables. Hypotheses

suggest what that relationship is.
Problem: How does father's occupation and student's position in the family affect the skill
acquisition of students in digital electronics course at an institute?
Hypothesis: The combination of two factors: relative position in the family and father's occupation have
a positive relationship with student performance on a test of practical skills.
In the hypothesis, the relationship between the variables has been suggested – a positive relationship -
and there is an indication of how to test the hypothesis. You would need to find out how students
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perform on a test of practical skills and see whether this correlates with father's occupation and position
in the family.
If you put this hypothesis to the test and find that there is a positive relationship, then your hypothesis is
supported. On the other hand, if you find no relationship then your hypothesis would be rejected.
6.1 Definition of a Hypothesis

A hypothesis is the tentative guess suggested as solution to a problem or an explanation of some
observed state of affairs. It is the sentence or statement of the problem that describes researcher's
expectations about relationship between variables within a problem.
A hypothesis, the most powerful tool at disposal of the researcher, can be used to solve simple or
complex problems. A hypothesis indicates exactly which variables to examine and what relationship
to look for and as such provides the research a direction which the problem definition fails to
establish. A research problem must be tested through the hypothesis that it generates.
What do Hypotheses Do?

1. A hypothesis gives a statement of a relationship that is empirically testable and can be
found to be either true or false.
2. A hypothesis gives direction to a study. It would be uneconomical and worthless to collect
an enormous amount of data without some idea of the possible outcomes.
3. A hypothesis is evidence that a researcher has a sufficient background of knowledge in an
area to be able to suggest relationships and explanations that can extend the body of
knowledge already in existence.
4. A hypothesis gives continuity to a study by providing a basis for drawing conclusions from
the study. Adapted from Charles D Hopkins (1976).
It makes no difference to the outcome of the study whether the hypothesis is supported or not. No
professional reputation is at stake! The more important concern of the educational researcher is in
making sure that the research process is undertaken in a systematic and scientific way. There is no
place in educational research for studies that support hypotheses yet are lacking in the necessary
research procedures.
A piece of research is not a failure if it fails to support the hypothesis. Positive results merely
support the hypothesis, whereas negative results indicate that the results failed to support the
hypothesis.
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If a well-conducted research study has been undertaken to test the assumptions of the hypothesis,
then the results are important not whether or not the hypothesis has been supported.
6.2 Writing Hypotheses
Hypotheses should be written after a review of the literature has been carried out and a problem
has been selected for study. Unless an educational researcher is aware of what knowledge already
exists and that the problem is that he wishes to research, then he Hill be unable to write a
hypothesis.
Hypothesis-writing is made easier if the researcher has a clearly defined problem question from
which to formulate his hypothesis. If a problem question does not meet the criteria that were
established, then it may be quite difficult to answer with an appropriate hypothesis.
The precondition, then, for writing a hypothesis is to have a well- written problem question. There
are some rules to follow for writing hypotheses:
 Write the Hypothesis as a Statement

In the previous unit you were given some guidelines about writing research problems and
you were advised to write the problem in question form. The hypothesis, however, should be
written as a statement. Can you see the reason why? The research problem relates to the
question that needs answering and the hypothesis serves to provide an answer to the
question.
If you consider the functions of a hypothesis, i.e. to direct the investigation and to indicate a
relationship existing between variables, then it is natural that it should be written in the form
of a statement.
 Define the Terms Precisely

Hypotheses should give a very clear statement of what the tentative relationship between
variables is. In order for the variables to be measured, they should be clearly written and
defined in operational terms if need be. If a large number of terms need further definition
they should appear immediately after the statement of the hypothesis. For example, consider
the research hypothesis, ‘Girls in polytechnics are superior in intelligence to boys in
polytechnics’. In order to test this hypothesis, it would be necessary to measure the
intelligence of girls in polytechnics and the intelligence of boys in polytechnics and then
investigate whether there is any difference in the results. But what is meant by 'intelligence'?
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How would it be measured?
It would be necessary to further define the concept to stipulate what is meant by the term so
that the variable can be measured. The hypothesis could then become, ‘Girls in polytechnics
are superior in intelligence as measured using the Stanford - Binet test of Intelligence to
boys in polytechnics’.
A better way to write the hypothesis is: ‘Girls in polytechnics are superior in intelligence to
boys in polytechnics. Intelligence is measured using the Stanford - Binet test of Intelligence’.
 Use as Many Hypotheses as Required

A researcher will usually have more than one hypothesis to test. Some research studies
could have quite a large number of hypotheses. A single hypothesis can only refer to one
relationship between the variables. Perhaps it is important to test a number of relationships.
In educational research this is most likely going to be the case. Since education is such an
interactive and complex process it will probably present quite complex problems that require
a number of possible explanations.
Consider the question, ‘What is the relationship, if any, of teacher talk to student
performance in principles of drafting’? There are a number of hypotheses that could be
generated from this problem question. Both teacher talk and student performance could be
measured in a number of ways.
Teacher Talk: Amount of time devoted to talk; Whether direct or non-direct, loud or soft,
friendly or unfriendly, clear or unclear; Possessing certain communication skills, etc.
Student Performance: Achievement as measured by a particular test; Concentration on the

task at hand; Cooperation or non-cooperation, etc.
Examples of possible hypotheses:

a. The amount of time a teacher talks as measured by a percentage of total time
available has a negative relationship with student scores on a test of principles of
drafting.
b. The amount of time devoted to indirect teacher talk as a percentage of the amount
of time a teacher talks has a positive relationship with student scores on a test of
principles of drafting. Indirect teacher talk will be measured using the Riley Verbal
Interaction Scale.
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 Write the Hypothesis Clearly
Hypotheses should be unambiguous. At the same time, they should be as simple as
possible while still taking into account all the necessary facts. A hypothesis does not serve
as a literary masterpiece but as a scientific tool of value to the educational researcher.
A hypothesis must:
1. Be written prior to the collection of data.
2. Be written as a statement.
3. Indicate the relationship between variables.
4. Include terms that are precisely defined.
5. Be clearly written.
6. Satisfy the requirements of the problem. It may be necessary to have more than one
hypothesis.
6.3 Different Types of Hypotheses
 Research Hypothesis
A researcher may use either of two types of hypotheses. The type chosen will depend on the
nature of the problem. You have been introduced to one of these - the research hypothesis
which states an expected outcome between variables. It is also called the alternative hypothesis.
 Null Hypothesis
A second type of hypothesis - the null hypothesis is most useful to educational researchers. In
contrast to the research hypothesis it denies that any significant relationship exists between the
variables.
For example, a teacher of a subject might decide to use one particular teaching method (lecture)
with one group of students, another teaching method (directed questioning) with another group,
and then test the two groups on their knowledge of the content of the lessons in an attempt to
measure the effects of different teaching methods on student performance.
The null hypothesis would be: ‘There is no difference in the test scores of students exposed to
two different teaching methods, the lecture technique and the directed questioning technique’.
The researcher attempts to find evidence to reject the null hypothesis. For the scores for each
group on the test, the means can be calculated X a and Xb). If one mean is greater than the other,
22
then the teacher (researcher) might assume that the particular teaching method used with the
group scoring the highest mean was the most effective method.
If the two groups were not equally matched then he would have a sampling error, and if
he exposed the two groups to the same treatment or to no treatment at all, he still may
get a difference in the performance of the two groups simply because of the differences
samples. The difference in mean scores may not be the result of the differential
treatment. In order to interpret the results, the researcher needs to ask:
 How great is the difference between the two means?

 Could the difference in the two means have occurred as a result of a sampling
 error?
 Or was the difference so great that it would have only rarely happened by
chance?
Statistical tests can be carried out to help answer questions of this kind. Small
differences could have been the result of a sampling error whereas large differences
could be credited to the effects of the different teaching methods. To determine whether
the difference between the means is a large difference or an unusual difference the
researcher needs to know just how likely it would be to achieve the same result from a
number of groups of students.
Fortunately, statisticians have prepared numerous tables for all sorts of problems that
set out the probability or the likelihood of this result occurring. Traditionally in the social
sciences, researchers have favoured a 5 per cent and a 1 per cent probability level.
What Does this Mean?
A researcher will allow some sampling to affect the results. In the case of a 5 per cent
level of probability', he would make allowance for the result to be obtained 5 times out of
every hundred (100) by chance. At the 1 per cent level, he would allow only one
occasion in every hundred for the result to have been obtained' by chance.
If a researcher decides to allow a 1 per cent level of probability (p < .01) then he would
have a 99 per cent level of confidence in his results. That is, on 99 occasions out of
every 100, the result should occur from the effect of the different treatments rather than
23
by chance. So, if the difference in the means is so great that they occur at the 1 per cent
level of probability, then this researcher could consider his results to be significant.
If this occurs, the null hypothesis, which states that there is no relationship, would be
rejected. In rejecting the null hypothesis, the researcher would feel confident that the
difference in results that could have occurred by chance, would be remote.
It is to remember that the null hypothesis is a statistical proposition that states there is no
relation between the variables identified in the problem.
Like research hypotheses, null hypotheses (a) need to be written as a statement, and (b)
should be precisely written with terms defined, and there could be more than one for
each research problem.
If you feel you have understood what is meant by a null hypothesis move on to the
practice tasks.
6.4 Evaluating a Hypothesis
Like problems, hypotheses need to be evaluated. Is the hypothesis satisfactory? On the

basis of certain criteria, a researcher can judge whether his hypothesis is suitable. He
may need to ask the following questions.
 Is the Hypothesis Plausible?

The researcher should consider whether the relationship between the variables he has
suggested is plausible, i.e. logical.
 Has the Hypothesis Been Developed Prior to Collecting the Data?

It is important for hypotheses to be written prior to the data being collected. The
information sought in the data collection stage of the research process should be in
support of, or against the suggested relationship stated in the hypothesis. If it does not
serve this purpose, there really is not much point in collecting the data.
Hypotheses are developed directly from research problems and are then tested to see
whether the relationships actually exist. They should not be formulated on the basis of
the data collected.
 Is the Hypothesis Testable?
24
One of the functions of a research hypothesis is to direct the researcher in the design of
his study and in the selection of measuring instruments. To do this the hypothesis must
clearly define the variables and clearly indicate how the variables are to be related and
measured.
Again, the hypothesis writer must avoid terms that express value judgements. A
hypothesis that includes such vague terms raises questions of value rather than
statements of relationships.
 Is the Hypothesis based on Known Facts?

Once a researcher has observed a situation, extracted relevant explanations for the
phenomenon and generated a hypothesis, he must return to a study of the literature in
order to refine his thinking. This could result in the abandonment of a hypothesis, in the
modification of his original hypothesis, or in the addition of several hypotheses.
Conversations with experts, as well as an extensive review of the literature, will help the
researcher clarify or even reject his original hypothesis.
The most useful hypotheses explain more than just a few isolated facts. They attempt to
explain all the relevant facts in a situation in an attempt to build a theory - cognitive
theory, a learning theory, etc.
This is, however, a difficult task for the novice researcher but the more consequences
hypotheses can yield, the more useful they are. The value of a hypothesis is increased if
it establishes generalizations that are applicable to many educational areas.
If, on the other hand, hypotheses are built on existing theories or on situations readily
observed, then the results will add to the existing body of knowledge.
 Is the Hypothesis Simply Written in Statement Form?

The more parsimonious a hypothesis is, the better. A hypothesis should be stated with
the least amount of complexity. This does not mean it should have fewer words, but it
should be written as simply as possible yet still taking into account all the known facts.
Some researchers have such an intense desire to confirm their hypothesis that they find
it difficult to consider alternative viewpoints. A researcher, who put forward the
hypothesis that, ‘all educational researchers are frustrated scientists’, might busily engage
25
himself in the task of finding out what proportions of educational researchers are either
ex- scientists or who have sympathetic leanings towards science as a discipline. His
commitment to his hypothesis might cause him to overlook other, perhaps relevant,
information Maybe they are people who consider research to be important perhaps they
are seeking promotion or a higher degree perhaps they possess certain personality
characteristics; maybe they desire recognition.
A researcher needs to look at a problem objectively and to generate a hypothesis that
will meet certain criteria:
1. It should be plausible
2. It should be developed prior to the collection of data.
3. It has to be testable.
4. It needs to be based on known facts.
5. It should be simply in statement form.
Let us take an example of the topic, ‘Effect of Video Assisted Instruction and
Computer Based Concept mapping on Achievement in Mathematics in relation
to Emotional intelligence & Attitude towards Technology’, write its objectives:
 To study the effect of different instructional strategies on achievement of

students in Mathematics
 To study the differences in achievement of students in Mathematics with
different levels of EI
 To study the differences in achievement of students in Mathematics with
different levels of attitude towards technology
 To study the interactional effect of instructional strategies and EI on
achievement in mathematics
 To study the interactional effect of instructional strategies and attitude
towards technology on achievement in mathematics
 To study the interactional effect of EI and attitude towards technology on
achievement in mathematics
 To
study the interactional effect of instructional strategies, EI and attitude
towards technology on achievement in mathematics
26
7. Summary
In this module, we have presented that part of the research process that deals with locating a problem
situation, selecting and delimiting a problem and generating hypotheses. Various sources were considered
as avenues of problem location and particular areas of interest to researchers in technician education were
highlighted.
Criteria for selecting a problem and for evaluating it were presented and some guidelines were established
for writing both problems and hypotheses. Both the research hypothesis and the null hypothesis were
discussed in relation to their functions and some questions to consider for evaluating hypotheses were put
forward.
Experienced researchers realise the importance of the role of problems, research questions and
hypotheses in any type of educational research. Without a clearly defined problem and well-established
hypotheses or research questions the task of carrying the research through to completion is made more
difficult.
Selecting and developing instruments and collecting and analysing data are viewed by many as the
exciting and stimulating parts of the research process and, in their haste to reach this stage, researchers
often telescope the time spent on reviewing the literature and defining the problem. Neglect in the planning
stages can create unnecessary problems and difficulties in the latter part of the research activity. You
should be aware that research instruments are a means to an end, not an end in themselves. As you
become more experienced in the area of educational research and put some of the principles into practice
you will become more appreciative of the role that problem definition, research questions and hypotheses
play in the research process.
27
Practice Task
8. What are the two ways of stating the research problem?
9. Briefly explain why the following statement (A bad lifestyle is the main cause of
inattentiveness in class) should NOT be the basis for a research study?
10. Write the research questions for the study on ‘Effect of Problem Based Learning on the
performance of first year electronics engineering students in digital electronics in relation to
their learning style’.
11. Explain the need of formulating hypothesis (es) in a research study?
12. Write three objectives for a study on, ‘Effect of Problem Based Learning on the
performance of first year electronics engineering students in digital electronics’
28
Feedback next page
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8. Question Form and Statement Form

9. Contains value judgements (bad life style and main cause).
10. The research questions are:
a. Will PBL significantly motivate first year electronics engineering students in digital
electronics?
b. Will PBL provide a more effective means of instruction than non-use?
11. A hypothesis gives direction to a study. It would be uneconomical and worthless to collect an enormous
amount of data without some idea of the possible outcomes.
12. Following are the objectives of the study:
a. To study the effect of Problem Based Learning on the performance of first year electronics
engineering students in digital electronics.
b. To study the differences in achievement of first year electronics engineering students in
digital electronics with differential learning style.
c. To study the interactional effect of instructional strategies and learning style on
achievement of first year electronics engineering students in digital electronics
30
References
[
 Borg, W and Gall, M (2003). Educational Research: an introduction, New York: Longman.
 Cohen, L (2000). Educational Research in Classrooms and Schools - a Manual of Materials
and Methods. New York: Harper & Row Publishers.
 CPSC (1990). Developing Skills in Technician Education Research Module 3 (Selecting
and Defining a Research Problem), Singapore: Colombo Plan Staff College for Technician
Education.
 Garrett, HE and Woodsworth, RS (2003). Statistics in Psychology and Education, Bombay:
Vakils Fetter and Simons.
 Gay, LR (2000). Educational Research, Ohio: Charles E Merril Publishing.
 Gupta, SL and Gupta, Hitesh (2011). Research Methodology – Text and Cases with SPSS
Applications. New Delhi: International Book House Pvt. Ltd.
 Koul, L (2009). Methodology of Educational Research. 4th Edition; Noida: Vikas Publishing
House Pvt. Ltd., 532pp.
 Kumar, R (2016). Research Methodology – A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners. New
Delhi: Sage Publications India Pvt. Ltd., Third Printing, 399pp.
 Shoket, M (2014). Research Problem: Identification and Formulation. International Journal
of Research, Vol. 1, Issue 4, May, 2014; ISSN 2348-6848.
 Tatke, J (2009). Research Methodology. Pune: Symbiosis Centre for Distance Learning.
Support learning resources:
 Video film on ‘Selecting a Research Problem’ developed/recorded by Professor (Dr.)

Sunil Dutt, NITTTR, Chandigarh.
 Video film on ‘Defining a Research Problem and Writing Research Questions’
developed/recorded by Professor (Dr.) Sunil Dutt, NITTTR, Chandigarh.
 Farooq, U (2013). Selection of Research Problem.
http://www.studylecturenotes.com/social-research-methodology/selection-of-research-
problem.
 Patel, B (2014). Selection of Research Problem.
https://www.slideshare.net/biniyapatel/selection-of-research-problem.
 https://www.umflint.edu/library/how-select-research-topic.
 Selecting a Research Problem & Topics in Research Methodology (2017).
https://professortoday.com/selecting-a-research-problem/
31
UNIT II
4.1a: Descriptive Research:

Survey Research
CONTENTS
S. No Page
Learning Outcomes
1. Introduction 1-2
Practice Task 3
Feedback 4
2. Types of Descriptive Research 5
3. Survey Research 5-6

3.1 Types of Survey Research
5
3.1.1 Population survey
5
3.1.2 Sample survey
Practice Task 7
Feedback 8
3.2 Steps in the Process of Planning and Conducting Survey 9-14

Research
9
3.2.1 Select a problem
11
3.2.2 Review of related literature
3.2.3 Decide the techniques and procedure for data 13
collection
14
3.2.4 Collect data
14
3.2.5 Analysis of data
3.2.6 Report writing 14
Practice Task 15
Feedback 16
References 17
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH: SURVEY RESEARCH
Learning Outcomes
 Define descriptive research
 Explain the three different types of descriptive research
 Define survey research
 Differentiate among the various types of survey
 Describe the procedure for conducting survey research
1. Introduction
Descriptive research as the name indicates involves description of existing processes,

phenomena, conditions etc. “Descriptive research is concerned with conditions or
relationships that exist, practices that are held, processes that are going on, effects that
are being felt, or trends that developing” (Best, 1970). The purpose of descriptive
research is to describe the current status of a variable of interest to the researcher.
There are a number of questions, which can be answered through descriptive research.
Some of these questions may include the following:
 What differences exist among the learners with respect to the physical, cognitive,
social and emotional characteristics?
 What are the learners’ expectations from the course?
 Which are the instructional strategies used by teachers to facilitate attainment of

learning outcomes in various domains?
 Which are the instructional media integrated in teaching learning?
 What are the reactions of learners towards teaching learning strategies adopted
to achieve learning outcomes?
 Which assessment techniques are preferred by teachers to assess learners’

performance in theory and practical work?’
 What is the degree of utilization of various resources (physical, information,

human and financial) in degree level institutions in the State of Himachal Pradesh
 What are the qualifications and experience of teachers working in technical

institutions in Punjab?
1
 What is the level of job satisfaction of teachers working in technical institutions in
Haryana?
 How many Government, Government Aided and Self- Financed Institutions are
offering scholarships to students under various government schemes?
 What is the average pass percentage from various programmes offered by

various diploma level institutions in Chandigarh?
 Why do institutions in the NCR region collaborate with each other?
 How IIT, Bombay is able to undertake collaborative research?
 How YMCA, Faridabad is able to ensure placement of students?
 How Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering & Technology is able to resolve inter
faculty conflicts with in the institution?
 What are the major drawbacks in the question papers of Rajasthan Technical
University?
 What is the quality of Power Point slides used by teachers of technical institutions
in the state of Delhi?
The answers to these questions require the researcher to undertake descriptive

research.
2
Practice Task
1. Explain the purpose of descriptive research.
2. Which of the following questions can be answered through descriptive research?

Put a tick mark.
i. What are the employer’s reactions towards pass-outs from private engineering
colleges?
ii. Which is the dominant leadership style used by Directors of University Institutes
of Engineering & Technology in HP?
iii. What is the effect of collaborative learning on achievement of Applied Physics of
first year students?
iv. What is the relationship between teachers’ experience and teaching
effectiveness?
v. What is the opinion of learners towards semester system?
3
Feedback
1. Purpose of descriptive research
 To describe the existing conditions, processes and opinions

2. Questions that can be answered by descriptive research
I
Ii
V
4
2. Types of Descriptive Research
Descriptive research can be of three types as shown in Figure 1.
Descriptive Research
Survey Research Case Study Content analysis

Research
Fig.1: Types of Descriptive Research
3. Survey Research
Survey research is “an attempt to collect data from members of population in order to
determine the current status of that population with respect to one or more variables”
(Gay, 1990). According to Cohen & Manion (2000),” surveys gathers data at a particular
point in time with an intention to (a) describing the nature of existing conditions,
(b) identifying standards against which the existing conditions can be compared and
(c) determining the relationships that exist between specific events”.
Survey research, thus, answer questions related to ‘WHAT IS’.
3.1 Types of Survey Research
Surveys can be classified as

 Population Survey
 Sample Survey
3.1.1 Population survey: An attempt is made to acquire data from each and
every member of the population. Census in the country is the best example of
population survey. A population survey in education research is usually
conducted when a population is relatively small and easily accessible.
3.1.2 Sample survey: In a sample survey, an attempt is made to infer about the
population of interest based upon the response of a selected sample drawn from
5
the population. The Sample drawn is either simple random sample or stratified
random sample.
When the information is collected at some point of time from a sample, which
hopefully represents relevant sub-groups in the population, it is referred to as
cross-sectional survey.
When the data are collected over a period of time and each year data is
compared with other years, this is referred to as longitudinal surveys.
Longitudinal designs can be (Cohen and Manion, 1980):
Trend design: Surveying a particular group, say students of polytechnics, over a

period of say three years.
Cohort design: Study a particular group over time, but the people in the group
may vary. Specific population is followed over a period of time say, teachers who
acquired masters in Engineering Education in 1994, but the samples would vary.
Panel design: Collecting data from the same sample from a population over a
period of time.
Follow-up studies: Collecting data or information from the pass-outs from a

system over a period of time e.g. Tracer studies
6
Practice Task
1. Explain the purpose of survey research.
2. Differentiate between population and sample survey.
3. Enlist the various longitudinal designs for survey studies.
7
Feedback
1. Purposes of survey research
 Explain the current status

 Identify standards
 Determine relationships between events
2. In population survey data is collected from each and every unit of population,
while in sample survey, data is collected from the selected units of population.
3. Longitudinal designs include:
 Trend study
 Cohort study
 Panel study
 Follow-up studies
8
3.2 Steps in the Process of Planning and Conducting Survey Research
The major steps involved in the process of conducting survey research are as
following (CPSC, 1984; Gay, Mills and Ariasian, 2012):
 Select and define the problem

 Review related literature
 Decide the techniques and procedures for data collection
 Select a sample
 Select/design tools/measuring instruments for collection of
data/information
 Data collection procedure
 Decide the statistical techniques
 Collect data
 Analyze data
 Prepare report of survey research
3.2.1 Select a problem: There are a variety of sources for selecting a research
problem: personal experience, inference from theory, review of related literature
and technological and social changes. The first step in selecting a problem is to
identify a general problem area that is related to your area of expertise and of
particular interest to you. Selection of the problem should be done taking into
consideration the factors such as interest, size, economy, researchers’ capability
and limitations and uniqueness.
Before a researcher can proceed with the study, it is essential for him/her to
covert his tentative ideas into a researchable problem. Fig.2 shows the steps
involved in formulating/analyzing a research problem.
9
Problem situation
Preliminary list of possible

contributing factors and
explanation
Elimination of irrelevant facts
List of probable relevant facts

and explanations
Basic assumptions
(theory)
Research problem
Fig.2: Steps in formulating a problem
It is always desirable to limit the size of the problem in terms of variables.

Problems can be written either in a question form or statement form or in terms of
purpose. Brief rationale and the outcomes may be included in the statement of
the problem. Before finalizing the problem, researcher should examine the issues
of research ability and worthwhileness.
Writing research objectives or questions

Once a research problem has been finalized, it is broken down to specific
research objectives or research questions. For example:
Problem
Determine the current status of women faculty in the polytechnics of J&K.
Research objectives
 Determine the number of female teachers working at different levels in the
polytechnics of J&K
 Determine the number of women teachers at different levels with degree
and post-degree qualifications
10
 Determine the number of female teachers who have upgraded their
qualifications
 Identify the contributions of women faculty in terms of research and
innovations in teaching learning in the polytechnics of J&K
 Identify the career prospects for a women faculty in the polytechnics of
J&K
 Suggest strategies for enhancing women’s participation in technical
education
Problem: Degree of utilization of various resources in the polytechnics of Delhi?
Research questions
 What is the extent of utilization of physical resources in the polytechnics of

Delhi?
 What is the extent of utilization of information resources (print and non-
print) in the polytechnics of Delhi?
 What is the extent of utilization of financial resources in the polytechnics
of Delhi?
 What is the extent of utilization of human resources (both faculty and staff)
in the polytechnics of Delhi?
 What are the problems in optimal utilization of various resources in the
polytechnics of Delhi?
Research objectives or research questions stated clearly provide clear-cut

direction to the research study in terms of information needs and design.
3.2.2 Review of related literature: Before starting reading the related

literature, it is essential that you raise a few questions to which you would
like to find an answer to. The questions may pertain to definition of variables,
objectives/research questions, hypotheses, research design, sampling
procedures, measurements of variables/tools, statistical techniques, findings
etc. The questions provide direction in review of related literature. Both
primary and secondary sources of information should be referred to in order
to limit the scope of the problem, define the problem, avoid unnecessary
repetition, search new approaches, recommend or adopt suitable
approaches and sample current opinion (CPSC, 1984). You should
11
summarize the information and ensure the completeness and accuracy of
information.
Formulate hypotheses
On the basis of the review of related literature, you may like to formulate
hypotheses for the study. A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for certain
behaviours, phenomena or events that have occurred or will occur. Hypothesis
can either be null or alternate. Null hypothesis states that there exists no
relationship between the variables being studied or the differences between the
two groups. For example,
 ‘There is no significant difference between the degree of utilization of
laboratories and workshops in single technology institutes and polytechnics
in Punjab’.
 ‘There is no significant difference in the scores obtained in the entrance test
for polytechnics by students from vocational stream and general stream’.
Alternate hypothesis can either be directional or non- directional. Directional
hypothesis states the direction of relationship between two or more variables
being studied or difference between two groups being studied. For example,
 ‘Degree of utilization of laboratories and workshops is significantly more in

Single Technology Institutes as compared to Polytechnics in Punjab’
 ‘Students from vocational stream have significantly higher scores in the
entrance test for polytechnics than the students from general stream’
Non-directional hypothesis states relationship between two or more variables

being studied or differences exist between two groups being studied but does not
indicate the direction of relationship or differences. For Example:
 There are significant differences in the degree of utilization of laboratories

and workshops in Single Technology Institutes and Polytechnics in Punjab.
 Students from vocational and general stream show significantly different
performance in the entrance test for polytechnics.
12
3.2.3 Decide the techniques and procedure for data collection
Select the sample
First of all, decide the population on which you would like to generalize the
findings of the study keeping in view the objectives or research questions. For
example, population refers to all technical teachers in India or technical
teachers in the state of Haryana. Once the population has been defined, the
question of taking the sample is addressed. You need to decide whether
probability sampling technique or non-probability sampling technique will be
used. The details of the sample design, its size and the specific procedures
used for selecting unit, will influence directly the precision of sample estimates.
The size of the sample should be large enough for generalizability of the
findings of the study. For descriptive studies, a sample of 10% of the large
population is considered minimum. For smaller population, 20% of the
population may be selected.
Select/develop tools/measuring instruments for collection of

data/information
There are four types of tools or measuring instruments, which can be used for
collecting relevant data and information for the survey. These include:
Questionnaires, Interview Schedules, Observation Schedules and Standardized
tests. Research questions or research objectives and the variables of study will
provide the direction as to which technique or techniques will be useful in
collecting data. For example, if you are interested in studying the qualification
and experience of teachers, questionnaire is best suited; if you are interested in
finding out how teachers communicate in classes, observation of teachers’
classroom behavior becomes important and thus observation schedule would
be required. And if you are interested in finding an answer to why teachers
communicate in a specific way, interview schedule would be required.
Data collection procedure
Decisions are made as how the data is to be collected and who are the people
to be involved in data collection. For example, whether the questionnaire is to
be mailed or personally administered, observation of actual process is to be
13
made once or twice and by whom, and who is likely to interview whom and
when.
Decide about the statistical techniques to be used. Keeping in view the

research questions and hypotheses, select the appropriate statistical
techniques for analysis of data.
3.2.4 Collect data: Data collection is an important step in conducting research,

as the findings of your study are likely to be affected by the nature of data
collected. Data is to be collected strictly as per the research design
requirements. You need to prepare all the material, seek prior approval from
competent authority, train people for data collection, if more than one is
involved, ensure confidentiality etc.
3.2.5 Analysis of data: Before you proceed to data analysis, Code the data
and prepare summary sheets. Carry out statistical analysis- descriptive
statistics or inferential statistics based on your research design and research
questions.
3.2.6 Report writing: The last step is writing a research report. The research
report can include; Preliminary materials (Title page, Acknowledgements, Table
of Contents, List of Tables, List of Illustrations, Abstract), body of the report
(introduction, review of related literature, methodology, analysis of data and
results), summary and conclusions, references and appendix, if any. The survey
report is now ready for circulation. The report should be widely circulated so that
various stakeholders can take necessary actions.
14
Practice Task
1. The following are the steps in undertaking survey research. Write the correct
sequence of the step in the space provided.
------ Review related literature
------ Select and define the problem
------ Write research questions or objectives of the survey
------ Collect data
------ Formulate hypotheses
------ Analyze data
------ Decide on the techniques and procedures for data collection
------ Prepare report of survey research
2. For the hypotheses given below, indicate the type of hypothesis in the space
provided
Hypothesis Type of Hypothesis
There are differences in the entry
level performance of students in
government and private institutions.
There is no significant difference in
the performance of boys and girls
of Electronics & Communication
Engineering in the state of
Maharashtra.
The staff in Government
engineering college is significantly
more experienced than private
engineering colleges.
There are differences in the salary
paid to teachers in government and
private technical institutions
3. Write the three types of tools which can be used for collection of data.
15
Feedback
1. The sequence of steps in undertaking survey research is
i. Select and define the problem
ii. Write research questions or objectives of the survey
iii. Review related literature
iv. Formulate hypotheses
v. Decide on the techniques and procedures for data collection
vi. Collect data
vii. Analyze data
viii. Prepare report of survey research
2. Type of hypothesis
Hypothesis Type of Hypothesis
There are differences in the entry Non-directional Hypothesis
level performance of students in
government and private institutions.
There is no significant difference in Null Hypothesis
the performance of boys and girls of
Electronics & Communication
Engineering in the state of
Maharashtra.
The staff in Government engineering Directional Hypothesis
college is significantly more
experienced than private engineering
colleges.
There are differences in the salary Non-directional Hypothesis
paid to teachers in government and
private technical institutions
There are no differences in the Null Hypothesis
motivation level of students in
polytechnics, engineering colleges
and technical universities.
3. Tools that can be used for collection of data are:
 Questionnaires
 Observation schedules
 Interview schedules
16
References
 CPSC. (1984). Selecting And Describing Research Design (Module 4).
Singapore: Colombo Plan Staff College.
 Cohen, Lewis and Manion, L. (1980) Research Methods in Education, London:
Croom Helm.
 Gay, LR; Mills, GE. and Ariasian, PW (2012). Educational Research:
Competencies for Analysis & Application. New York: Pearson.

 Bhattacherji, Anol. Survey Research, Chapter 9. In Social science research:
Principles, Methods and Practices. (2012)
http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=oa_text
books
 Owens, Linda K. (2002) Introduction to survey research design.
http://www.srl.uic.edu/seminars/Intro/Intro_to_survey_design.pdf
 Ross, Kenneth N. (2005). Sample Design for Education Survey. Quantitative
research methods in educational planning. UNESCO International Institute for
Educational Planning.
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002145/214550e.pdf
 Siniscalco, Maria Teresa; Auriat, Nadia (2005) Questionnaire design: Module 8,
Quantitative research methods in educational planning. UNESCO International I
Institute for Educational Planning.
 Survey research methods. Web Centre for social research Methods.
https://socialresearchmethods.net/kb/survey.php
 Survey Research. https://writing.colostate.edu/guides/guide.cfm?guideid=68
 Survey Research. https://writing.colostate.edu/guides/pdfs/guide68.pdf
17
UNIT II
4.1b: Descriptive Research:

Case Study Research
CONTENTS
S. No Page
Learning Outcomes
1. Introduction 1
2. Case Study Research: Concept 1-2
Practice Task 3
Feedback 4
3. Designing Case Studies 5-9
3.1 State Research Questions or Objectives of a Case Study 5
3.2 Sate the Propositions 6
3.3 Describe case study approach 7
3.3.1 Select unit of analysis 7
3.3.2 Select sources of evidence 7
3.3.3 Select/develop tools for data collection 8
3.3.4 Describe data collection procedure 8
3.3.5 Preparing for data collection 8
3. 4 Collect data 9
3.5 Analyze Data and Interpret Results 9
Practice Task 10
Feedback 12
References 13
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH: CASE STUDY
Learning Outcomes:
 Define case study
 Enlist the characteristics of case study research.
 Explain the steps involved in case study research.
 Enlist the skills needed to carry out case study research.
1. Introduction
Case studies are a type of descriptive research. “The purpose of such studies is to probe
deeply and to analyze intensively the multifarious phenomena that constitute the life cycle of
unit with a view to establishing generalizations about the wider population to which the unit
belongs” (Cohen and Manion, 1980). Case studies have a number of advantages that make
them attractive to researchers. These include: case study data is strong in reality, they allow
generalizations either about an instance or from an instance to a class, recognize the
complexity and embedded ness of social truth, the insights gained through case study may
be directly interpreted and put into action, Case studies, considered as products, may form
an archive of descriptive material sufficiently rich to admit subsequent interpretation and
present research or evaluation data in a more accessible form than other kinds of research
reports (Adelman, Jenkins and Kemmis, 1980).
2. Case Study Research: Concept
“A case study is an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon in its

real life context, when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly
evident and in which multiple sources of evidence are used” (Yin, 1984).
Case study research includes both single case studies (dealing with an individual,
organization or an institution) and multiple case studies (collection of case studies of
individuals or organization or institutions having similar characteristics). The main
characteristics of case study research method are:
 It is an intensive study of social unit.
 Observation is the primary technique of gathering information.
 It examines a small number of units but the number of variable studied for the unit is
large.
1
Case studies help the researchers to answer “how” and “why” questions. There are many
instances, where one can take up case study. For example, when you are concerned with
questions such as:
 How the institutions attained the ISO certification?
 How teachers at CU are able to constitute interdisciplinary teams for project work?
 How Indo Swiss Training Institute, Chandigarh is able to secure placement for
students?
 How NITTTR, Chandigarh could encourage students for startups?
 Why students of ISTC, Chandigarh are able to acquire skills?
 How decisions are made in the BOGs of Chandigarh University?
 Why PSG institute of Technology is able to network with industry?
case study research is the appropriate strategy.
2
Practice Task
1. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of Case Study Research?
a) An in-depth investigation of a phenomenon

b) Involves representative sample from population
c) Studies multiple variables
d) Collects data from multiple sources
2. Put a tick mark in the column against the questions that can be answered through Case
Study Research
Question
Why students of a particular teacher are able to score more than

80% marks in each examination?
Why do students bunk class of a particular subject?
Why Nikhil create indiscipline problem in every class?
What are the reasons for mass bunks in technical institutions?
How IIT , Bombay is able to secure rank in top five hundred in Times
Higher Education Ranking ?
What are the entry level qualifications of students admitted in first
year of degree programme in computer science in the state of UP?
What is the impact of TEQIP on the technical education system in
India?
3
Feedback
1. NOT a characteristic of Case Study Research
(b) Involves representative sample from population
2. Questions that can be answered through case study research.
Question Answered
through
Case Study
Yes No
Why students of a particular teacher are able to √
score more than 80% marks in each
examination?
Why do students bunk class of a particular √
subject?
Why Nikhil create indiscipline problem in every √
class?
What are the reasons for mass bunks in
technical institutions?
How IIT , Bombay is able to secure rank in top √
five hundred in Times Higher Education
Ranking ?
What are the entry level qualifications of
students admitted in first year of degree
programme in computer science in the state of
UP?
What is the impact of TEQIP on the technical
education system in India?
4
3. Designing Case Studies
Research design is a plan that guides the investigator/researcher in the process of

collecting, analyzing and interpreting the observations. It is a logical model of proof that
allows the researcher to draw inferences concerning causal relations among the variables
under investigation. In other words it is a blue print of research, dealing with at least four
problems: what questions to study, what data are relevant, what data to collect and how to
analyze the results. The major steps in conducting a case study are:
 State the research questions or the objectives of study
 State the propositions
 Describe Case Study approach
 Select unit of analysis
 Identify sources of evidence
 Select/develop data collection tools
 Describe data collection procedure
 Collect data
 Analyze and interpret the results
3.1 State Research Questions or Objectives of a Case Study
The initial task of the researcher is to clarify precisely the nature of research questions or
the objectives. The case study strategy is appropriate for “how” and “why” of questions.
For example:
 “How enterprise resource planning system was implemented in the IIIT, Allahabad?
 How could YMCA, Faridabad establish linkages with world of work?
 Why IIT, Bombay is able to undertake collaborative research?
 How an institution or industry prepared itself for obtaining ISO certification?
 How an institution or organization attained the status of an excellent institution or an
organization?
 How interpersonal relationships are maintained in a particular tribe or a society?
 How quality is managed in award winning industries?
 How and why do organizations collaborate with one an another to provide joint
services?
 For a case study of an institution, the following were the objectives (Malhotra &
Tulsi, 1995):
 Trace historical development of the institute and identify its missions, goals and
objectives.
 Describe the nature of programmes offered and their relevance to employment
sector.
5
 Identify the characteristics of student input.
 Identify the resources (human, physical, information and financial) being utilized for
carrying out instructional and curriculum processes.
 Understand the nature of curriculum and instructional processes being used to
transform input to output.
 Understand the policies, structures and processes being adopted for managing the
institute.
 Understand the linkage of the institutions with other agencies in the environment
(Proximate and remote).
 Assess outcomes of the institute.
 Identify the factors that could contribute to improving quality of a technical institute.
 Identify factors that could lead to deterioration of the quality of an institute.
3.2 State the Propositions
How and why questions do not point to what should be studied. Propositions need to be
stated. For instance, you might think that organizations collaborate because they derive
mutual benefits. This proposition besides reflecting an important theoretical issue also
directs the researcher to look for relevant evidence to define and ascertain the extent of
specific benefits. For a case study of an institution, the following were the propositions
(Malhotra & Tulsi, 1995):
 Students selected through entrance test which screens them on the basis of their
aptitude for professional programme could influence learning environment and
output of the programme.
 Course offerings of great worth and relevance to the requirements of the world of
work are considered factors that contribute to building excellence in a professional
institute.
 Instructional process that combines strategies for sound theoretical knowledge and
relevant experiential learning help in building excellence in an institute by developing
right kind of capabilities in the students.
 Making assessment of students’ performance integral to the process of instruction
could build a very effective environment and improve effectiveness of the students’
learning.
 A proposition can therefore be forwarded that an institution which portrays a good
work culture, innovativeness and an industrial environment facilitates improvement
of its effectiveness and efficiency.
 Policies and Procedures which ensure selection of quality teaching staff with
practical experience in industry and their on-going professional development builds
up a potential for excellence in an institution.
 A technical institute which is equipped with the latest in technology and develop a
strong linkage with industry for sharing resources for the purpose of mutual benefits
6
and training facilities helps in improving relevance of the programmes offered, their
cost effectiveness and quality of instruction.
 Autonomy to an institution empowers it to achieve responsiveness to changes in the
environment fast which facilitates building excellence in an institute.
 Establishment of appropriate structures and specific assignment of roles lead to
effective and efficient implementation of policies, programmes and activities of any
organization and habituating sound procedural configurations for problem solving,
decision making, monitoring and evaluation of curriculum processes, quality
assurance and management of inputs.
3.3 Describe Case Study Approach
The approach to be followed in undertaking a case study research is described below:
3.3.1 Select unit of analysis: Unit of analysis need to be stated explicitly. Case may
be an individual, an organization it could be an individual or a group of individuals,
progressive decision etc. or group of organizations having some similar characteristics,
which are to be studied.
For example:
 Award winning automotive industry
 Industries with ISO certification
 Institutions collaborating with industry for undertaking research
 Collaborating institutions or organizations
If the unit of analysis is a small group, for instance, the persons to be included with in
the group must be distinguished from those who are outside it. In addition, specific
time boundaries are needed to define the beginning and end of the case. This will help
the researcher to determine the limits of the data collection and analysis.
The unit of analysis in case of case study of an institution, YMCA Institute was the unit
of analysis and a purposive sample consisting of Director, Faculty members, non-
teaching staff, students, alumni and industry personnel was studied.
3.3.2 Select sources of evidence: Researcher needs to identify the various sources
of evidence keeping in view the research questions. Evidence for case studies may
come from the following sources:
 Documentation (letters, agenda, written reports, formal studies or evaluation

studies, news clipping, other articles)
7
 Archival Records (service records, organizational records, map or others,
survey data personal records)
 Interviews (structured, semi-structured and focused interview)
 Observations (Direct observation, participant observation)
 Physical Artifacts
3.3.3 Select/develop tools for data collection: Appropriate tools - interview

schedules, observation schedules and questionnaires need to be developed for
collection of data. Principles of designing interview schedules, observation schedules
and questionnaires need to be kept in mind while designing the tools.
3.3.4 Describe data collection procedure: The procedure for collecting each type of
evidence must be explicitly stated in order to avoid any problem in data collection.
3.3.5 Preparing for data collection: The researcher, undertaking a case study must
possess the following skills (Yin, 1984)
 Questioning skills (framing of questions, posing of question reacting to

answers the question
 Listening skills
 Adaptive ness and flexibility
In addition, researcher should have grasp of the issues being studied and should be
free from biases.
If a group of persons is to be involved in the case study for collection of data, training
must be given. Each investigator should have understanding of why the study is being
done, what evidence is being sought, what variations can be anticipated and what
would constitute supportive or contrary evidence for any given proposition.
The researcher (s) must ensure:
 Gaining access to key organizations or interviews

 Having sufficient resources while in field
 Making a clear schedule of the data collection activities
 Providing for unanticipated events
Pilot case study needs to be conducted. The inquiry can be much broader and less
focused than the final data collection plan. Pilot study can help the researcher in
8
refining research question(s) (if needed), revising propositions, finalizing probing
questions and logistics of the field inquiry.
3. 4 Collect Data
Data for the case study is to be collected from the identified sources of evidence namely
documents, archival records, interviews, observations and physical artifacts as identified at
the design stage. Construct validity of the case study can be enhanced by collecting data
from multiple sources, maintaining a chain of evidence and creating a data base by taking
notes, documenting narratives, and obtaining relevant documents.
3.5 Analyze Data and Interpret Results
Evidence collected from various sources can be analyzed keeping in view the propositions
stated for the study or the case can be described following either a linear structure or
chronological structure or time series analysis depending upon the research questions of
the case study. The researcher must provide adequate explanation, establish causal links,
add narratives and support the description by the relevant material.
See the web links for detailed information.
9
Practice Task
1. Sequence the steps in planning and conducting case study research:
i. Describe case study approach

ii. State the propositions
iii. State the research questions or the objectives of study
iv. Collect data
v. Analyze and interpret the results
2. Enlist the activities undertaken by researcher to describe case study approach
3. Write a case study you would like to carry out and write its objectives
10
Feedback next page
11
Feedback
1. Steps in planning and conducting case study research
i. State the research questions or the objectives of study

ii. State the propositions
iii. Describe case study approach
iv. Collect data
v. Analyze and interpret the results
2. Activities to be undertaken to describe an approach of case study

i. Select unit of analysis
ii. Identify sources of evidence
iii. Select/develop tools for data collection
iv. Describe data collection procedure
3 Consult your course coordinator on this.
12
References:
 Adelman, C., D. Jenkins, and Kemmis, S, (1980). Rethinking case study: notes from
the second Cambridge conference. In H. Simons (ed.) Towards a Science of the
Singular. Center for Applied Research in Education, University of East Anglia, 45-61.
 Cohen, Louis and Manion, L. (1980). Research Methods in Education. London:
Croom Helm.1980.
 CPSC (1984). Selecting Research Design and Describing Procedures (Module 4).
Singapore: CPSC,
 Malhotra, MM and Tulsi, PK (1995). A case Study of YMCA Institute, Faridabad:.
Unpublished Report, Chandigarh: Technical Teachers’ Training & Institute.
 Yin, Robert K. (1984). “Case Study Research: Design and Methods” New Delhi:
Sage Pub. 1984
 Baxter, Pamela and Jack, Susan. Qualitative Case Study Methodology: Study Design
and Implementation for Novice Researchers. The Qualitative Report Volume 13
Number 4 December 2008 544-559. http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR13-4/baxter.pdf
 Case Study research design.
http://documents.routledgeinteractive.s3.amazonaws.com/9780415628129/Chapter%
206%20-%20Case%20study%20research%20design%20final_edited.pdf
 Harrison, Helena; Birks ,Melanie; Franklin, Richard & Mills, Jane
Case Study Research: Foundations and Methodological Orientations. Forum
Qualitative Social research , Volume 18, No. 1, Art. 19 – January 2017
http://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/view/2655/4079
 Neale, Palena; Thapa, Shyam; and Boyce, Carolyn. (2006) . Preparing A case Study:
A guide for Designing & Conducting a Case Study for Evaluation Input.
http://www2.pathfinder.org/site/DocServer/m_e_tool_series_case_study.pdf
 Yin, Robert K. (2013). Case Study Research: Design and Methods.
https://books.google.co.in/books?id=OgyqBAAAQBAJ
13
UNIT II
4.1c: Descriptive Research:

Content Analysis Research
CONTENTS
S. No Page
Learning Outcomes
1. Introduction 1
2. Content Analysis: Concept 1
3. Steps in Conducting Content Analysis 1-2
3.1 State the Purpose of Content Analysis 1
3.2 Write Research Questions 2
3.3 Sample the Content 2
3.4 Develop Classification System for Analysis 2
3.5 Ensure High Degree of Inter-rater Reliability 2
3.6 Analyze Data and Interpret the Findings 2
Practice Task 3
Feedback 4
References 5
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH: CONTENT ANALYSIS RESEARCH
Learning Outcomes:
 Define content analysis research

 Give examples of content analysis research
 Describe the procedure for undertaking content analysis research
1. Introduction
A teacher communicates in class and also interacts informally with students, develops
instructional material-both print and non-print, prepares question papers to evaluate student
performance, selects books, reference materials, web sites or web resources for facilitating
teaching-learning. These are nothing but pieces of communication. In order to assess the
quality of interaction, resources, question papers etc. one needs to carry out the content
analysis.
2. Content Analysis: Concept
“Content analysis is a technique used to systematically make an objective and quantitative

description of any content of communication (verbal/Non- verbal)”. For example, you may
like to take up content analysis of examination papers to determine quality of questions,
determine its validity or quality of instructions and appropriateness of distribution of marks
etc.
3. Steps in Conducting Content Analysis
The following are the steps in undertaking content analysis (CPSC, 1984 and Gay, Mills and
Ariasian, 2012):
 State purpose of study
 Write research question
 Sample the content
 Develop classification system for analysis
 Ensure high degree of inter-rater reliability
 Analyze data and interpret the findings
3.1 State the Purpose of Content Analysis

The first step is to clarify why content analysis is undertaken. For example, if you are
likely to examine the quality of Power Points made or question papers set by teachers,
the ultimate purpose is to improve the quality of power points or the question papers.
Specifically, you may be interested in determining the adequacy and appropriateness of
1
instruction, content coverage, quality of questions, weightages assigned to various
ability levels etc. in case of question papers.
3.2 Write Research Questions

For example, if you are likely to carry out content analysis of question papers, the
following may be your research questions to which you would like to find an answer to:
 How many question papers contain required general information?
 How many question papers provide for adequate and appropriate instructions?
 How much of the syllabus is covered in question papers?
 How many questions are appropriately worded?
 How many questions contain grammatical mistakes?
 What weightages have been assigned to various levels of abilities as per Bloom’s
taxonomy?
 How many questions have been repeated for the last three years?
 How many questions have been assigned appropriate marks? ----
3.3 Sample the Content
Decide about the university, number of disciplines, courses, and years for which question
papers will be selected. For example, one may be interested in question papers of
Rajasthan Technical University, Master’s in Civil Engineering discipline, two courses from
each year of study for the last five years. Thus in total, forty papers of Civil engineering
for the last five years (2012-2017) are to be selected for content analysis.
3.4 Develop Classification System for Analysis
The next step is to develop a classification system for analysis. For example, the
following criteria may be used for analysing question papers.
 Completeness of general information
 Appropriateness of instruction
 Adequacy of Instruction
 Adequacy of content coverage as per syllabus
 Accuracy in framing of questions
 Appropriateness of weightages assigned to various ability levels
 Number of questions with grammatical mistakes
 Repetition of question over the last five years
3.5 Ensure High Degree of Inter-Rater Reliability

If more than one researcher is likely to be involved in analysing the question papers, it is
essential to train the persons to avoid any subjectivity in analysis as per the classification
system.
3.6 Analyze Data and Interpret the Findings

Each member of the team analyzes the question papers as per the classification criteria
and then the results for all the question papers are to be collated. Finally, research report
is prepared.
2
Practice Task
1. As a researcher, you are interested in prescribing text book in the subject you are
teaching in your institution. You have five different books; identify the criteria you
would like to adopt to prescribe one of the books as a textbook to your students.
2. Write the research questions you would like to find an answer to for determining
quality of power points used by teachers in teaching learning.
3
Feedback
1. Criteria for analysis of books

 Credibility of author
 Year of publication
 Adequacy of coverage of content as per syllabus
 Statement of learning outcomes
 Adequacy of explanation
 Simplicity of language
 Quality of illustrations
 Use of examples to highlight applications
 Integration of findings of research in text
 Quality of references
 Quality of questions
2. Research questions for content analysis of Power Points

 How appropriate is the sequencing of content?
 How relevant is the content in the PPTs?
 How appropriate is the aspect ratio?
 How appropriateness is the font size
 How appropriate are the colours used?
 How appropriate is the use of animations?
 How adequate is the content on slides?
 How appropriate is the use of bullets or numbering system?
4
References:
 CPSC (1984). Selecting Research Design and Describing Procedures (Module 4}.
Colombo Plan Staff College for Technician Education, Singapore.
 Gay, LR; Mills, GE. and Ariasian, PW (2012). Educational research: Competencies
for Analysis & Application. New York: Pearson.
Web resources for further reading:
 An Introduction to Content Analysis. http://www.umsl.edu/~wilmarthp/mrpc-web-

resources/content-analysis.pdf
 Content analysis. https://www.ischool.utexas.edu/~palmquis/courses/content.html
 Franzosi, Roberto. Content Analysis: Objective, Systematic, and Quantitative
Description of Content. http://www.unive.it/media/allegato/Scuola-
Dottorale/2011/allegato/Content_Analysis_-_Introduction.pdf
 Mayring, Philipp (2014). Qualitative Content Analysis. Theoretical Foundation, Basic
Procedures and Software Solution.
https://www.psychopen.eu/fileadmin/user_upload/books/mayring/ssoar-2014-mayring
Qualitative_content_analysis_theoretical_foundation.pdf
 Prasad, B. Devi. Content Analysis. A Method in Social Science Research.
http://www.css.ac.in/download/Content%20Analysis.%20A%20method%20of%20Soc
ial%20Science%20Research.pdf
 Bengtsson, Mariette. (2016). How to plan and perform a qualitative study using
content analysis. NursingPlus Open, 2, pp. 8-14.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352900816000029
5
UNIT II
4.2: Correlation Research

CONTENTS
S. No Page
Learning Outcomes
1. Introduction 1
2. Correlational Research: Concept 1
3. Purposes of Correlational Studies 1
4. Advantages of Correlational Research 1-2
5. Correlation : Definition 2
6. Different Types of Correlations 2
6.1 Positive Correlation 2
6.2 Negative Correlation 2
6.3 No Correlation 2
Practice Task 3
Feedback 4
7. Correlation Coefficient 5
8. Correlation Does Not Tell About Causation 5
Practice Task 6
Feedback 8
9. Methods for Correlation Analysis (An Introduction) 9-11
9.1 Scatter Plot Method 9
9.1.1 Scatter plot for positive correlation 9
9.1.2 Scatter plot for negative correlation 9
9.1.3 Scatter plot for no correlation 9

9.2 Karl Pearson’s Coefficient of Correlation 10
10. Different Types of Correlational Studies 12-15
10.1 Relationship Studies 12
10.2 Prediction Studies 12
10.3 Steps to be Followed In Relationship Studies and 13
Prediction
Studies
Practice Task 16
Feedback 18-19
References 20
CORRELATION RESEARCH
Learning Outcomes
After reading the material, you will be to:

• Define Correlational research
• Explain different purposes of correlation studies
• Differentiate among the different types of Correlation
1. Introduction
In practice, we have come across a large number of problems involving the use of two or
more than two variables. If two Variables vary in such a way that movements in one also
effect the other, these variables are considered as interrelated. For example, there exists
some relationship between use of mobile phones and less number of hours’ students
devoted for studying, Teacher effectiveness and attendance of the students in classrooms.
In nutshell the correlational research involves study of bivariate data.
2. Correlation Research: Concept

Gay, 1990 define Correlation research as collection of data in order to determine whether,
and to what degree, a relationship exists between two or more quantifiable variables. The
measurement of degree of relationship between the variables under consideration is done
through the correlational analysis.
3. Purposes of Correlational Studies

• To explore relationship between two or more than two variables.
• To predict scores on a variable from subjects scores on the other variables.
• Investigate relationship that appears to need further analysis.
4. Advantages of Correlational Research
• The relationships among a large number of variables in a single study can be

analysed. For example, in behavioural sciences, we are frequently confronted
with situations in which several variables are contributing causes of a particular
pattern of behaviour. The experimental techniques permit a manipulation of only
a single variable. Whereas, the Correlational method allows the researcher to
analyse how several variable either singly or in combination might affect a
particular pattern of a behaviour.
• It provides information concerning a degree of relationship between the variables
being studied.
1
5. Correlation: Concept
Whenever we study bivariate data we may like to know the degree of relationship between
the variables of data known as correlation. When one variable increases, another variable
either increases or decreases in a somewhat predictable fashion means a correlation exists.
6. Different Types of Correlations

The different types of correlation are as follow:
6.1 Positive Correlation

If the values of two variables changing in the same direction, the correlation is said to be
positive correlation.
If One Variable (X) is decreasing other Variable Y is also decreasing.
if One Variable (X) is increasing other Variable Y is also increasing.
Variables change in the same

direction
6.2 Negative Correlation

If the values of two variables changing in the opposite direction, the correlation is said to
be negative correlation.
If One variable(X) is decreasing and other variable (Y) is increasing
If One variable(X) is increasing and other variable (Y) is decreasing
Variables change in the opposite direction
6.3 No Correlation
One variable (X) do not have any relationship with other variable(Y).
2
Practice Task
1. Define Bivariate Data.
2. Describe the purposes served by Correlational research.
3. Enlist the different types of Correlation that can exist for a given research Problem.
3
Feedback to Practice Task
1. Data in which we secure measures of two variables for each individual. For example,
for a student if I have to measures of height and weight.
2. The Different Purposes served by Correlational research are:

- To explore relationship between two or more than two variables.
- To predict scores on a variable from subjects scores on the other variables.
- Investigate relationship that appear to need further analysis.
3. There can be three different types of Correlation that can be exist for a research
problem.
- Positive Correlation
- Negative Correlation
- No Correlation
4
7. Correlation Coefficient
The correlation coefficient or correlation index is the measure of correlation that summarizes
the direction and degree of correlation. The value of correlation co efficient is ranging
between + 1.00 to - 1.00. The symbol that is used to represent it generally is
• If there is a perfect positive relationship between the variables, the value of
correlation co efficient is 1.00.
• If the relationship is perfectly negative between the variable, the value of
correlation co efficient is – 1.00.
• If the value of Correlation Coefficient is 0 indicates no relationship at all
8. Correlation Does Not Tell About Causation

Correlational research serves the purposes such as to find relationships between two or
more variables, to better understand the conditions and events one can encounter and
possibly to predict the future. The another important factor to consider is the causation which
means cause & effect relationship.
Causation always infer correlation on the other hand correlation only tells that a relationship
exists between two variables but tells nothing about cause and effect.
If two variables vary in such a way that movement in one are accompanied by movement in
other, these variables are called cause and effect relationship. There can be direction
problem and magnitude problem. For example, there are two variable X and Y
i. If two variables are correlated we do not know which affect other.

X causes Y either directly or Indirectly
Y causes X either directly or Indirectly
ii. Two variables may be correlated due to third variable.
Variable X is Correlated with Variable Y but there is third Variable Z which is the common
underlying cause that produce changes in both X and Y.
5
Practice Task
1. Define Correlation Coefficient.
2. The scores for intelligence test and achievement test for a given class students are
enlisted in the table below. Identify what type of relationship exist between the two
scores.
Scores in achievement test Scores in intelligent test (IQ)

40 85
41 86
100 145
3. “Correlation Does not always imply causation”. Elaborate the statement.
6
Feedback next page
7
1. The correlation coefficient is the measure of correlation that summarizes the direction and
degree of correlation. The value of correlation co efficient is ranging between + 1.00 to
- 1.00.
2. If this is the case, the researcher could have said that there is a perfect positive
Correlation exist between achievement & IQ test. The scores in intelligence test increase
along with achievement test.
3. Causation means cause & effect relation. It always infers correlation but correlation only
tells that a relationship exists between two variables but tells nothing about cause and
effect.
If two variables vary in such a way that movement in one are accompanied by movement
in other, these variables are called cause and effect relationship. There can be direction
problem and magnitude problem. For example, there are two variable X and Y
i. If two variables are correlated we do not know which affect other.

X causes Y either directly or indirectly
Y causes X either directly or indirectly
ii. Two variables may be correlated due to third variable.
Variable X is correlated with Variable Y but there is third Variable Z which is the
common underlying cause that produce changes in both X and Y.
8
9. Methods for Correlation Analysis (An Introduction)
Following are the different methods for Correlation analysis:
9.1 Scatter Plot Method

The simple method of ascertaining whether two variables are correlated or not are scatter
diagram. There can be different types of correlation for a given data. When this method is
used the given data are plotted on a graph paper in the form of dots i.e., for each pair of X
and Y values we put a dot and thus obtain as many points as the number of observations.
By looking at the scatter diagram an idea can be formed what type of correlation exist
between the data. The Scatter plot for different Correlations are as follows:
9.1.1 Scatter plot for positive correlation
Figure 1: Scatter Diagram for Perfect Positive Correlation
9.1.2 Scatter plot for negative correlation
Figure 2: Scatter Diagram for Perfect Negative Correlation
9
9.1.3 Scatter plot for no correlation
Figure 3: Scatter Diagram for No Correlation
9.2 Karl Pearson’s Coefficient of Correlation

The most commonly used correlation coefficient denoted by ‘r’ is Karl Pearson’s
Coefficient. It measures the degree of linear relationship between two variables say x & y.
The Value of ‘r’ is -1 ≤ r ≥ +1. (The degree of Correlation is expressed by a value of
Coefficient and change of direction is Indicated by (-ve) or (+ ve) sign).
(For further details refer to Module 9: Analysis of Data; Descriptive and Inferential Statistic
by Dr. P. K. Tulsi)
10
The different types of Correlation Coefficient are given in the table below:
Table 1: Different Types of Correlational Coefficient
11
10. Different Types of Correlational Studies
There are two different types of Correlational studies.
10.1 Relationship Studies

In relationship studies the Correlational coefficient is best used to measure the degree
of relationship between two variables & to explore possible causal factors that can later
be tested in an experimental design.
In recent years a statistical technique known as path analysis has become popular for
testing cause & effect hypothesis using correlation data. This technique requires the
measurement of three or more variable & the formulation of theory that makes explicit
their causal relationship to each other.
In relationship studies the variables may be measured at the same point in time or
different points in time. These are concerned primarily with gaining a better
understanding of complex behaviour pattern by studying the relationships between
these pattern & variables to which they are hypothesized to be carefully related
10.2 Prediction Studies

Prediction studies tend to be more concerned with maximizing the correlation between
the predictor variables and the criterion. In prediction studies the researcher determines
the extent to which subject scores on a predictor variable predict their scores on
criterion variable. In prediction studies, the variables used for prediction must be
measured prior to the variable to be predicted. The prediction studies serve the following
purposes:
• Facilitate decision making in selection of individuals
• If number of predictor variables correlate with a criterion, then prediction is
based on combination of those variables
12
10.3 Steps to Be Followed in Relationship Studies and Prediction Studies
Steps Relationship Studies Prediction Studies

Problem Identify specific variables In prediction studies the criterion
Definition that appear to be pattern (variable) need to be
important determinants of defined very carefully. Many studies
the complex have failed to find predictive
characteristics or relationships because a poor
behaviour pattern being criterion was specified.
studied The prediction studies can be
carried out for different purposes
Selection of It is very important to It is important to draw subjects from

Subjects select subjects that are the specific population more
homogeneous otherwise, pertinent to the study.
relationship between
variables may be
obscured by the
presence of subjects
who differ widely from
each other
Data collection Data can be • The predictor variable need to
collected by various be identified and must be
methods such as measured a period of time
Standardized test, before the criterion occurs.
Questionnaires, • Data can be collected by
interviews, various methods such as
Observation standardized test,
techniques. The only Questionnaire, Interviews,
requirement is the Observational techniques.
data must be • The long term and short term
quantitative type prediction studies can be made.
• The short term prediction is
more of the determinates of the
behaviour being predicted are
likely to be present. These
13
studies allow less time for
important predictor variables to
change or for the new
determinants to emerge.
• The long term prediction
studies are carried out for
certain variable important to
success could not possibly be
measured because they are not
present at the time when
prediction were made
Data analysis • Scores for one The basic form of data analysis in a
variable are prediction study consists of
correlated with the correlating each predictor variable
scores for another with the criterion variable.
variable Multiple regression equation is often
OR used to determine whether two or
• Scores for a more of the predictor variables in
number of variable the study can be combined to
are correlated with predict the criterion better than
some particular anyone predictor variable does
variable of Interest alone.
The multiple regression equation
uses the subject’s scores on two or
more tests to predict the
performance on the criterion
measure.
Moderator analysis is also used
sometimes to maximize the
correlation between variables. The
purpose of moderator analysis is to
identify a subgroup for whom the
correlation between a criterion and
a predictor variable in significantly
greater than the correlation for the
14
total sample from which the
subgroup was formed
Interpretation of Computation of • Predicted scores are always
Data correlation depends presented in range not as a
upon the type of data we single number.
have ( Refer Module 9”:
Descriptive and
Inferential statistics)
15
Practice Task
1. State the major purposes served by Prediction Studies.
2. Give two examples of relationship studies.
3. Enlist the major steps to be involved in Relationship and Prediction studies.
16
Feedback next page
17
1. The prediction studies serve the following purposes:

- Facilitate decision making in selection of individuals
- If number of predictor variables correlate with a criterion, then prediction is based on
combination of those variables
2. The examples of relationship studies are given below:

- To determine the relationship between motivational level of student and score in
academic achievement.
- To determine the relationship between pH value and adsorption efficiency of
nanomaterial for heavy metal removal from wastewater
18
3. The various steps involve in conducting prediction and relationship studies are
given below:
S. No Prediction Studies Relationship Studies

1. Problem selection Problem selection
- Predictor variables selected - Identify variables related to the complex
should have some relationship variable under investigation.
with the criterion. - Some logic for including variables in the
- Criterion variable should be study.
defined properly
2. Sample and Sampling Select Sample and sampling Technique
Technique - Subjects selected from whom data can be
- Subjects selected from whom collected and are available to the
data can be collected and are researcher.
available to the researcher.
3. Selecting and Developing Selecting and Developing Measuring
Measuring Instruments Instrument
- Instruments used are valid and - Instruments selected must measure variables
reliable. accurately, otherwise correlation coefficient will not
indicate the true relationship
4. Data Collection Data Collection
- Data on some of the variables can be from
records
5. Data analysis and Data analysis and interpretation
interpretation - scores for each variable are correlated with
In most of the cases Multiple the scores of complex variables.
regression equation are used. - Product moment correlation coefficient
Predictor scores are always mostly used.
presented in range not as a - Computation of correlation depends on the
single number data we have.
19
References
• CPSC (1984) Developing skills in Technician Education Research Selecting Research

Design and describing Procedures, Module 4
• Gay, LR (1990) Educational Research Competencies for Analysis & Application
Maxwell, Macmillan International Editions, NY
• Gay, LR (2015) Educational Research Competencies for Analysis & Application
Maxwell, Macmillan International Editions, NY
• Wiersma William (2000) Research Methods in Education – An Introduction London,
Allyn and Bacon, Inc
E resources
• LP 2G correlation and limits of correlations Published on 1 9/20/2016,Source:
https://media.lanecc.edu/users/kime/Psy201researchmethodsG.pdf
• Correlational Research One observation can have many observations
http://aix1.uottawa.ca/~ccollin/PCLWebsite/Teaching_files/PSY2174_S11_Slides09C
orrelation_1.pdf
Watch videos
• Brannon Gaylen, “Correlational Research: A Review of Chapter 11” Published on
You Tube on Mar 3, 2013
• Khan Academy “Correlation and causality, Statistical studies, Probability and
Statistics”, Published on You Tube by on Aug 18, 2011
20
UNIT II
4.3: Ex-Post Facto Research

CONTENTS
S. No Page
Learning Outcomes
1. Introduction 1
2. Ex-Post-Facto Research – Concept 1-2
3. Difference Between Ex-Post-Facto and Experimental Research 3
4. Difference Between Ex-Post-Facto and Correlational Research 3
5. The Characteristics of Ex-Post-Facto Research 4
6. Advantages, Limitations and Use of Ex-Post-Facto Research 4-5
7. Procedural Steps for Conducting Ex-Post-Facto Research 6
8. Stating Problem of Research 6
9. Selecting the Subjects of the Study 7-11
Practice Task 12
Feedback 14
References 15
EX-POST-FACTO RESEARCH
Learning Outcomes:

 Explain the concept of Ex-Post-Facto Research.
 Identify the problematic situations that warrant the conduct of Ex-Post-Facto Research.
 Describe characteristics of Ex-Post-Facto Research.
 Describe steps involved in the conduct of Ex-Post-Facto research.
1. Introduction
Dear learners, as you know that the core of research is the problem. Sometimes a researcher
wishes to study things beyond his/her control, e.g., one can't make someone underweight to
study the effects it has on their brain. Here, he/she examines the effect of an independent
variable, present prior to the study, on a dependent variable, it means he/she should know
about the Ex-Post-Facto research.
The present learning module will enable learners understand the concept, purposes and
characteristics, and steps involved in the conduct of Ex-Post-Facto Research.
2. Ex-Post-Facto Research – Concept
The dictionary meaning of ex-post-facto is "from what is made afterwards", i.e., acting
retrospectively. Applying it to educational research, it means observing the present state of
affairs of a phenomenon and investigating the cause-and-effect relationships between the
present state and the possible causal factors. The implication being that the causal factors
occurred at a previous time.
Sometimes a researcher wishes to study things beyond his/her control, e.g., (a) one can't make
someone underweight to study the effects it has on their brain, (b) one can't alter someone's
brain to see how it affects their motor skills. In these situations, the researcher wishes to
examine the effect of an independent variable, present prior to the study, on a dependent
variable. Here, the sample is not randomly subjected to experimental/control group but
purposefully in a particular group based on some prior thing they have. Let us know, how
weight affects self-confidence levels in adults? For this, the participants are divided into
different groups (overweight, normal weight, underweight) and their self- confidence levels are
measured. This is an example of ex-post-facto design because a pre-existing characteristic
(weight) was used to form the groups.
1
Other problematic situations are:
 Determining the factors that led to low skills of engineering graduates in engineering
drawing
 Investigating the effects of background education and training of teachers on their
teaching effectiveness
 Determine the factors associated with low motivation/burn-out of technical teachers.
 Identifying possible determinants of the road accidents.
 Determining the effect of first year BE attendance of students on their grade
achievement in second year.
For example, assume a situation in which the skills of engineering graduates in Engineering
Drawing are found to be low. The investigator is interested in determining the factors that led to
this situation. For this, he can search and examine past records, talk to engineering graduates,
technical teachers, observe drawing classes, reconstruct past events and identify factors that
might explain the low achievement of skills. These factors may include, grades obtained in
individual subjects and overall grades, motivation of students, course content, the nature of
exercises practised in Engineering Drawing, teaching and learning activities, performance
assessment procedures etc. You will note that all these factors have played their part in the
past. The investigator cannot manipulate them. He/she only assesses them by using suitable
measures and examines if they are causally related to the low skills of engineering graduates in
Engineering Drawing by using appropriate statistical analysis. The causes are, therefore,
studied after they have exerted their effects that is ex-post-facto.
In studying the causes, the investigator compares the group of engineering graduates who
have low skills in Engineering Drawing with a similar group of students who have high skills in
Engineering Drawing. Ex-post-facto or causal comparative research, therefore, involves
determining causes of a phenomena by comparing a group in which the variable is present with
a similar group in which the variable is absent or present to a lesser degree.
Let us imagine another situation in which there has been a drastic rise in the number of fatal
road accidents in a particular location in a city. An expert is hired in to investigate the cause(s).
As such, he/she can neither find the reasons for the actual accidents because they have
happened; nor can he/she use technology for a video replay of the incidents. However, he/she
made an attempt for reconstruction by examining the accident spots, studying the statistics, and
taking note of the statements given by witnesses and victims.
The expert, in this way, identified the possible factors that led to such accidents: Poor road
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conditions, Excessive speed, careless driving, the effects of drugs/alcohol, inefficient vehicles,
frustration, and so on. On the basis of examination, he/she formulated hypotheses (e.g.,
lowering the speed limit, improving road conditions, or increasing police surveillance) as to the
likely causes and submitted them to the concerned authorities in the form of
suggestions/recommendations. The matter which of interest to us is that while identifying the
causes retrospectively, the expert has adopted an ex-post-facto perspective. Researcher, then
studies the independent variable(s) in retrospect for their possible relationship to, and effects
on, the dependent variable(s). Therefore, the researcher examines retrospectively the effects of
a naturally occurring event on a subsequent outcome with a view to establishing a causal link
between them.
3. Difference Between Ex-Post-Facto and Experimental Research
The major differences between experimental and ex-post-facto research are:

1. In an experimental research, the researcher forms equivalent groups, subjects them to
different treatments, and then studies the difference between them on the dependent-
variable. In an ex- post-facto design, however, research begins with the identification of
the groups that are different on the dependent variable followed by a search, in
retrospect, of the plausible factors that could have brought out this difference.
2. Experimental research allows for control, e.g., at the time for forming equivalent groups
through random assignment of subjects to the groups, through assignment of treatments
to the groups randomly and in manipulating the independent variable or treatment.
3. Whereas true experimental research can establish cause-and-effect relationships, the

results of ex-post-facto research are taken to indicate evidence of a relationship only
and further experimentation is needed to establish causality.
4. Difference Between Ex-Post-Facto and Correlational Research
Both the methods of research are non-experimental. They study relationships between the
variables, and do not permit manipulation of independent variables. The major differences
between the two are in terms of the:
1. manner in which the variables to be related are measured and
2. kind of statistical analysis carried out on the data.
Imagine a study attempting to investigate the effects of background education and training of
teachers on their teaching effectiveness. In an ex-post-facto research design, the variable
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"teaching effectiveness" will be taken as a discrete variable. A scale will be used to categorize
teachers into two or more comparable groups of say most effective, moderately effective and
least effective teachers. These groups of teachers will be compared to study the differences in
their background education and training. Statistical analyses are used to establish the
significance of these differences.
In a correlational study, the variable "teaching effectiveness" will be measured as a continuous

variable say on a scale having a large number of items, e.g., 30. The scores obtained by
teachers on this scale will be correlated with their scores on the other variable,i.e., background
education and training. Statistical analysis involves computation of the appropriate correlational
co-efficient.
5. The Characteristics of Ex-Post-Facto Research
Study of the earlier paragraphs on the concept of ex-post-facto research and the ways in which it is
different from experimental and correlational research, will reveal the following as its characteristics:
1. Data are collected after the presumed causes have occurred.

2. It does not permit any manipulative control on the independent variable or variables.
Examples of non-manipulated independent variables: Age, Gender, height, weight, Socio-
economic status, learning styles, family environment, type of institution attended, etc.
3. Unlike experimental research which begins with a specific interpretation and ends up with a
conclusion that is either congruent or not congruent with the observed data, ex-post-facto
research may result in many plausible causes of the behavioural pattern being studied.
6. Advantages, Limitations and Use of Ex-Post-Facto Research
Many of our investigations in the field of education are ex-post-facto. This is so because it
becomes difficult and sometimes impractical, uneconomic and unethical to exercise control and
manipulate independent variables in the problem situation. For example, in studying the factors
that lead to drop-outs or failures of students, it would be unethical to divide students into two
groups, treat one group with conditions that promote success and the other with those that
could cause failure or drop-outs. As there will be many factors that could cause students to fail
or drop out, each will have to be manipulated separately by exercising control over others if an
experimental design is used to establish cause-and-effect relationships. This will need a
number of experiments to be conducted that could be time consuming and expensive. There
could also be some factors which are not possible to manipulate such as social status and
attitudes of parents that may cause students to fail or drop-out. The following sections describe
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some advantages, limitations, and uses of ex-post-facto research.
Advantages
1. It is useful for identifying several possible causes of observed variations in a behavioural

pattern. Take an example of a study on "Developing instructional techniques to improve
practical skills of Civil Engineering students in Building Construction". By using an
experimental design, we can study the effectiveness of only one technique at a time. An
ex-post-facto design can, however, permit the study of large number of instructional
variables by comparing a sample that comprises high achieving group with a low
achieving group of students.
2. It can be used in situations where rigorous experimental research is not possible.
3. It helps in generating useful information about the nature of the phenomenon and is,
therefore a valuable tool in exploring in particular, simple cause-and-effect relations.
4. It can help in generating useful hypotheses that can be tested by a more rigorous
experimental method at a later stage.
Limitations
1. In an ex-post-facto research, there are limitations to the interpretation of its results. One
does not know whether a variable is the cause or an effect of the behavioural pattern
being studied. For example, in a study on the impact of teacher training, it was found that
the trained teachers spent more time on individual guidance given to the students than
untrained teachers. However, the pattern of individual guidance given by the teachers
before they were trained was not known. In such a situation, interpretation of the
findings is subject to the following questions: Do teachers who are trained spend more
time on individual guidance? Or Do teachers who spend more time on giving individual
guidance more often get trained? Or is there a third factor that causes the teacher to
spend more time on individual guidance and in getting trained?
2. The findings of ex-post-facto research cannot, with certainty establish a cause-and-

effect relationship in the absence of the control of variables. The results can only
conclude a relationship among the variables.
Appropriate Uses
1. It is primarily used for determining causes, but can also be used to determine effects of
observed differences.
2. It can be used in investigating problem situations where more powerful experimental
5
research is not possible. In other words, in situations where it is not possible to select,
control and manipulate factors related to studying directly the cause-and-effect
relationships.
3. It is particularly suitable in the education, social and psychological context, where it is
not possible to control independent variables such as teacher characteristics, social
status, gender and intelligence.
7. Procedural Steps for Conducting Ex-Post Facto Research
The steps followed in conducting an ex-post-facto research are listed below. Each step is to be
carefully planned before conducting research.
1. State the problem of research

2. Select subjects for the study. This consists of three steps:
a. defining the group that possesses the characteristics of the behavioural pattern
being studied.
b. form meaningful sub-groups.
c. select comparison groups
3. Select/Construct appropriate tools for measurement and collect data.
4. Select appropriate statistical techniques, analyse data and interpret results.
5. Write a Research Report.
8. Stating Problem of Research
In ex-post-facto research, a problem is stated either in the form of an objective or a

hypothesis.
Stating a problem in the form of an objective is preferred when the researcher cannot predict
the difference between the defined group (in which the characteristic behaviour to be studied is
present) and the comparison group (in which the characteristic behaviour is not present). For
example, if the researcher cannot predict a difference between the behaviours of teachers with
high and low motivation when investigating a problem regarding low motivation or burn-out of
teachers, the problem can be stated: "Determine the factors associated with low
motivation/burn-out of technical teachers".
A problem should be stated in the form of a hypothesis when the researcher can predict the
possible difference between the groups in advance of the data collection. The earlier problem
when stated in the form of a hypothesis will appear like this: "There is no significant difference
6
between the frequency of behaviours exhibited towards students by teachers with high
motivation and low' motivation".
The problem can also be .stated· in the form of a directional hypothesis when the researcher
is able to predict the direction of behaviour, e.g., the teachers with high motivation will exhibit a
greater frequency of positive behaviours towards students than those with low motivation".
As far as possible, a researcher while stating the problem in ex-post-facto research should
attempt to state alternative hypotheses regarding the causes of differences observed between
the two groups. In the study cited earlier, some of the possible causes of low motivation of
technical teachers could be: feelings of security, opportunity to develop close friendship in the
institution, prestige of the position in the institution/outside the institution, authority connected
with the position, opportunity for independent thought of action, opportunity for participation in
decision making, opportunity for career development and personal growth. Hypotheses could
be constructed around these variables and then tested to illustrate, one null hypothesis has
been constructed around one of these variables. “There is no significant difference between the
percentage of teachers with high and low motivation with regard to the opportunities they
receive for career development".
Use of alternative hypotheses reminds a researcher that findings of ex-past-facto research are
subject to various causal interpretations.
9. Selecting the Subjects of the Study
After the problem has been defined, the next step in the planning of an ex-post-facto study is to select
subjects for the study. This will involve a) defining and selecting the group that possesses the behavioural
pattern to be studied, b) forming meaningful sub-groups and c) selecting comparison groups. Let us study
them in detail.
a) Selecting the Defined Group

Defining the group that possesses the characteristics of the behavioural pattern under study is
extremely important as it determines the meaning and applicability of the results. For instance, a
study on "Determining the factors associated with the poor performance of Mechanical
Engineering graduates in production, planning and supervision" will require an operational
definition of 'Poor Performance in Production, Planning and Supervision'. One such definition
could be: "Any Mechanical Engineering graduate who obtains an overall average rating score of
3 or less than 3 on the supervisors' rating scale", when the maximum rated score is 5. Another
7
definition could be: "Any Mechanical Engineering graduate who obtains less than 50 on a written
test in Production, Planning and Supervision". A third definition could combine the conditions of
the earlier two definitions. You will note that defining the dependent variable differently will result
in different procedures for defining the samples. This will, in turn, lead to different findings.
Once the operational definition of the dependent variable is finalised, it can then be used to
select the group which possess the defined characteristics of this variable.
b) Forming Meaningful Sub-groups
After a group of Mechanical Engineering graduates has been selected by applying the
operational definition, it is important to see that the individuals in the group are reasonably
homogeneous in terms of other factors that could cause low performance in production,
planning and supervision. There could be different causes for which the individuals in the
group are performing low. These causes could be the differences in gender, or parents'
profession or achievement of students in the engineering programme. It is important for the
researcher, therefore, to sub-divide the main group into smaller groups so that they are
homogeneous with respect to certain critical variables. The six sub-groups formed for the
above example are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Sub-grouping of low performing Mechanical Engg. graduates in Production Planning &
Supervision
Achievement in the engineering High Low
programme
Parent’s Profession Engineering Non-Engineering
Gender Male Female
To form meaningful sub-groups, a review of literature can help provide ideas. In case no
previous studies have been conducted on the topic, then common sense, and reasoning
based on psychological or educational theory could be of help.
c) Selecting Comparison Group
After selecting the defined group that possesses the characteristic to be studied such as in the
example of the low performance of Mechanical Engineering graduates, the next step is to
select a comparison group that does not possess this characteristic, so that they can be
compared on other variables. The comparison group is selected from the population similar to
that of the defined group and is different only in respect of the variable being studied.
8
There are two ways in which comparison groups can be formed. One method is to select at
random from the defined population e.g. you can use random number tables to select the
comparison group from the population of Mechanical Engineering graduates who do not
perform low in production, planning and supervision.
The second way of forming a comparison group is by matching it with the group in which the
characteristic is present. The matching can be done on the basis of one or more variables. For
example, for each of the sub-groups defined earlier, comparison groups can be formed by
matching in terms of gender, place and nature of job, and curriculum studied in the
engineering programme. Such a procedure will generate groups that would be similar to each
other on these variables.
One big disadvantage in using this method is that the groups cannot differ on the matching
variables. Thus, the possibility of detecting these matching variables as the possible causes
for the phenomenon under study is lost. The method of random selection is therefore,
preferred.
Select/Construct appropriate tools for measurement and collect data.
Selecting an Approach to Ex-Post-Facto Research
Ex-post-facto research, as mentioned earlier, can be used to study both the effects of a phenomenon as
well as its causes. Accordingly, ex-post-facto research can be approached in two ways: by a cause-to-
effect approach or a effect-to-cause approach.
In studying the influence of the pedagogical training of teachers on students' learning, a researcher can
study factors such as achievement motivation and attitude of students taught by trained teachers and
compare them with that of a similar set of students taught by a comparable group of untrained teachers.
In following this procedure, the researcher is adopting the cause-to-effect approach.
Taking another example of investigating factors associated with student indiscipline in technical
institutions, a researcher can compare factors such as the leadership style of the principals, teaching
style of teachers and facilities in institutions having no problems with student indiscipline and compare
with institutions having problems with student indiscipline. This procedure of research follows the effect-
to-cause approach.
The selection of any of these approaches to research is, therefore, dependent on the nature of the
problem. The research design used in both approaches is the same. It is similar to an experimental
9
design except that the independent variable X (pedagogical training of teachers), is not manipulated.
There is no limitation on the use of instruments for collecting data. The instruments used may
include standardized tests, researcher made tests, questionnaires, interviews, observations.
The choice of the instruments is dependent on the nature of the data to be collected.
Suitability of different instruments and the procedure for collecting are discussed in other
modules. You may refer to these modules
Collecting Data
Two types of data are collected in this method of research. The first category of data is past
biographical information. This helps in explaining the present behaviour more accurately. The
second kind of data is the present data about the groups. This helps in finding the difference
between the behaviours exhibited.
The degree of emphasis placed on collecting these types of data depends upon the nature of
the problem.
Analysing Data and Interpreting Results
There are two major steps in analysing data in ex-post-facto research
The first step involves calculating descriptive statistics, such as the frequency, mean, standard
deviation and variation. This helps in summarizing the data from the groups being compared.
The second step involves carrying out statistical tests to determine whether the difference
between the groups being compared is significant or not. There is a variety of tests available for
this purpose. The appropriate choice of these tests depends upon several factors. Some of
these factors are: the scale of measurement of the variables (nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio),
the number of groups being compared, the research design employed, the nature of
hypotheses (null, directional), the sample size (less than or greater than 30). Table 2
describes some of the most commonly used tests of statistical significance and their appropriate
use. You can read this table in conjunction with Module 8 on statistical analysis to develop an
insight into the selection of appropriate statistical tests of significance.
Table 2. Statistical Tests of Significance and their Appropriate Use
Type of Test Appropriate Use

z-test Testing Null Hypothesis of no difference between population means (or
large samples with N 30)
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Type of Test Appropriate Use
t-test When size of samples compared is less than
30
t-test for When scores of two groups are independent i.e., when groups to be
Independent compared are selected randomly from two different population
Means
t-test for Correlated When matched groups are used and compared.
Means
One-tailed t-test When it is certain that the mean score of
one group is greater or smaller than that of
the other. Used for directional (Alternate)hypothesis
Two-tailed t-test When it is not known that the mean of one group is greater than or
less than that of the other group
Analysis of variance When there are more than two groups being compared.
Analysis of co- To control for initial differences between the groups compared
variance
Chi-square test 1. When data is in the form of frequency
counts
2. To know whether the actual behavioural
pattern exhibited by a group and measured
in terms of frequency counts differ frum
the expected behaviour.
3. To compare directly the research gcoup
with the comparison group.
4. When the categories into which the
frequencies fall are discrete and not
continuous
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Practice Task
1. State any two characteristics of ex-post-facto research.
2. Which one of the following makes ex-post-facto research different from experimental
research?
a. Size of groups selected for comparison.
b. Scales of measurement used for measuring variables.
c. Types of statistical tests used.
d. Type of relations established.
3. Does the following: ‘to establish cause-and-effect relationship between independent and
dependent variables’ an example of Ex-Post-Facto Research?
4. Write any two limitations of the ex-post-facto research.
5. Write any one use of an ex-post-facto research.
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Feedback next page
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1. The characteristics of Ex-Post-Facto Research are:

a. Data pertaining to the independent (active) variables are collected after they have
occurred.
b. It does not allow exercise of any control such as the manipulation of independent
variables, or random distribution of subjects while forming the groups to be compared.
2. d.
3. No.
4. Two of the limitations of ex-post-facto research are that:
a. It poses difficulty in interpretation. It is difficult to label any variable in the problem of
study as the cause or effect.
b. The outcomes of ex-post-facto research cannot establish cause and effect relationships.
They can only indicate the existence of a relationship among the variables studied.
5. It is useful where the purpose investigation is to explore and find out as many factors as
possible for a particular given phenomenon. OR It is useful in determining the cause-and-
effect relationship where exercising control on the variables is not possible.
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References
 Best, JW and Kahn, JV (2006). Research in Education. 10th Edition. Boston A & B/Pearson.
 Campbell, DT & Stanley, JC (1966). Experimental and Quasi Experimental Designs for
Research. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
 Cohen, L; Manion, L and Morrison, K (2013). Research Methods in Education.
https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/e/9781135721961/chapters/10.4324%2F97802037209
67-27.
 CPSC (1990). Developing Skills in Technician Education Research Module 4a: Selecting
Research Design and Describing Procedures – Ex-Post-Facto Research. Singapore:
Colombo Plan Staff College for Technician Education.
 Fisher, RA and the Design of Experiments, 1922–1926.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267164026_RA_Fisher_and_the_Design_of_Exp
eriments_1922-1926.
 Kothari, CR (2012). Research Methodology. New Delhi: New Age International (P) Limited
Publishers.
 Philip, C; Tino, S and Mario, S (2016). Experimental Design Research - Approaches,
Perspectives, Applications. Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.
 Salkind, NJ (2010). Ex Post Facto Study. Sage Publications.
 Simon, MK and Goes, J (2013). Ex-Post-Facto Research.
http://www.dissertationrecipes.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/Ex-Post-Facto-
research.pdf
 Singh, AK (2012). Tests, Measurements and Research Methods in Behavioural Sciences.
New Delhi: Bharati Bhawan (Publishers & Distributors).
 Srinagesh, K (2005). The Principles of Experimental Research. Butterworth-Heinemann.

 Video film on ‘Ex-Post-Facto Research – Concept, Characteristics, Advantages &
Limitations’ developed/recorded by Professor (Dr.) Sunil Dutt, NITTTR, Chandigarh.
 Video film on ‘Process of Conduct of Ex-Post-Facto Research’developed/recorded by
Professor (Dr.) Sunil Dutt, NITTTR, Chandigarh.
 Ex Post Facto Designs: Definition & Examples. https://study.com/academy/lesson/ex-post-
facto-designs-definition-examples.html
 Ex Post Facto Research Design.
https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Ex+Post+Facto+Research+Design
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UNIT II
4.4: Experimental Research

CONTENTS
S. No Page
Learning Outcomes
1. Introduction 1
2. Experimental Research- Introduction 1-2
3. The Purpose of Experimental Research 3
4. The Characteristics of Experimental Research 3-4
5. Experimentation in an Educational Setting 5-6
6. Experimental Control 7-12
7. Factors Affecting Experimental Research 13
8. The Appropriateness of Experimental Designs 14
Practice Task 15
Feedback 16
References 17
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Learning Outcomes:

 Explain the concept of Experimental Research.
 Identify the problematic situations that warrant the conduct of Experimental Research.
 Describe characteristics of Experimental Research.
 Describe various experimentation designs in Educational Setting (True, Quasi and
Pseudo).
 Describe factors affecting experimental research.
 Describe steps involved in the conduct of experimental research.
1. Introduction
Dear learners, as you know that the core of research is the problem. Since the research
problem requires the researcher to answer the question, ‘What effect will there be on (A) if
(B) is administered, introduced, removed, and so on’, it means he/she should know about
the experimental research.
The present learning module will enable learners understand the concept, purposes and
characteristics, and various experimental research designs.
2. Experimental Research – Introduction
There are many problems facing instructors, teachers and administrators in education that,
because of their nature cannot be examined readily through correlational and descriptive
research. Everyday problems that confront teachers in the classroom, administrators in the
institutions & engineers in industries require careful analysis to enable the experimenter make
sound decisions. A few such situations are:
 Effect of a new procedure on the time taken by students to strip, clean and re-assemble
a carburetor
 Study the effect of intensity of light on visual activity
 Effect of a particular medication in reducing the body temperature
 Design an experiment to examine relative performance of 10 automobiles
 Determining the appropriateness of method of instruction
 Effect of workshop class size on the acquisition of practical skills by students
Clearly, it would be inappropriate to conduct surveys in order to resolve many of the educational
1
or industrial issues facing teachers, administrators and engineers, as we could not rely on the
validity or reliability of their answers. The one method of research that is most appropriate in
certain educational settings and many of industrial settings for providing reliable information is
experimental research.
For many people, the notion of experimentation conjures up a picture of scientists/engineers in

white coats working in laboratories and workshops with chemicals and equipment’s. For others,
the picture may be of rats running through mazes or of subjects, either, human or animal being
subjected to various treatments or conditions. We are here trying to remove some of the
mystique surrounding experimentation and show that if experiments are designed rigorously
and administered professionally, they can be vehicles for providing useful data that can help
resolve pressing educational and managerial or industrial problems.
Many experimental research designs are available to the educational researcher. There are
many good textbooks devoted specifically to experimentation. All current theory in
experimentation stems from the work of Campbell, D. and Stanley, J. Rand McNally, Chicago,
(Experimental and Quasi Experimental Research, 1963) and should you wish to further your
interest in experimental research this text provides the obvious starting point.
It answers the query, ‘What will happen, if this is done under carefully controlled conditions?’. It
means that the researcher should anticipate the other factors that could influence the outcome
of the experiment and try to eliminate or control them for establishing a logical association
between the factors manipulated and their observed effects. It involves manipulation (which is
deliberate and systematic) of certain stimuli and observation of how the condition or behavior of
the subject is affected or changed'. Campbell & Stanley refer experiment research to that
portion of research in which variables are manipulated and their effects upon other
variables observed’. Experimental research incorporates those types of research design in
which a researcher wants to establish cause-and-effect. It is the only type of research that
makes the testing of this association possible. Essentially, the researcher will be asking a
question which may commence: 'What effect will there be on (A) if (B) is introduced, removed,
administered and so on?'.
Early Experimentation was based on the law of single variable. If 2 situations are similar in all
respect and one element is added (or removed) to (from) one but not the other, then any
change that occurs may be attributed to the added (subtracted) element. Robert Boyle, an Irish
Physicist, and AC Charles, a French Physicist, used this method and discovered their
laws/principles. Later, Fisher gave the concept of factorial designs as study of complex
2
interactions through factorial designs made possible vide Fisher’s concept of selection of
subjects randomly, assignment of treatments randomly and ANOVA & ANCOVA.
Experimental research involves the comparing the effects of a specific treatment with that of a
different treatment or of no treatment, i.e., there are two groups – one experimental and another
control which are equated as nearly as possible before the start of experimentation. The
experimental group is subjected to influence of the factor under consideration while control
group is not given any treatment. Finally, observations are made to find what
change/modification occurs in the experimental group in comparison to the control group.
However, the experiments are not always characterized by treatment and non-treatment group
comparisons. The experimenter can vary the type, amount or degree of the experimental factor
when applying to a number of groups.
As such, the experimental research is useful for developing an organized body of knowledge.
Here, 'experimental research' is used to describe all methods of experimentation: true
experimental designs, pseudo experimental design and quasi experimental designs.
3. The Purpose of Experimental Research
Purposes of any experimental design are to:

 Enable a researcher answer, ‘If this is done under carefully controlled conditions, what
will happen?’
 Control for possible rival hypotheses or extraneous.
 Predict phenomenon and to explain some kind of causation
 Generalize the relationships between the variables studied for applying to the target
population of interest.
4. The Characteristics of Experimental Research
Independent, Dependent and Extraneous Variables
The least encumbered experimental designs involve the manipulation of one variable followed
by an observation of the effects of this manipulation on a second variable. The variable to be
manipulated is called the independent variable or treatment/experimental variable. In education,
independent variable may be: size of class, use of reinforcement, type of learning material or
method of instruction. The variable that is measured to find the effect of the experimental
treatment, i.e. whether the class size, use of reinforcement etc. had any effect, is referred to the
dependent variable. The dependent variable may be a score on a test or inventory,
3
performance of a task or a change in behaviour as measured by an achievement scale. To give
an example, we may design an experiment to determine the effect of workshop class size on
the acquisition of practical skills by students. The workshop class size would be the
independent or experimental variable and the measure of practical skills the dependent
variable. Any difference in practical skill might be attributed to the experimental treatment. We
can only say, might, because there may have been other factors called extraneous variables
affecting the experiment which may also attribute to the change in practical skills.
The Experimental Setting

Many experiments take place in laboratories where control can be exercised over these
extraneous variables. If the effect of these variables is controlled, the researcher can be more
confident that the outcome of the experiment (as measured by the change on the dependent
variable) is a result of the treatment condition.
In medicine and other areas of science such as physics and chemistry, laboratory experiments
abound: in education and psychology they are less prevalent and some would suggest
undesirable. Even though the laboratory experiment is 'tidier', and therefore scientifically
preferable, experimental research conducted in the classroom may have the advantage of
being more relevant to the teacher.
The Choice of Setting

In order to conduct an experiment in the classroom, the researcher may need to neutralize or
allow for the effect of a multitude of influences and this may be extremely difficult. But, through
this process of conducting experiments in the classroom, the teacher as a researcher may gain
a thorough understanding of classroom practices, students and his teaching skills. Here, one
approach is not being advocated in preference to the other. The researcher has to consider the
nature and context of the problem being investigated and then choose the design and setting
that is most appropriate. Invariably, this will involve 'trade-offs': having to concede
generalizability for accuracy, or contamination for applicability, in order that a balance is
achieved
Establishing Cause-and·-Effect
Experimental research is the means by which we establish cause-and-effect relationships. The
means by which we check whether or not the desired effect has taken place is through
comparison. An instructor may want to determine the effect of a new procedure on the time
taken by students to strip, clean and re-assemble a carburettor. The instructor may decide to
compare students' assembly time before they learn the new procedure with heir assembly time
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after they have learnt the procedure. Alternately, he/she may use two groups: one using an
existing procedure and another group the new procedure. The times of the two groups could
then be compared. These experiments introduce most simple designs involving the
manipulation of only one variable: the assembly procedure. One of the major characteristics of
experimental research is that it makes multiple comparisons possible. Studies of this latt.er kind
are generally referred to as multi-variate studies.
Multivariate Studies
Multivariate studies include all of those experiments in which there either multiple independent
variables, or multiple dependent variables in 'some cases, both. Thus, in an experiment, a
researcher can choose have a number of independent variables and may be free to choose
from: age, entrance qualification, gender, college, method of instruction, and choose to use
more than one dependent variable, including variables attention span, test score, time taken,
skill acquisition, or perforating. Obviously in multi-variate studies the researcher needs to more
rigorous in designing the study than may be the case in a univariate study.
5. Experimentation in an Educational Setting
Experimental research designs can be classified by the extent of control that is exercised over
extraneous variables, in other words, by the validity and reliability of the measures taken in the
experiment. There are three broad categories of design:
 True Experimental Designs
 Quasi Experimental Designs, and
 Pseudo Experimental Designs
A. True Experimental Designs

As their name suggest, are designs in which the researcher exercises complete controls to
minimize the threats of extraneous variables or incorrect manipulation of treatments. With
experiments of this kind, we can be relatively confident that the independent variable was
responsible for any change in the dependent variable, that is, if there was a significant change
in the measure taken on the dependent variable
True experiments involve the:

a. two (or more groups), with at least one treatment group and one control group.
b. maintenance of equivalency amongst groups by random assignment of subjects to
groups.
5
Using these two conditions we can now modify the previous experiment. Now rather than
having one group, we may have two groups and students will be randomly assigned to one of
the two groups. One group will receive the treatment (instruction in the new procedure for
carburettor assembly) while the second group may receive the old instruction. The groups will
be tested on assembly times and differences between groups compared. If the group receiving
the new procedure scored assemble times significantly different to the other group, we can be
confident that the change in score was attributed to the treatment.
It stands to reason that true experimental designs because of their controls over extraneous
variables are preferable to other experimental designs. But often in an educational setting
because of existing courses and classes it is impossible to design an experiment with such rigid
controls as subjects cannot be randomly assigned to groups. In such cases the researcher may
have to opt for another type of research design.
B. Quasi Experimental Designs

These designs are used when true experimental designs are not feasible, in other words when
total control over the experiment is not possible. Many a times, it may not be practical to assign
students randomly to groups in the classroom or practical workshop. The researcher may be
able to use two groups as two classes are taught in the same programme, but he may not be
able to alter the size or composition of classes to reduce differences inherent in their
composition.
In other circumstances it may be possible to assign subjects randomly to groups but the nature
of the observation and/or treatment may inhibit administration of the observation to both groups
both before and after the treatment. In the previous example the researcher be able to assign
the students into two random groups (as there may be a large population from which to select
students) but the time taken to make observations (measuring the assembly time by each
student) may be prohibitive. In this instance, the researcher could pre-test the one group,
administer the treatment to both groups, and then post-test the second group. As students have
been randomly assigned to the groups the researcher can compare the pre-test times with the
post-test times.
In quasi-experimental designs the researcher can control at least one and may be all of:
a. timing of making the observations,
b. timing of applying the treatment, and
c. assigning of treatments to groups.
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C. Pseudo Experimental Designs
These designs incorporate those designs where the researcher does not have the built-in
control to say the treatment had an effect. In addition to the independent variable there may
several other plausible explanations as to why the dependent variable changed or remained the
same.
You will recall the example cited earlier that concerned the time taken by students to strip, clean
and re-assemble a carburettor. In this experiment we presumed in the first instance that one
group of students was involved. They were pretested (in order to determine their assembly
time) treated (instructed in the new procedure) and post-tested (in order to see if there was a
change in the assembly time). The obvious assumption is that if there is a change in the
assembly time it has been caused by the new procedure. However, other events may have
intervened between the pretesting and post-testing particularly if a long period of time
separated these events. Some students were involved in an additional workshop class in which
they had practice in the re-building various engine parts. On another occasion an instructor was
absent and students were sent to the library where they saw a film on the functioning of petrol
engines. In addition to this, the teacher conducting the research was unhappy with the original
instructional procedure, but had devised the new instructional procedure and, therefore taught it
most enthusiastically.
So, while we have assumed that it was the new procedure which resulted in the change in
assembly time, the change could have resulted from the new procedure and/or any combination
of the other variables:
practice in engine building, viewing the film and teacher enthusiasm. True experimental
research is designed to help overcome the kind of contamination in experiments described
above.
6. Experimental Control
The one feature that recurred in the previous discussion of experimental designs was
'experimental control'. Huck, et.al summed up the notion of experimental control in the following
way: 'The quality of the experimental design provides the extent to which extraneous variables
can be controlled and eliminated, i.e., the extent to which a researcher can exercise
experimental control'.
Experimental control is associated with five design characteristics:
1. Random assignment of individuals to groups that will be compared;
2. Random assignment of treatment;
3. Degree to which the independent variable can be manipulated by the researcher;
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4. Time when the measurements on the dependent variable occur; and
5. Choice of groups which are to be measured.
 Designing an Experiment to Solve a Problem
It is only by orienting the design to the solving of research problem that the proper
emphasis in experimentation can be maintained. The design is not an end in itself, it is a
vehicle for achieving an end: validity. Factorial Designs enable the researcher to study the
effects of manipulation of at least 2 independent variables upon the dependent variable.
In addition, main effect (impact of each independent variable on the dependent variable)
and interaction effect (interaction of the independent variables on the dependent
variable) can also be studied.
Two experimental designs have been selected for description. The first 'the one group
pre-test post-test design' is an example of a pseudo experimental design; the second 'the
post-test only control group design' is an example of a true experimental design.
Each design is presented in a similar way:
 a description of the design characteristics
 a description of the procedural steps
 a summary of the design's strengths and weaknesses
 a note on appropriate statistical tests.
The following symbols will be used to identify design features:

O denotes the collection of data on the dependent variable (e.g. administration of a test,
timing of a task, completing an attitude survey).
X denotes the exposure of a group of subjects to the independent variable or treatment
condition.
R denotes the random assignment of subjects to the various groups that comprise the study.
The time sequence of the experiment is indicated by the left to right positioning of symbols
across the page. Where more than one line is indicated in the design, each line represents a
separate group.
1. The One Group Pre-test Post-test Design
Design Characteristics: O1 X O2
The one group design as the title suggests involves one sample group, to which an observation
or pre-test (O1), treatment (X) and second observation or post-test (O2) are administered. With
8
the observations occurring prior to and after the treatment by the independent variable the
researcher can make one comparison: of the observed scores O1 and O2. On the basis of this
comparison the researcher can support or reject a hypothesis or research question concerning
the effect of the treatment, X.
Should there be a statistically significant difference between O1 and O2,then the researcher can
conclude that the treatment has had some effect on the identified sample group.
Let us take an example: A teacher has been concerned that students continually hand-in
assignments
late, so he designs a simple experiment to determine the effect of 'a penalty' on the handing-in
of assignments. In the semester two major assignments are to be submitted. The first is due
after six weeks of tuition, the second after twelve weeks.
The teacher will test the hypothesis: that the issuing of a penalty will have no effect on
assignments being handed in late. The teacher allows students to hand in the first assignment
when they want but he keep a record of the pattern. This becomes O1, the observation.
Having returned the first assignment, he institutes the penalty: no assignment handed in after
the date due will receive more than a pass grade'. This becomes X, the treatment.
The teacher then monitors the pattern in which the second assignment handed in. This
becomes O2, the second observation.
The two observations: O1 and O2 can then be analysed and compared to determine if there is
any change in the hand-in pattern.
Procedural Steps
Having isolated a problem and searched the relevant literature to find out more about the
problem area you are ready to precede with the experiment.
1. Identify the research problem and write as a research question.

2. Identify the population to which the problem is directed.
3. State the hypothesis(es) that is to be tested in the experiment.
4. Obtain or construct the instrument (test, inventory, observation check sheet or rating
scale, that will provide an accurate measure of the competency being tested).
5. Pilot-test the instrument to check suitability.
6. Design the treatment, and if necessary pilot-test to identify and correct any problems in
design, suitability or administration.
9
7. Determine the time required for the entire experiment, and specifically for the O's and
X.
8. Find a suitable setting or location, that is as free as possible from influences that may
confound the experiment.
9. Select the sample group to be involved from the population, ensuring that it is of an
appropriate size (this will depend on the research question and resources available to
the researcher)
10. Instruct any person who may be involved in the experiment (coders, raters, or
teachers) as to their task and role in the experiment
11. Administer the observation (O1).
12. Administer the treatment (X).
13. Administer the final observation (O2).
14. Compile and score results of O1 and O2.
15. Analyse results statistically to determine significance of findings.
16. Determine educational significance of results
17. Relate results to research question or hypothesis.
18. Prepare research report, document or journal article.
Strengths and Weaknesses

The main strengths of this design are that the researcher is free to:
 limit the size of the study to one group, thereby minimizing the time and resources
needed.
 select the sample group to participate in the study (such as our existing class group).
 conduct the study himself without requiring outside help.
 select the setting in which the experiment will take place.
 use a straightforward statistical means to test the significance of the results.
The strengths of this design are off-set by a number of weaknesses. The experiment may be
confounded because:
 bias has been introduced by selecting subjects who have either a desirable or
undesirable quality or skill that affects the results.
 the length of time between O1and O2 may be so great that changes (biological and
psychological) have occurred among the subjects, or subjects have dropped out of the
experiment.
 the subjects' results on the instrument (dependent variable) may have changed
because of some problem with the instrument: the instrument may not measure what it
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is purported to measure, and there is no check for this in the design.
 the subjects may have become accustomed to using the instrument by the time O2 is
administered.
Statistical Tests
The statistical test available for this type of comparison is quite straightforward. A 't' test of
significance can be used. It determines whether the results on the O1 and O2 statistically would
occur by chance alone, or whether they would occur by design, that is as a result of the X.
The Post-Test Only Control Group Design
Design Characteristics: R X O1
R O2
Subjects are randomly assigned to one of the two groups. One group receives the treatment
(X), the second group (a control) receives no treatment, then both groups are post-tested or
observed (O1 X O2),
The scores or observations (O1 and O2) are compared and on the basis of this comparison the
researcher can support or reject a hypothesis or research question concerning the effect of the
treatment, X.
For the purpose of comparing O1 and O2it is preferable if the second group receives no
stimulation that may in any way be related to the treatment condition (independent variable). It
is preferable also if O1 and O2 take place simultaneously and as soon after X as possible.
The post-test only design is different to the previous example in three ways. The post-test only
design
1. requires two groups, an experimental group and a control group.
2. involves the random allocation of subjects to the two groups.
3. eliminates the need for a pre-test, as the random allocation of subjects ensures
comparability between the groups.
Let us take an Example: A teacher is concerned about students learning favourable attitudes to
industrial safety so he acquires a series of four films on the theme 'Safety at Work'. He has
access to a group of part-time students who are already working, and are, therefore familiar
with the work environment.
At the beginning of a semester, he randomly assigns the students into one of two classes.
During the first two weeks of the course, he shows the four films to one class, and lectures to
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the second class on the theme in the normal way. The screening of the films represents the
treatment, X.
The teacher locates an instrument from the Industrial Safety Council (ISC) that asks a range of
questions about industrial safety. It has been designed by the ISC to determine workers' attitudes to
safety at work.
At the end of the second week, the instrument is administered to both classes. The students' attitudes
are judged on the dependent variable, O1 representing the group seeing the films, O2 representing the
class instructed in the usual way. O1 and O2 can then be analysed and compared to determine if there is
any difference in attitudes from one group to the other.
Procedural Steps
The procedural steps that apply to the post-test only design are the same as those for the one group
design with the exception that with the post-test design there are two groups, the subjects are randomly
assigned each of the groups, and the observations O1 and O2 both occur as post-tests.
Strengths and Weaknesses
The random assignment of subjects to the groups helps overcome many of weaknesses inherent in
designs that do not use a process of randomization. With randomization we are free to assume that the
groups are equal.
The strengths of the post-test only control group design are that:
 the experiment can take place over a short period of time, as a result problems associated with
time can be overcome.
 the shorter period of time needed simply means that the experiment can be completely
efficiently.
 the threats to testing are removed as each subject is only observed or tested once.
 the two groups' performance is being compared, not the change in performance of one group
(as with the previous design).
The strengths of true experimental designs far out-weigh the weaknesses. However, weaknesses can
occur if the:
 population is not large enough to take a random sample and the choice of sample is limited.
 sample size is small and there are a number of subjects who drop-out of the experiment, as the
groups will not be comparable on the dependent variable.
 setting and population are not well described and defined, as the results will not be useful for
generalization.
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Statistical Tests
The most appropriate statistical test for this two group design is the t-test. In the post-test only design the
t test is used to compare the groups with respect to their post-test means.
7. Factors Affecting Experimental Research
Within an educational setting the researcher intending to conduct an experiment must be aware
of the limitations of experimental designs. Often the researcher may need to concede some
degree of control over the experiment simply to ensure that the project reaches fruition, and
limit the scope of the study in order to make it manageable and cost efficient.
There are some factors, irrespective of the type of experimental design, that may interfere the
interpretation the outcome or generalization of the experimentation. Factors affecting the
interpretability of experiments are referred to as threats to internal validity, i.e., the extent that
the effect of manipulated factors on the observed consequences is actually genuine. While,
factors affecting the extent of generalization of the experiment are referred to as threats to
external validity, i.e., the extent to which the genuine relationships between variables be
generalized to non-experimental situations – other settings, other treatment and/or
measurement variables, and other populations.
When the researcher is concerned with internal validity, the question must be asked: Did the
experimental treatments make a difference to the observations? (or was it something else?)
During the course of the experiment many factors may take effect. Sources of internal validity
include factors such as:
 Testing (pretesting may produce a change; During a Pre-test, subjects think about few
items and may change their answers on the Post-test).
 Differential Selection (different individuals possessing previous knowledge may affect
the final measurement).
 Maturation (subjects may have undergone some biological/psychological changes
during the conduct of the experiment, i.e., subjects change over a period of time; or
bored, tired, wiser or influenced by incidental learning or experiences and thus affecting
their responses on the post-test.
 Unstable Instrumentation (Inappropriate instruments & their poor calibration, biased
observers, or scorers may provide inaccurate measurements).
 Statistical regression (forming groups on the basis of extreme scores of
measurements)
 Mortality (the loss of subjects with incomplete data could greatly affect the comparisons
because of their unique characteristics).
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When the researcher is concerned with external validity, the question must be asked: To what
populations and instances or settings can the results of the experiment be generalized? (or do
the results only apply to the subjects involved in the experiment?)
There are a number of factors, which if not controlled can jeopardize either the internal or
external validity of experiments. At this point, it is sufficient to say that threats to internal validity
are a product of the experimental design, whereas threats to external validity are a
consequence of factors such as: inadequate description of the independent and dependent
variables used in an experiment, limitations on the sample and interaction of the treatment
effect and subject characteristics. Extraneous variables influence results of experiment and as
such are impossible to eliminate completely. Hence, try to anticipate such factors during
selecting the experimental design and take necessary precautions to control/eliminate them.
8. The Appropriateness of Experimental Designs
There are many experimental designs that can be used in technician education research. When selecting
a design, the researcher should be concerned with the appropriateness of the design to the:
 previous research in the discipline or area of study on which the experiment is based.
 nature of the problem being investigated.
 situation or setting in which the experiment will take place
 resources, both human and financial, made available for the project.
 time available for conducting the project.
 number of variables (both independent and dependent) that will affect the experiment.
 instruments available for use in measuring the dependent variable.
 sample (subjects) available to the researcher and its size.
 use that will be made of the findings (whether they will only interest the researcher or whether
they will be of interest to others).
 generalizability of the findings to a broader population.
The emphasis should always be placed on using a design that will the researcher with valid and reliable
information about a research problem.
14
Practice Task
1. State the main feature that distinguishes experimental research from other forms of
research.
2. What name is given to any variable on which the measure is taken in order to determine
whether the experimental condition has had an effect?
3. Indicate the main distinguishing feature of True experimental designs, Quasi experimental
designs, and Pseudo experimental designs
4. Below is give a problem situation with one characteristic, indicate the control characteristic
associated with the problem:
‘The institute only had one class of electrical engineering students, so a class from another
institute was used as the control group for the experiment’.
5. Which statistical test is used to test the significance of the comparison between 01 and 02?
6. What does 'a threat to internal validity' indicate?
7. Briefly describe four criteria that can be used for determining how appropriate a design may be for
an experimental research study.
15
1. Experimental research is the only type of research that attempts to establish a cause-and-
effect relationship between one variable and another or one set of variables and another.
2. Dependent Variable.
3. True experimental designs utilize two or more groups to each of which subjects are
assigned randomly so as to control for threats to validity; Quasi experimental designs are
based on true designs but may not have the controls over the random assignment of
subjects to groups. With quasi designs the researcher may be able to control when the
observations are made, when the treatment is applied and which group receives the
treatment; and Pseudo experimental designs do not have built-in controls to minimize the
effect of extraneous variables that may jeopardize the effect of the experimental treatment.
4. Control was not exercised as the groups that were to be measured were not equivalent and
therefore could not be compared on the dependent variable.
5. A ‘t’ test
6. A threat to internal validity' means that some factor is affecting the results of the
experimental study in such a way that the researcher will be unable to determine whether
the change is a result of the treatment or an extraneous variable.
7. Check the four criteria against the ten points noted in the last input: 'The Appropriateness
of Experimental Designs'.
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References
 Campbell, DT& Stanley, JC (1966). Experimental and Quasi Experimental Designs for
Research. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
 CPSC (1990). Developing Skills in Technician Education Research Module 4a: Selecting
Research Design and Describing Procedures – Experimental Research. Singapore:
Colombo Plan Staff College for Technician Education.
 Dunford, R (2004). Developing a research proposal. In Burton, S. &Steane, P.
(Eds.) Surviving your thesis (pp.46-58). New York, NY: Routledge.
 Fisher, RA and the Design of Experiments, 1922–1926.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267164026_RA_Fisher_and_the_Design_of_Exp
eriments_1922-1926.
 Huck, S. W., & Cormier, W. H. (1996). Principles of research design. In C. Jennison
(Ed.), Reading statistics and research (2nd ed., pp. 578-622). New York: Harper Collins.
Publishers.
 Philip, C; Tino, S and Mario, S (2016). Experimental Design Research - Approaches,
Perspectives, Applications. Switzerland: Springer International Publishing
 Singh, AK (2012). Tests, Measurements and Research Methods in Behavioural Sciences.
9. Video film on‘Experimental Research – Concept and Characteristics’

10. Video film on‘Experimental Research – Internal & External Validity’developed/recorded
by Professor (Dr.) Sunil Dutt, NITTTR, Chandigarh.
11. Video film on‘Experimental Research Designs’developed/recorded by Professor (Dr.)
12. Centre for innovation in Research & Teaching. Types of Experimental Research.
https://cirt.gcu.edu/research/developmentresources/research_ready/experimental/design_t
ypes
13. Bhat, A. Experimental Research – Definition, Types of Designs & Advantages.
https://www.questionpro.com/blog/experimental-research/
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UNIT II
5: Undertaking Action Research

CONTENTS
S. No Page
Learning Outcomes
1. Introduction 1
2. Meaning and Historical Development of Action Research 1
2.1 Difference between Action Research and Fundamental 2

Research
2.2 Situations for Undertaking Action Research 3
3. Characteristics of Action Research 3
4. Goals of Action Research 4
5. Features of Action Research 4
6. Action Research – Process 5-7
7. Uses of Action Research 7
8. Limitations of Action Research 8
9. Summary 8
Practice Task 9
Feedback 10
References 11
UNDERTAKING ACTION RESEARCH
Learning Outcomes:

 Explain the concept of action research;
 Differentiate between action research and fundamental research;
 State the goals of action research;
 Describe the various steps involved in action research; and
 Describe the uses and limitations of action research
1. Introduction
As you all know, the terms 'scientific method of inquiry' and 'research' are being
interchangeably used by teachers, researchers, and educationists in education, but
there are minute differences in both. Research is more formal, systematic and involves
the process of scientific method of analysis. While, it is possible to employ the scientific
spirit without research but opposite to it is not possible. Research is a more specialized
phase of scientific methodology in which researcher wants to fill-up the gaps left in a
system, to discover new facts, establish new theories, generalizations and laws.
Research endeavours to organize data in quantitative terms is systematically, logically
and objectively. In research, every term is cautiously defined, all procedures are
selected and described fully, all delimitations/boundaries are recognized, all references
are adequately described and all data are collected correctly and results are objectively
recorded. In addition, all findings are reported and generalisations are cautiously arrived
at to enable the researcher use the findings for further research or improvement in the
system.
2. Meaning and Historical Development of Action Research
Action research is a type of research which is used to solve immediate problems. It

refers to on-the-spot research aimed at the solution of a particular and immediate
problem arising as part of the operation of the institution or world of work.
Action research has shot into prominence due to works of Collier (1945). Collier was of the
view that it would be futile effort to improve teaching-learning system until and unless
teachers, principals and others involved in this process did not research to solve their own
problems. Lewin and his associates gave much importance to improve human relations in
order to modify the human behaviour through education. According to them, the main
purpose of research is to bring improvement in social relations. Taba, Brady and
Robinson (1952) made extensive use of action research in developing their curriculum
1
models.
Action research is research wed by teachers, supervisors and administrators to improve
the quality of their decisions and actions. In other words, it is concerned with institutional
problems carried on by institute personnel to improve institution practice.
Now-a-days classroom teachers are using action research to solve their own classroom
problems as they actually experience them. The problem may be concerned with the
discipline in the class, truancy, teaching methods or individual learning difficulties, even
parental problems with some children. As emphasized by Stephen, M Corey (1953), any
change in teacher behaviour must be preceded by a corresponding change in teacher
attitude, a change which is more likely to take place as a result of research which the
teacher actually helped plan, conduct and evaluate than as a result of reading a study on
the subject reported in a journal. Action research his made a great contribution in the area
of in-service education of teachers. The participation of teachers as a group in the solution
of their own problems is likely to lead to increased research conscientiousness and faculty
morale and to promote a problem solving approach to teaching.
2.1 Difference between Action Research and Fundamental Research
Action research differs from fundamental research in many aspects. Fundamental

research is concerned with the derivation of generalizations and conclusions of wide
applicability, whereas action research is concerned with the solution of specific
problems and there is very limited scope for drawing any conclusion of wide
applicability.
Fundamental research employs a scientific rigor to solve the problem whereas in

action research, scientific rigor can be sacrificed to find a workable solution to an
immediate problem.
Fundamental research method is employed to solve problem of vital importance

having wide spread usage whereas action research may be undertaken to solve
individual teacher's teaching or discipline problems.
Fundamental research differs from action research from the point of view of
investigation. The goal of fundamental research is to add new knowledge and to find
ways and means to apply knowledge to new situations whereas action research is
concerned with goal of modification of teacher's professional competence and
students learnability
2
These two types of researches also differ from the point of view of population or
sampling techniques. In fundamental research, a representative sample is selected
from a well-defined population by using various sampling techniques. In action
research, the situation which is to be studied becomes the population and no
sampling is required in action research.
These two types of researches also differ from the point of view of usage of
researches. The results of fundamental type of researches are used to discover new
knowledge or to use knowledge in formulating new theories and laws but results of
action research are visualized through the personal development or modification in
one's behaviour.
2.2 Situations for Undertaking Action Research
Some situations which demand undertaking action research are given below:
• Development of teaching skills amongst in-service teachers
• Improvement in the functioning of the organization through change
• Improvement in the procedure of internal evaluation of students
• Improvement in the interpersonal relations of employees in the organization
• Improvement in the motivation of students in the classroom
• Improvement in the pass percentage of results in a subject
• Appropriateness of method of instruction/ Introduction of Innovation in teaching learning
• Effect of workshop class size on the acquisition of practical skills by students
• Introduction of the use of smart board in the classroom
3. Characteristics of Action Research
In view of the foregoing, certain characteristics are derived as given below:
• Action research aims at solving a problem or introducing an innovation in a

specific situation
• It focusses on a specific problem in specific setting and does not employ rigorous
controls on the variables
• Action oriented hypotheses indicating the anticipated result or consequences are
formulated.
• No sampling is required as the situation to be studied becomes the population of
the study.
• It is carried out by a single individual or a group of individuals or a combined team
3
of inside and outside members
• It is situational, it enables the researcher/practitioner to diagnose a problem in a
specific context and solve the same.
• It is participatory, i.e., the team involved in solving a problem is engaged
directly/indirectly in implementing the findings.
• It is collaborative, i.e., it can be undertaken while working by outside and inside
teams together in solving a problem.
• It contains an element of Self – evaluation, i.e., solutions are continuously
evaluated in the problem situation and modified.
• It is Empirical, i.e., it employs scientific method.
4. Goals of Action Research
As already discussed, the focus of Action research is on the problems requiring

immediate attention/solution. Its goal is not to develop a theory or establish a principle,
i.e., goals of wide applicability, but its goals are narrow ranged and are studied in terms
of their local use/applicability, i.e., not in terms of universal validity. Its sole aim is to
improve teaching-learning practices to improve the overall system in an educational
setting. It is undertaken to make the education system effective for generating an
environment conducive for student- learning and to improve the working conditions of
education system.
5. Features of Action Research
After studying the historical development of action research and its characteristics,
following features of action research can be derived:
1. It is a situational approach strategy mostly employed to solve immediate

problems.
2. It is informal and flexible in nature.
3. It is undertaken with the motive of improvement in the existing arrangements.
4. This type of research does not involve imagination or artificial situations.
5. The hypothesis or the hypotheses in this type of research are always action
oriented and they state the anticipated result or consequences.
6. In this research, researcher can use survey or experimental method of
research.
7. Though it is not rigorously scientific, still it is not subjective or purely based on
guess work.
4
8. Its purpose is not to generalize but to provide immediate solution to classroom
teacher problems.
9. Its result can be used by an individual or to improve a particular situation but it
is based on collaborative and participatory principles.
10. In action research, evaluation is in-built and the procedure involves a plan of
self-evaluation. Hence, there is no need of any other type of external
evaluation.
There is no need to describe the results of action research in form of a thesis or

dissertation. It can be explained or presented orally or informally.
6. Action Research – Process
In scientific research both inductive and deductive processes are used. In every type of
research whether fundamental, applied or action, almost same steps are followed. The
difference is only in rigor and precision. In action research, following steps are taken in
the sequence as given below:
Step I Identifying, evaluating and formulating the problem

• Diagnosis of the problem
• Gaining acceptance of the problem identified
• Defining and delimiting the problem
• Review of the literature
• Formulating objectives/hypotheses
Step II Selecting Research Procedures

• Deciding evaluation criteria
Step III Implementing the findings
Step IV Overall evaluation
Let us learn all these steps in detail:
Step I Identifying, evaluating and formulating the problem
• Diagnosis of the Problem
This is the most important step for the success of a problem solution. In order to identify
5
the problem, teacher must possess sensitivity to situations and curiosity to find answer to
puzzling or complex situation. It is not necessary that a person, who has more experience
of classroom teaching or who spends more time with classes, will be able to identify the
problem easily. It requires qualities such as imagination, honesty and devotion towards
duty. Following activities may also help the researcher in this regard:
 Ask about problems and the underlying causes
 List the strengths and potential areas for improvement
 Have a System’s view and frame diagnostic questions about the adequacy of
objectives, inputs, processes and inter-relationships among components
• Gaining acceptance of the Problem Identified
Obtain agreement by holding discussions with the interested parties. In addition, outcome
leads to statement of questions to be answered, i.e., likely causes are identified.
• Defining and Delimiting the Problem
Next step, after identification, is to define the problem clearly and precisely. In defining a
problem, researcher tries to relate different concepts and terms in a clear fashion. While
defining a problem, investigator will try to delimit the problem keeping in view the
purpose, goals, time, and energy available to pursue the investigations.
• Review of the Literature
Third step is to analyse the causes of the problem-why this particular problem has arisen,
whether it is the result of some personality characteristics or it is due to nature of
curriculum, evaluation methods of teaching, learner's characteristics or due to classroom
environment. In short, one has to find out external or internal factors responsible for
creating the problem. To know this, researcher consults his colleagues, students,
sometimes; superiors and experts in the field. At this stage researcher uses his
experience and imagination to search out possible causes of the problem.
• Formulating Objectives/Hypotheses
A hypothesis is a guess or an attempt to explain the nature of relationship between variables for
finding a possible answer of the problem. In other words, action hypothesis indicates a
relationship between proposed action and anticipated consequence, a very important
step in research, because it gives direction to the researchers. It helps in collecting
evidence to solve or choose an alternative way to solve the problem. Without a
hypothesis, research will be subjective and based on hit and trial. Without hypothesis,
researcher may waste lot of time, energy and money with no success. A good
6
hypothesis saves time, energy and labour of the researcher to a great extent. A good
hypothesis is result of critical thinking, insightfulness and one's imagination power.
Hypotheses can be formulated by deriving implications from inquiry as well as from the
literature review. As a researcher, generate a number of solution/ideas.
Step II Selecting Research Procedures
Now the researcher selects research design which may be experimental, ex-post-facto or
descriptive. He/she also selects the subjects which may be limited to specific situation. In
addition, he/she selects/develops measuring instruments (prepared; standardised
instruments). Resources are allocated and tasks for collecting data, analysing data,
reporting research findings and planning for appropriate actions are finalized.
• Deciding Evaluation Criteria for Acceptable Outcomes of an Innovation
In action research, the hypothesis/hypotheses are examined through practical means.

For examining hypothesis, the researcher prepares a design to test the truthfulness or
effectiveness of it. In the design, full description about the tools, population, situations
and resources along with constraints is made.
Step III Implementing the Findings
By following the design of the action research, the action hypothesis is either accepted
or it is modified or is rejected to take up another hypothesis. This is done on the basis of
evidence gathered. Researcher evaluates the hypotheses in the light of the evidence
procured, and decides about its acceptance or rejection. The final decision, thus
reached, will be used to solve the immediate problem for which action research was
undertaken.
Procedures for data collection are implemented as per the plan. The tasks are monitored
and feedback is provided to the research team, tabulation and analysis of data.
Step IV Overall Evaluation
The data collected and analysed is interpreted and inferences are drawn. The findings
are then evaluated to study the worth of innovation in the light of the agreed upon criteria
of evaluation.
7. Uses of Action Research
Action research is the most useful type of research in the field of education at all levels. In
7
the following areas of education, it can be used profitably for:
 improving teacher behaviour:
 improving teaching competency of in-service teachers;
 solving discipline and organization problems of the classroom or institutions;
 improving school learning;
 improving examination system;
 preparing models of evaluation;
 preparing strategies of evaluation, different types of questions such as essay type questions, short
answer questions; and,
 providing education for optimal learning by all individuals having differential abilities, attitudes and
aptitudes.
8. Limitations of Action Research
We have discussed a number of advantages of action research, but it has a number of

limitations also. Its limitations range from poor quality to the inability to generalize results
beyond the specific situation under investigation. It is less scientific. It is more specific and
less generalizable. Its results cannot be extended to other situations. Its validity can be
questioned. These limitations can be minimised if the teachers associate research
specialists either as consultants or members of the research team. Its purpose is to
improve school programme and improve those who are to improve school practices.
9. Summary
Corey (1953) has applied the concept of action research first time in the field of education.
It is a process for studying problems by practices scientifically to take decision for
improving their current practices. Action research is focused on the immediate application,
nor on the development of theory, nor upon general application. Its findings are to be
evaluated in terms of local applicability, not in terms of universal validity. Action research
differs from fundamental research in many aspects. In designing and conducing action
research project, following six steps are used- identification of the problem; defining and
delimiting the problem; analyzing the causes of the problem; formulation of action
hypothesis or hypotheses; selection or developing suitable design for evaluation of
hypotheses and, final decision about action hypotheses. Action research is most useful
type of research in the field of education at all levels. Besides, it has a number of
limitations also.
8
Practice Task
1. State the main focus of Action Research.

2. Action research is normally undertaken in a single institution because of:
a. difficulty in obtaining permission to study learners in multiple institutions
b. inability of teachers possessing the necessary skills to carry out research across multiple
settings
c. answering questions about improving practice in a particular setting
d. designing data collection methods used in such research for single settings
3. The criteria which is of prime concern in evaluating an action research topic should be studying:
a. the topic of immediate attention to the researcher
b. with others assistance in improving practice
c. the topic without the need for observation
d. the topic of concern to teachers throughout the institution
4. Which of the following is NOT the true features about action research?
a. Systematic collection of data
b. Systematic analysis of data
c. Improve practice with the results of action research
d. Generalization of results
5. Which of the following research questions is BEST answered using action research?
a. How can I improve the low motivation level of students in my class?
b. How do students from Govt. Institutions adjust to classroom practices in Private
Institutions?
c. Is there a difference between male and female students in achievement in mathematics?
d. What factors influence student interaction in multiethnic classes?
6. In analyzing video based lectures, action researcher should:

a. allow focusing themes to emerge as the video lectures are viewed
b. focus only on their own communication in the video based lectures
c. select focusing themes before viewing
d. verify the video based lectures by a disinterested third party
9
1. The main focus of Action Research is to solve immediate problems.

2. b.
3. a.
4. d.
5. a.
6. c.
10
References
 Cohen, L; Manion, L and Morrison, K (2007). Research Methods in Education (6th ed).
London: Routledge Falmer.
 Collier, J (1945). United States Indian administration as a laboratory of ethnic
relations, Social Research, 12, pp275-6.
 Corey, SM (1949). Action research, fundamental research and educational practice.
Teachers’ College Record, 50 509-514.
 Corey, SM (1953). Action Research to improve school practices. New York: Bureau
of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University.
 Jacobs, S (2016). The Use of Participatory Action Research within Education-Benefits to
Stakeholders. World Journal of Education. Vol. 6, No. 3, 48-55p.
 Lesha, J (2014). Action Research in Education. European Scientific Journal, 379-386p.
 Lewin, K. (1946) Action research and minority problems. Journal of Social Issues 2 34-
36.
 Masters, J (1995). The History of Action Research. in I. Hughes (ed) Action Research
Electronic Reader, The University of Sydney, on-line.
http://www.behs.cchs.usyd.edu.au/arow/Reader/rmasters.htm.
 Sodhi, GS & Dutt, Sunil (2006). Essentials of Educational Technology. Patiala: 21st
Century Publications.
 Taba, H; Brady, E and Robinson, J (1952). Intergroup Education in Public Schools.
Washington, DC: American Council on Education.
 Video film on ‘Action Research – Need and Concept’ developed/recorded by

Professor (Dr.) Sunil Dutt, NITTTR, Chandigarh.
 Video film on ‘Action Research – Process’ developed/recorded by Professor (Dr.)
11
UNIT II
6: Sampling Techniques
CONTENTS
S. No Page
Learning Outcomes
1. Introduction 1
2. Various Terms Used In Sampling 1-2
3. Sampling: Definition 2
4. Advantages and Disadvantages of Sampling 2
Practice Task 3
Feedback 4
5. Characteristics of a Good Sample 5
6. Determination of Sample Size 5
Practice Task 6
Feedback 8
7. Different Sampling Techniques 9-15
7.1 Probability Sampling 9
7.1.1 Types of probability sampling techniques 9
7.1.2 Steps to be followed for different probability 12
sampling techniques
7.1.3 Advantages and disadvantages of different 14
probability sampling techniques
8. Non Probability Sampling Technique 16-19
8.1 Different Types of Non Probability Sampling Techniques 16
8.2 Steps to be followed for Different Non- Probability Sampling 17
8.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Non- Probability 18
Practice Task 20
Feedback 22
9. When to Select Different Sampling Techniques? 23
References 24
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Learning Outcomes

 Define sampling
 Understand various terms used in Sampling
 Describe the factors that influence the selection of sample size
 Distinguish between probability & non probability sampling
 Develop an understanding about different sampling techniques
 Discuss the relative advantages & disadvantages of each sampling techniques
1. Introduction
In research the problem can be studied as a whole, but it requires large number of resources
such as men, material and money. The observation we are getting from the whole, may not
be reliable and sometimes it is also not possible to obtain data from every respondent related
to a question of inquiry. By researching some portion of respondents, we can generalize and
predict the behaviour of mass phenomena. The process is known as sampling.
2. Various Terms Used In Sampling
The various terms which are used again and again in the process of sampling are as follows:
a) Population: It is a complete set of elements. These elements can be people, cases or

piece of data. It can also be defined as aggregate of all observations of interest to
researcher.
Population can be
 Finite Population
 Infinite Population
 In Research the population can also be termed as
 Target population: It refers to the entire group of individuals.
 Accessible Population: Population, the researcher realistically selects from target
population
b) Element: An individual member of the population is known as element.
c) Sampling Unit: A member of the sample is known as Sampling Unit.
d) Sampling Frame: It comprises all the elements of a population with proper identification
that is available to us for selection of sample at any stage of sampling.
e) Sampling Error: arises on account of sampling
1
f) Sample: It is subset of the population. Only few elements of the population are being
selected. Sample helps the researcher to generalize the results, for generalization it must
always be representative of the population.
3. Sampling: Definition
Sampling is a methodological plan to obtain sample from a given population. It involves

selecting a fractional part (element) of the respondent from a larger defined group
(Population). The results obtained from sampling must provide a sound basis for accurately
understanding the phenomena being studied.
4. Advantages and Disadvantages of Sampling
Advantages Disadvantage
 Large heterogeneous (group) Population  If sample is not carefully selected

can be studied due to sampling. (biased) or not of appropriate size
(small) the results concluded may not be
reliable and valid
 Sampling save resources  In research, sometimes it is not possible

to identify common characteristics in the
population available.
 Sampling increases the speed of  If the population is very large and

research divided into sections and subsections
then sampling procedures becomes
more complicated which require more
efforts and labour
2
Practice Task
1. Define the terms Population and Sample.
2. Define Sampling.
3. Give an example of a finite population and infinite population.
3
1. Population is defined as the aggregate of all observations of interest to the researcher.
Whereas a Sample is a subset of the population from which the researcher intends to
generalize the results.
2. The nature of phenomena being studied can be understood by researching some portion
of the respondents. The process of selecting the fractional part is called sampling.
3. Finite Population: Diploma students of the branch Mechanical Engineering passed in the
year 2017 from Punjab state, India.
Infinite Population: Diploma students of the branch Mechanical Engineering passed from
all the states of India.
4
5. Characteristics of a Good Sample
 Sample must be accurate and free from bias.

 Sample must be precise (representative of the population).
 If two samples from the same population are taken, they should give more or less the
same.
 Sample must be adequate, otherwise it may not represent the characteristics of
population.
 There must be random and independent selection of all the element from population
to be selected in the sample.
6. Determination of Sample Size
The selection of sample size depends upon the purpose of the study, kind of analysis to be
carried out and the nature of the population under scrutiny. Before selecting the sample
researchers must know the kind of relationships they want to explore from the sample selected
and need to think out in advance of any data collection. Generally larger sample size is
considered better because it gives greater reliability but also enable more sophisticated
statistics to be used. For determining the sample size there is no fixed rule but are guidelines
that should be observed in determining the size of a sample. These are as follows:
Nature of Study Continuous and intensive A Smaller Sample is enough
Non repeated and extensive study A Larger Sample is needed
Nature of Homogenous A Smaller Sample is enough

Population
Heterogeneous A Larger Sample is enough
Population Size If the size of Population is small A Larger Sample is needed
If the size of population is large A Smaller Sample is enough
Degree of For greater accuracy and reliability of a results A larger sample is required
Accuracy and
Precision But it is not true in all the cases , the experienced researcher select a sample
required more accurately as compared to non-experienced researcher
Nature of If response rate is valid and reliable no need to select a large sample
respondents
Resources Sometimes the selection of sample also depends upon resources available.
Available
5
Practice Task
1. A plastic manufacturing house is thinking to reduce the price for its food packaging plastic
product, for this survey is being conducted regarding sale of their product in a “known
shopping complex”. On the basis of survey, the company decides they will not reduce the
price.
Sample selected for the study is accurate or not?
2. A manufacturing industry would like to make a study in the quality of water purifiers
it manufactured. What are the different steps to be followed by the researcher for
the sampling design?
3. Faculty who came at NITTTR, Chandigarh to attend three days’ workshop on research
methodology are requested to log their phone numbers so as to receive information for
similar workshops in future. The department wishes to study participants’ satisfactions rate
through interviewing on phone, getting comments and reactions.
Whether the sample is representative of the population or not?
6
Feedback next page
7
Feedback to the Practice Task
1. Sample is Inaccurate and bias is present in the study.
- Decision based on survey taken in a costly shopping complex where customers can
easily have offered the price of the product.
Did not consider sales of product in other areas where they have middle and low class
consumers.
2. Target Population: Consumers of Water purifiers

- Parameter of interest –Scale that is used for quality check, it may be Likert
Scale from 1 to 5 (Where 5 being the most satisfactory)
- Sampling Frame-Database of the outlets where water purifiers are sold,
usually customers give information about them for warranty purposes.
- Sampling Method: Probability Sampling
3. Sample used here is not an exact report of the population. Limited only to those participants
who log in their phone numbers, those who did not were not included.
8
7. Different Sampling Techniques
Probability Sampling Non Probability Sampling
Simple Random sampling Purposive sampling
Systematic sampling Convenience sampling
Cluster sampling Snow ball sampling
Stratified sampling Quota sampling
7.1 Probability Sampling
In Probability sampling every member of population has equal and same chance of being
selected for the sample and is drawn randomly from the wider population. It is regarded as
the best and scientific method and is useful when researcher wants to make generalization
from selected sample. A probability sample is also known as equal probability sampling
design (EPS).
7.1.1 Types of probability sampling techniques
a) Simple random sampling
Random does not mean haphazard or hit miss. Selection of item depends on chance,
not on personal bias. In this Sampling technique Every member in the defined
population have an equal and independent chance of being selected for the sample.
The Probability of a member being selected is unaffected by the selection of other
members of the population.
In Research methodology the Random tables are being used to select the sample for
the given size of population. (Refer Table 7.1.1 for Twenty-Five Hundred
Randomly Assorted Digits)
9
Table 7.1.1 : Twenty-Five Hundred Randomly Assorted Digits
Columns
Rows
00-04 05--09 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49
00 54463 22662 65905 70639 79365 67382 29085 69831 47058 08186
01 15389 85205 18850 39226 42249 90669 96325 23248 60933 26927
02 85941 40756 82414 02015 13858 78030 16269 65978 01385 15345
03 61149 69440 11286 88218 58925 03638 52862 62733 33451 77455
04 05219 81619 10651 67079 9251 I 59888 84502 72095 83463 75577
05 41417 98326 87719 92294 46614 50948 64886 20002 97365 30976
06 28357 94070 20652 35774 16249 75019 21145 05217 47286 76305
07 17783 00015 I0806 83091 91530 36466 39981 62481 49177 75779
08 40950 84820 29881 85966 62800 70326 84740 62660 77379 90279
09 82995 64157 66164 41180 10089 4157 78258 96488 88629 37231
10 96754 17676 55659 44105 47361 34833 86679 23930 53249 27083
II 34357 88040 53364 71726 45690 66334 60332 22554 90600 71113
12 06318 37403 49927 57715 50423 67372 63116 48888 21505 80182
13 62111 52820 07243 79931 89292 84767 85693 73947 22278 11551
14 47534 09243 67879 00544 23410 12740 02540 54440 32949 13491
15 98614 75993 84460 62846 59844 14922 48730 73443 48167 34770
16 24856 03648 44898 09351 98795 18644 39765 71058 90368 44104
17 96887 12479 80621 66223 86085 78285 02432 53342 42846 94771
18 90801 21472 42815 77408 37390 76766 52615 32141 30268 18106
19 55165 77312 83666 36028 28420 70219 81369 41943 47366 41067
20 75884 12952 84318 95108 72305 64620 91318 89872 45375 85436
21 16777 r116 58550 42958 21460 43910 01175 87894 81378 10620
22 46230 43877 80207 88877 89380 32992 91380 03164 98656 59337
23 42902 66892 46134 01432 94710 23474 20423 60137 60609 13119
24 81007 00333 39693 28039 10154 95425 39220 19774 31782 49037
25 68089 01122 51111 72373 06902 74373 96199 97017 41273 21546
26 20411 67081 89950 16944 93054 87687 96693 87236 77054 33848
27 58212 13160 06468 15718 82627 76999 05999 58680 96739 63700
28 70577 42866 24969 61210 76046 67699 42054 12696 93758 03283
29 94522 74358 71659 62038 79643 79169 44741 05437 39038 13163
30 42626 86819 85651 88678 17401 03252 99547 32404 17918 62880
31 16051 33763 57194 16752 54450 19031 58580 47629 54132 60631
32 08244 27647 33851 44705 94211 46716 11738 55784 95374 72655
33 59497 04392 09419 89964 51211 04894 72882 17805 21896 83864
34 97155 13428 40293 09985 58434 01412 69124 82171 59058 82859
35 98409 66162 95763 47420 20792 61527 20441 39435 11859 41567
36 45476 84882 65109 96591 25930 66790 65706 61203 53634 22557
37 89300 69700 50741 30329 11658 23166 05400 66669 48708 03887
38 50051 95137 91631 66315 91428 12275 24816 68091 71710 33258
39 31753 85178 31310 89642 98364 02306 24617 09609 83942 22716
40 79152 53829 77250 20190 56535 18760 69942 77448 33278 4880S
41 44560 38750 83635 56540 64900 42912 13953 79149 18710 68618
42 68328 83378 63369 71381 39564 05615 42451 64559 97501 65747
43 46939 38689 58625 08342 30459 85863 20781 09284 26333 91777
44 83544 86141 15707 96256 23068 13782 08467 89469 93842 55349
45 91621 00881 04900 54224 46177 55309 17852 27491 89415 23466
46 91896 67126 04151 03795 59077 11848 12630 98375 52068 60142
47 55751 62515 21108 80830 02263 29303 37204 96926 30506 09808
48 85156 87689 95493 88842 00664 55017 55539 17771 69448 87530
49 07521 56898 12236 60277 39102 62315 12239 07105 11844 01117
10
b) Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling is the alteration of simple random sampling also known as interval
or gap sampling. It Involves selecting subject from a population list (Population list
need to be arranged in a systematic and logical manner) in a systematic manner rather
than random selection. This method is used, where a complex list of Population from
which sample to be drawn is available.
The researcher is selecting Kth unit until intended sample size is obtained. Where K is
calculated as
K = Population Size
Desired sample size
For example if the size of the population is 3000 and the desired sample size is 100
the Kth unit will be 30th.
While calculating Kth unit, it is possible we get fractional value. In this case, use
approximation procedure.
i. If fraction value is less than 0.5, it should be omitted.
ii. If fraction value is more than 0.5, it should be taken as 1.
iii. If fractional value is exactly 0.5, it should be taken as 1.
c) Stratified sampling
It is an attempt to obtain more reliable sample than simple random method. If the
Population size is large and heterogonous, but consists of several subgroups in which
the elements are homogenous by nature or having similar characteristics the
population is divide into those subgroups, known as strata. The researcher makes to
ensure all strata are presented in the sample and sample members are randomly
selected from each strata.
Following are the characteristics that need to be followed to divide the

population into strata
i. Base of stratification (How many strata for a given population?)
 Strata should be constructed in a way that within strata the units are
homogenous.
 Maximize difference among strata (marked difference between strata)
ii. Number of strata (How many strata for a given population?)
11
 More the strata more will be the cost so, only feasible number of strata need to
be there
 More than six strata may be undesirable.
Sample size within strata

It depends upon on how many observations should be taken from each strata.
Stratification can be done by two methods:
Equal Allocation Proportional Allocation
Select equal number Select strata members in the

of units from all the sample, proportional to the
strata member in strata.
d) Cluster sampling technique
It is also known as multistage sampling/area sampling. In this technique, the areas or

cluster are identified first then to sample individual from the cluster. It is used when the
characteristics of population is not well known and list is unavailable.
7.1.2 Steps to be followed for different probability sampling techniques
Types of sampling Steps to be Followed
Random Sampling - Defined the Population

- Determine the desired sample size
- List all the members in a population
- Assign a number to each member of the
population
- Enter a table of random numbers at any point
- Move in any predetermined direction
- Read the numbers of the individuals to be
included in the sample
Systematic Sampling - Identify and define Population

- Determine desired sample size
- Obtain list of Population (preferably randomized)
of the population
12
- Set ‘K’ (K = Population Size / Desired sample size)

- Start at some random place at the top of
Population list
- Take every Kth name or item until the desired
sample in reached, go back to the top of the list.
If end of list is reached before the desired sample
go back to the top of the list
Stratified Sampling - Define Population

- Determine desired sample size.
(Equal
- Identify strata for which you (researcher) want to
Allocation/Proportional guarantee appropriate representation
Allocation) (Proportional / equal)
Equal allocation - Select equal numbers from the strata

- All strata should contribute the same number to
the sample
Proportional Allocation - Select Strata members in the sample proportional
to the number of members in the strata for a given
population
Cluster Sampling - Define the population
- Select area or cluster of elements first
- Sample individuals or elements within the clusters
- Randomly select the clusters
- Exact sample size may not be known until after
the sample is selected
- Include in the sample all population members in
each selected cluster
13
7.1.3 Advantages and disadvantages of different probability sampling
techniques
Types of Advantages Disadvantages

sampling
Random - Selection of a sample - Need name of all Population

Sampling depends entirely on chance members and sometimes it is
so no personal bias. difficult to reach all.
- Requires minimum - Size of sample required is
knowledge of the large (compared to stratified)
Population to be sampling - Sometimes over or under
- Represents Population in a represent the sampling units
better way and very easy to
conduct
Systematic - A convenient and simple - Sometimes Sample selected
Sampling way to select Sample as per the convenience of the
- Save resources researcher
- More accurate sample - Periodicity happens
sometimes while selecting
sample
Stratified - More precise sample - Sometimes it is difficulty in
Sampling - It balances the uncertainly reaching all selected in the
of random sampling against sample
the bias of deliberate - Population characteristics
selection must be known and if strata
- Sample represents the are not made properly the
desired strata and reduces results will be biased
the time & expenses - The cost per observation may
- Accuracy is maximum if be high as compare to simple
strata is formed uniformly random sampling, if stratified
and homogeneity sample will be distributed
more geographically
14
sampling
Cluster - Efficient and flexible - Researcher may select

Sampling - Reduce cost and time sample as per the
spend convenience
- Useful for educational - Periodicity happens
research sometimes while selecting
- Larger area is covered sample
- Researchers do not need to
name all the members of
the population
15
8. Non Probability Sampling Technique
Non-Probability sampling design are used when the researcher knows generalization is
not required and assume that there is an even distribution of characteristics with in the
population, believing that any sample would be representative. The researcher already
knows that the group does not represent the whole population. The elements of population
do not have any known chance of being selected in the sample.
8.1 Different Types of Non Probability Sampling Techniques
a) Purposive Sampling
Purposive sampling is an arbitrary technique for a particular study. This method is

useful for selecting a sample in relation to some criteria which are considered important
for the particular purpose and the Individuals are selected because of their expertise,
specialized knowledge or characteristics. This method helps to achieve
representativeness and focus on special unique characteristics.
b) Convenience Sampling
Convenience Sampling is also known as opportunist or accidental sampling. As per

his/her own convenience, researcher identifies the first individual to serve as a
respondent and continuing that process until the required sample size has been
obtained or those who happen to be available and accessible at that time will be
selected.
c) Snowball Sampling
Snowball sampling is also known as Chain referral method. On the basis of the
characteristics the researcher identifies a small number of individuals in which he is
interested. This is usually done when size of population is very small. In this sampling
technique interpersonal relations plays an important role.
d) Quota sampling
Quota is set according to some specified characteristics from the population such as
age group, income group etc. From each quota the sampling units are collected and
selection of sampling units depends upon the personal judgement. It is equivalent to
stratified sampling.
16
The major difference between quota and Stratified Sampling are in Quota sampling
after dividing the population into quota, the representative individual are non-randomly
selected to full the quota.
8.2 Steps to be followed for Different Non - Probability Sampling

Techniques
Purposive Sampling - The selection of samples depends upon the purpose

with respect to the research problem.
Convenience - Researcher find some people that are easy to find

Sampling
Snowball Sampling - A small group is initially identified.

- Data is collected from the group.
- The identified group members are asked to identify
others who might have specialized knowledge regarding
the topic, those thus identified and recommended.
Quota Sampling - Identify the characteristics and determine what the
population looks like in term of specific qualities. Create
“Quota” based on those qualities and select sample
from each quota.
17
8.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Non - Probability
Sampling Techniques
sampling
Purposive - Less costly and time - No equal chance for all the items
Sampling efficient of the universe being included in
- Homogeneity of the sample and Inability to make
subjects in the sample generalization concerning the total
- Prevents unnecessary population
and irrelevant items - Amount of knowledge of the
entering into the population required in advance is
sample per chance very high
- Results are unbiased - Enough scope for bias or
prejudices of the investigate to
play and influence the selection
- Not suitable for large samples
Convenience - Easy to use - Biased and un satisfactory
Sampling - Involves who so ever
happens to be
available that time.
- If Population is
homogeneous the
results would be
accurate
Snowball - Save resources - Sample selection and researcher

Sampling - Planning needs to be criteria may be inaccurate
done beforehand
- Population that is difficult
to sample while using
other sampling methods
can be assessed easily
18
sampling
Quota Sampling - Quick and easy - People who are can accessible
- Saves money and time are under representation
- Prevent decision to be - No guidelines in selection of
polluted by unnecessary respondents
input
19
Practice Task
1. Indicate (√) whether each of the following is a probability or nonprobability
sample.
Probability Techniques Non Probability

Techniques
Sampling Techniques
Purposive Sampling
Stratified Sampling
Random Sampling
Judgemental Sampling
2. Suppose you have to select a sample of 10 persons from a population of 72

members. Use table no. 7.1.1 and select the 10 members for the sample.
3. Calculate the sampling interval if the Population size is 40 and Sample size is 5.
4. The researcher wants to draw a stratified sample of 200 students from a

technical institution containing 70% of girls and 30% of boys
- How many girls should be in the sample?

- How many boys should be in the sample?
5. The researcher is interested in studying the attitude of persons living in a large city.
What sampling technique the researcher can select?
20
Feedback next page
21
Sampling Techniques Probability Techniques Non Probability

Techniques
Purposive Sampling √
Stratified Sampling √
Random Sampling √
Judgemental Sampling √
2. Since there are 72 members of population, two digit random numbers are
necessary. Any number selected between 73 and 99 can be disregarded. Select
Column No. 10-14 and row no. 31 first two digits of each unit is selected as
57,33,09,40,95,65,50,91,31,77,83,63,58,15. Exclude the no. 95,91 and required
no. in sample are 57,33,09,40, 65,50, 31, 63,58,15.
3. Population Size N= 40
Sample Size n = 5
Sampling interval = 40/5= 8
4. n= 140 ( 70 % of 200)
n= 60 (30 % of 200)
5. For a researcher it is difficult and expensive procedure to develop a list including each
person details.
The researcher can use cluster sampling technique to divide the city into blocks or
neighbours hood, and the localities present in each block from where the sample can
be selected.
22
9. When to Select Different Sampling Technique?
Sampling Technique When to use?
Random Sampling Entire population in homogenous
Stratified Sampling  Population is heterogeneous

 It is possible for the researcher to
isolate certain homogenous strata
for the given population
Cluster sampling When population is very large spread over
a wide geographical area.
Systematic Sampling  When data does not exhibit pattern

and there is low risk of data
manipulation.
 When population size is more and
there is need to create multiple
sample
Convenience Sampling As per convenience of the research
Purposive Sampling When only limited number of people can

serves as a primary data source due to
nature of research design aim/objectives.
Snowball Sampling When potential participants are difficult to

find.
Quota Sampling When entire population is unavailable
23
References
 Babbie, E. (2001). The Practice of Social Research: 9th Edition. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth Thomson.
 Black, T. R. (1999). Doing quantitative research in the social sciences: An
integrated approach to research design, measurement, and statistics. Thousand
Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. (p. 118)
 Cohen L. Manion L., Morrison K. (2007) Research methods in education,8th
Edition, Routledge (Taylor & Francis ) Publications. Master e book ISBN
ISBN9781315456539.
E resources
 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319998246_Sampling_Methods_in_Res
earch_Methodology_How_to_Choose_a_Sampling_Technique_for_Research
 Galloway, A. (1997). Sampling: A Workbook [Electronic version]
http://www.tardis.ed.ac.uk/~kate/qmcweb/scont.htm
 https://cs.fit.edu/~jpmcgee/classes/CSE5800/SamplingTechniques.pdf
Watch videos
 Ortlieb Evan Published on you tube May 21, 201,” Probability and Non-
Probability Sampling in Research Methods”.
24
UNIT II
7: Measuring Instruments
CONTENTS
S. No Page
Learning Outcomes
1. Introduction 1-2
1.1 Characteristics of a Good Measuring Tool 1
1.1.1 Validity 1
1.1.2 Reliability 1
1.1.3 Feasibility 2
Practice Task 3
Feedback 4
2. Questionnaires 5-11
2.1 Arriving at Content of Questionnaire 5
2.2 Writing Questions or Items 7
2.2.1 Principles of writing questions 9
2.3 Editing the Questions 10
2.4 Assembling the Questionnaire 10
2.5 Expert Validation 10
2.6 Try-out/Pilot Testing 10
2.7 Finalization of the Questionnaire 11
Practice Task 12
Feedback 14
3. Interview Schedules 15-16
3.1 Types of Interview Schedule 15
3.1.1 Structured interview schedule 15

3.1.2 Semi-structured interview schedule 15
3.1.3 Unstructured interview 15
3.2 Designing the Interview Schedule 15
3.2.1 Arriving at content of interview schedule 16
3.2.2 Writing questions 16
3.2.3 Editing of question 16
3.2.4 Expert validation 16
3.2.5 Finalization of interview schedule 16
Practice Task 17
Feedback 18
4. Observation Schedules 19-22
4.1 Types of Observations 19
4.2 Designing Observation Schedules 19
4.2.1 Checklists 19
4.2.2 Rating scales 20
4.2.3 Counters/Frequency 21
4.2.4 Field notes 22
Practice Task 23
Feedback 24
5. Standardized Tests 25
5.1 Characteristics of a Standardized Test 25
Practice Task 26
References 27
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Learning Outcomes
 Define measuring instrument/tool
 Enlist the various types of measuring tools
 Explain the process of arriving at content of measuring tools
 Explain the principles to be taken into consideration while designing a questionnaire
 Explain three types of interview schedule
 Differentiate between direct and participant observation
 Explain the characteristics of standardized tests
 Select or design measuring instrument as per the research questions
1. Introduction
Data need to be collected or information needs to be elicited from the sample of the study to fulfil the
objectives or test the hypotheses. As in science and engineering, you use instruments to measure
temperature, pressure, volume etc., in education; instruments are used to collect relevant data and
information and are referred to as measuring instruments/tools. In other words, measuring
tools/instruments are devices used to quantify and record information important to a research study.
They allow the researcher to implement the research method and to produce data for analysis. There
are a number of measuring instruments and include: questionnaires, interview schedules,
observation schedules, and standardized tests. Broadly these can be classified into researcher
designed and standardized tests.
1.1 Characteristics of a Good Measuring Tool

The characteristics of any good measuring tool are validity, reliability and feasibility.
1.1.1 Validity: It refers to whether the test measures what it intends to measure. Take an
example of watch. If your watch gives time as per Indian standards, it is said to be valid.
But, if it shows 10.05AM instead of 10.00AM, it is not valid measure of time.
1.1.2 Reliability: It refers to consistency in measurement. In other words, it refers to

dependability. If your watch shows 10.05 AM instead of 10.00 AM and shows 10.35 AM
instead of 10.30 AM and so on. The variation is fixed, you can depend on your watch. But, if
your watch is sometimes five minutes faster and another time fifteen minutes faster, it is not
1
dependable. Any thing, which is valid, is reliable too. Thus, reliability is a necessary
condition but not a sufficient condition.
1.1.3 Feasibility: Any tool selected for collection of data should be practicable and
you should be able to administer it.
The various types of instruments that can be used for collection of data are explained in subsequent
sections.
2
Practice Task
1. Write the measuring instruments commonly used to gather data or information.
2. Write the major characteristics of a good measuring instrument.
3. Differentiate between reliability and validity.
3
Feedback
1. Write the measuring instruments commonly used to gather data or information.
Questionnaires
Interview Schedules
Observation schedules
Standardized Tests
2. Write the major characteristics of a good measuring instrument.

Reliable
Valid
Objective
Feasibility
3. Differentiate between reliability and validity.
Reliability refers to consistency of scores or dependability while validity refers to whether a test
measures what it intends to measure. Anything that is reliable may not be valid but anything, which
is valid ought to be reliable.
4
2. Questionnaires
Questionnaire is a self-report instrument and consists of number of questions/items. The process of
designing a questionnaire include the following steps:
 Arriving at content of questionnaire
 Writing questions
 Editing the questions
 Assembling the questionnaire
 Expert validation
 Try out the questionnaire
 Finalization of questionnaire
2. 1 Arriving at Content of Questionnaire

Content of questionnaire is generated from the purpose and research questions of the study as
shown in Fig 1 below (CPSC, 1984):
Study Purpose
Research Questions Research questions
Criterion Questions Criterion Question Criterion Question
Questionnaire Items
Fig.1: Arriving at content of measuring tool

Let us take an example, say the purpose of research is to study the activities undertaken by
teachers to plan, organize, deliver and evaluate instruction in technical institutions
5
Research questions: From the purpose of study, one can state the research questions
as:
 What activities are undertaken by teachers to plan instruction?
 What activities are undertaken by teachers to organize instruction?
 What activities are undertaken by teachers to deliver instruction?
 What activities are undertaken to evaluate instruction?
Criterion questions: Let us take first research question i.e. what activities are undertaken to plan
instruction. The criterion questions can be:
 Do the teachers sequence the content matter?
 Do the teachers write learning outcomes at lesson level?
 Do the teachers select instructional strategies to achieve learning outcomes?
 Do the teachers select instructional media for integration in teaching learning?
 Do the teachers select evaluation techniques for assessing student performance?
 Do the teachers plan for activities to involve students in teaching learning?
 Do the teachers plan for techniques for classroom management?
Questions/items: For each criterion question, one can frame questions or items. For example:
Criterion question: Do the teachers write learning outcomes?
Questions/ items
 Do you write learning outcomes for each lesson?
 Which taxonomy you follow to write learning outcomes?
 How do you ensure that learning outcomes are written at different levels?
 What according to you are likely to be the benefits of writing learning outcomes at lesson
level?
Criterion question: Do the teachers select instructional strategies to achieve learning
outcomes?
6
Questions/items
 What are the basis for selection of instructional strategies?
 Which of the instructional strategies are preferred to facilitate achievement of learning
outcomes at lower level?
 Which of the instructional strategies are preferred for facilitating achievement of
learning outcomes at higher level?
2.2 Writing Questions or Items

The questionnaire can consists of different types of items depending upon the objectives of the
study. The various types of items that can be included in questionnaires include:
 Alternate response type items
 Multiple response type items
 Multiple choice type items
 Ranking type items
 Rating type items
 Open- ended questions
Examples of different types of items:

Alternate response type questions:
What is your gender: Male/ Female
Are you married? Yes/No
Are you resident of India? Yes/No
Do the teachers possess adequate subject matter knowledge? Yes/No
Are the teachers punctual for class? Yes/No
Do the teachers give ample examples? Yes/No
Multiple response type items:

Please tick mark on the activities you undertake during delivery of instruction in class:
 State the objectives of topic
 Assess the previous knowledge of the learners
 Give adequate explanation of concepts, principles etc.
 Provide examples from world of work
 Involve learners in development of topic
7
Multiple-choice type items
Tick mark the highest qualification possessed by you.
 Diploma
 Graduation
 Post Graduation
 Doctoral degree
How many years of teaching experience do you possess?
 Less than 5 years
 Between 5-10 years
 Between 10-20 years
 More than 20 years
Ranking Type questions

Rank the teachers in your department on the basis of their teaching effectiveness by assigning
1 to the most effective and 10 to the least effective.
S. No Teacher’s Name Rank

1. Dr SL gupta
2. Dr S Reji
3. Dr Suhail Khan
4. Ms Preeti
5. Mr. SK Jain
6. Mr. Sumeet Singh
7. Ms Ruhi
8. Ms. Tammana
9. Mr Sunil Goel
10. Ms Preetkanwal
Rating type questions

Rate your teachers on the basis of their teaching on a five-point scale i.e. Excellent(Ex), Very
Good (VG), Good(G), Satisfactory (S) and Poor(P)
8
S. No Teacher’s Name Rating
Ex VG G S P
1. Dr SL Gupta
2. Dr S Reji
3. Dr Suhail Khan
4. Ms Preeti
5. Mr. SK Jain
6. Mr. Sumeet Singh
7. Ms Ruhi
8. Ms. Tammana
9. Mr Sunil Goel
10. Ms Preetkanwal
Open Ended questions

Write any three problems faced by you in teaching.
______________________________________________________________
Suggest any three strategies to improve the quality of practical work in the institute.
______________________________________________________________
2.2.1 Principles of writing questions: For designing a questionnaire, following principles of

writing questions need to be taken into account (CPSC, 1984 and Johnson and Christensen,
2008)
 Make sure the questions match the research objectives
 Pose direct questions
 Use simple language
 Stick to familiar words
9
 Check all meanings of words
 Underline words to be emphasized
 Do not abbreviate words
 Avoid the use of concept words
 Include different types of items/questions
 Use mutually exclusive categories in multiple choice questions
 Use multiple items to measure construct
 Never use double negatives
 Do not use leading or loaded questions
 Avoid double barrelled questions
2.3 Editing the Questions

Once questions are written, the researcher reads the questions and checks the questions for
relevance, simplicity, language, grammatical correctness, correctness of alternatives etc. and
finalize the questions after making necessary modifications.
2.4 Assembling the Questionnaire

Once the questions have been finalized, the questions need to be sequenced and proper
instructions need to be included. While assembling the questionnaire, researcher should:
 Provide clear-cut directions to the respondents
 Ensure of confidentiality
 Limit the number of items
 Items of one particular type should be grouped under one section
 Proceed from simple, easy questions to difficult and complex questions
 Seek personal information at the end
 Thank the respondent for the time given
2.5 Expert Validation

A few experts in the area can be identified for expert validation of the questionnaire. On the
basis of the feedback, additions or deletions can be made in the questionnaire.
2.6 Try-out/Pilot Testing

Draft questionnaire can be administered on a representative sample from the population and
then reliability, validity etc. can be worked out. Feedback can also be obtained.
10
2.7 Finalization of the Questionnaire
Questionnaire can then be modified on the basis of feedback from respondents. The
questionnaire is now ready for use.
11
Practice Task
1. Write the correct sequence of the steps to be followed in developing a questionnaire.

1. Arriving at content of questionnaire
2. Assembling the questionnaire
3. Finalization of questionnaire
4. Writing questions
5. Editing the questions
6. Expert validation
7. Try out the questionnaire
2. Select a study, write its research questions and write the criterion questions
and for each criterion question, write at least three to five sample questions.
12
Feedback next page
13
Feedback
1. Write the correct sequence of the steps to be followed in developing a questionnaire.

1-4-5-2-6-7-3
2. Select a study and write its research questions and write the criterion questions
and for each criterion question, write at least three sample questions.
Discuss your answer with your peers.
14
3. Interview Schedule
Interview schedules are especially useful when the researcher wants to answer questions related to
why and how. Interview schedule is used to elicit information from the respondents in a face-to-face
situation or through telephone.
3.1 Types of Interview Schedule

Interview schedule can be:
 Structured interview schedule

 Semi-structured interview schedule
 Unstructured interview
3.1.1 Structured interview schedule is a replica of a questionnaire which has all the
questions to be posed to the respondent with a difference that the interview schedule is filled-
in by the researcher himself or herself.
3.1.2 Semi-structured interview schedule consists of broad questions related to objectives

and probing questions are posed to the respondent depending upon the response of the
respondent. For example: how do you plan instruction, is a broad question and depending
upon the answer from the respondent, probing questions can be posed. If the reply of the
teacher is that he sequences the content, probing question can be what are the basis for
sequencing the content are, how do you ensure that learning is facilitated.
3.1.3 Unstructured interview involves posing random questions to various respondents.
3.2 Designing the Interview Schedule

While designing an interview schedule, the same process as followed in the design of
questionnaire can be followed. The questions should follow a funnel sequence- starting with
broad questions and then posing specific questions. The steps in the process of designing
interview schedule include:
 Arriving at content of interview schedule
 Writing questions
 Editing of questions
 Expert validation
 Finalization of interview schedule
15
3.2.1 Arriving at content of interview schedule: The process as detailed to arrive at the
content of questionnaire is used to arrive at the content of interview schedule.
3.2.2 Writing questions: For structured interview schedule, all questions are detailed out.
For semi-structured interview schedule, broad questions are written and aspects to be
covered are indicated. Aspects identified help the interviewer to pose probing questions to
interviewee. Please see the example below:
How do you plan instruction? (write learning outcomes, select and sequence content
matter, select appropriate instructional strategies, select media, select evaluation
techniques, select strategies for motivating students and classroom management, refresh
knowledge)
In case of unstructured interview schedule, the researcher has in mind the questions that
need to be posed.
3.2.3 Editing of question: Draft set of questions is read carefully to ensure relevance,
simplicity, appropriateness of language, grammatical correctness, sequencing etc.
3.2.4 Expert validation: A group of experts can validate the questions and suggest
modifications.
3.2.5 Finalization of interview schedule: On the basis of expert validation, necessary

addition or deletions can be made in the interview schedule.
16
Practice Task
1. The three different types of interview schedule are:
2. Prepare a semi-structured interview schedule for interviewing the Principal regarding

management structure, policies and processes followed in the institution.
17
Feedback
1. The three different types of interview schedule are:
 Structured interview schedule

 Semi-structured interview schedule
 Unstructured interview schedule
2. Prepare a semi-structured interview schedule for interviewing the Principal regarding

management structure, policies and processes followed in the institution.
Discuss your answer with your peers.
18
4. Observation Schedule
Observation schedules are used to observe and record an existing phenomenon or on-going
process.
4.1 Types of Observations

Observations can be direct observation or participant observation. Direct observation means the
researcher silently inconspicuously observes a process or phenomenon. In case of participant
observation, the researcher becomes a part of the process or phenomenon and actively
participates in it.
4.2 Designing Observation Schedules

To arrive at the content of observation schedule, study purpose, research questions and criterion
questions are taken into consideration and the behaviour, qualities or aspects of the process or
phenomenon that need to be observed are identified. Decisions are made as to whether checklist
or rating scale or counters or field notes are to be used depending on the behaviour or aspects to
be observed, Observation schedules can thus include:
 Check list
 Rating scales
 Counters
 Field notes
4.2.1 Checklists: Enlists the behaviour or trait or qualities to be observed and the observer
simply puts a tick mark on those which are present and put a cross which are absent. The
items are to be arranged in order of their occurrence.
19
Checklist for teacher’s behaviour in class
Please put a tick mark (✓ ) on the activities performed by a teacher in a class and a cross (✖)
on activities not performed by the teacher.
✓ /✖ S. No Activity
Teacher
1. Gained attention of the learner
2. Stated the objectives of the lesson
3. Assessed the previous knowledge of learners
4. Build the rationale for the lesson
5. Gave adequate explanation for concepts, principles etc.
6. Related the topic with other topics & subjects
7. Gave adequate examples
8. Integrated media in teaching learning
9. Provided adequate practice through tasks and exercises to
10. Encouraged learner participation
11. Obtained feedback
12. Provided corrective feedback to learners
13. Summarized the lesson with the help of learners
4.2.2 Rating scales: The researcher observes a phenomenon or process and rate the
behaviour, traits or qualities on a three point or five point or seven point scale determining the
extent of these behaviour, traits or qualities.
20
Rating scale for teacher’s behaviour in a class
Please rate the behaviour of teacher on a five point scale i.e. Excellent (Ex), Very Good
(VG), Good (G), Satisfactory (S) and Poor (P)
S. Activity Rating
No Teacher Ex VG G S P
1. Gained attention of the learner
2. Stated the objectives of the lesson
3. Assessed the previous knowledge of
learners
4. Build the rationale for the lesson
5. Gave adequate explanation for concepts,
principles etc.
6. Related the topic with other topics
& subjects
7. Gave adequate examples
8. Integrated media in teaching learning
9. Provided adequate practice through
tasks and exercises to
10. Encouraged students learner participation
11. Obtained feedback
12. Provided corrective feedback to learners
13. Summarized the lesson with the help of
learners
4.2.3 Counters/Frequency: The observer observes a phenomenon or process and

records the frequency of occurrence of behaviour.
21
Frequency of Questions Posed In a Class
S. No Level of ability assessed Frequency

1. Remembering ////
2. Understanding //// //
3. Applying //
4. Analysing /
5. Evaluating /
6. Creating /
4.2.4 Field notes: The observer records the observations in his/her own words
Observation schedule once designed can be given to experts and based on their
feedback, necessary changes can be incorporated in the observation schedule.
22
Practice Task
1. Prepare a checklist for observing the quality of feedback provided by teacher to

students who answered the questions posed in class.
2. Prepare a checklist for observing activities undertaken by teachers and students

during the organization of laboratory experiment.
23
Feedback
1. Prepare a checklist for observing the quality of feedback provided by teacher to students who
answered the questions posed in class.
Take the feedback from your peer by uploading the work on discussion forum.
2. Prepare a checklist for observing activities undertaken by teachers and students during the
organization of laboratory experiment.
Take the feedback from your peer by uploading the work on discussion forum.
24
5. Standardized Tests
A standardized test is a test that is administered, scored and interpreted in the same way for all the
test takers. Standardized test must be (a) representative of a domain knowledge, (b) dependable
with regard to the format and scoring and, (c) consistent in terms of testing conditions
(samples.jbpub.com/9780763773625/73625_ch01_final.pdf.)
5.1 Characteristics of a Standardized Test

The characteristics of standardized test include:
 It is reliable. Reliability refers to consistency of measurement that is how consistent the
test scores or other evaluation results are from one measurement to another (Gronlund,
and Linn, 1995). Measures of reliability include –test-retest reliability, split-half reliability,
and internal consistency.
 It is valid. It means that the test measures what it intends to measure. Validity measures
include face validity, construct validity, concurrent or predictive validity can be determined
depending upon the nature of variable measured.
 It provides normative data for interpretation of scores.
 It provides standard set of instructions. While administering the standardized test,
directions given by the author must be religiously followed.
A variety of standardized tests are available to measure intelligence, aptitude, interest,

personality, job satisfaction, emotional intelligence, creativity, motivation etc. Each standardized
test thus, needs to be administered as per the standard procedure and specified instructions.
The researcher can select test(s) from the available ones or can develop his/her own test. Validity
and reliability need to be established for the test.
25
Practice Task
1. Go to the website referred in the text, write names of ten standardized tests of interest to you
as teacher and share your answers on discussion forum.
26
References
 CPSC, (1984). Selecting / Developing Measuring Instruments (Module 6). Singapore:
Colombo Plan Staff College.
 Gronlund, Norman E. and Linn, Robert L. (1995) Measurement and Evaluation in Teaching..
NY: Macmillan Publishing Company.
 Johnson, B and Christensen, L. (2008) Educational Research: Quantitative, Qualitative and
Mixed Approaches. New Delhi: Sage Publications.
 Das, DK Lal. Methods and Tools of Data Collection. http://ignou.ac.in/upload/Bswe-

003%20Block-4-UNIT-19-small%20size.pdf
 Data Collection Methods. https://www.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-
binaries/10985_Chapter_4.pdf
 Methods of Data Collection. http://uca.edu/psychology/files/2013/08/Ch6-Methods-of-
Data-Collection.pdf
 Personal Interviews. http://www.fao.org/docrep/w3241e/w3241e05.htm
 Questionnaire Design. http://www.fao.org/docrep/w3241e/w3241e05.htm
 Overview of Quantitative and Qualitative Data Collection Methods- Data Collection
Methods: Some Tips and Comparisons.
https://www.nsf.gov/pubs/2002/nsf02057/nsf02057_4.pdf
 Phellas, Constantinos N.; Bloch, Alice and Seale, Clive. Structured Methods: Interviews,
Questionnaires And Observation. http://www.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-
binaries/47370_Seale_Chapter_11.pdf
 Siniscalco, Marria Tresa,and Auriat, Nadia. Questionnaire Design.
27
UNIT II
8: Collection of Data
CONTENTS
S. No Page
Learning Outcomes
1. Introduction 1
2. Collection of Data: Some Guidelines 1-2
2.1 Before the Collection of Data: Some Guidelines 1
Practice Task 3
Feedback 4
2.2 During the Collection of Data: Some Guidelines 5-7
2.2.1 Collection of data through questionnaires 5
2.2.2 Collection of data through interviews 6
2.2.3 Collection of data through observation schedules 6
2.2.4 Collecting data through standardized tests 7
Practice Task 8
Feedback 10
3. Guidelines for Consideration after Data Collection 11
Practice Task 12
Feedback 14
COLLECTION OF DATA
Learning Outcomes
 Explain the guidelines for collecting data through questionnaires
 Explain the principles of collecting data / information through interviews
 Explain the guidelines for collecting data though observation schedule
 Explain the procedure for collecting data through standardised tests.
1. Introduction
In the last module, you have learnt that the researcher can use any of the measuring
instruments namely, questionnaires, interview schedules, observation schedules or
standardised tests, or a combination of them for collecting relevant data or information as
per the objectives of the study. The procedure adopted to collect data is likely to affect
the quality of data and in turn the reliability of data. Thus, systematic procedure needs to
be followed to collect data.
2. Collection of Data: Some Guidelines

There are certain guidelines to be followed before, during and after the collection of data.
The guidelines are enlisted below:
2.1 Before the Collection of Data: Some Guidelines

 If there is likely to be a team for collection of data, orientation needs to be given
to the team members regarding the purpose, instructions for administration of
measuring tool(s), items need to be clarified to the members of the team and
precautions to be taken during collection of data need to be specified.
 In case, interviews and observations schedules are to be used, proper training
of interviewers and observers has to be organised. Interviewers need to be
trained in conducting interviews and skills essential such as rapport building,
posing of questions, responding to questions, listening skills, adaptability skills,
notes taking need to be honed. The observers need to be trained in the rating
scales used in observation schedule.
 Permission need to be sought from the competent authority to collect data and
information.
 List of respondents, interviewers or events, objects, documents, artefacts etc.
to be observed need to be prepared.
1
 Sufficient number of copies of questionnaires, interview schedules, observation
schedules or standardised tests should be obtained to avoid any problem
during collection of data.
 Other relevant material e.g. paper, pen, pencils, etc. required during collection
of data need to be obtained.
 Proper schedule of collecting data need to be prepared and adhered to by the
researcher.
2
Practice Task
1. Enlist the points that merit consideration before collection of data.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
3
Feedback
Compare your answer with the points enlisted on page number 1&2.
4
2.2 During the Collection of Data: Some Guidelines
2.2.1 Collection of data through questionnaires: There are three different ways
in which data can be collected through questionnaires. These include: personal
administration of questionnaire, mailed questionnaire or on-line questionnaire.
Table 1 given below enlist the various points that need to be taken into
consideration while collecting data through personal administration, mailed
questionnaire or online questionnaire.
Table 1: Points to be considered during data collection through questionnaires
Personally Administered Mailed questionnaire Online questionnaire
Questionnaire
 Introduce yourself  Have adequate number  Upload the
 Clarify the purpose of of questionnaires questionnaire
the questionnaire  Prepare a cover letter  Identify the
 Assure the explaining the purpose respondents
respondents of the and assuring of  Approach the
confidentiality confidentiality. Explain respondents through
 Give instructions as to how the data will letter, e-mail, or
 Clarify any doubts or be used. telephone. Make them
questions of the  Attach stamped and aware of purpose, link
respondents addressed envelope to and assure of
 Give adequate time to facilitate return process confidentiality
the respondents to fill  Prepare a list of  Give adequate time to
in the questionnaire respondents and respondents to fill in the
 Collect the indicate date of mailing questionnaire
questionnaire the questionnaires  Send reminders to
 Thank the respondents  Maintain record of respondents
received questionnaire  Acknowledge the
 Acknowledge the cooperation extended
receipt of questionnaire
 Send reminder I after
the due date
5
Personally Administered Mailed questionnaire Online questionnaire
Questionnaire
 Send reminder II, if
needed
 Maintain complete
records
 Acknowledge the
receipt of
questionnaires after
reminders
2.2.2 Collection of data through interviews: While collecting data through

structured or semi-structured interview schedule, the following points merit
consideration of the interviewer:
 Introduce yourself
 Clarify the purpose of interview
 Establish rapport
 Pose questions
 Give adequate time to interviewee to respond
 Listen effectively
 Observe the non-verbal behaviour
 Restate, summarize, repeat, mirror the feelings of interviewee
 Seek clarification, if needed
 Pose probing questions in case of semi-structured interview schedule
 Take quick notes
 Record the interview if the interviewee has already permitted
 Thank the interviewee
2.2.3 Collection of data through observation schedules: Data can be either

collected through direct observation or participant observation. Some of the
points to be kept in mind are enlisted below:
Direct observation
 Introduce yourself to person being observed or the person in charge of
activities, process or event to be observed
 Be inconspicuous during the process of observation
 Observe
6
 Record carefully and without bias
 Do not disturb the on-going activities/processes
 Seek clarification at the end of the process or activity, if needed
Participant observation
 Do not disclose your identify
 Behave normally
 Participate in the on-going activities
 Do not hinder the normal process
 Record your observations
2.2.4 Collecting data through standardized tests: Standardized tests can be

individual tests or group tests or there can be speed tests or tests without any
time limits. Each standardized test has a standard procedure for administration
and that needs to be followed. The researcher must ensure adherence to
instruction. During the data collection, the researcher should:
 Introduce himself/herself
 State the purpose of the study and test
 Ensure the subjects of confidentiality of data and information
 Make the subjects comfortable
 Distribute the standardized test and scoring sheet to each subject (if a
group test)
 Ask the subjects to read the instructions carefully
 Clarify the doubts, if any
 Ensure silence in the room
 Allow the time needed to complete the test
 Collect the test
7
Practice Task
Enlist any five points to be taken into consideration while collecting data through
Personally administered questionnaire
Online Questionnaire
Mailed Questionnaire
Interview Schedule
Observation Schedule
Standardized Test
8
Feedback next page
9
Feedback
Compare your answers with the enlisted guidelines on page numbers5, 6 & &7.
10
3. Guidelines for Consideration after Data Collection
A few points merit consideration after the data has been collected:
 Score the selected / developed test as per scoring procedure
 Prepare coding scheme for the variables on nominal scale
 Classify open ended questions into various themes
 Exclude incomplete data
 Prepare master sheet for analysis
 Check accuracy of information
11
Practice Task
Enlist the activities to be undertaken by the researcher after collection of data.
12
Feedback next page
13
Feedback
The researcher should:
 Score the selected / developed test as per scoring procedure
 Prepare coding scheme for the variables on nominal scale
 Classify open ended questions into various themes
 Exclude incomplete data
 Prepare master sheet for analysis
 Check accuracy of information
14
UNIT II
9: Analysis of Data: Descriptive

and Inferential Statistics
CONTENTS
S. No Page
Learning Outcomes
1. Introduction 1
2. Scales of Measurement 1-2
2.1 Nominal Scale 1
2.2 Ordinal Scale 2
2.3 Interval Scale 2
2.4 Ratio Scale 2
Practice Task 3
Feedback 4
3. Methods of Data Tabulation and Analysis 5-10
3.1 Ranking 5
3.2 Grouping/Frequency Distribution 6
3.3 Graphic Representation 7
Practice Task 11
Feedback 12
4. Descriptive Statistics 13-20
4.1 Measures of Central Tendency 13
4.2 Measures of Variability 14
4.3 Normal Probability Curve 14
4.3.1 Characteristics of normal probability curve 17
4.3.2 Skewness and kurtosis 18
4.3.3 Application of normal probability curve 20

Practice Task 21
Feedback 22
4.4 Measures of Relationship 23
Practice Task 24
Feedback 26
5. Inferential Statistical 27-34
5.1 Basic Terminology 27
5.1.1 Standard error of mean 27
5.1.2 Hypothesis testing 27
5.1.3 Level of significance 27
5.1.4 Two-tailed and One-tailed test 28
5.1.5 Type I and Type II error 28
5.1.6 Degree of freedom 28
Practice Task 30
Feedback 32
5.2 Inferential Statistical Techniques 33
6. Other Measures of Correlation 35
Practice Task 36
Feedback 38
7. Selection of Statistical Technique 39
7.1 Scales of Measurement 39
7.2 Objectives or Research Questions 39
7.3 Hypotheses of the Study 39
Practice Task 40
Feedback 42
References 43
ANALYSIS OF DATA: DESCRIPTIVE AND INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
Learning Outcomes
 Differentiate among the four scales of measurement
 Tabulate the given data
 Explain the role of different graphical representations in summarizing the data
 Explain the conditions under which different measures of central tendency will be
appropriate for use
 Explain the conditions under which different techniques of inferential statistics will
be applicable
 Select appropriate techniques of data analysis for the given research study
1. Introduction
Once the data have been collected from the sample of the study, the next step in
research is to summarize the data and analyze it as per the research questions or
objectives and hypotheses of the study to draw conclusions. Let us first clarify two
concepts - statistics and parameter. Any indices calculated for the sample are
referred to as statistics and any indices calculated for population are referred to as
parameter. As research studies are normally conducted on samples selected from
the population, different statistical techniques are used to fulfill the objectives or test
research hypotheses. The selection of statistical technique is based upon three
factors namely- scale of measurement of a variable, objectives or research questions,
and hypotheses. Let us now understand the scales of measurement.
2. Scales of Measurement
The four scales of measurement are:
 Nominal scale
 Ordinal scale
 Interval scale
 Ratio scale
2.1 Nominal Scale
A nominal scale is a classification system that places people, objects, or other

entities into mutually exclusive categories. A variable measured using a nominal scale
is a classification variable that indicates the group to which each subject belongs but
1
does not provide any quantitative information about the subjects.
(http://support.sas.com/publishing/pubcat/chaps/59814.pdf).
For example, Gender-Male (1) or Female (2), Socio-economic status-High (3),

Average (2) or Low (1).
2.2 Ordinal Scale
Values on an ordinal scale represent the rank order of the subjects with respect to the
variable being assessed. Values on the measurement scale have an ordered
relationship to one another. For example, Ranking of ten teachers on teaching
effectiveness by assigning rank 1 to the teacher who is most effective and 10 to one
who is least effective. The limitation of ordinal scale is that the difference between any
two points on the scale does not represent equal interval i.e difference between Rank
1 and 2 is not the same as for Rank 9 and 10
2.3 Interval Scale
Most of the variables in education research are considered to be on interval scale.

Variable on interval scale means the difference between any two scores on the scale
is equal. For example, the difference between 30 and 40 degree Fahrenheit is equal
to the difference between 70 and 80 Fahrenheit i.e. 10 Fahrenheit. The limitation of
this scale is that i.e there is no true zero point on the scale.
2.4 Ratio Scale
Ratio scales are similar to interval scales in that equal differences between scale
values have equal quantitative meaning. However, ratio scales also have a true zero
point, which gives them an additional property. With ratio scales, it is possible to
make meaningful statements about the ratios between scale values. For example,
one can say that the individual with 6ft height is double the height of an individual with
3ft. Height and weight are examples of ratio scale.
2
Practice Task
1. Write the main characteristics of different scales of measurement.
Nominal Scale Ordinal Scale Interval Scale Ratio Scale
2. Give two examples each of different scales of measurement.
Nominal scale
Ordinal scale
Interval Scale
Ratio Scale
3
Feedback
1. Write the main characteristic of different scales of measurement.
Nominal Scale Ordinal Scale Interval Scale Ratio Scale

Classify objects, Rank the objects, Trait, object etc. can There is absolute
persons etc. person etc. w.r.t assume any value zero in this scale.
into mutually certain quality or on the continuum. Equal differences
exclusive parameter. The difference between scale
categories between any two values have equal
points on scale is quantitative
equal. meaning
There is no absolute
zero on this scale.
2. Give two examples each of different scales of measurement.

 Nominal scale: Male/female, Rural/Urban, Developed/Developing/Under
developed, Govt./Govt. Aided/Pvt. Institutions, Semester I/II/III/IV/V/VI
students
 Ordinal scale: Ranking students on the basis of achievement, height, weight,
sociability, anxiety, honesty, friendliness etc.
 Interval Scale: Achievement scores, intelligence scores, Aptitude scores,
 Ratio Scale: Height, Weight, Temperature, Pressure
4
3. Methods of Data Tabulation and Analysis
Data collected through standardized tests are scored as per the specified scoring
procedures and coding scheme is evolved for the variables on nominal scale such as
gender- male (1) or female (2); Type of institution-Govt. institution (1), Govt. Aided
Institution (2) and private institution (3), the data are entered in a spreadsheet for further
analysis. In education research, SPSS is normally used for subjecting the data for
analysis. Various methods that can be used to summarize collected data include:
 Ranking
 Grouping/Frequency Distribution
 Graphic representation
 Descriptive statistics
 Inferential statistics
3.1 Ranking
One of the simplest methods is to rank order the respondents on the basis of their
scores on a test or some other variable of interest. Table 1 below provides an
example.
Table 1: Ranking of students on the basis of achievement scores in

strength of materials
S. No. Score Rank

1 97 1
2 95 2
3 93 3
4 92 4.5
5 92 4.5
6 91 6
7 85 7
8 83 8
9 80 9
10 75 10
5
3.2 Grouping/Frequency Distribution
It involves condensing the full set of scores into a smaller, more manageable
numbers by collapsing all scores in a certain range into single score. It is assumed
that the midpoint of the class interval best represents scores in a particular class
interval. For grouping raw scores, one has to determine
 The range of scores (difference between the minimum and maximum
score)
 The size of class interval. As a ‘rule of thumb’, the number of intervals
should be preferably between 10 and 15. As far as, size of class interval
is concerned 2,3,5,10 and 20 are most preferred.
 Exact lower and upper limit of the class interval. For example, for a class
interval of 10-15, the exact lower limit and upper limit of the class interval
are 9.5 and 15.5 respectively.
Table 2: Achievement scores of students in Chemistry

Class Mid-Point Frequency (f)
Interval
65-69 67 2
60-64 62 3
55-59 57 5
50-54 52 7
45-49 47 12
40-44 42 31
35-39 37 15
30-34 32 10
25-29 27 8
20-24 22 4
15-19 17 2
10-14 12 1
In case of open-ended questions or qualitative information, data can be grouped

around themes. For example, when asked about the problems faced in teaching
learning, the data may be grouped as below:
6
Table 3: Grouping for open ended questions/qualitative
information
Problem f
* Low level of motivation 5
* Lack of previous knowledge 10
* Poor infrastructure in class 15
* Non-availability of internal facility 15
3.3 Graphic Representation

Graphical representations need to be included when they are able to clarify or
augment the text or when they will save space by eliminating the need for lengthy
narratives. Graphical representations should convey essential facts, omit visually
distracting details, be easy to read, use consistent style and need to be carefully
planned and prepared. Graphic representations include:
 Histograms
 Frequency Polygons
 Graphs
 Line Graph
 Bar/ Column Graph
 Pie Graph
Some examples are given below:
Histograms
7
Frequency Polygon
X=axis represents the mid-point of class interval

Y-axis represents the frequencies
Graphs
Line Graph
8
Bar/Column Graph
9
Pie Graph
10
Practice Task
1. Enlist the various methods that can be used to summarize the data.
11
Feedback
1. Enlist the various methods that can be used to summarize the data.
 Histograms
 Frequency Polygons
 Graphs
 Bar/ Column Graph
 Line Graph
 Pie Graph
12
4. Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics are helpful in describing the nature of distribution of scores,
describing group performance and variability in the scores. Descriptive statistics permit
the researcher to meaningfully describe many scores with a small number of indices.
Descriptive statistics include: mean, median, mode (measures of central tendency) and
range, quartile deviation and standard deviation (measures of variability), skewness and
kurtosis, and measure of relationship.
4.1 Measures of Central Tendency

Table 4 describes the various measures of central tendency and when to use each
one of them.
Table 4: Various Measures of Central Tendency
S. No. Statistics Description/ When to Use
Formula
Measures of Central Tendency
1. Mean Sum of all Measure of central tendency
scores/Number having greater stability
OR Scores are symmetrically
distributed around a central
point
Extreme scores are not
present in the distribution
When other statistics are to
be calculated
2. Median Mid-point in the When exact mid-point of the
distribution distribution is needed
Extreme scores are present
3. Mode Most frequently Quick and approximate
Mode=3Mdn- occurring score measure of central
2Mean
in the tendency
distribution
13
4.2 Measures of Variability
Table 5 summarizes the various types of measures of variability (spread of scores).
Table 5: Measures of Dispersion

S. No. Measures of Description/ When to Use
Dispersion Formula
1. Range Interval Between When data are too scant or
the highest and scattered Knowledge about total
lowest score spread is required
2. Quartile Q3-Q1/2 When median is the measure of
Deviation central tendency
Concentration around median is
the concern
Presence of extreme scores
3. Standard Statistics with greater stability
Deviation Extreme deviations are to be
taken into consideration
Other statistics are to be
calculated
4. Skewness Sk= To check the distribution of scores
around mean
5. Kurtosis To check the peakedness of the

distribution of scores around
mean
To understand the concept of skewness and kurtosis, one needs to understand the
normal probability curve.
4.3 Normal Probability Curve

Normal probability curve is based on simple binomial theorem. If you toss a coin,
probability is that you may get Head or Tail. The chances of getting a Head or Tail are
50% or in other words, you can say that probability of occurrence of Head or Tail is
14
half. In case two coins are tossed, you may get both Heads or both Tails and you
may get Head & Tail or Tail and Head. In simple words
(H+T) 2 = H2 + 2HT+ T2
Likewise, if you toss a coin n times, the expression can be derived from
(H=T) n =
15
The generalized expression is:
If the chances of occurrence of various events are graphically represented, the result
will be symmetrical polygon with the greatest concentration of cases at the center (Fig
1. ).
Fig. Probability curve obtained from (H+T) 10

The equation of normal probability curve is:
16
In education research, it is assumed that any trait or quality or attribute is normally
distributed in the population. The normal probability curve thus helps us in finding out
the nature of distribution of scores, skewness and kurtosis of samples of study and
find out how closely the sample scores match the distribution of scores in population.
4.3.1 Characteristics of normal probability curve: The following are the

characteristics of normal probability curve:
 It is bilaterally symmetrical.
 It is asymptomatic to x-axis (Fig 2.)

Fig 2: Normal Probability Curve
 Mean, median and mode coincide
 It is unimodal curve
 Points of inflection are at 1SD unit
 Total area of Normal probability curve is divided into SD units. A fixed
number of cases lie between M+/-SD units. For example, 68.26% cases
17
lie between M+/-1SD, 95.44% cases lie between M+/-2SD and 99.73%
cases lie between M+/-3SD. The total area of the curve is assumed to
be 6SD or M+/-3SD (Fig 3.)

Fig 3. : Percentage of cases at SD units
 Y represents the height of the curve and is equal to:

 The relationship between PE and σ can be stated as following:
1 PE = .6745σ
1σ = 1.4826PE.
4.3.2 Skewness and kurtosis: The concept of skewness and kurtosis are
explained below.
Skewness: The distribution of scores can deviate from the normal distribution
curve and skewness refers to concentration of cases either on positive or
18
negative side of the curve. When there is concentration of cases on positive side
(Fig.4), the curve is said to be negatively skewed and when there is
concentration of cases on negative side of the curve (Fig.4), the curve is said to
be positively skewed.
 In normal distribution curve, Mean, median and mode coincide
 In positively skewed distribution, Mean> Median> Mode
 In negatively skewed distribution, Mean< Median< Mode
Fig 4. Symmetric, positively skewed and negatively skewed curve (source:

slideplayer.com)
Kurtosis: Kurtosis refers to peakedness of the curve. In normal distribution

curve, the value of kurtosis is .263 and curve is referred to as mesokurtic. If the
kurtosis is larger than the normal distribution curve i.e. .263, curve is said to be
leptokurtic and if it is smaller than the .263, the curve is said to be platykurtic
(Fig 5).
19
Fig 5: Peakedness of curve
(Source: http://whatilearned.wikia.com/wiki/File:Kurtosis.jpg)
4.3.3 Application of normal probability curve: Normal probability curve helps

in:
 Determining percentage of cases in normal distribution with in given
limits
 Finding the limits in any normal distribution which include a given
 percentage of cases
 Finding score in distribution if Percentile Rank is given
 Comparing two overlapping distributions
 Determining the relative difficulty of questions of a test
 Categorizing group into subgroups
20
Practice Task
1. Write the conditions under which you will use various measures of central tendency.
Measure of Central Conditions under which to be used

Tendency
Mean
Median
Mode
2. Enlist the various measures of dispersion.
3. Which of the measure of dispersion is most commonly used and why?
4. Explain the main characteristics of Normal Probability curve.
21
Feedback
1. Conditions under which various measures of central tendency are to be used.

Measure of Central Conditions under which to be used
Tendency
Mean When interested in average
When there are no extreme scores in the distribution
When further statistics need to be calculated
Median When interested in the point in the distribution below
which and above which 50% of the cases lie
When there are extreme scores in the distribution
Mode When interested in the most frequently occurring
score in the distribution
2. Various measures of dispersion are:

 Range
 Quartile deviation
 Standard deviation
 Skewness
 Kurtosis
3. Standard deviation: Standard deviation is the most stable statistics and is
used in further analysis.
4. Main characteristics of Normal Probability curve are.
 It is bilaterally symmetrical.
 It is asymptomatic to x-axis
 Mean, median and mode coincide
 It is unimodal curve.
 Points of inflection are at 1SD unit
 68.26% cases lie between M+/-1SD, 95.44% cases lie between M+/-2SD
and 99.73% cases lie between M+/-3SD.
 Skewness is zero and kurtosis is .263.
22
4.4 Measures of Relationship
There are a number of statistical techniques that can be used to determine the relationship
between two variables. The most common ones are Spearman’s Rank order correlation
i.e. Spearman’s rho and Pearson Product Moment Correlation. The choice of technique
will depend upon the scale of measurement. Table 6 shows when to use each of the two
statistical techniques.
Table 6: Correlation Techniques

Technique When to use
Spearman rank order * Both variables are on ordinal scale
* Magnitude of relationship
* Objective is to study relationship
where di = difference in paired ranks

n = number of cases.
Pearson Product * Both variables are on interval scale
Moment Correlation * Magnitude of relationship
* Objective is to study relationship
OR
xy
r = ---------
 2 2
x y
xy
23
Practice Task
1. Specify the conditions in which you will prefer Spearman rho and Pearson Product-
moment correlation method.
24
Feedback next page
25
Feedback
1. Conditions under which to use
Technique When to use
Spearman rank order * Both variables are on ordinal scale
* Determine magnitude of relationship
Pearson Product * Both variables are on internal scale
Moment Correlation * Determine magnitude of relationship
26
5. Inferential Statistics
Research studies are normally conducted on samples selected from the population.
Inferential statistics is used to infer about the parameters based on statistics. In other
words, inferential statistics help the researcher in generalizing the findings of research,
based on samples, to the population. Generalizations are expressed in terms of
probability.
5.1 Basic Terminology

There are a few concepts, which need to be understood before understanding the
statistical techniques. These include: standard error of mean, hypothesis testing, level
of significance, two-tailed and one-tailed test, Type I and II errors and degree of
freedom (Gay et.al, 2012).
5.1.1 Standard error of mean: If you select 500 samples of 30 from a large
population and calculate the means and graphically plot them, means will be
normally distributed around the population mean. Standard error of mean (SEM)
can be calculated from the sample standard deviation by the formula:
  = Standard deviation of sample

SEM = -------- n = Size of the sample
√ N-1
Larger the sample size, lesser will be the Standard error of mean.
5.1.2 Hypothesis testing: It is the process of decision making i.e. whether to

accept or reject the hypothesis. Hypothesis is not proven; it is either supported or
not supported by the findings. Null hypothesis rejection does not automatically lead
to acceptance of research hypothesis.
5.1.3 Level of significance: Level of significance refers to the probability at which

null hypothesis can be accepted or rejected. Normally, probability level is set at
either at .05 or .01 level. .05 level of significance means that there are only 5
chances out of 100 that the observed differences in the means of any two groups
occurred by chance and .01 level means that there is only one chance in 100 that
the observed differences occurred by chance.
27
5.1.4 Two-tailed and One-tailed test: When a researcher formulates a null
hypothesis i.e. there are no significant differences in the achievement in structural
engineering of students taught through lecture and active learning strategies gets
rejected, the two possibilities are there that the group taught through lecture
outperforms the group taught through active learning strategies, or group taught
through active learning may outperform the group taught through lecture method.
The area of rejection of null hypothesis thus may lie on the positive or negative side
of the curve (Fig 6.). This is a case of two-tailed test.
If a researcher formulates a directional hypothesis as he/she has designed a

special programme to improve the presentation skills of students and test this
directional hypothesis, it is a case of one tailed test where the area of rejection will
be only on the positive side of the curve (Fig. 6) because it is expected that the
group trained in presentation skill is going to be better than the one not trained.
5.1.5 Type I and Type II error: The researcher can make two types of errors in
interpreting the results and accepting the null hypothesis.
 Type I error is made when null hypothesis is rejected although no true
differences exist.
 Type II error is made when null hypothesis is accepted though true
differences actually exist.
The chances of committing Type-I or Type-II error is affected by the level of

significance set by the researcher. A high level of significance (p < .05) reduces
the chances of committing Type I error but at the same time increases the chances
of committing Type II errors.
As committing Type-I error is going to prove serious in social science research, the
researcher needs to reduce Type I error by setting level of significance i.e. p< .05.
In case of exploratory studies, the researcher may set a low level of significance.
5.1.6 Degree of freedom: When a statistic is used to estimate a parameter, the

number of degrees of freedom (df) available depends on the restrictions placed
28
upon the observations. One df is lost for each restriction imposed. Let us take an
example.
For scores 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, the mean is 7 and the deviations from means are -2, -1, 0,
+1, +2. The sum total of all these deviations is zero. Of the five deviations, the
researcher has four df (n – 1) as he/she can select any four deviations but the fifth
deviation is fixed because the sum of these deviations is always zero.
The rule is that df available equals to N minus the number of parameters already
estimated from the sample.
29
Practice Task
1. State the purpose of inferential statistics.
2. Explain the basic terms used in inferential statistics.

Basic Term Meaning
Standard error of mean
Hypotheses Testing
.05 and .01 Level of

Significance
One tailed and Two tailed test
Type I error
Type II error
30
Feedback next page
31
Feedback
1. Purpose of inferential statistics
Inferential statistics is used to infer about the parameter from the statistics
2. Basic terms used in inferential statistics.
Basic Term Meaning

Standard error of mean Represents standard deviation of the population
Hypotheses Testing Find out whether findings of the study either support
or do not support the hypotheses
.05 and .01 Level of .05 level of significance means that there are only 5
Significance chances out of 100 that the observed differences in
the means of any two groups occurred by chance and
.01 level means that there is only one chance in 100
that the observed differences occurred by chance.
One Tailed and Two tailed When the area of rejection of a hypothesis can lie
Test only on one side of the curve, it is referred to as a
case of one-tailed test. When the area of rejection of
null hypothesis lie either on the positive or negative
side of the curve, it is referred to as a case of two-
tailed test.
Type I error Type I error is made when null hypothesis is rejected
although no true differences exist.
Type II error Type II error is made when null hypothesis is
accepted though true differences actually exist.
32
5.2 Inferential Statistical Techniques
Various statistical techniques that can be used to infer about the parameters from the
statistics or test hypothesis are tabulated in Table 7 along with the conditions under
which each can be applied. These include both parametric and non-parametric tests.
Parametric tests make certain assumptions such as normal distribution of scores,
homogeneity of variance and independent samples while non-parametric tests make no
such assumptions.
Table 7: Statistical techniques to determine significance of difference

between mean or other measures
S. No. Significance of differences When to use
between among means
1. t-test for independent sample  Test the difference between means
of two independent groups
 Independent variable is on nominal
scale and dependent variable is
on ratio or interval scale
OR
(small samples)
2. t-test for dependent samples  Test the differences between

means of two dependent groups
 Independent variable is on nominal
scale and dependent variable is on
interval or ratio scale
3. ANOVA  Test the differences among the

means of more than two groups
independent variable is on nominal
scale and dependent variable is on
interval or ratio scale.
33
S. No. Significance of 
differences When to use
between among means
4. ANCOVA  Explain some of the variance in

terms of covariate and reduce error
variance.
 Eliminate or remove the bias of
confounding variables.
 Assumes independence of
covariate from treatment effect and
 homogeneity of regression bias.
5. Chi-square test  Useful methods for comparing
experimentally obtained results
with those to be expected
theoretically or on some
hypothesis.
 Variables are on nominal scale.
6. Mann Whitney u test
Test the significance of difference
of medians of the independent
groups
 One variable (independent) is on
nominal scale and other on ordinal
scale (dependent)
7. Median Test  Test the significance of difference
between two medians
 Variable is on ordinal scale
 Samples are independent
8. Wilcoxon signed rank test  Test the difference in the ranks of
two related groups (independent)
 One variable on nominal scale and
another on ordinal scale
(dependent)
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6. Other Measures of Correlation
There are a number of other measures of correlation that can be used for studying
magnitude of relationship or prediction purpose. These are enlisted in Table 8
along with the conditions under which the technique is to be used or preferred.
Table 8: Other measures of correlation

Sl. Correlation Technique When to use
No.
1. Bi-serial correlation  Interested in magnitude of relationship
Mp – Mq pq  One variable in dichotomous (yes/no,
rpbis = ------------ x ----
 q pass/fail etc.) type and other is in
internal scale.
p = Proportion of entire group in
category
q= 1 – p (Proportion in second
category)
2. Point bi-serial correlation  Interested in magnitude of relationship
 One variable is scored simply on 1 and
Mp – Mq
rpbis = ------------ x √pq 0, say 1 for right and 0 for wrong, time
dichotomy exists.
  Another variable is on internal scale
4. Multiple Co-efficient of  Represents the correlation between
Correlation actual scores (criterion) and scores
predicted on the basis of multiple
R1(2,3) = √1- σ2 1.23
regression equations.
12
5. Partial Correlation  Useful in analysis In which effects of

some variable or variables are to be
eliminated
r12.34…n = r12√.34…(n – 1) - r13.34…(n – 1) x r24.34…(n – 1)
√1-r2 12.34…(n – 1) √1-r2 24.34…(n – 1)
35
Practice Task
1. Specify the inferential statistical technique you would prefer for the purpose and the
conditions.
Purpose and Conditions Inferential Statistical Technique
Test the differences between the
mean achievement scores in
Physics of male and female
students
Test the differences in teaching
effectiveness of teachers at varied
levels of experience i.e less than
five years, 5-10 years, 10-15 years
and more than 15 years.
Test the difference in the ranks of
two related groups
(independent).One variable is on
nominal scale and another is on
ordinal scale (dependent
2. Specify the correlation technique you would prefer for the purpose and conditions
stated below:
Purpose and Conditions Correlation Technique
Both variables are on ordinal scale
and a quick estimate of magnitude
of relation is required
One variable is on nominal scale
and other is on interval scale, you
are interested in relationship
between the variables.
In case of one variable true
dichotomy exists and another
variable is on interval scale
36
Feedback next page
37
Feedback
conditions.
Purpose and condition Inferential statistical technique
Test the differences between the t-test
mean achievement scores in
Physics of male and female
students
Test the differences in teaching Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
effectiveness of teachers at varied
levels of experience i.e less than
five years, 5-10 years, 10-15 years
and more than 15 years.
Test the difference in the ranks of Wilcoxon Signed rank Test
two related groups
(independent).One variable is on
nominal scale and another is on
ordinal scale (dependent
conditions stated below:
Purpose and Conditions Correlation Technique
Both variables are on ordinal scale Rank order correlation
and a quick estimate of magnitude
of relation is required
One variable is on nominal scale Pearson-product moment correlation
and other is on interval scale, you
are interested in relationship
between the variables.
In case of one variable true Point bi-serial correlation
dichotomy exists and another
variable is on interval scale
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7. Selection of Statistical Technique
Selection of statistical technique depends on the following three factors:
 Scales of measurement
 Objectives or research questions
 Hypotheses of the study
7.1 Scales of Measurement

The first consideration is on which scale of measurement the data is available. Is it
nominal, ordinal, or interval scale? Accordingly, a statistical technique applicable will be
selected.
7.2 Objectives or Research Questions

What are the objectives of the study? Is the primary objective to study relationships
among variables or to find out the differences in the mean scores of various groups? In
case, the primary objective is to determine the magnitude of relationship and scale of
measurement is interval for both the variables, Pearson product moment correlation is
to be used. If the objective is to find differences in the mean score of two groups, t-test
is to be used and if there are three groups, one-way ANOVA may be used.
7.3 Hypotheses of the Study

The third factor to be considered is the hypotheses of the study. One needs to find out
whether null hypothesis or non-directional or directional hypotheses have been
formulated on the basis of review of related literature. In case, null hypotheses have
been formulated, two-tailed test will be applicable and if directional hypotheses have
been formulated one-tailed test will be applicable. If hypotheses are in terms of
relationship, correlational techniques will be used and if stated in terms of differences,
significance of differences between means would be used.
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Practice Task
1. Explain the factors that will guide the researcher in selection of appropriate
statistical techniques for analysis of data.
40
Feedback next page
41
Feedback
1. Compare your answer with the input on selection of statistical techniques.
42
References
 CPSC (1984) Data Analysis and Interpretation of Results (Module 8). Singapore:
Colombo Plan Staff College.
 Garret, NE. (2007), ‘Statistics in Psychology and Education’ New Delhi: Paragon
International Publishers.
 Siegel, S and Castellan, N) (1989) Non-Parametric Statistics for the Behavioral
Sciences, USA McGraw-Hill Inc.
http://support.sas.com/publishing/pubcat/chaps/59814.pdf
https://www.itl.nist.gov/div898/handbook/eda/section3/eda35b.htm (Sk &Ku)
43
UNIT II
10: Formulating Research Proposal

CONTENTS
S. No Page
Learning Outcomes
1. Introduction 1
2. Research Proposal – Concept 1
2.1 Purposes of Research Proposals 1-2
3. Types of Research Proposals 3-4
4. Components of Research Proposals 5-6
5. The Process of Preparing a Research Proposal 7-8
6. Develop a Topical Outline 8
7. Develop Narrative Descriptions for each Section of the Outline 9-11
8. Review by Colleague and Evaluate your Completed Proposal 12
Practice Task 13
Feedback 14
References 15
FORMULATING RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Learning Outcomes:

 Define a research proposal.
 Explain the significance of formulating a research proposal.
 Describe purposes of writing a research proposal.
 Describe various types of research proposals.
 Describe the components of research proposal.
 Develop the format of a research proposal.
1. Introduction
Dear learners, as you know that the core of research is the problem. It is a question raised for
inquiry, consideration, or solution. Now you are required to formulate the proposal.
The present learning module will enable learners understand the significance, types and stages
of formulating a research proposal.
2. Research Proposal - Concept
It is a detailed description of the proposed work documented by a researcher, i.e., a plan of action presented
and justified by the researcher for investigation. Basically, it is a document that portrays the rationale and
plan for implementing a research study. It is essentially the consolidation of the material that results from the
steps taken in the planning of a research study. In other words, it is an outline of future activities of a
research problem. If written adequately, a research proposal provides intent of the researcher about:
 research problem for investigation

 objectives, hypotheses, sampling and methodology
 resources (time, funds, facilities, equipment etc.) required to complete it,
 research outcome(s) to be reported, and so on
Various Terminologies for a research proposal are: research/project proposal; thesis plan; Research outline;
Synopsis; Research Plan.
2.1 Purposes of Research Proposals
The proposal may serve different purposes, depending on the type of study and the people involved. That is,
different situations require different types of proposals. A study being planned by one teacher who will
conduct the study within his/her classroom and will require no special resources may need only a brief
proposal. Conversely, another who wishes to conduct a state-wide or national study that requires access to
1
educational institutions and financial resources, may need a fairly lengthy and detailed proposal. The
purpose and scope of the study will dictate proposal’s form and length. Proposal may be written for
rrequisition of budget for the research or Certification requirements for research about the feasibility of
experimentation to be done on human beings or animals or for obtaining approval of Research Degree
Committee before performing research for a dissertation. In other words, it is a formal offer to render service
or produce a product to a client in response to request of the client.
There are three basic purposes that proposals may serve, which are given here:
 To Facilitate Planning
The proposal can serve the purpose of facilitating the planning of a research study by providing a structure
within which the researcher must plan. That is, the proposal acts as an outline which identifies the important
aspects of the study. In essence, it forces the researcher to address the major components of a study and
document this plans. The proposal answers the following questions about a study:
a. Why is the study being done?
b. What is being studied?
c. How will, it be conducted?
d. Who will be involved in the study?' and
c. When will the study be conducted?
These questions provide the structure and plan for a research study. Their answers are
reflected in the proposal.
 To Gain Support
A proposal may also be used to gain support from others for a research study. Many research studies
require the permission of superiors within an institution, or governmental officials within a State or
country. The proposal may provide a mechanism or vehicle for this request. It can show the importance
and need for the study as well as specify any special considerations that are requested.
Additionally, there is often a need for the financial support of a research study. Many governmental
agencies, universities and colleges allocate money to a special research fund. Researchers are provided
with the opportunity to request these funds for specific research studies. Sometimes, the managers of
these funds will identify problems and ask researchers to write competitive proposals that focus upon the
problems. Other times, the fund managers allow researchers to identify problems and make funding
requests. In either case, a proposal is the primary basis for determining who should receive funds and
how much they should receive.
2
In short, this purpose is achieved by making a formal request for official or financial support through the
use of a research proposal.
 To Inform Others
A proposal can be used to inform a variety of individuals and groups about a research study that is being
planned or conducted. Most research studies involve more people than just the researchers. Therefore,
there will exist a need to inform people who will be involved in or affected by the study.
If other researchers, teachers or administrators will be involved in a study, they will need to know all of the
particulars of the study. A detailed proposal will probably best meet this need. In addition to direct
participants of a study, the subjects of a study may have the need to know something about it. If the
favour of participation is requested, they will need to know the purpose and procedures as they are to be
affected directly. An abstractor short proposal may fit this need.
To conclude, a research proposal describes what researcher will do, why, how and what he/she expect
will result. While clarity about what, why, how from the start of study will help the researcher complete it
timely whereas, a vague or weak research proposal can lead to a painful, and unsuccessful execution
during investigation.
3. Types of Research Proposals
Research proposals vary in form and length by the purpose of the proposal. That is, a classroom study
proposal will vary from a funded study proposal because the purpose is different and the audience of the
proposal will be different. Basically, research proposals in technician education can be divided into three
types. These types include: 1) an action research proposal, 2) a funding request proposal, and 3) a
thesis or dissertation proposal for a graduate school or university.
A. Action Research Proposal
Action research proposals are prepared by teachers and administrators who are interested in solving or
exploring practical problems within their institution. The purpose of this type of proposal is usually
twofold. It assists in the planning of a study and can be used to inform others of the study's particulars.
The audience of an action research proposal includes the researcher and others involved in the study.
The action research proposal is not generally very long nor very formal. It should contain the basic
components of a proposal (discussed later in this unit) but a great deal of energy and time need not be
invested in making the proposal formal. It should be more of a planning document and a guide to
3
implementation, and less of a document used to influence someone. An action research proposal might
range from five to fifteen pages.
B. Funding Request Research Proposal
A proposal that is prepared for the purpose of obtaining financial support is usually a formal proposal. It
is very specific in terms of problem statement and rationale as well as specific procedures and
instruments. Since its purpose is to influence someone to allocate funds, the funding request proposal
must be technically accurate, complete and persuasive.
The funding request proposal often written to conform to guidelines issued by a governmental or funding
agency. Therefore, the researcher must be aware of the guidelines in advance. The audience of a
funding request proposal is primarily the people who will make the selection or funding decision.
The length of a funding proposal will vary, depending on the type of study and the funding
agency. Sometimes a maximum length requirement is stipulated by the funding agency. In
general, a funding request proposal ranges from fifteen to one hundred pages in length.
C. Thesis or Dissertation Proposal
Thesis and dissertation proposals have a very specific place in research. They exist only in
universities and colleges and are written only by people who are pursuing a masters or doctoral
degree. These degrees have a requirement that before award of a degree, one must plan,
conduct and report on a research study. The proposal, therefore, is focussed on meeting the
planning needs and requirements of a particular university or college.
Most universities and colleges that offer the master’s and doctoral degree, have guidelines
which must be closely followed in proposal writing. Many professors have their own style and
content expectations. Proposals of this type have a strong emphasis on background research
and problem formulation along with the inclusion of procedures for data collection and analysis.
The audience of the thesis or dissertation proposal is a professor or group of professors who act
as advisers and evaluators for the proposal and study.
4. Components of Research Proposals
It can be concluded from the previous inputs and practice tasks of this unit that proposals will vary according
to purpose and type. Each may have a different purpose, each may emphasize different points and each
4
may result in different levels of formality and size. Even though proposals will be very different from one to
another, each will contain the same basic components. Most of these components have been referenced in
other modules within this set. This input will state and summarize each component. Unit two of this module
will provide added detail to each component. The components can be easily classified according to the
major planning questions that were stated previously. The [allowing displays this classification and identifies
each component.
Question Proposal Component

1. Why is the study being done? a. Review of literature
b. Problem statement
2. What is being studied? c. Research questions/hypotheses
3. How will it be conducted? d. Method/design
e. Instrumentation
f. Data collecting procedures
g. Analysis procedures
4. Who will be involved in the study? h. Population and sample
i. Research personnel
5. When will the study be conducted? j. Schedule
k. Resources
The following paragraphs provide brief descriptions of each component:
a. Review of Literature
The review of literature is presented in the proposal to provide the reader w it h an overview and rationale
for your study. Additionally, it provides an indication that your study is building on the work of others and
that you have begun a systematic problem solving activity. The review of literature will vary in length, depth
and detail according to the type of study being proposed. For an action research study, the review of the
literature may only consume one or two pages of the proposal. For a funding or thesis proposal the review
of literature might reach thirty pages in length.
b. Problem Statement
The problem statement presents to the reader of the proposal, a very concise description of
what you intend to study. It may be a single sentence or a paragraph and may be presented as
a broad question or a declarative statement. Regardless of proposal type, the problem
5
statements will be similar.
c. Research Questions/Hypotheses
Research questions and/or hypotheses are presented in the proposal to provide the reader with
an indication of how you have focussed your study. The questions or hypotheses show a logical
relationship with the problem statement and help the reader better understand what you are
planning.
d. Method/Design
The method or design section of the proposal reveals to the reader the general type of study or
approach you have chosen. That is, it identifies the study as descriptive, correlation, ex-post
facto, or experimental. It may also provide a brief rationale for the selection of such a method.
e. Instrumentation
This component of the proposal presents a list of instruments that will be used in the study. If
standardised instruments are selected, a brief description of each may be presented. If you
develop new instruments as part of the study, a brief description of the proposed instruments
should be given.
f. Data Collection Procedures
The data collection procedures component of the proposal provide a description of how, where
and when instruments will be administered and data will be collected. The length and amount of
detail of this component will vary w it n the complexity of the study being proposed. In addition,
the type of proposal will result in differences in detail and length. For example, an action
research proposal may include only two or three paragraphs while a funding proposal may
include many pages on this topic.
g. Analysis Procedures
The analysis procedures component of the proposal provides a description of how data will be manipulated
and analysed. It may include a description of how tabulations may be handled as well as what statistical
techniques will be used. The length of this section may vary with proposal type.
h. Population and Sample
This section of the proposal presents a description of the population to which the results will be generalized.
6
It also describes the procedure for selecting the sample(s). This section may describe very specifically the
make-up and strata of the sample with numbers of subjects. The sample section is relatively short with a
range from a paragraph to several pages.
i. Research Personnel
The research personnel section is commonly included in a funding request proposal but seldom include in
the other two types of proposals. In a funding request proposal, this section informs the reader of whom will
be assisting. This section may include a brief biographical sketch of each key person. This section is usually
brief, with up to a half page per key person. Often, more complete curriculum vitae is included as an
appendix to the proposal.
j. Schedule
This component of the proposal provides an indication of critical dates for completion of the research study. It
may be as simple as presenting beginning and ending dates or as complex as detailed calendars for each
procedural step of the study. The complexity of the study will be the greatest factor in determining the detail
provided in this section or the proposal.
k. Resources
This section is common to funding request proposals only. It may have a title such as budget or requested
budget. Essentially, this action includes the details of the finances needed to complete the research study. It
is often broken into categories such as: personnel, contractual services, materials and supplies, equipment,
travel and printing. This section is usually limited to one or two pages.
1. Appendix
The appendix of a research proposal contains documents or items that have a peripheral relationship to the
research study. Items such as instruments curriculum vitae are presented.
5. The Process of Preparing a Research Proposal
Before start writing, a researcher must answer the following questions:

 Do I have the clear research question(s)?
 Have I read intensively in that area?
 Have I discussed the research problem with peers, teachers and sought feedback on
completed proposal?
 Do I have enough time and funds to start?
7
 Do I get support from teachers and friends?
 Do I have checked for Plagiarism
Preparing a research proposal is like preparing any other formal document; it takes planning
and effort. In addition, it may take refinement and improvement efforts to reach the desired level
of quality. If one thinks of the proposal as a plan that has other benefits, its effort can be easily
justified. The better job done in planning will usually result in a better study and higher efficiency
in implementation.
The inputs that you have already read from Modules One through Eight have provided you with ideas and
knowledge about research in technician education. Each of the Modules Two through Eight have covered a
topic that corresponds directly with a component of the research proposal. Therefore, it may be
advantageous to refer back to the pertinent modules for review or assistance.
The process for developing a proposal can be divided into four distinct steps. These steps are:
Step 1 Develop a topical outline that matches the purpose and type of proposal desired.
Step 2 Develop narrative descriptions for each major section of your outline.
Step 3 Get your completed proposal reviewed and evaluated from an expert/colleague.
Step 4 Revise the proposal based on feedback received from an expert/colleague.
6. Develop a Topical Outline
The topical outline provides you with a framework or structure upon which your proposal can
be built. It identifies each component of your proposal and provides you the opportunity to jot
down ideas of content that you will include in each component section.
The purpose, type and other requirements described in the first unit of this module will dictate
the components to be included. The following outline provides an example for an action
research study, planned by a technician educator.
Topic outline for an Action Research Study
1. Review of Literature
2. Problem Statement and Research Questions
3. Method
A. Design
B. Population and Sample
C. Data Collection Procedures
8
D. Analysis Procedures
4. Schedule
5. Needed Resources
6. Appendices
A proposal to request funding may be structured in a slightly different way. However, it will have
the same basic components. The following outline provides an example of a funding request
proposal.
Topic Outline for a Funding Request Proposal
1. Purpose and Need for the Study Problem Statement

2. Literature Review
3. Research Objectives, Questions and Hypotheses
4. Design of the Study
5. Population and Sample of the Study
6. Instruments of the Study
7. Procedures for Data Collection
8. Procedures for Data Analysis
9. Specifics of Reporting
10. Personnel involved in the Study
11. Schedule of the Study
12. Requested Budget
13. Appendix
7. Develop Narrative Descriptions for each Section of the Outline
The narrative of the proposal should be built on the outline. The specific style of writing that you use
should depend, in a great part on the audience of the proposal. That is, if your superior will read
and evaluate your proposal, then write it in the style to which he is accustomed or prefers. The following'
sections provide points or suggestions that might assist you in writing the narrative of the proposal:
a. Review of Literature
1. Review as much as required to make your readers agree about having reviewed
other studies.
2. Explain the basis for emergence of your proposed study through relevant literature.
9
3. Use the literature to illustrate the origin of your research questions and/or
hypotheses in case of a larger study.
4. Keep the length of the review as appropriate to the purpose of the proposal and its
type: short for action research and longer for funding and thesis proposals.
b. Problem Statement
1. Be brief and to the point.

2. Reflect about why the study is being conducted clearly in the problem statement.
3. State the problem in the form of a question.
c. Research Questions and/or Hypotheses
1. State research questions concisely and limit their number.

2. State hypotheses when hunches are held.
3. Formulate the null hypothesis when statistical tests are to be made.
4. Ensure that the questions as well as hypotheses relate directly and logically to
problem statement and research questions respectively.
d. Method/Design
1. Describe in brief about the research method/procedure that will be employed.

2. Describe briefly the rationale for choosing particular research method/procedure.
e. Instrumentation
1. Provide a list of instruments that will be included in the research study.

2. Give detail (form, purpose, validity and reliability) about each instrument.
3. Ensure that the research question or hypothesis relates directly to each instrument.
4. Describe the procedures that will be used in development of instruments in case the
researcher wishes to develop them as part of the study.
f. Data Collection Procedures
1. Describe the procedure for collection of the data

2. Describe the suitability of instruments with which group or sample.
3. Present enough detail so that the reader knows exactly what you plan to do in case
of preparing for the funding request proposals.
10
g. Analysis Procedures
1. Describe how the collected data will be organized.

2. Identify the statistical techniques that will be computed.
3. Ensure that adequate statistical techniques will be used based on the nature of data
and hypotheses.
4. Describe how statistical results will be reported or presented.
h. Population and Sample
1. Identify the target population of the study.

2. Ensure that the size of the sample to be chosen is adequate for the purpose of
generalizations.
3. Identify strata or clusters, if any that will be used in sampling.
4. Describe the sampling technique that will be used.
i. Research Personnel
1. Identify each individual being involved in conducting the research study.

2. Acknowledge each key person being involved in the study.
j. Schedule
1. Indication start date and end date of the project.

2. Include a timeline for each task of the study.
k. Resources
1. Identify any specific resources to be required for the study such as facilities,
equipment, etc.
2. Prepare a budget detailing all financial needs of the study.
1. Appendix
Include any item (which could fit in the body of your proposal) that supports your
proposal. This might include instruments, report/documents, etc.
8. Review by Colleague and Evaluate your Completed Proposal
Once you have completed each of the components of the proposal, you should have it typed.
Then make one or two photocopies. Retain one copy and give the second to a colleague whom
11
you respect and who has experience and expertise in research and proposal writing.
Ask your colleague to read proposal and to evaluate it. Ask him to play the role of the person
who will ultimately read the proposal.
A checklist such as the one presented in the following practice task might be useful in this task.
In addition to the checklist, ask your colleague(s) to make judgements about your proposal and
make suggestions for improvement.
9. Revise the Proposal Based on your Colleague’s Reactions
Based upon the feedback from your colleague, make changes and improvements in your
proposal use the checklist results to identify components that can be improved if necessary,
refer to one of the modules, two through eight, for ideas for change and improvement
10. Research Proposal – Common Mistakes
A researcher must get himself/herself familiarized with certain common mistakes that the other
researchers are committing. A few are stated here:
 Inappropriate context to formulate the research question(s) or hypotheses
 Inappropriate delimitation to conditions for research problem
 Poor in citing landmark studies; citation lapses and incorrect references
 Inaccurate presentation of the theoretical and empirical contributions of other
researchers
 Not focused on the research question
 Enough detail on minor issues, but insufficient detail on major issues
 Too long or too short
12
Practice Task
1. Explain, in brief, the concept of a research proposal.
2. Which one of the following is the main characteristic of a Thesis or Dissertation Proposal?
a. Used primarily as an internal plan.
b. Evaluated by a group of Professors.
c. Used to influence a decision to support the study.
d. Used for solving immediate problem.
3. What does ‘Review of Literature’ indicate in a research proposal?
4. What does ‘Population and sample’ indicate in a research proposal?
5. What practical steps can you take before you actually start your research?
a. Find out exactly what your institution's requirements are for a dissertation.
b. Make sure you are familiar with the hardware and software you plan to use.
c. Apply for clearance of your project through an ethics committee.
d. All of these.
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1. It is an outline of proposed work (future activities) of a research problem to be carried out by a

researcher.
2. b.
3. A rationale for the study by citing the findings of other research.
4. Describes the subjects of the study and how they will be selected.
5. d.
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References
 CPSC (1990). Developing Skills in Technician Education Research Module 9: Preparing
Research Proposals. Singapore: Colombo Plan Staff College for Technician Education.
 Dunford, R (2004). Developing a research proposal. In Burton, S. & Steane, P.
Publishers.
Publishers.
 Singh, AK (2012). Tests, Measurements and Research Methods in Behavioral Sciences.
 Wong, PT (2002). How to write a research proposal. Langley, BC: Trinity Western
University. Accessed December, 29, 2005.
 Video film on ‘Research Proposal – Concept, Significance and Types’

 Video film on ‘Research Proposal – Format’ developed/recorded by Professor (Dr.) Sunil
Dutt, NITTTR, Chandigarh.
 Steps in Developing a Research Proposal.
https://open.lib.umn.edu/writingforsuccess/chapter/11-2-steps-in-developing-a-research-
proposal/
 Developing a Research Proposal.
https://cirt.gcu.edu/research/developmentresources/tutorials/researchproposal
 How to Write a Research Proposal. University of Birmingham.
https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/schools/law/courses/research/research-proposal.aspx
15
UNIT II
11.1: Writing a Research Report

CONTENTS
S. No Page
Learning Outcomes
1. Introduction 1
2. Research Report-Concept 1
3. Systematic Approach to Writing Research Report 2
3.1 Establish the AIM 2
3.2 Consider the Audience/Reader of Research Reports 2
3.3 Institution or Government Officials 2
3.4 Education Practitioners 3
4. Types of Research Reports 4
4.1 Evaluation Reports 4
4.2 Institutional Research Reports 5
4.3 Journal Articles 6
5. Format of a Research Report 6-18
5.1 The Preliminary Section of a Research Report 8
5.2 The Body of a Research Report 14
5.3 The References Materials of the Research Report 17
6. Format of A Journal Article 18-21
6.1 Techniques to Follow When Writing a Journal Article 19
6.2 Major Sections of a Journal Article 20
7. Edit and Revise before final submission of a Research Report 21-22
Practice Task 23
Feedback 24
References 25
WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT
Learning Outcomes:

 Define a research report.
 Explain the significance of writing a research report.
 Describe systematic approach to writing a research report.
 Describe various types of research reports.
 Describe the components of research report.
 Develop the format of a research report and journal article.
1. Introduction
Dear learners, as you know that the core of research is the problem. You have identified the
problem and stated its objectives and hypotheses. In addition, you have also selected the
method of research, sample and developed the tools. You have also collected the data and
analyse the data. Now, you are required to report the findings. Here, lies the significance of
writing a research report.
The present learning module will enable learners understand the significance, types and
stages of writing a research report.
2. Research Report - Concept
A Report is an account brought by one person to another, especially of some matter

specially investigated. A formal statement of the results of an investigation, or of any matter
on which definite information is required, made by some person or body instructed or
required to do so (shorter oxford English Dictionary). It describes the completed research,
i.e., the concluded activity of research. It describes what research was done and how it was
done and the results and conclusions of the research. The significance of the research is
also addressed. As such it differs from a research proposal which gives emphasis on what
research is intended, how it is to be intended.
Research report is an exposition type of composition and the primary function is to

communicate ideas in a manner understandable to and usable by the reader/audience.
Thus, report writing has been recognized as an indispensable part of any piece of research
work as it records the purpose, the importance, the limitations, the procedures, the findings
and the conclusions.
1
3. Systematic Approach to Writing Research Report
To make any written document effective and efficient, systematic approach can be followed:
 Establish the AIM
 Consider the AUDIENCE/READER
 Devise the STRUCTURE
 DRAFT the text
 EDIT and REVISE
3.1 Establish the AIM
A research should start with the aim. Every report must have an aim – a specific,
specified reason for being written. You must then decide what information is necessary
in achieving that aim.
3.2 Consider the Audience/Reader of Research Reports
Research reports take different forms and different emphasis depending primarily on the
audience. As the writer, you must understand not only the reader's purpose, but his
background as well. You must know who your reader is, what he already knows, and
what he does not know. Try to predict what the reader will understand without
explanation and without definition. In addition, you must know what information to
elaborate. If you use a specialized word, then you must know when to define it. All this
requires a lot of thought before writing a research report.
To be a good research report writer, you must know your audience - its purpose and
knowledge. Audiences are divided into two types. The first type is the institution or
government officials who might consist of institution administrators, government
administrators, and other funding agency officials. The second type is the education
practitioners who might consist of teachers, teacher trainees, and other researchers.
Each type of audience has different interests and will understand the same problem
through a different language and from a different perspective.
3.3 Institution or Government Officials
Who is an institution or government official? He might be an institution principal or

contract administrator. The institution or government official's major concern is with
policy or decision making. The institution or government official must often make
decisions based upon what he/she reads. In writing a research report for an institution
or government official, you must interpret your material and present its implications, not
merely give the facts. The institution or government official is usually knowledgeable in
2
the field and will not need technical terms defined for him. The institution or government
official seldom uses the detail, though he/she often wants it available. Organize your
research report around institution or government official reading habits. The institution or
government official is usually a busy person, so most of them read the summary or
abstract, conclusions and recommendations, and some read the introduction and
background section. Only a very few read the body of the research report or the
appendix material.
Consider the position of the institution or government officials. What do they require of a
research report? Among the major requirements will be that the document:
1. is easily understood.
2. has recommendations that are solidly based.
3. provides a basis for action.
4. recommendations may be translated into policy.
5. provides useful information so that decisions may be made.
3.4 Education Practitioners
Who is an education practitioner? It might be a teacher or a teacher trainee. The

education practitioner's major concern is with improvement of programmes, instructional
material, teaching methods, and self- improvement. The education practitioner many
times will not be able to follow complicated statistics, and will grow restive with too much
theory.
Sentence length should also be kept down when writing for the education practitioner.
Let one sentence carry one idea or one statement, in order to avoid confusion in the
reader's mind. Because the English language is remarkable for its variety of meanings
and expressions, whenever possible, use simple words. Usually with the education
practitioner, you will need to supply background information in order to give the reader
an understanding of the previous work that has been done in the area of study. Some
definition may also be necessary in order that the reader will fully understand the
meaning of .the report and its significance.
Consider the position of the education practitioner. What do they require of a research
report? Among the major requirements will be that the document:
1. provides a clear expression and is easily understood.

2. has academic credibility.
3
3. provides a clear presentation.
4. has coherence of purpose as exemplified by the report as a whole.
4. Types of Research Reports
When writing a research report it is important to understand that different circumstances

may call for different types of reports. In technical education research the three major
types of research reports are: evaluation reports, institutional research reports, and
journal articles. An evaluation report facilitates the communication of evaluation
procedures which were undertaken, and portrays the results of an evaluation study in
order to assist in decision making and/or making changes to improve vocational
technician education. An institutional research report communicates the purpose,
procedure, and findings of the completed research study to the reader in order to inform
the reader of a specific topic in technician education. A journal article is a report written
for publication by a researcher who has already completed a research study in order to
share with other people the benefit of the new knowledge.
Under each major kind of research report, some different types include:
4.1 Evaluation Reports
Student Follow-up Report - communicates programme success based on the

feedback from former students. The report generally contains an overview of the
procedures, statistics on the number of placements and wages, and places of
employment. Judgement feedback from former students on how the programme
benefitted the-m is sometimes included. The audience of this report usually includes
teachers involved in the programme which the students participated in, administrators
from that institution, and sponsors and supporters of the school.
Summary of Student Assessment Report - documents the progress of individual

and groups of students. Sometimes used to assign grades to students and to monitor
the consistency of student accomplishments from year to year. It includes a
description of assessment procedures used by individual instructors and statistics of
test scores, and course grades. The audience of this report usually includes teachers
and students.
Formative Evaluation of an Instructional Activity Report - documents the results

of a formative evaluation for use in making further improvements and taking
corrective actions. These reports are sometimes very brief and written by the
instructor for his own use. It is a document that helps the instructor determine what
4
he should not do and what works best for him. The audience of this report usually
includes teachers.
Course or Programme Evaluation Report - provides summative evaluation

information regarding decisions for continuing a course or programme. It provides
formative evaluation results to help in improving the course or programme. Usually, a
detailed report in which more than one evaluation technique was utilized. The
audience of this report usually includes administrators and teachers.
Curriculum Product Evaluation Report - provides corrective input for enhancing

the curriculum product or justifying its use. It usually includes an expert judgement of
the curriculum product concerning its cost, use, benefits, etc. The audience of the
report usually includes curriculum developers and potential adopters of curriculum.
4.2 Institutional Research Reports
Curriculum Development Study Report - provides the base or input for the
development of a course or programme. This report usually pulls together all sources
of data (this might include the manpower assessment study report) to justify the
curriculum or spell out what should be in the curriculum. The audience of this report
usually includes curriculum development specialists and teachers.
Manpower Assessment Study Report - identifies and documents the supply and
demand of skilled workers in various occupational and geographical regions. It is
usually a statistical report showing both current employment as well as projections of
the future in an occupational field. The audience of this report usually includes
programme planners and curriculum developers.
Staff Development Needs Assessment Study Report - identifies the in-service or

upgrading needs of individuals and groups of teachers. It usually includes a
description of survey results of faculty interests and perceived needs for
improvement. The audience of this report usually includes administrative staff.
Occupational Analysis Study Report - identifies and documents the specific job
competencies of individuals working in a particular occupation. It usually has tasks
listed with frequency and importance ratings for each task. The audience of this
report usually includes curriculum developers, programme planners and teachers.
5
Assessment of Student Evaluation Techniques Report - determines the types of
techniques used by teachers for evaluating students and determines their
consistency in application. It usually includes a description of the various techniques
used by instructors with recommendations concerning consistency or improvement.
The audience of this report usually includes administrators and teachers.
4.3 Journal Articles
Research Articles - share specific research findings with scholars and practitioners
in the field. It is a published summary of a research study, and includes a description
of the rationale, methodology, and findings of the research study. It is published in
the journal of a professional association which maintains a review board or uses
referees. The audience of research articles usually includes researchers, university
and other institutional researchers, teachers and administrators.
Prescriptive Articles - interpret research findings into suggested actions which

should be taken by policy makers or practitioners. They are designed to persuade
someone into implementing their research findings for some new innovation.
Prescriptive articles involve a practical interpretation of research with the intent to
motivate some kind of change. The audience of prescriptive articles usually includes
teachers and administrators.
Instructional Articles – instruct/teach practitioners about some things that have

been proven or advanced through a specific or accumulative research effort.
instructional article usually describes some technique innovation which has been
tested in a research study. The emphasis on this type of article is on teaching the
reader how to implement or adopt the innovation that been studied. Specific steps or
procedures as well as description of the underlying rationale are usually provided.
The audience of instructional articles usually includes teachers.
5. Format of a Research Report
A necessary part of any research is the writing of the report to convey the results and
conclusions to interested persons. Most graduate schools, institutions, and professional
journals indicate formats that they expect report writers to follow. These formats differ in
detail somewhat, but they usually include three main divisions: the preliminary materials, the
body of the report, and reference materials. Each of the main divisions may consist of
several sections. However, it is appropriate here to consider the format of a research report.
The format should reflect the stages the research process, but it exists essentially as the
6
means by which the research is communicated. There are various ways in which a format is
established, but it is proposed here that we consider the following, and then make the
necessary adaptations to fit your audience's needs.
I. Preliminary Materials
a. Title Page
b. Acknowledgements
c. Table of Contents
d. List of Tables (if any)
e. List of Illustration (if any)
f. Abstract
II. Body of the Report
a. Introduction
1. Statement of the problem

2. Literature review
3. Underlying hypotheses or key questions
4. Limitations
5. Definition of terms
b. Methodology
1. Sources of data
2. Data gathering instruments
3. Procedures employed (designs, sampling, etc.)
c. Presentation and Analysis of Data
1. Presentation of the findings

2. Tables (usually incorporated into the presentation of the findings)
3. Figures (usually incorporated into the presentation of the findings)
d. Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations
1. Summary
2. Conclusions
3. Recommendations
7
Ill. Reference Materials
a. Bibliography
b. Appendices
The list of items outlined above is fairly comprehensive. It is not meant to be a rigid
guideline of every step you must take. Before deciding on a final format it is necessary to
ask yourself:
What is it that is essential to include in order to provide an easily understood research

report, and how do we provide evidence that the recommendations are solidly based? An
outline is effective if it helps to identify and order the subdivisions of the report's major
divisions or sections. Obviously, the outline must precede the actual writing of the report
since it is expected to serve as a guide for the writing which lies ahead. An effective outline
is a check for coverage and an assurance for sequence and logical presentation of ideas
and items.
Since the planning outline is for the writer's use only and considering that it is tentative in
nature, it is expected that as the writer proceeds, addition, removal, and rearrangement of
items may be necessary and desirable. The list of items outlined above is fairly
comprehensive. It is not meant to be a rigid guideline of every step you must take.
Before deciding on a final format, it is necessary to ask yourself:
What is it that is essential to include in order to provide an easily understood research

report, and how do we provide evidence that the recommendations are solidly based? An
outline is effective if it helps to identify and order the subdivisions of the report's major
divisions or sections. Obviously, the outline must precede the actual writing of the report
since it is expected to serve as a guide for the writing which lies ahead. An effective outline
is a check for coverage and an assurance for sequence and logical presentation of ideas
and items.
Since the planning outline is for the writer's use only and considering that it is tentative in
nature, it is expected that as the writer proceeds, addition, removal, and rearrangement of
items may be necessary and desirable.
5.1 The Preliminary Section of a Research Report
You will recall that the preliminary components of the research report consist of the
title page, acknowledgements, table of contents, list of tables, list of illustrations, and
abstract. All the qualities of good writing: clarity, conciseness, and accuracy should be
8
inherent in these preliminary materials, as well as in the body of your report.
The Title Page

The title page, which appears first may contain the following items.
1. title of the study,
2. full name of the research report writer and institution for which he works,
3. name of institution to which the report is submitted, and
4. date when the research report was written.
These items are centred between the margins on the page, and no terminal
punctuation is used. The title is typed in capital letters, but usually only the initial letters
of principal words are capitalized in other items. If the title extends beyond one line it is
double-spaced and placed in the shape of an inverted pyramid.
The title should contain key words or phrases that give a clear and concise description
of the scope and nature of the research report. The title should not claim more for the
study than it actually delivered. It should not be stated so broadly that it seems to
provide an answer that cannot be generalized, either from the data gathered or from
EFFECT OF ONLINE LEARNING AND BLENDED LEARNING ON

ACHIEVEMENT OF UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS IN
PSYCHOLOGY AND ENGAGEMENT IN LEARNING IN
RELATION TO METACOGNITIVE AWARENESS
A RESEARCH REPORT
Submitted to the Panjab University Chandigarh

In respect of Doctor of Philosophy
By
Ambalika Dogra
Ph.D. Scholar
January, 2016
the methodology utilized. For example, if a simple descriptive self-concept study was
made of a group of children enrolled in a particular inner-city elementary school, the
title should not read, "The Self-Concepts of Inner-City Children”. A more appropriate
title would be "The Self-Concept of a Group of Delhi Inner-City Children”. An example
of a Title page is given below:
9
The Acknowledgements Page
The 'Acknowledgements' page is usually included when the research writer wants
especially to express his thanks to individuals who have given him substantial
guidance or assistance, however, a long list of acknowledgements is not in good taste.
The word Acknowledgements' is centred on the top of the page, and the paragraphs of
the acknowledgements are typed in standard form as shown below:
T Acknowledgements
h
e The investigator is grateful to the principals (viz.,) who served as respondents and cooperated
in the administering of the instrument used in this survey. The investigator is also grateful to
T the city superintendents (viz.,) who served as respondents and cooperated in the
a administering of the instrument.
b
The responses of all the individuals who participated in the survey are anonymous and are
l
referred to in the study only by means of various types of symbols. In the formulation of
e
methods and the preparation of materials for this study the investigator received many
valuable suggestions from
o
f Special thanks are expressed to Dr. Professor of Education at the Panjab University,
Chandigarh who served
C
Contents
The 'Table of Contents', which is a separate page or pages, gives the reader an
overview of the research report and enables him to locate quickly each of its sections.
The main division titles are usually typed in capital letters, subdivision headings in
small letters with the initial letter of the principal word capitalized. All titles and
headings appear in the exact words and order as they do in the research report, and
each is followed by the correct page citation. The relationship between main headings
and subtopics is shown by proper indentation and capitalization. If possible, the
headings are confined to one line of space, and parallel grammatical structure is used
for the same value of headings. See the example of a 'Table of Contents' below:
10
Table of Contents
Page
Acknowledgements
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Chapter
I. Introduction
1.1 The Problem and Its Purposes
1.2 Definition of Terms
1.3 Sources of Data
1.4 Method of Procedure
1.5 Significance of the Problem
II. Some Effects of Changing Social and Economic Conditions on the

Technical Training Institute
III. Importance of Technical Training Institutes Social and Economic

Problems and Their Effects on Enrolment
IV. The Future of Technical Training Institutes in India

Bibliography/References
Appendix
The List of Tables
The 'List of Tables' should give the table numbers in Roman numerals. The first and
last words and all nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, 'and adverbs in the title of each
table should be capitalized, and there should be double-spaced periods extending in a
line from the last letter of the title to the corresponding page number. The word "Table"
and "Page" should be placed at the top of the columns of numbers. See the example,
below:
List of Tables
Table Detail Page
No.
1.1 Student Population of Central City by Wards, 1958
2.1 Value of New School Buildings Erected in Central City by
Years, 1958-1968
3.1 The Growth of Central City Public Schools, 1958-1968, as
indicated by Census, Programmes, and Facilities
The List of Illustrations
In the,' List of Illustrations the first and last words and all nouns, pronouns, adjectives,
11
verbs, and adverbs in the title of each illustration should be capitalized, and there
should be double-spaced periods extending in a line from the last letter of the title to
the corresponding page number. The words "Figure" and "Page" should be placed at
the top of the columns of numbers. Both the figure and page numbers should be
Arabic numerals. When the title of a figure is very long, it is permissible to use a
shortened form. However, in certain reports it may be necessary, in the interest of
clarity, to present the title of the figure exactly as it appears in the text. Descriptive
statements that may be used in addition to the title within the body of the report should
be omitted in the List of Illustrations. The list of illustrations can be prepared as for list
of Tables above.
The Abstract
The abstract is a very concise description of a research report. is of considerable value

to the reader because it provides him with time saving synopsis of an entire report.
The abstract provides essential general information but omits details. Recognizing the
f that different institutions have their own· requirements for abstract preparation, the
following suggestions are offered merely to explain the general nature of an abstract.
Contents of the Abstract
The abstract should provide a brief explanation of the research problem and the topics
studied. The sources of information and the procedure used should be given very
general coverage. Finally, the findings, conclusions, and recommendations (if any)
should be stated briefly.
Preparation of the Abstract

The following suggestions are given for writing and typing the abstract
 Use topic sentences and combine them with transitional statements to form
unified paragraphs.
 Give special attention to sentence structure in order to write a short, logically
consistent, and highly abstract.
 Strive for accuracy as well as unity. Complete sentences should be used.
Abbreviated terms that are not acceptable the main report should not be used
in the abstract either.
 The third person and past tense should be used.
 Limit the abstract to the specified number of words (such as six hundred words
or less).
12
 The abstract should have a top and bottom margin of 25mm left-hand margin of
35mm and a right-hand margin of 25mm.
 The general heading for the abstract should contain the author's name
(surname first), title of the study, and the date. The abstract must be double
spaced.
Sample of an Abstract
Jones, John T., The Effect of a Teaching Procedure, Using Students' Compositions,
On Fourth-Grade Students' Sentence Construction January, 1971.
The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of using students' written
compositions, as the primary aid for teaching, on the production of incomplete and
over-complete sentences written by fourth-grade students. The subjects for this study
were children selected at random from fourth-grade classes at Happy Hollow
Elementary School located in the Centreville School District. Most of the children came
from middle-class homes, although a small percentage were from the upper-middle
class.
The subjects were assigned either to a control group or an experimental group, each
containing twenty-six students. This grouping existed only during periods in which
specific written composition instruction was offered. The same teacher taught both
groups in order to eliminate the difference in teacher ability.
Each written composition class lasted for thirty minutes each day for each group. The
experiment was carried on for one semester. In the control group, the teacher used
materials in the fourth-grade English textbook, and additional duplicated materials, all
of which concentrated on building and writing good sentences. The experimental group
used only student written work as aids to improving the writing of complete thoughts in
sentences. In the experimental group, on Friday of each week, students wrote a new
story. Only incomplete and over-complete sentences were red-marked.
The teacher taught the experimental group with these stories, using projector,
chalkboard, and oral reading of the stories. The story writers were not always identified
as the 3tories were discussed in class. The class would help improve the sentences in
the students' stories. No textbooks, workbooks,
or duplicated materials were used.
13
At the end of the semester each student wrote a story. The students were allowed fifty
minutes to write a what was in a "mysterious box" on the teacher's desk. followed an
outline suggested by the teacher and contained t paragraphs of five sentences each.
The paragraphs answered following questions: What is in the box? What is the
mystery item used for? What would I do with the mystery item if it were mine? These
were graded by two secondary school English teachers and the researcher.
The experimental group wrote fewer incomplete sentences than the control group, the
difference being significant beyond the .01 level of significance (t = 2.90). The
experimental group also wrote fewer over-complete sentences, the difference being
significant at the same level of significance (t = 2.70).
It is concluded that when the experimental method is used the students will write fewer
incomplete and fewer over-complete sentences than when the traditional method of
instruction is used.
It is recommended that similar studies be conducted to assess the effect of the

experimental method (1) when subjects are selected from fifth and sixth grades, (2)
when subjects come from various socio-economic strata, (3) on other criterion
variables such as interest, attitude, and quality of writing.
5.2 The Body of a Research Report
The body of the report follows the preliminary information. The body of ·the research
report contains four logical divisions:
a) Introduction
b) Methodology
c) Presentation and Analysis of Data
d) Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations
a) Introduction
Statement of the Problem

The statement of the problem should appear early in the paper, and the various
elements should be presented in definite, lucid terms, leaving no doubt as to the intent
of the researcher. Ambiguous terms and involved wording should be avoided.
Review of Related Literature
14
A thorough review should be made of the literature related to the problem area under
investigation. In this way the researcher will discover whether the study he is
undertaking already has been thoroughly researched, thus making his study
redundant. The researcher should then organize this review of the literature so that the
relationships of other studies to the present one are pointed out. Finally, the
researcher should use the review to establish a theoretical base or rationale upon
which defensible hypotheses can be based or key questions can be developed.
Statement of Hypotheses or Research Questions
Hypotheses in a research study are predictions of facts or relationships based upon

existing information, which will when tested experimentally or empirically, produced
new facts, concepts, or evidence. They should be stated as declarative sentences and
should clearly identify the variables with which they are concerned.
Limitations
This section of the research report should call attention to any limitations that exist in
the reference populations, treatments, instruments used, or research design. These
factors must be described so that a reader may make his own decision about the
applicability of the findings to other situations.
Definition of Terms
Careful definitions need to be stated for all important variables, particularly if these
variables are to be measured by means of a specific instrument or combination of
devices. Many terms commonly in use are subject to a variety of interpretations, and
accurate reporting requires that these terms be defined according to the precise
meaning they are intended to convey. Esoteric technical jargon interferes with the
communication of ideas, as does inconsistent use of any of them.
b) Methodology
Procedures for Collection and Treatment of Data
The procedures followed in conducting the study should be explained in complete

detail. A step-by-step description is needed of the manner in which decisions have
been made about the data required for the study, the devices used for their collection,
and the process by which they have been collected.
In addition, the techniques, devices, and procedures followed should be shown to be
15
appropriate, valid, and reliable for the acquisition of the data upon which conclusions
and inferences are based. Any errors or weaknesses in the procedures that have been
discovered during the conduct of the research should be pointed out, and any
consequent limitations upon the research results should be fully noted. Complete
information, sufficient to make possible an exact replication of the study, should be
included. This information should describe explicitly where and when data have been
gathered, from exactly how many subjects the data have been gathered, the relevant
characteristics of these subjects, and the methods and materials used.
c) Presentation and Analysis of Data
Presentation of Data
Plans for the organization and presentation of the data should be prepared in advance
for any research report. Clarity requires that data categories be specific, and it further
requires that only relevant data be reported. Charts, diagrams, graphs, tables, and
other such devices should be used when they can be designed to present information
effectively and accurately, permitting the reader to examine the data more readily than
in a purely textual presentation. The textual presentation, then, should supplement or
expand upon, rather than duplicate the contents of tables and charts. This discussion
should be stated in a formal narrative style that provides a smooth transition from one
point to the next and clarifies any relationships that bear upon the problem.
Analysis of Data
The analysis of data must be objective and logical. A careful distinction must be made
between fact and opinion, since opinion has no place in this section of the report. The
evidence relevant to each hypothesis or research question should be examined,
including any data that may be contrary to the anticipated outcomes. Although the
researcher is expected to relate his work to previous research and, thus, to generalize,
he should avoid exaggerating and making broad generalizations without adequate
data upon which to base them. All generalizations should be stated with careful
qualifications, and conclusions should be drawn only for the population and
circumstances for which the evidence has been collected. There may be unexpected
developments in the research, such as unanticipated relationships or unforeseen
trends; these matters should be reported fully. Any weaknesses in the research
design, techniques, or population that have come to light should be discussed frankly,
with particular attention given to the manner in which these factors may have affected
the outcome of the research.
16
d) Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations
Summary
The summary should briefly review the procedures, findings, and entire involvement of
the problem. The important points in the study are brought together in the summary,
but not all the evidence upon which they are based is repeated.
Conclusions
The conclusions are stated precisely and related directly to the hypotheses or research
questions that were presented. The conclusions announce whether the findings of the study
confirmed or rejected the hypotheses or answered the research questions of the study. If the
conclusions modify an existing theory, this fact is discussed. If the data have any implications
for educational programmes or practices, these may be discussed. If the investigation raises
or clarifies specific questions that suggest areas for further research, this information is
presented concisely.
If no further research would appear to be profitable in this area and a new approach to the
problem is needed, this suggestion is made. However, remember only those conclusions that
can be supported by the data presented in the study should be stated.
Recommendations
The recommendations should indicate how the conclusions might be used or implemented in
educational practice. Recommendations based on the conclusions can be of great help to
teachers, administrators, and others in the field who may not have sufficient training to
discover these applications for themselves.
5.3 The Reference Materials of the Research Report
The reference materials of the report follow the main body of the research report and
contains the following:
a) Bibliography
b) Appendix
a) Bibliography
The bibliography should give a clear, complete description of the sources that were
used when preparing the research report. Some bibliographies classify entries under
headings such as Books, Periodicals, Newspapers, Reports, Public Documents, and
Miscellaneous. A more common approach is to arrange items in a single alphabetized
list. Bibliographical items are usually listed alphabetically by author's surnames, but a
17
chronological arrangement is used in some research studies. o universally accepted
style for constructing a bibliography exists. You need to adopt one that is approved by
your institution or publisher and use it consistently. Module 2 presents a simple and
workable style for writing bibliographies.
b) Appendix
An appendix, if included, follows the bibliography. You do not merely dump leftover
products of the study in the appendix, rather, you present relevant supporting materials
that are too lengthy to be placed in the body of the research report, such as
questionnaires, form letters, evaluation sheets, checklists, courses of study,
documents, and interview forms. The items in the appendix are grouped, labelled,
lettered, and listed in the table of contents. They should also be cited at the
appropriate place within the body of (he report, for the benefit of the reader who may
require this additional information.
6. Format of A Journal Article
There are many reasons for wanting to publish one's research; other people can benefit from
the new knowledge; one may need to publish in order to get promoted in his job, or one may
just wish to clarify his thoughts and receive reactions to them. The purpose of this unit is to
help the researcher, one who has already completed a research study, understand how to
write a professional journal article.
Preliminary Tasks that should be completed before preparing a Journal Article.
There are several preliminary tasks that should be completed before beginning to draft a
report of the research study for publication in a professional journal.
 Begin concentrating on who might be interested in learning the results of your

research study. Be critical. Be honest. Define an audience for whom the results of
your study would have the greatest potential usefulness. Then write for that audience
or reader.
 Develop a list of the professional journals most likely to be read by your defined
audience. Develop a list of the journals which publish articles on topics similar to
yours.
 Once the list of potential target journals has been developed, the prospective writer
should study past issues. The objectives of this process are to determine which
journal's content most nearly matches your proposed article and to take notes on the
typical length, publication style, and accepted vocabulary. One should also make
18
note of the editor and the address to which manuscripts are to be sent. Most journals
have notes to prospective writers inside the back cover indicating where the
manuscripts are to be sent, and how to obtain a copy of the journal policy.
Remember to
o identify the audience with the greatest potential interest.

o identify the most appropriate target journal.
o determine the required format.
Only after completing these tasks should the writer begin to outline and draft the article.
6.1 Techniques to Follow When Writing a Journal Article
Keep in mind there are many ways of presenting and/or writing about the same set of
obtained data, but that you are trying to convey specific information to a particular
audience which is accustomed to reading new information in a particular format.
Conform to the style of the target journal.
While writing and re-writing drafts of the article, remember to be concise and do not
go beyond the length of the recommended number of words for articles in the target
journal that you have selected. Do not include any words which are not absolutely
necessary to convey the data, their meaning, and the appropriate interpretations.
Understand ability is just as important as conciseness. Always have one or more

non-involved people read the final draft of the proposed article. A non-involved
person is someone other than yourself or a co-writer. It might be a professor,
committee member, fellow student, or spouse. It does not matter that they may not
be knowledgeable in your field, they can still point out redundancies and in many
instances show where you did not give enough information to the intended readers.
Be very careful when using technical terms. Avoid their use whenever possible, and
ensure that you define each term and use it in its proper context. Use only the
technical terms which are appropriate for the target journal and audience.
Another useful technique for achieving conciseness and understand- ability is to

outline the article first. There is probably no single technique so useful in the initial
phases of article writing than outlining. The table of contents from your formal
research report can serve as the first outline. This outline should be expanded until
you are certain what should be included in your article. Then reduce the outline. In
19
fact, the journal article may only incorporate one or two chapters of your original
research report.
6.2 Major Sections of a Journal Article
The following are some general topics which are covered in many professional articles.
However, do not use any suggested format blindly, modify it to suit the chosen journal.
Presentation of the Problem

 Review of the Literature: not always required or requested, and usually only
one or two paragraphs. (This may be preceded by a brief introductory
statement.)
 Statement of the Problem: a concise, understandable, perhaps even non-
technical explanation depending upon the target journal, often general in
nature.
Procedures utilized in the Study
 Hypotheses or research questions: only if the target journal requires them,

and then in an appropriate format even if the analysis is non-statistical.
 Description of Population/Samples: often only two or three sentences.
 Types of Data and Methods of Collection: usually brief, but some technical
journals require rather detailed descriptions or explanations.
 Method of Analysis: be brief, cite references of any statistical methods used.
Results
 Tables: remember tables are used to present large amounts of data in an

understandable form. Do not include a table if it is not useful. A well-
constructed table should convey to the reader the essential meaning of a set
of data which otherwise would take several pages to present in prose form.
It should present the data more clearly than if written into the text of your
article. A common error is presenting related data in several different tables,
when the data could be combined into one or two well-organized tables.
 Brief Written Presentation: state the significance level of any statistical test
used and present a summary of the major findings.
Discussion of Results
 The study's objectives, hypotheses or research questions should be
20
addressed stating whether they were confirmed, rejected, or in the case of
research questions, answered.
 Usefulness of Results - explain how the reader can use the results, why
they are meaningful.
 Implications for Further Study - do not become so involved in stating the
implications of your study that you cause the reader to lose interest or
become bored with reading your personal/professional philosophy.
Implications are justified only when they are clearly probable and based
upon the obtained data.
References
Include an entry for each citation in the article. A bibliography is not included for a journal
article except when it serves a special purpose or when one is requested by the journal staff.
An appendix is not generally required but may be included if it is necessary to present
material that would otherwise break the continuity of the article.
While good writing may be partly a personal judgement there are definite mistakes which
can and should be avoided. For example, all writers must be constantly on guard to prevent
non-informative expressions from becoming part of a proposed article. Use of the first
person is another mistake to be avoided. Normally, it can be avoided or corrected by using
such expressions as, "the researcher" or "the writer", or employing the term "one". For
example, you could change "I do not believe the first person format should be used", to "One
should not use the first person format".
Good writing is difficult, and it is hard work. There is much time involved in editing, setting up
tables, and verifying bibliographic style. It is only natural that one becomes tired of reading
and rereading the same manuscript, but it is the only way to get an article into a format and
style that will be acceptable for publishing. It is also the best way to maximize your
contributions in a given field of study.
7. Edit and Revise before final submission of a Research Report
The following guidelines will assist the researcher in editing and revising the research report
before submission to the concerned authorities:
 Set aside draft report for a day or two before revising. This makes it easier to view
your work objectively and see any gaps or problems. Rethink ideas, refine
arguments, reorganize paragraphs, and reword sentences. Have somebody else
read the paper and tell you if there's anything that's unclear or confusing.
 Proofread the Final Draft.
21
 Detect any careless errors (such as misspelled words and incorrect punctuation and
capitalization).
 Read backwards in order to detect any more errors.
 Errors harder to spot on a computer screen
 Check for Clarity
o Use easily understandable words
o Use verbs in the active voice vs the passive voice
 Check for Conciseness
o Limit paragraph length
o Avoid Camouflaged Words (instead use common terminology)
o Omit Redundancies (unnecessary words)
22
Practice Task
1. Explain, in brief, the concept of a research report.
2. List what a good research report writer should know about the audience/reader of a
research report.
3. What does ‘Review of Literature’ indicate in a research report?
4. What does ‘Population and sample’ indicate in a research report?
5. Which one of the following is NOT the logical division of the Introduction to a research
report?
a. A statement of the problem.
b. A review of the literature.
c. A description of the sample selected for the study.
d. A statement of the hypotheses/research questions.
23
1. It describes the completed research, i.e., the concluded activity of research. It describes
what research was done and how it was done and the results and conclusions of the
research. The significance of the research is also addressed.
2. Who the audience/reader is; what he/she already knows or does not know; his/her purpose &
background.
3. A rationale for the study by citing the findings of other research.
4. Describes the subjects of the study and how they were selected.
5. c.
24
References
 Best, JW and Kahn, JV (2006). Research in Education. 10th Edition. Boston A & B/
Pearson.
 Borg, W and Gall, M (2003). Educational Research: an introduction, New York:
Longman.
 Cohen, L (2000). Educational Research in Classrooms and Schools - a Manual of
Materials and Methods. New York: Harper & Row Publishers.
 CPSC (1990). Developing Skills in Technician Education Research-Module 10: Writing
Research Reports. Singapore: Colombo Plan Staff College for Technician Education.
 Dunford, R (2004). Developing a research proposal. In Burton, S. & Steane, P.
 Forsyth, P (1998). How to be better at writing … reports & proposals. New Delhi: Kogan
Page India Pvt. Ltd., 180 pp.
 Gupta, SL and Gupta, Hitesh (2011). Research Methodology – Text and Cases with
SPSS Applications. New Delhi: International Book House Pvt. Ltd.
 Kothari, CR (2012). Research Methodology. New Delhi: New Age International (P)
Limited Publishers.
 Koul, L (2009). Methodology of Educational Research. 4th Edition; Noida: Vikas
Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., 532pp.
 Kulkarni, PD and Sharma, BB (1986). Independent Study Techniques. Chandigarh:
TTTI
 Singh, AK (2012). Tests, Measurements and Research Methods in Behavioural
Sciences. New Delhi: Bharati Bhawan (Publishers & Distributors).
 Research Report: Introduction, Definition and Report Format.
http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/marketing/research-report-introduction-definition-and-
report-format/48713
 Video film on ‘Writing a Research Report – Concept and Format’ developed/recorded

by Professor (Dr.) Sunil Dutt, NITTTR, Chandigarh.
 Video film on ‘Research Report – Guidelines’ developed/recorded by Professor (Dr.)
 Meghana, S (2010). Research Report Writing.
https://www.slideshare.net/meghana353/research-report-writing.
 Writing a Research Report in American Psychological Association (APA) Style.
https://opentextbc.ca/researchmethods/chapter/writing-a-research-report-in-american-
psychological-association-apa-style/
 Vidya-mitra (2016). Writing a Research Report. Video on YouTube
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-nte0uN2Ezs
25
UNIT II
11.2: Evaluation of Research Report

CONTENTS
S. No Page
Learning Outcomes
1. Introduction 1
2. Purpose of Evaluation of Research Report 1-2
Practice Task 3
Feedback 4
3. Parts of Research Report 5
3. Parameters for Evaluating Research Report 5-8
4. Who Should Evaluate Research Report? 8
Practice Task 9
Feedback 10
References 11
EVALUATION OF RESEARCH REPORT
Learning Outcomes

 Explain the purposes served by evaluation of research report
 Identify the aspects of research report that need to be evaluated
 Identify the parameters for evaluating a research report
 Design rubric for evaluating a research report
1. Introduction
Evaluation of a research report is the last step in research and evaluation serves many
important purposes for the researcher, policy makers, administrator funding agency and
those interested in implementation of research findings or replicating the research in
different contexts.
2. Purpose of Evaluation of Research Report

Five major purposes are served by evaluation of any research report. These include:
(CPSC, 1984)
 Improve the quality of research: Evaluation helps in identifying the strengths

and weaknesses of the report. Thus, it helps in taking correctives to improve the
quality of further research.
 Enhance use of the findings of research: Evaluation of research report w.r.t.
its objectives, hypotheses, sampling technique used and sample, quality of
measuring tools and interpretation of results will provide an insight and the
stakeholders of the accuracy, adequacy, appropriateness and relevance of
research, will help in implementing the findings of research with confidence.
 Facilitate decision-making: A high quality research will facilitate the decision-
making process at various levels. For example, teacher may be facilitated in
taking a decision whether to use or not to use innovative technologies in
teaching-learning., administration may be helped in making a decision to provide
or not to provide technology infrastructure in classrooms, policy makers may be
assisted in formulation of appropriate policies and funding agency may be able to
take decision whether to fund or not to fund similar research.
1
 Aid in planning future research: Researchers are especially benefitted by the
evaluation of research report as it helps in selecting and defining research
problem and describing methodology of research.
 Identify competencies needed by researchers: The analysis of research
reports can provide insight into the type of researches undertaken and common
mistakes made by researchers in review of related literature, sampling, designing
of measuring tools or interpretation of results, and thus helps in identifying
competencies that are to be developed among researchers so as to enable them
undertake more relevant and quality research in technical education.
2
Practice Task
Explain the major purposes served by evaluation of research report.
3
Feedback
Compare your answer with the purposes of evaluation of research report on page number
1&2.
4
3. Parts of Research Report
The structure of any research report includes (Gay, Mills and Arisian, 2012):
 Preliminary pages
 Introduction
 Review of related literature
 Methods and procedure
 Analysis of data and results
 Summary and conclusion
 References
All these are important parts of research report and thus need to be evaluated.
4. Parameters for Evaluating Research Report

Table 1 provides the various parameters that need to be evaluated for the various
constituent parts of the research report.
Table 1: Aspects and parameters for evaluation of research report.
Sr. Part of research Aspect Parameter
No. report
1. Preliminary Title page Correctness as per the requirement

pages of University or sponsoring agency
Acknowledgement Concise
Table of contents Correctness of content
List of tables Correctness of content
List of illustrations Correctness of content
Abstract Concise, complete and correct
2. Introduction Rationale Adequacy, accuracy, coherence
Statement of the problem Clarity, researchability, size,

accessibility of data
Objectives of study Correct, significant
Significance of the Clarity, adequacy of explanation

problem
5
No. report
3. Review of Related literature Complete, correct, clear, concise,

Relevant coherence
Literature
Conclusions Clarity, correct
Gaps in research Clarity, Correct
Formulation of Correct, testable, adequacy

hypotheses
4. Methods and Design Appropriate, feasible, accuracy in

Procedure description/ explanation
Sample Adequacy, appropriateness of

sampling technique, adequacy of
explanation
Measuring tools used Appropriate, reliable, valid, objective,

adequacy of explanation
Experimental procedure Adequacy of explanation, internal

and external validity
Collection of data Proper procedure followed
Statistical techniques Appropriateness

used
5. Analysis of Data Presentation of results Addressed major objectives /

and Results research questions / hypotheses
Accuracy and adequacy of

explanation
Tables / Illustrations Correct, summarise results, quality
Interpretation of results Correct, findings related to other

research studies presented in
Review of Related Literature
6
No. report
6. Summary and Summary Inclusion of major elements of

Conclusions report, concise, correct
Conclusions Appropriate
Recommendations for Appropriate

further research
Implications of research Appropriate, for various stakeholders
References / As per APA style, complete

Bibliography
Annexure (if included) Relevant
A rubric can be designed on the basis of parameters for evaluating various parts of the
research report (Table 2).
Table 2: Rubric for evaluation of research report

S. Part of report Good Satisfactory Poor
No
1. Preliminary Correct title; concise Correct title; Correct title;
Pages acknowledgement, acknowledgement, acknowledgement,
correct Contents; correct Contents; incorrect Contents;
Tables & Illustrations;Tables & Tables &
concise, correct and Illustrations; concise Illustrations;
coherent abstract and correct incoherent abstract
abstract
2. Introduction Adequate some-what Inadequate
justification, problem adequate justification, problem
significant and justification, problem research ability but
researchable, clarity significant and not significant,
in objectives researchable, clarity objective not
in objectives properly stated
3. Review of Integrated review well Review well Gaps in review, lack
Related classified, correctly classified, correctly classification, gaps
literature identified gaps in identified gaps in in research not
research, correctly research, correctly identified,
formulated formulated hypotheses not
hypotheses hypotheses properly formulated
7
S. Part of report Good Satisfactory Poor
No
4. Methods & Appropriate design, Appropriate design, Inappropriate
Procedures sample size, inadequate sample design, inadequate
sampling technique, size, correct sample size,
tools and statistical sampling technique, inappropriate
techniques tools and statistical sampling techniques
techniques and inadequate
statistical technique
5. Analysis & Addressed major Addressed major Major
Results questions/objectives/ questions/objectives/ questions/objectives/
Hypotheses, Hypotheses, Hypotheses not
Accuracy and Explanation addressed,
Adequacy of accurate but inaccurate
Explanation; Correct inadequate; Tables explanation, Tables
tabulation of results, lack clarity, Correct lack clarity, incorrect
summarize results, interpretation but not interpretation, not
quality; Correct, related to other related to other
related to other studies reported in studies reported in
studies reported in RORL RORL
RORL
6. Summary and Iinclusion of major Iinclusion of major Iinclusion of major
conclusions components, components, components,
appropriate appropriate appropriate
conclusions conclusions but conclusions
implications and incomplete, implications and
suggestions for incomplete but suggestions for
further research correct implications further research
and suggestions for
further research
7. References/ As per APA and As per APA and Not as per APA and
Bibliography complete some incomplete incomplete
5. Who Should Evaluate Research Report?

The research report can be evaluated by be researcher himself / herself, supervisor or
guide, experts or funding agency.
8
Practice Task
Critically evaluate the rubric for evaluation of research report and design your own rubric for
the same. Upload the same on discussion forum.
9
Feedback
Discuss your rubric with the instructor and peers.
10
References
 CPSC (1984) Developing Skills in Technician Education: Research Module 11,

Colombo Plan Staff College for Technician Edcation, Singapore.
 Gay, LR; Mills, GE. and Ariasian, PW (2012). Educational research: Competencies
for Analysis & Application. New York: Pearson.
Qualitative, and Mixed Approaches. 3rd Edition, Los Angeles: Sage Publications,
Inc.,
Web links
 Checklist for Critiquing a Research Article
http://www.riverboathouse.com/dochayes/pdf/artguide2.pdf.http://wps.prenhall.com/c
het_airasian_edresearch_7/0,6488,382194-,00.html
 Committee for Evaluation of Research (CIVR): Guidelines for Research Evaluation.
http://vtr2006.cineca.it/documenti/linee_guida_EN.pdf
 Evaluating Educational Research.
http://www.indiana.edu/~educy520/readings/wandt65.pdf
 Evaluating Information Sources
http://ivy.mannlib.cornell.edu/newhelp/res_strategy/evaluating/analyze.html
 Evaluating Research Reports.
http://www.selu.edu/Academics/Education/EDF600/cw8c.htm.
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/0,6488,382194-,00.html
 Guidelines for Critiquing Research Articles
http://www.sonoma.edu/users/n/nolan/n400/critique.htm.http://wps.prenhall.com/chet
_airasian_edresearch_7/0,6488,382194-,00.html
 Guidelines for Critiquing Research Articles
http://www2.msstate.edu/~bsc2/guidelines.htm.
 Research Report Evaluation Form
http://www.irsst.qc.ca/media/documents/en/Evaluation-Criterias-report.pdf
 Litman, Todd (2012). Evaluating Research Quality: Guidelines for
Scholarship.http://vtpi.org/resqual.pdf
 Miron, Gary (2004). Evaluation report
checklist.https://www.wmich.edu/sites/default/files/attachments/u350/2014/evaluation
-reports.pdf
 Research Paper Rubric. https://www.cornellcollege.edu/library/faculty/focusing-on-
assignments/tools-for-assessment/research-paper-rubric.shtml
 Savory, Paul (2009). Rubric for Project Report Evaluation.
http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1006&context=imseteach
http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_airasian_edresearch_7/0,6488,382194-,00.html
11
UNIT 8.1
Contents Page No.

Broad Objective 3
Learning Outcomes 3
Introduction 3
8.1.1 Institutional Management 4
(A)Concept of an institution 4
 Characteristics of an Institution
 Components of Institutional Management
(B) Importance of Institutional Management 8
 Management of Human Resources
 Management of Finances
 Management of Infrastructure
Practice Task 20
Feedback 21
8.1.2 Administration 22
(A)Concept of Administration 22
(B) Difference with Institutional Management 23
 Based on Functions
Practice Task 24
Feedback 24
8.1.3 Institutional Management Process 25
1
 Planning
 Organizing
 Staffing
 Directing
 Controlling
Practice Task 29
Feedback 29
Conclusion 31
Bibliography 31
2
UNIT 8.1
NITTTR, Chandigarh
Broad Objective
The broad objective of this unit is to make the participants
aware about the importance of institutional management
and its scope in the smooth, efficient and effective running
of an educational institution.
Learning Outcomes
 Define the concept of Institution, Management and institutional management and their
importance.
 Explain different aspects of institutional management and identify components of management in
each of them.
 Facilitate in management of curriculum implementation, Human resources, Finance and
Infrastructure in his own institution.
 Differentiate between institutional management and administration.
 Explain institutional management process.
Introduction
Institution is a fundamental form of social organisation to meet a broad social goal,e.g. an educational
institution like a college, university or deemed to be university.Management is a tool of getting work
from others for achieving the specified objectives through productive and optimum use of scarce
resources while institutional management helps in developing harmonious co-ordination amongst
different programs, activities, functions and people so that the institution as a whole becomes capable of
achieving its targets, goals and objectives effectively and efficiently. For the smooth running of an
institution, scientific principles of management play a very significant role. Be it the curricular or co-
3
curricular processes, optimisation of scarce resources like finance, competent humans or the adequate and
up-to date infrastructure, proper management and its defined processeshave a role to play.
In this unit, learners you shall understand the concept, need, importance and scope of institutional
management. You shall become aware about the broad difference between institutional management and
administration for the effective functioning of an institution. Understanding of the institutional
management process shall be another important input for you.
8.1.1 Institutional Management

To understand Institutional management, we need to understand the two terms independently, so we start
with
(A)Concept of an institution
The term institution has become widespread in the social sciences in recent years, reflecting the growth in
institutional economics and the use of the institution concept in several other disciplines, including
philosophy, sociology, politics, etc. The term has a long history of usage in the social sciences, dating
back at least to GiambattistaVico in his Scienza Nuova of 1725. However, even today, there is no
unanimity in the definition of this concept. (Hodgson, 2006)
A commonly accepted definition of institutions is that they are the formal and informal rules that organise
social, political and economic relations (North, 1990). They are the systems of „established and prevalent
social rules that structure social interactions‟ (Hodgson, 2006, p. 2).
“Institutions are the ways in which the value patterns of the, common culture of a social system are
integrated in the concrete action of its units in their interaction with each other through the definition of
role expectations and the organisation of motivation” (Parsons and Smelser, 1956)
Institutions operate in all spheres of life and can affect access to economic, legal, political, and social
rights and opportunities.
 Some common characteristics of an institution are as follows:

 Distinct purpose expressed in a goal or a set of goals- every institution has a particular
goal for which it has been incorporated for ex a school is formed to impart education to
students, a hospital to serve healthcare facilities to patients etc.
 People come and work together to achieve the institutional goal through a set of decisions
and work activities.
4
 A deliberate and systematic structure that defines and limits the behavior of its members
People often use the two terms synonymously but they are distinct.The term „institution‟ is
sometimes used to refer to organisations or associations and sometimes to designate a normal
principle that defines clusters of important behaviour, such as marriage or property.
An organisation is a group formed to meet a specific goal, e.g., a college or a hospital. An
institution, however, is not an actual group or association. It is a system of beliefs, norms,
values, positions, and activities that develop around a basic societal need. The concept of
institution is-abstract and is used to refer to a fundamental form of social organisation that
meets a broad social goal. In the present context however, institution will refer to an
educational institution imparting higher education like a college, university or deemed to be
university.
E.W. Burgess has given the following classification of institutions
 Cultural institutions for transmitting social heritage like family, school, church (religious
institutions).
 Economic institutions for organising of services of utility like bank, labour union,
commercial and industrial enterprises.
 Recreational institutions for satisfying human desire of enter-tainment, amusement and
play etc.
 Social control institutions for solving social problems of society and personality. (As
cited by GauriDushi in article Institutions: Definition, Types and Functions of
Institutions, http://www.preservearticles.com/sociology/institutions-definition-types-and-
functions-of-institutions/30474)
After understanding what is an institution, its time now to know
The term Managementis considered to be a universal phenomenon which is involved in every
sphere of life,be it the tangible ones like an educational institution or the intangibles like time
and stress.
5
According to Harold Koontz, “Management is an art of getting things done through and with
the people in formally organised groups. It is an art of creating an environment in which
people can perform asindividuals and can co-operate towards attainment of group goals”.
According to F.W. Taylor, “Management is an art of knowing what to do, when to do and see
that it is done in the best and cheapest way”.
The above quoted definitions clearly indicate that “management” is a tool of getting work
from others for achievingthe specified objectives through productive and optimum use of
scarce resources. It is generally believed that resources will always be scarce and it is the
responsibility of the head of the institution to manage these scarce resources in the most
effective and efficient manner, not compromising on the quality, yet achieving the goals and
objectives.
Management is a purposive activity. Every institution big or small, rural or urban is existing
to fulfill its objectives through 'management' E.g.: For one institution it may be admitting
quality students and for other it may be imparting quality education by recruiting quality
teachers.
Management, as a process, involves a series of inter-related functions which create, operate
and direct a purposive organisation through systematic, coordinated and co-operated human
efforts. According to George R. Terry, “Management is a distinct process consisting of
planning, organising, actuating and controlling, performed to determine and accomplish
stated objective by the use of human beings and other resources”. As a process, it has three
aspects:
 Social aspect- Since human is the most important factor among other factors,
management is concerned with developing relationship among people. It is the role of
management to make interaction among people – highly productive and useful for
 Integrating aspect–Bringing together human, physical and financial resources, so as to
achieve institutional objectives, is one of the important activities of management. Thus, it
is an important aspect of management to bring harmony between various factors.
 Continuingaspect–One of the major roles of management is the identification of
problems and finding their solution. As problems are part and parcel of the functioning of
any institution, finding solution and implementing them is a continuous activity for the
management of any institution.
6
Like many other activities performed by a human being, management is also an activity
undertaken by a manager while performing his role of accomplishmentof objectives by
directing the efforts of others. According to Koontz, “Management is what a manager does”.
In case of an educational institution, the manager would be the principal or anyHOD.
Management as an activity includes -
 Informational activities -This refers to those activitieswhich help in giving and

receiving information orally or in written form for the smooth, effective and efficient
functioning of the institution.
 Decisional activities -All types of managerial activities are based on some type decision.
Principals/HODsin an institution are continuously involved in decisions making of
different kinds since the decision made by one becomes the basis of action to be taken by
other. For ex the decision taken by the principal not to admit students below a particular
cut-off percentage will lead to the HODs working in admission procedure to admit only
those students that fulfill the said criteria and send back the others.
 Inter-personal activities - Management means achieving the goals through the
involvement of others where his inter-personal skills play a vital role.Principals/Directors
interact with their superiors as well as the HODs and faculty. For the smooth running of
the institution,they must maintain good relations with them. The inter-personal activities
include meeting with various HODs and faculty to understand their needs etc.

Institutional Management is a process designed to achieve an institution‟s objectives by using
its resources effectively & efficiently in a changing environment.Institutional management
helps in developing harmonious co-ordination amongst different programs, activities,
functions and people so that the institution as a whole become capable of achieving its
targets, goals and objectives effectively and efficiently.
 Components of Institutional Management:

Institutional management has two broad components:
 Organisation and management of curricular activities and
 organisation and management of co-curricular activities.
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In the total programme of education, curricular and co-curricular activities occupy the central
position. Curricular and co-curricular activities are complementary to each other. These
activities help in developing integrated human personality. There was a time when the whole
purpose of the educational institution was conceived to be confined to the teaching of
prescribed syllabus. Other activities were regarded as additional.Participation in social and
sports activities or outside the classroom activities was looked down upon as a mere side
show. It was thought that these activities had no link with the actual teaching programme. But
in today‟s scenario, the role of co-curricular activities is considered to be complementary to
curricular activities in developing a total human being.As we know, curricular activitiesare
those activities which are organised in a classroom (e.g. teaching of different subjects by the
teacher/classroom teaching., practical work in the laboratory, workshop, library reading etc.),
while co-curricular activities include the activities having indirect reference to actual
instructional work undertaken in the classroom. Now a days, both theseactivities have equal
weightage in the life of a student in an educational institution.

 Achievement of the institutional objectives.
 Improvement in planning, organising and implementation of institutionalactivities,
processes and programmes.
 Ensure optimum utilization of human resources(teachers, non- teaching staff and
students)
 Enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of institutional infrastructural facilities.
 Enhance employees‟ job satisfaction
 Manage interpersonal conflicts effectively.
 Improve communication.
(B) Importance of Institutional Management
Institutional is becoming very important in today‟s scenario as it helps in understanding various

aspects of management at institutional level, like:
 Defining and describing roles and responsibilities of the educational manager
 Defining, describing and developing managerial skills.
 Understanding and facilitating educational planning at macro levels, its goals,
principles, approaches and procedures
 Understanding and facilitating institutional planning and educational administration.
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 Facilitating in decision making, problem solving, communication and managing
 Facilitating in planning of curricular and co-curricular activitiesvand preparation of
time-table.
 Helping in the maintenance of essential records, evaluating students‟ achievements.
 Helping in financing and budgeting of the institution.

 Management of Curriculum
 Management of Human Resources
 Management of Finances
 Management of Infrastructure
A “curriculum is aprogramme of activities by teachers and learners – so designed that

learners will, asfar as possible, achieve specific educational and other school
objectives”. Barrow (1984)
It may be stated that curriculum is anextensive concept which includes all planned
activities and subject courses which are undertaken in an institution. Planned
activities meanactivities relating to societies, clubs, committees, sports etc. These all
take place within a specific system which is constantly evaluated and aims to lead the
child to become a responsible citizen of the nation.
"Curriculum management is a structured set of activities designed to assess and

adjust the curriculum to the changing needs of students". Developing a perfect
curriculum that fulfills the needs of the students and facilitates the institution attain
its objectives is a difficult task. There are certain other challenges as well in
curriculum management.Firstly, as new research is published, you willhave to make
updates in curriculum content. Secondly, abnormal assessment scores will force you
to re-examinethecontent sequencing and assessment approach. Unavoidably, you will
be faced with 'curriculum drift'. For example the Changein IS building codes,
Company Law,1956 to be replaced with the Company Law,2013. Similarly, The
Goods and Sales Tax, 2017 to replace all the Indirect taxes that were levied earlier. If
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these new topics are not incorporated in the curriculum then it is called a curriculum
drift. How can you ensure that a carefully designed curriculum adapts properly in the
changing educational scenario? You can do this by applying a structured set of
activities designed to assess and adjust the curriculum, in other words, with
curriculum management.
An effective curriculum management approach includes following activities:
1. Curriculum mapping-is the first and fore-most step inthe curriculum

management endeavor. It is a process in which structural elements of a
curriculum (phases, years, courses, sessions, etc) are tagged and linked with each
other as well as with learning outcomes and content areas. The most important
aspect of curriculum mapping is that it helps in giving an accurate presentation of
an institutional curriculum by transforming a series of documents and
experiences into a searchable database, without which all other steps in
curriculum management shall be of much less value.
2. Content & structure analysis–After the mapping of curriculum, analysis is

done to find whether the content is still relevant, and if the curriculum structure
supports the anticipated learning goals. Some of the common methods of doing
thisare:
Gap/redundancy analysis-a report of content gaps or redundancies in a

curriculum. For example, redundancy in curriculum exists when similar content
e.g. teaching a topic, “cement as a building material” is being taught in several
different course areas. While content gap in a curriculum comes when any one of
the eleven engineering graduate attributes remains under-represented in the
curriculum.
Teaching types analysis - a report providing an overview of the teaching types

and frequency of their use in the program. Often, this type of analysis report is a
part of an accreditation review, but can also be used to ensure whether content
is being taught most accurately by providing varied learning experiences to
students.
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Sequencing analysis- a report presenting sequencing of topics throughout the
curriculum. In this tagging of learning outcomes or content areas as per Bloom‟s
taxonomy is analysed. Based on this, a report of the sequencing of content across
the content area is prepared.
To prevent curriculum drift, content & structure analysis play a significant role in
curriculum management as these help in identifying missing, inappropriate and
obsolete content which can be replaced with more appropriate one
3. Student assessment
The ultimate outcome of any curriculum is student assessment results. They act
as an important input to curriculum management process.Assessment results
provide a glimpse of curriculum problems which otherwise may not be visible
through other result areas.It is important to mention here that all the problems in
student assessment may not be curriculum problems. Some of the issues may be
linked with individual students, particular faculty or other non-curriculum things.
Systemic assessment problems (like missed/low results in a key content area;
over-performance in another area), may however, help inidentifying issues that
would have otherwise remained hidden.
4. Program evaluation
Another important aspect in curriculum management is program evaluation. It

provides a real time feedback about the curriculum to the faculty and staff.
However, it is important to understand that all program evaluation results may
not provide inputs about curriculum problems. For example, a poor teacher
evaluation is not necessarily a problem of curriculum management.
There are eight principles that guide the assessment of any curricular activity in
an institution. They are as listed below:
 Teachers need to be aware of their student's progress level.

 Students need to know about their learning progress.
 Assessmentis a bidirectionalphenomenon. On one hand it measures student‟s
achievement, on the other teacher‟s performance
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 Assessment process should help in enhancing teaching effectiveness along
with intellectual and psychological growth of students.
 Assessment provides input data and evidence for students‟ attainment and
teachers performance
 Assessment is a continuous process. Continuous monitoringis required to
check the progress of the plans and activities implemented for promoting
desired behaviour
 Successful assessment process incorporates reflection and self assessment as
these help in developing in students necessary skills for assuming greater
ownership of their own learning.
 Facilitating student learning and assessing his progress in that learning are
the responsibility of a teacher and he is, or should be held accountable for the
same
5. Research, review, revise
This is the final step in curriculum management where the data collected from
content and structure analysis, student assessment results, and program
evaluation feedback is used to decide whether or not changes in curriculum are
needed. This is one of the main jobs of the curriculum committee and it is not to
be taken lightly. This may uncover many issues e.g. a deep-seated curriculum
issue found through low student assessment scores etc. These may require more
research for deciding how to proceed.
When the curriculum is finally drafted, ask the following questions:
 Relevance- Is the curriculum relevant in terms of content in the changing

environment.
 Utility- Will the knowledge or skills imparted to students enhance long‐term
employment or make them employable in future.
 Social Responsibility- Does this curriculum make the students socially
responsible citizens of the nation who are aware of their social,
environmental and ethical responsibilities.
 Fundamental value of knowledge- Does the content have persistent cultural
implication?
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 Critical thinking- does the content of the curriculumcompel the students to
think critically?
 Student Enrichment: Will the content enhance the inimitable experiences
and values of student life?
 Management of the Human Resources
Human resource is an increasingly broadening term that refers to

managing'humancapital', the people of any institution. It is a strategic function of
management that recognises the inter-linkage between talented and engagedpeople
andinstitutional success.
Human resource management is the process wherein the emphasis is on recruitment,

compensation, performance, training and development, motivation, communication
and providing directions to the people who work in an institution. According to
Dessler (2008)” the policies and practices involved in carrying out the people or
human resource aspects of a management position, including recruiting, screening,
training, rewarding, and appraising comprises of HRM”.
Human Resource of an educational institution comprises of faculty, teaching and

non- teaching staff, students and other elements such as parents, members of the
community, members of the governing body, etc.. The management of human
resource is of vital importance to achieve the educational objectives.
The management of two types of human resources is discussed in this section:
 Management of Student Support system

 Management of other human resources
1. Management of Student support system
Students incorporate an essential component of human resource of an

educational institution. They not only provide the financial resources that help in
running the institution but also are the future representatives of the institution.
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Educational institutions are established to impart quality education, for which
they have to come up with programmes and courses of study, design and develop
curricula and learning outcomes, evolve suitable teaching-learning strategies, and
formulate the criteria of assessment and certification. The system and mode of
instruction of the institution has to be in conformity with its mission and goals.
There are various aspects of the programmes being offered by the institutions.
One aspect is, the extent of flexibility and autonomy exercised while deciding the
programmesand content and the second is being responsive to the needs of
society/country, like starting skill development courses to make the youth self
reliant. Thesemay vary from one institution to the other and each decides on the
programmes to be offered and their content. However, programmes from
variedinstitutions need to be comparable in terms of intensity of content,
standards of assessment and achievement so that equivalence of qualification
may be ascertained.
The instructional system should integrate all possible channels to enhance

learning like,classroom teaching, laboratory work, group work, projects, self
studyetc..This multiple media approach to instruction optimises learning
outcomes.
Effective management of student support in higher education is also dependent

on assessment of the learning component. Since teaching-learning is affected
over a long period oftime, educationists vouch for a system of continuous
evaluation of the learning outcomes rather than only a terminal assessment
system.
The important considerations in regard to student learning and its assessment are:
i) Appropriate content, structure and provision of flexibility in the choice of

content.
ii) Instructional procedures clearly spelt out.
iii) Well defined assessment procedure.
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These points determine the learning contract between the student and
theinstitution and should therefore be conveyed to the student clearly and
objectively, before the student makes a choice.
The student support services normally provided by higher education institutions

can be categorized as follows:
• Provision of information about programs and courses, teachers and their

qualifications, admission procedure, teaching learning methods, assessment
procedures, criteria of assessment, awarding grades, procedures for setting
disputes about assessments, admissions, etc. about the teacher schedules, library
work, laboratory work, tutorial, examination schedules etc. This will help them to
gauge the academic rigour of any particular program.
• Provision for other curricular activities like sports and games, cultural and
social activities, community activities, group works, travels and competitions.
• Residential facilities available and participation in their management
• Participation in student association activities.
• Financial support provision like loans, scholarships to meritorious students etc
• Guidance and counseling services, including provision for placement of

successful students.
Management of student support services poses a big challenge for the

administrators and faculty of the educational institution.
2. Management of other human resources
Human resources in educational institutions include several people namely

faculty and, Principals, Vice Chancellors, Heads of Institutions, Heads ofDeptts.,
Heads/Directors of Research units, Deans, Directors of Higher Education
Department, Heads of Training Institutions, local and regional Administrators,
Educational Planners and Administrators at national level. Each of these
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individuals requires different kinds of knowledge, skills and aptitudes to
discharge their duties well.
In order to be effective and efficient, an educational institution has to ensure that

there are right kind of people, in the right place and at the right time for carrying
out various jobs and services.For this purpose, human resource needs are to be
identified and assessed. Proper selection and recruitment proceduresare to be
followed. This must be in accordance with the guidelines of the statutory bodies
like UGC, AICTE, etc as the case may be. There are challenges like working
conditions, promotion prospects, training and development, transfers, motivation
and security, career development and so on. These are to be handled with
empathy and co-operation on one hand and sense of commitment and
accountability on the other hand.
 The Need to have Human Resource Management
Human resources management is a process of positive change linked to the

enhancement of the capacity of each individual in an institutional set up. It is a
strategic approach of selection, recruitment, motivation, training and
development and management of the institution's human resources which ensures
the achievement of the objectives of the institution. Similar to the managers and
CEOs of big corporate houses, the heads of educational institutions also apply
many familiar techniques of HRM such as manpower planning, selection and
recruitment, staff development and motivation, performance appraisal, etc. for
management of human resources. Institutional leaders must understand that:
1. People are an integral part of any institution as the latter cannot exist in
isolation. Without people an institution has no meaning. It is for the
administrators to understand that people constitute the central part of the
institution.
2. People working in the institution are considered to be resources because of

their special qualities and characteristics. Every individual be it the faculty, the
lab technician, the librarian or the office clerk have a contribution to make
towards the achievement of institutional goals. Thus, they cannot be treated like
16
material resources and there is a need to introduce humanistic values and human
approach to deal with them.
3. Since people are an asset, care must be taken to develop them from time to
time, keeping them up-to-date with the changing needs of the society. Moreover,
they must be rewarded, recognised and remunerated according to the guidelines
set by the government from time to time.
Thus, management of human resource in an institution, necessary to achieve its

desired goals successfully, can be achieved by following ways:
i) Selecting and retaining qualified talent through effective human resource

planning i.e. recruitment, selection, placement, compensation and promotion
policies.
ii) Developing and building required skill competency and capabilities through
training, orientation and performance appraisal, etc.
iii) Securing support and cooperation of employees through motivation,
participation, grievance handling, etc.
iv) Ensuring that the institution will have a team of competent and dedicated
employees in future.
 Management of Institutional Finances
Finances are considered as the life blood of any institution and accordingly its proper
management is one of the important aspects of institutional success as it is important to
understand that the basic purpose of any educational institution is to impart education to
the students which it is not possible without appropriate quantum of money.
Finance isthe science ofthe management of money and assets. It not only deals with
resource acquisitions but also its allocation. Presently,education is being provided
through different modes such as formal, non-formal,distance and online (e-learning). For
providing different levels of education through different modes a variety of physical
resources (buildings, equipment, materials) and human resources (teachers,
administrators and custodians) are needed. These resources cannot be without adequate
finance.
17
Therefore, money becomes very important for the survival of any system. Secondly, it is
not just the availability of money can solve all the problems but allocating this money to
various heads is equally important.
So, let us define educational finance as the management of money and assetswhen
physical and human resources are allocated for educational purpose. The next question
would be what are the various sources of finance.
 Contribution of Governmentand Household in Educational Financing
Government meets the institutional costs of education to a large extent up to

secondary level. In tertiary level, especially in technical and professional
education, the role of private players have increased significantly during the past
few years.
It will be pertinent at this point to examine the role of University Grants

Commission (UGC) as a funding body in higher education institutions. UGC
provides funds to colleges and universities for the development of higher
education and research. It receives grants-in aid from the Central Government
under both non-plan and plan heads. The non-plan grants are meant essentially to
meet the maintenance costs of the central universities, some deemed universities,
colleges of Delhi and some ongoing schemes of the UGC both in Central and
State universities. The plan grants are used for general development of every
university in terms of creating infrastructural facilities - construction of
buildings, purchase of furniture equipment for laboratories development of
libraries and other academic and administrative needs. UGC also provides plan
grants under special scheme programmes for promotion of quality, excellence,
teaching and research.
Generallya large amount of household investment especially in technical and

other professional education isfavoreddue to following three main reasons:
o Government does not have adequate budget to finance education

and thus households have to necessarily put in their resources for
their education, at least partly;
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o It is believed by some that household expenditure, specifically
fees, would make children more serious about their studies, and
thus result in enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness of the
system
o Household expenditure reflects both ability to pay and
willingness to pay for education. It is argued that this thought of
people need to be fully exploited.
In fact, , dual system of education -public education system (usually considered

to be of poor quality) for the poor, and fee charging private education (of better
quality) for those who can afford, is mainly applicable up to secondary level.
However, in case of higher education, government subsidies are three fourths of
the total recurring expenditure, in the country as a whole. Fees from student,
endowments, and others meet the rest more or less in equal proportions. But in
therecent years, given the changing economic and educational policies, this
proportionseems to be rapidly increasing to significant levels in many
Universities.
 Contribution of Foreign Aid in Educational Financing

Foreign aid is one important source of finances for education. Its importance gets
enhanced in developing countries like India where public budgets for education
become very tight with the adoption of structural adjustment policies. A large
number of foreign aid projects especially in primary education and a few
especially for enhancing the quality of higher technical education (TEQIP) are
presently operational in the country with the assistance by several international
agencies, such as the World Bank, the Swedish International Development
Agency, the UNICEF, the European Economic Community,etc. Thus the external
aid is both bilateral flowing from countries, and multi-lateral flowing from
international- UN and other organisations.
In most colleges and universities over 90 percent of the expenditure goes towards
paying salaries of teachers and staff. Therefore, the institutions are not left with
many choices but to enhance the fees from students, leading to public ire, even
some of the dual mode universities have been resorting to distance education.
19
Thus, management of finance in today‟s scenario, when government contribution
to education is declining and the cost ofeducation continuously increasing, is one
of the most important difficult issues for any institutional manager.
 Management of Institutional Infrastructure

Physical structures required to run an institution are called infrastructure.Physical
infrastructure, in the context of education implies the teaching learning space and
equipments necessary for effective teaching-learning process. These include, classrooms,
libraries, laboratories, furniture, social space, IT network and other support needs, like
special provisions for disabled etc (Rose, G.M., 2006). It is important to understand some
basic concepts which determine the planning and management of physical facilities in
Proper planning for management of these constituents of an institution is required and is
essential for the effective achievement of the institutional goals. Hence, management of
infrastructure both human and physical particularly in the context of Indian higher
education assumes tremendous significance. This is primarily because Indian higher
education has undergone expansion in terms of number of institutions, courses of study,
departments, teachers and students.
Practice Task
a) Kinds of institutions may be ____________ , _______ ,________ and _________
b) Management as an activity includes _________ , ____________ and __________ decisions.
c) In the total programme of education, _______and ___________ activities occupy the central
position.
d) "______________ is a structured set of activities designed to assess and adjust your
curriculum".
Q. II. Short answer questions
1. What are the objectives of Institutional management?

2. What are the various aspects of institutional management?
3. Name the two types of human resources in institutional management.
4. Name the various sources of institutional finances.
5. Briefly discuss the importance of institutional management.
20
Feedback
A1 a) Cultural, Economic, Recreational and Social control
b) decisional, interpersonal and informational
c) curricular and extra-curricular
d) Curriculum management
AII. Short answers

1. Objectives of IM-
a. Achievement of the institutions‟ objectives.
b. To improve the planning, organizing and implementation of the institutions activities and
processes.
c. To ensure appropriate utilization of human resources (teachers, non- teaching and
students)
d. To enhance the efficiency and effectives of institutional infrastructural facilities.
e. To enhance job satisfaction among employees
f. To manage interpersonal conflicts, manage stress and use time effectively.
g. To improve interpersonal communication.
2. Various aspects of institutional management are:
a. Management of Curriculum
b. Management of Institutional Human Resources
c. Management of Institutional Finances
d. Management of Infrastructure
3.The two types of human resources in institutional management are:

a. Faculty (Teaching and non Teaching)
b. Students
4. The various sources of institutional finances are
a. Contribution of Government and Household
b. Contribution of Foreign Aid
5 Importance of IM:
a. It includes the study of various theories of management science which define and describe
the roles and responsibilities of the educational manager and develop managerial skills.
b. It includes the study of educational planning at macro levels, its goals, principles,
approaches and procedures. At a micro level it helps in understanding and facilitates:
Institutional planning and Educational administration.
c. It helps in decision making and problem –solving, communication and managing
d. It helps in planning of curricular and co-curricular activities, and preparation of time-table.
e. It helps in the maintenance of essential records, evaluating students‟ achievements.
f. Financing and budgeting of the institution.
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8.1.2 Administration
(A)Concept of Administration
The two terms management and administration have been used in different connotations by
different writers.
According to Theo Haimann, “Administration means overall determination of policies, setting of

major objectives, the identification of general purposes and laying down of broad programmes
and projects”, literally meaning activities of higher level including laying down basic principles
of an institution. According to Newman, “Administration means guidance, leadership & control
of the efforts of the groups towards some common goals”. On the other side, management
involves conceiving, initiating and bringing together the various elements; coordinating,
actuating, integrating the diverse institutional components while sustaining the viability of the
institution towards some pre-determined goals. In other words, management is an art of getting
things done through & with the people in formally organised groups.
In other words, management carries out the decisions taken by administration. The functions of
administration are legislative and largely determinative and those of management are executive
and largely governing. This view presents administration at a higher pedestal andmanagement at a
lowerpedestal.
Some other authors like Oliver Sheldon, Florance, Lansberg, and Haiman are also of the view that
administration involves decision-making and policy formulationwhile management deals with
executive and supervisory work. According to them administration is the process and agency
which is responsible for the determination of the aims for which an organisation and management
are to operate, and which gives general oversight to the continuing effectiveness of the total
operation in reaching the objectives sought. Management is the process and agency which directs
and guides the operations of an organisation in the realizing of established aims.
Another view is that administration and organisation are a part of management.Brech has
advocated this view. In his words, "Management is the generic termfor the total process of
executive control involving responsibility for effectiveplanning and guidance of the operations of
an enterprise. Administration is thatpart of management which is concerned with the installation
and carrying out ofthe procedures by which the programme is laid down and communicated and
theprogress of activities is regulated and checked against plans." The Europeanschool of thought
considered administration as a part of management.
22
Some authors are of the view that management and administration are usedinterchangeably and
there is no distinction between the two. In the words ofNewman, "Management or administration
is the guidance, leadership and controlof the efforts of a group of individuals towards some
common goods." Otherauthors such as George Terry, AlIen, Koontz and O'Donnell also feel that
boththe terms mean the same thing. In general practice administration is used more ingovernment
or other public organisations while management is used in the businessworld.
(B) Difference with Institutional Management

The difference between administration and management can be summarised under twobroad
categories viz. Functionsand Usage / Applicability
 Based of Functions
Meaning Management is an art of getting things done Administration concerns formulation

through and with other people by directing their of broad policies, plans and
efforts towards achievement of objectives. objectives.
Nature Management involves execution. Administration involves major

decision-making.
Process Management decides who should do it & how it Administration decides what to do &
should be done. when to do.
Function Management is a doing function because managers Administration is a thinking function

get work done under their supervision. because plans & policies are
determined under it.
Skills Human skills and Technicalskills Human skills and Conceptual Skills
Level Lower level and Middle level function Top level function
23
Applicability It is broadly applicable to business/profit It is applicable to non-business /non

makingorganisations profitorganisations
Influence Manager‟s values, opinions, beliefs & Govt. policies, public opinion, religious
decisions of the managers influence beliefs, customs etc. influence the
management decisions decisions of administration
Status Paid Employees of the organisation are Owners of the enterprise who earn return
the constituents of management on investment & profits represent
administration.
Thus, management and administration terms are used interchangeably in the educational
institute parlance, which must be understood based on their principles and their
applicability for achieving the goals and objectives of the institution.
Practice Task
Q1 Differentiate between Management and Administration on the basis of usage.
Feedback
Applicability It is applicable to business concerns i.e. It is applicable to non-business concerns i.e.

profit-making organization. clubs, schools, hospitals etc.
Influence The management decisions are The administration is influenced by public

influenced by the values, opinions, opinion, govt. policies, religious
beliefs & decisions of the managers. organizations, customs etc.
Status Management constitutes the employees Administration represents owners of the

of the organization who are paid enterprise who earn return on their capital
remuneration (in the form of salaries & invested & profits in the form of dividend.
wages).
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8.1.3 Institutional Management Process
This sub unit will briefly discuss the management process that involves the following
Planning
Organising
Staffing
Directing
Controlling
We have understood by now institutional management is a social process and involvesthe
responsibility for effective and efficient planning & regulation of the operations of an educational
institution towards the fulfillment of defined purposes. Management is a dynamic process and
consists of various elements and activities. These activities are common to most of the managers
despite difference of their levels.
Different experts have classified functions of management. According to George & Jerry, “There
are four fundamental functions of management i.e. planning, organising, actuating and
controlling”.
According to Henry Fayol, “To manage is to forecast and plan, to organize, to command, & to
control”. Whereas Luther Gullick has given a keyword ‟POSDCORB‟ where P stands for
Planning, O for Organizing, S for Staffing, D most widely accepted are functions of management
given by KOONTZ and O‟DONNEL i.e. Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing and
Controlling.
For theoretical purposes, we may separate the function of management but practically speaking
these functions are overlapping in nature i.e. they are highly inseparable. Each function blends
into the other &each impacts the performance of others.
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 Planning
It is the basic function of management. It deals with chalking out a future course of action &
deciding in advance the most appropriate course of actions for achievement of pre-determined
goals. According to KOONTZ, “Planning is deciding in advance - what to do, when to do & how
to do. It bridges the gap from where we are & where we want to be”. A plan is a future course of
actions. It is an exercise in problem solving & decision making. Planning is determination of
courses of action to achieve desired goals. Thus, planning is a systematic thinking about ways &
means for accomplishment of pre-determined goals. Planning is necessary to ensure proper
utilization of human & non-human resources. It is all pervasive, it is an intellectual activity and it
also helps in avoiding confusion, uncertainties, risks, wastages etc.
 Organizing
It is the process of bringing together varied resources i.e. physical, financial and human resources
and developing fruitful relationships amongst them for the achievement of institutional goals.
According to Henry Fayol, “To organize a business is to provide it with everything useful for its
functioning i.e. raw material, tools, capital and personnel‟s”. Smooth running of an educational
institution involves identifying and providing human and non-human resources to the its
organisational structure. Organising as a process involves:
 Identifying activities.
26
 Classifying and grouping of activities.
 Assigning duties.
 Delegating authority and creating responsibility.
 Coordinating authority and responsibility relationships.
 Staffing
It is the function of manning the organization structure and keeping it manned. Staffing has
assumed greater importance in the recent years due to advancement of technology, increase in
size of business, complexity of human behavior etc. The main purpose o staffing is to put right
man on right job i.e. square pegs in square holes and round pegs in round holes. According to
Kootz&O‟Donell, “Managerial function of staffing involves manning the organization structure
through proper and effective selection, appraisal & development of personnel to fill the roles
designed un the structure”. Staffing involves:
 Manpower Planning (estimating man power in terms of searching, choosing the right
person and giving the right place).
 Recruiting, Selecting and Placing.
 Training and Developing.
 Fixing remuneration.
 Appraising Performance
 Promoting and transfering.
 Directing
It is that part of managerial function which actuates the organizational methods to work
efficiently for achievement of organizational purposes. It is considered life-spark of the enterprise
which sets it in motion the action of people because planning, organizing and staffing are the
mere preparations for doing the work. Direction is that inert-personnel aspect of management
which deals directly with influencing, guiding, supervising, motivating sub-ordinate for the
achievement of organizational goals. Direction has following elements:
 Leadership: Leadership is the process of influencing the actions of a person or a group
o to attain desired objectives. A manager has to get the work done with and
throughpeople. The success of an organisation depends upon the quality of leadership
shown
o by its managers.
27
 Motivation: Motivation is the work a manager performs to inspire, encourage andimpel
people to take required action. It is the process of stimulating people to takedesired courses of
action. In order to motivate employees, manager must provide acongenial working
atmosphere coupled with attractive incentives.
 Communication: Communication is the transfer of information and understandingfrom one
person to another. It is a way of reaching others with ideas, facts, andthoughts. Significantly,
communication always involves two people: a sender and areceiver. Effective communication
is important in organisations because managerscan accomplish very little without it.
 Supervision: In getting the work done it is not enough for managers to tell thesubordinates
what they are required to do. They have also to watch and control theactivities of the
subordinates. Supervision is seeing that subordinates do their workand do it as directed. It
involves overseeing employees at work
 Controlling
It implies measurement of accomplishment against the standards and correction of deviation if

any to ensure achievement of organizational goals. The purpose of controlling is to ensure that
everything occurs in conformities with the standards. An efficient system of control helps to
predict deviations before they actually occur. According to Theo Haimann, “Controlling is the
process of checking whether or not proper progress is being made towards the objectives and
goals and acting if necessary, to correct any deviation”. According to Koontz &O‟Donell
“Controlling is the measurement & correction of performance activities of subordinates in order
to make sure that the enterprise objectives and plans desired to obtain them as being
accomplished”. Therefore controlling has following steps:
 Setting standards of performance
 Measuring actual performance
 Comparing actual performance against the standard and
 Taking corrective actions to ensure goal accomplishment.
Systematic application of these functions of management can facilitate an education institution in the
achievement of its objectives.
28
Practice Task
a)The four fundamental functions of management are _________ , _______ , _________ and
__________ i.e. planning, organizing, actuating and controlling.
b) __________ deals with chalking out a future course of action & deciding in advance the most
appropriate course of actions.
c) The main purpose o staffing is to put _________ on ____________ .
d) “____________is the measurement & correction of ______________of subordinates in order to

make sure that the enterprise objectives and plans desired to obtain them are being accomplished”.
Q. II. Short answers
1) What does the acronym PODSCORB stand for?

2) What are the steps involved in controlling?
3) What do you understand by Organising? Discuss the organising process
4) Discuss briefly the elements of Directing.
Feedback
A. I. Fill in the blanks:
a) planning, organizing, directing and controlling

b) Planning
c) right man, right job
d) Controlling, performance activities
A II. Short Answers
1) PODSCORB stands for Planning, Organising, Directing, Staffing, Coordinating, Reporting and
Budgeting
2. Controlling has following steps:

(a) Setting standards of performance
(b) Measuring actual performance
(c) Comparing actual performance against the standard and
(d) Taking corrective actions to ensure goal accomplishment.
29
3. According to Henry Fayol, "To organize a business is to provide it with everything useful or its
functioning i.e. raw material, tools, capital and personnel".
It is the process of bringing together physical, financial and human resources and developing
productive relationship amongst them for achievement of organizational goals
Organizing as a process involves:
 Identification of activities.
 Classification of grouping of activities.
 Assignment of duties.
 Delegation of authority and creation of responsibility.
 Coordinating authority and responsibility relationships
4. Elements of directing are:

(a) Leadership: Leadership is the process of influencing the actions of a person or a group to
attain desired objectives.
(b) Motivation: Motivation is the work a manager performs to inspire, encourage and
impel people to take required action. It is the process of stimulating people to take
desired courses of action.
(c) Communication: Communication is the transfer of information and understanding

from one person to another. It is a way of reaching others with ideas, facts, and
thoughts.
(d) Supervision: Supervision is seeing that subordinates do their work

and do it as directed. It involves overseeing employees at work
30
Conclusion
Successful institutional management involves active participation of all the stakeholders by appropriately
applying the above basic managerial functions. These functions are interlinked and most managers use
them in combination or sometimes simultaneously to solve the problems facing theinstitutions. Thus, the
thorough understanding of the principles and practices behind these functions is a must for the triumph of
any institutional manager in today‟s fast changing and competitive scenario.
Bibliography:
1. Anyamele, S.C., 2004. Institutional management in higher education: A study of leadership
approaches to quality improvement in university management-Nigerian and Finnish Cases.
Simon and Schuster.
Pvt. Ltd.
6. Geoffrey M. Hodgson (2006) What Are Institutions?, Journal of Economic Issues, 40:1, 1-
25, DOI: 10.1080/00213624.2006.11506879
7. Koontz, H., O'Donnell, C. and Weihrich, H., 1986. Essentials of management (Vol. 18).
NewYork: McGraw-Hill.
8. Kumar, S. and Dash, M.K., 2011. Management education in India: trends, issues and
implications. Research Journal of International Studies, 18(1), pp.16-26.
USA: Harper and Row Publisher
10. North, D. (1990). Institutions, institutional change, and economic performance. New York:
Cambridge University
11. Prakash, V., 2007. Trends in growth and financing of higher education in India. Economic and
Political Weekly, pp.3249-3258.
Irwin, 350- 366p. Stoner, JAF and Freeman, R E (1994). Management. 5th Edition, New Delhi:
Prentice-Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.437-468p.
31
16. Wadkar, A (2016). Life Skills for Success. New Delhi: SAGE Publications India Pvt. Ltd., 29 –
43p.
17. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.13518, General And Industrial Management, Fayol
Henri, Book Source: Digital Library of India Item 2015.13518
18. www.preservearticles.com/sociology/institutions-definition-types-and-functions-of-
institutions/30474
19. www.one45.com/curriculum/what-is-curriculum-
managementwww.slideshare.net/geminorumgem/concept-of-educational-management
20. www.yourarticlelibrary.com/educational-management/institutional-management-meaning-and-
components/63726
21. Dushi, G. Institutions: Definition, Types and Functions of Institutions, available at
http://www.preservearticles.com/sociology/institutions-definition-types-and-functions-of-
institutions/30474
Supportive learning resources: by Dr. Rakesh K Wats

Videos on
 Institutional Management- Concept and its importance
 Administration - Concept and its Difference with Institutional Management
 Institutional Management Process (Planning, Organising, Staffing, Directing,
Monitoring and Controlling) - An Overview
Web resources:
o Institutional Management to Missional Leadership
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UlcWYl7ZtkY
o Aspects of Institutional Management
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t1inVRr56-U
o Four Functions of Management Planning, Organizing, Leading

controlling https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KBfp4pzBIm8
32
UNIT 8.2
Content Page No
Broad Objective 3
Learning Outcomes 3
Introduction 3
8.2.1 Planning: Concept and Importance 4
 Characteristics of Planning
Practice task 8
Feedback 9
8.2. 2 Institutional Planning 10
Practice task 16
Feedback 16
8.2.3 Types of Planning- Strategic and Operational 18
 Strategic Plans
 Tactical Plans
Practice task 21
Feedback 21
Conclusion 22
Bibliography 22
1
UNIT 8.2
NITTTR, Chandigarh
Broad Objective
importance of institutional planning and
its scope in the smooth, efficient and
effective running of an educational
institution
Learning Outcomes
1. Understand the concept of planning and its importance for an institution.
2. Identify the steps and characteristics of planning.
3. Appreciate the need, importance and scope of institutional planning in today‘s scenario.
4. Identify the pre-requisites for an effective institutional plan.
5. Understand the types of planning and their application in smooth running of an institution.
Introduction
Confucius, an eminent educationist has once said that, ―A man who does not think and plan long ahead,
will find trouble right at his door.‖ Today we are living in an uncertain, volatile and complex world
where, change is the only permanent thing. This has made the working of institutions not only difficult
but also challenging. To survive in such an environment and to achieve competitive advantage the mantra
that can help is- proper planning in an institution. This unit, broadly, covers concept, importance and
characteristics of planning. Important steps involved in planning, role and importance of institutional
2
planning, pre-requisites for an effective institutional plan also form the constituent of this unit. Types of
plans required for the smooth running of an educational institution are the important inputs of this unit.
8.2.1 Planning: Concept and Importance
We often use the word planning everyday for our activities to be done in the entire day. In other words it
is looking ahead and deciding on the future course of action. It is a systematic activity but exhaustive
program which determines when, how and who is going to perform a specific job. It is often said ―Well
planned is half done‖, thus highlighting the importance of planning in achieving success. While planning,
we consider the available & potential resources (like human and physical) of the institution to get
effective co-ordination and contribution. It is the basic management function which includes formulation
of one or more detailed plans to achieve balance between needs or demands with the available resources.
Urwick states, ―Planning is a mental predisposition to do things in an orderly way, to think before acting
and to act in the light of facts rather than guesses‖. Planning is deciding the best alternative among a
number of other alternatives, to perform different functions in order to attain predetermined goals.
Koontz & O‘Donell opine, ―Planning is deciding in advance what to do, how to do and who is to do it.
Planning bridges the gap between where we are, where we want to go. It makes possible, the things to
occur which would not otherwise occur‖.
 Characteristics of Planning: some of the most important features of planning are-
Fig. 8.2.1 Steps of planning in an institution
3
 Planning is forward looking or futuristic-Planning is always done for the future,
involving, analysing and predicting the future using quantitative and qualitative techniques
helping the institution to adjust and face the challenges in future.
 Planning is goal-oriented-- Every institution has a set of goals and objectives that they
wish to achieve in the near future for which a sound planning is done. The goals established
should be of general acceptance otherwise individual efforts will go misdirected.
 Planning is an intellectual process-Planning is not a guess work but involves a number of
mental abilities like creative thinking, sound judgment and imagination. It is always based
on facts, figures, estimates, and exact calculations rather than anticipations.
 Planning involves choice & decision making- after setting the objectives, the assessment
of alternatives and choose amongst them, the best possible one, keeping in mind the
available resources and the environmental opportunities and challenges is done. Planning,
basically involves selecting the best amongst various alternatives.
 Planning is the primary function of management / Primacy of Planning- planning is the
basic or fundamental function of management that provides the platform for other functions
of the management, like organising, staffing, directing and controlling. The latter are
performed within the framework of the formulated plans
 Planning is a Continuous Process- Planning is a never ending function due to the dynamic
environment. Although, plans have a specific period like, five yearly, annual, biannual,
quarterly plan etc. but the process does not stop when it is implemented or executed. New
opportunities, concerns, challenges keep on emerging and they have to be tackled by
planning effectively.
 Planning is all omnipresent-Planning occurs at every level of management, in every
organization and in every sector like education, hospitality or healthcare etc. Although, its
scope may differ from one level to another and from one sector to other but planning is
definitely omnipresent. The top level may be more concerned about the holistic planning of
the organisation, whereas the middle level more specific in departmental plans and the
lower level plans the implementation of the same. For example, the principal or head of the
institution may plan what new courses to be introduced from the new session or new faculty
to be appointed, the head of the department may plan the time table, the seminars and
workshops to be held in the session while a teacher may plan how to complete the syllabi in
stipulated time period by way of lesson planning.
4
 Planning is designed for efficiency- planning helps the institution in saving time, effort
and money and other physical resources by promoting adequate and optimum utilisation of
these resources.
 Planning is Flexible—as the future is uncertain and unpredictable thus planning must
include plans flexible enough to keep the chances of incorporating the on spot changes.
They should not be rigid and unalterable. Thus, plans must provide enough opportunity to
cope up with the changes like student‘s demand, industry needs, government policies etc.
 Planning facilitates management by objectives-
 The process of planning sets in motion with setting of objectives.

 It emphasises the reason for which various activities are to perform.
 Planning makes objectives more clear and specific.
 Planning helps in focusing the attention of faculty on the objectives or goals and once this
focus is developed the employees will stick to their plan.
 Planning compels the planners to prepare a blue-print of the courses of action to be followed
for accomplishment of objectives.
 Planning makes the institution more organised and disciplined.
 Planning minimizes uncertainties-
 Planning play a strong role in minimising the risk of various types of uncertainties
 Planning helps the management to anticipate future and prepare for risks
 Planning facilitates coordination-
 Planning invites various stakeholders of the institution to share common platform to give
their ideas and suggestions on issues related to the institution, hence integrate them for a
common reason
 It facilitates coordination and synchronisation of work, avoid duplication of efforts.
5
 Planning improves morale of all stakeholders
 Planning team up all departmental heads, the faculty, the non teaching staff or the students
where every stakeholder is aware of the expectations of team from them
 This encourages them to show their best and work whole heartedly towards the achievement
of goals and objectives of the institution.
 Planning creates a healthy work environment and positive institutional culture that enhances
the morale of all stakeholders and brings them together.
 Planning facilitates controlling
 Planning cannot be successful if there is no control or vigil over the changing environment so
that the plans do not go haywire or become obsolete.
 Planning and controlling co-exist and are considered to be two sides of the same coin
 Planning provides competitive advantage

 An effective planning involves changing in work methods, quality, bringing technological
advancements, extension of work, redefining of goals, etc.
 Forecasting help the institution secures its future but at the same time it is able to estimate the
future motives of its competitors, which helps it in facing future challenges.
 Steps in Planning Process

Planning is an essential managerial function that requires a lot of time, effort and skills so that the
desired goal is achieved. There is no room for guessing, planning works with experience, logic and
rationality of the planner. While making an effective plan for the institution the following steps are to
be followed:
 Setting of goals and objectives
The goals and objectives provide a direction to the efforts and are the central part of the planning
process. The objectives should be clear, precise, easily understandable, and clearly communicable
to the planners so that they can act accordingly.
6
 Developing the Planning Premises
 Premises are the assumptions about the environment in which plans are formulated and
executed. Premises determine where we have departed from the actual plan and the
reasons behind this deviation. This helps in identifying the potential obstacles and threats
in our planning so that steps can be taken to avoid them in future.
 Planning premises may be internal controllable (include capital investment policy,
management labor relations, philosophy of management, etc.) or external uncontrollable
(socio- economic, political and economical changes).
 Plans must be formulated by keeping in mind the limitations posed by the internal and
external premises.
 Assessing the alternatives and subsequently choosing the best-
 After the premises are developed the planner will assess all the possible alternatives.
 Every alternative will be evaluated by considering its advantages and disadvantages with
reference to the resources available and requirements of the institution.
 After objective and scientific evaluation of the alternatives, the best alternative is finally
chosen.
 Formulating derivative plans-
 Formulation of the secondary plans to support the basic plan.

 Secondary or derivative plans will flow from the basic plan and are meant to support and
accelerate the achievement of basic plans.
 Derivative plans include policies, procedures, rules, programs, budgets, schedules, etc.
For example, to fulfill the basic plan of imparting quality education to students the
institution will formulate the derivative plan of recruiting quality teachers.
 Ensuring support and participation-
 After the basic and derivative plans, faculty and the ones who have to implement these
plans are made to come on the same page by taking them into confidence
 Confidence can be attained by making them feel valued, let them participate in all
decision making activities.
7
 According to Koontz, ‗plans have to be set in an atmosphere of close participation and a
high degree of concurrence‘.
 Participation enables employees to give their best to the plans. They are also motivated
to carry out the plan to the best of their ability.
 Follow up/Appraisal of plans-
 Reviewing and revising is important to assess and review the effectiveness of plan as
the environment in which institutions operate is volatile and uncertain that makes the
plan to adjust in existing situation. So, continuous reviewing and revising is
important.
 This can be done on the basis of feedback or information received from students,
faculty and other stakeholders concerned.
 The assessment of plans helps the management to rectify the deviations, if any and
modify the plan.
 Without a regular follow-up, there are chances that the plans may become obsolete
and insignificant. Moreover, appraisals ensure the implementation of plans in the
right direction and avoiding mistakes in the future planning.
Practice task
a) ____________ are the assumptions about the environment in which plans are formulated and
executed.
b) Without a _____________ there are chances that the plans may become obsolete and insignificant.
c) Planning begins with ___________.
d) The plans derived for various departments which help in the achievement of main plan are called
__________ .
Q2. Short answers
a) Briefly state the steps of planning process
b) Mention any four characteristics of planning
c) What do you mean by premises?
d) Define derivative plans
8
Feedback
A. 1 Fill ups:
a) Planning Premises
b) A regular follow-up
c) Setting of objectives
d) Derivative plans
Q2. a) Steps of planning process are
1. Setting of goals and objectives
2. Developing the Planning Premises
3. Assessing the alternatives and subsequently choosing the best
4. Formulating derivative plans
5. Ensuring support and participation
6. Follow up/Appraisal of plans
b) Characteristics of planning are
1. It is goal oriented
2. It is forward looking and futuristic
3. It is present in all levels of management
4. It is an intellectual process.
Ans. c) Premises are the assumptions about the environment in which plans are formulated and executed.
The development of these premises determines where we have departed from the actual plan and the
reasons behind this deviation.
Ans. d) The plans derived for various departments, units, activities, etc., which help in the achievement
of main plan are called the derivative plans. These derivative plans include policies, procedures, rules,
programs, budgets, schedules, etc
9
8.2. 2 Institutional Planning
Planning in education is an extremely important activity as it forms the basis of all programmes of
quantitative and qualitative improvement in education. Without planning, an individual, a society, an
institute or a nation cannot prosper. Similarly, any educational institution, cannot achieve the targeted
goals unless it opts for proper planning.
Educational planning implies taking of decisions for future actions with a view to achieving
predetermined objectives through the optimum use of scarce resources. Institutional planning is a part of
educational planning. It is confined to a particular institution and functions keeping the goals of that
particular institution in mind. It ensures better and most favorable use of the resources which the
institution has or can have. It is the institution that knows best its needs and problems that have to be
solved. Hence, it is through institutional planning that an institution can attain welfare and development.
Institutional planning can be best explained in the words of M.B.Buch (1964) ―An institutional planning
is a programme of development and improvement prepared by an educational institution on the basis of
its felt needs and resources available and likely to be available, with a view to improve the formal
educational institutional program and practices constitutes a plan for an institution‖.
Institutional planning is an effective method to enhance the institutional mission of ensuring high quality
teaching, training of young generation with employable skills contributing in national development within
the framework of present institutional arrangement. Buch further states "Institutional planning is a (i) plan
for development as a whole (ii) plan for the improvement of the existing situation (iii) plan for felt needs,
necessity of the institution (iv) plan for an effort to make a balance between available resources and
planning (v) an effort to find out to be available resources (vi) a plan to be made without hampering the
educational programs and practices".

The institutional planning should be based on certain predetermined objectives. All activities planned
should ultimately help to achieve these ends. Depending upon the circumstances and needs of the
institution, the objectives may be short term and long –term.
Mr. J.P. Naik, Former Education Advisor, Government of India, has listed the following four
objectives of institutional planning: "Giving freedom to the teacher, making the good teacher
10
effective, involving every teacher in the formulation and implementation of institutional plans,
emphasizing what can be done here and now by mobilising our existing resources".
However, in general, aims and objectives of institutional planning are:
 On the academic side:

 Qualitative improvement
 Providing more amenities to teachers, students and local community
 Maintaining the educational standards, when students number increases and if the number
remain static then focus should be on the improvement
 Reducing and eliminating the incidence of wastage and stagnation.
 On the knowledge and skill side:
 Developing latest and up-to-date knowledge and skills
 Developing temperament for industrial processes and practices and
 Inculcating a liking for learning new techniques, gaining hands on experience on new
equipment and machines, craft work etc.
 On the attitude side:
 Promoting better students-teacher and teacher-parent inter personal relationships
 Inspiring the teachers to give their best to the pupils in particular and the institute in general.
 Developing a taste in the students for extracurricular activities like dramatics, athletics and
hobbies.
 Creating a feeling of belongingness to the institution in both the students, teachers and staff.
 On the economic side:
 Reducing the cost of education
 Optimum utilisation of existing resources
 Utilizing all the economic resources belonging to local community
 Procuring all types of grants viz. plan and non-plan, recurring and nonrecurring
 Exploring other sources of helps and donations like help from the philanthropic associations
as scholarships, teaching aids and institutional amenities etc.
 On the social side:
 National integration
 Cultural integration
 Emotional integration
11
 On the political side:
 Developing democratic attitudes in faculty, staff and students

 Overall progress of the institution
All institutions have some plans; all the heads of institutions/principals make plans as to how to
maintain discipline in the institution and every teacher also plans. Planning may be routine
planning of the syllabus, time table, placement drive and examination etc. and it may not exist in
a definite or regular form and it may be repeated from term to term and from session to session
without any extra effort. Institutional planning undoubtedly improves the working of the
institution and makes it future ready thereby leading it to the path of progress.
 Provides direction to educational objectives

Institutional planning gives the right direction to the educational objectives of the country. The
direction of planning in the customary trend today, is from top to bottom. Institutional planning
recognises the contribution of administrators, teachers, parents, students, educationists and social
reformers in the process of planning of education in the country.
 Optimum utilisation of institutional resources

Every institution has limited resources be it human, physical and monetary resources. Institutional
planning helps the management to make optimum use of the existing resources by applying the
basic principles of organizing and controlling. As a nation, India has a great shortage of resources
with increasing needs and demands from every quarter. It is responsibility of every individual and
institution to systematically plan for the maximum utilisation of these scarce resource.
 Aligning institutional goals with national development

Educational planning must fit into the overall national planning for developmental purposes. Its
significance can be highlighted from the need for collective efforts of the people. In the words of
B.D. Nag Chaudhari, "Since the implementation of plans and programs is as important and vital
as plan formulation. Institutional planning has a special contribution to make in the national
development". Every institution must strive to align its objectives with the national objective of
education and development. For example, institutions must try to take up such courses which
inculcate skill development among students so that they can become employable and contribute
towards the nation's development with their expertise.
12
 Encouraging and motivating every teacher
Institutional planning takes into confidence the faculty members and take their views before
implementing the plans. This makes them value their job and their institution. They are
encouraged to work for the excellence and overall development of the students and institution.
This is a win- win situation for both the teacher and the institution.

Institutional Planning covers every aspect of an institution be it planning for resources, curricular and
co-curricular activities, projects and programmes etc.
 Improvement of institutional campus/premises

 Construction, maintenance and repair of institutional buildings must be done from time to
time
 Library books, magazines, journals, instructional materials and audiovisual aids must be
maintained in the institution library
 Facilities like drinking water supply, sanitary, medical facilities etc. must be provided to the
faculty, staff and students
 Improvement of curricular activities

 The curriculum of each subject can be divided into small and comprehensible units.
 Use of the state of the art teaching techniques
 Transformation of teaching into effective learning
 Use of effective assessment tools for formative and summative assessment
 Arrangement of tutorial to deal with personalized teaching, discussions and doubt clearances
 Organization of seminars, workshops, conferences etc. to help students and faculty get the
hands on and up-to-date knowledge on recent trends.
 Faculty development programs like in-service training, refresher courses, and orientation
courses etc. for the up gradation of knowledge and skills amongst teachers and staff.
 Improvement of co-curricular activities

 Organization of physical activities like sports day, athletic meets etc. in the institution to
enhance physical health of students and teachers.
13
 Organization of literary activities like preparation of institution magazine, newsletter,
teaching aids and equipment.
 Social service projects like NSS, NCC to help in inculcation national responsibilities in
students
 Collaboration with local NGOs to make students socially responsible nationals
 Improvement of Investigation and Research activities

 Project works to be part and parcel of curriculum to improve the analytical skills amongst
students of higher education
 Teaching of courses like research methodology, application of tools, data analysis, scientific
writings etc.
 Encouraging post graduate students to pursue PhD, so as to supply technically competent and
skilled work force to research institutes and industry
 Research topics oriented towards the problems of industry, society and country in general

Buch (1968) has identified the following characteristics of an institutional plan. He states them as:
 Need-based- An institutional plan must be based on the needs and requirements of the staff,
students and other stakeholders of the institution. It may incorporate needs in the area of
institutional organisation, curricular and co-curricular programs, support services, etc.
 Intensifies Human Efforts- An institutional plan makes persistent efforts to involve more of
human efforts by utilising faculty‘s initiative, imagination and creativity. It should not just
depend on the financial and infrastructural support.
 Specific- Every institution has its own image and unique selling proposition (USP) in terms of its
goals and objectives. This must be highlighted while planning for development and improvement.
Thus, every institution needs to have its own unique and specific plan which makes it different
from others in the same business.
 Goal-oriented -An institutional plan is directed towards pursuing the national goal of attaining
excellence with fairness. This requires not only continuous improvement but also development of
an institution that may attain higher goals each time.
14
 Optimum Utilisation - Its major criterion is to utilize human, financial and other non-material
resources in a way which facilitates maximum benefits
 Flexible – An institutional plan must be flexible and open to alterations as demanded by changing
needs and situations.
 Two-fold focus - Each institutional plan has a two-fold focus: (a) improvement based on human
efforts and (b) development necessitating support and assistance of the management, community
and the government.
 Enhanced Motivation - Through its successful implementation with visible output, it should
motivate students, teachers, management and the community, create enthusiasm and a sense of
commitment and affiliation in these groups.
 Co-operative Endeavour - It should be prepared by participation and involvement of teachers,

parents, students, principal and the management in the planning process.
 Democratic Preparation - Its planning and implementation must involve the entire stakeholder
group; who share their opinions and ideas and this enhances their sense of dignity and worthiness.
 Duration of Plans - An institutional plan can be of a long-term plan for 10-15 years or it could
be of five years‘ duration coinciding with the national/state five-year plans. Within the broad
frame-work of long-term plan, an institution can prepare a number of projects or programs for a
shorter duration of one or two years.
 Relation with State and National Plans - An institutional plan should be prepared within the
State level and National level educational plans and need to reflect the National Policy on
Education. However, the institutional plan can be prepared in the spirit of educational plans, still
the institution can have the freedom to modify, change, add or reject them.
 Community Support - Community involvement in institutional planning is a pre-condition and

an absolute necessity as it ensures community support in the implementation of the plan and helps
in building a rapport between the institution and the community".
15
Practice task
a) ______________ is a programme of development and improvement prepared by an educational

institution.
b) An institutional plan must be based on the needs and requirements of _____________ .
c) Institutional planning is important as it leads to the _____________ of the institution
d) Depending upon the circumstances and needs of the institution, the objectives may be ___________
or ____________
Q2. Short questions
a) Define Institutional Planning?
b) What are the main prerequisites of an institutional plan?
c) What is the scope of institutional planning?
d) Give four points to discuss the importance of Institutional planning.
Feedback
Ans. 1. Fill in blanks
a) Institutional planning
b) the staff, students and other stakeholders of the institution
c) overall progress
d) short term or long –term
Ans.2 Short answers
a) Institutional planning is a part of educational planning and is confined to a particular institution and
functions keeping the goals of that particular institution in mind.
b) Prerequisites of an institution plan are
16
 It must be based on the needs and requirements of the staff, students and other stakeholders of
the institution.
 It should not just depend on financial and infrastructural support but consider human effort.
 It must be unique and specific which makes it different from others in the same business.
 It must be directed towards pursuing the national goal of attaining excellence with fairness.
c) Scope of inst. planning:
 Improvement of institutional campus/premises

 Improvement of academic facilities
 Improvement of co-curricular activities
 Investigation and Research
d) Importance of institutional planning

 Institutional planning undoubtedly improves the working of the institution and makes it future
ready thereby leading it to the path of progress.
 It provides direction to educational objectives and recognises contribution of administrators,
teachers, parents, students, educationists and social reformers in the process of planning of
education in the country.
 Institutional planning helps the management to make optimum use of the existing resources.
 It helps in aligning institutional goals with National Development
17
8.2.3 Types of Planning- Strategic and Operational
Different types of plans may be adopted by institutions to supervise and direct institutional activities.
There are three most commonly used plans namely Strategic, Tactical and Operational Plans. All the three
are somehow interrelated as operational plans lead to the accomplishment of tactical plans, which in turn
lead to the accomplishment of strategic plans
Figure : Types of Plans
 Strategic Plans
A strategic plan is a summary of various steps to be taken keeping in mind the goals of the entire
institution, rather than the goals of individual units. It begins with formation of the institution‘s mission.
The plans look ahead for about five years or more and focus on progress of the institution in the years to
come.
The plans involved many stakeholders, hence an accord and synchronisation amongst them is needed.
e.g. A plan to introduce new technology will be effective only if all the faculty members understand its
importance. Top-level management develops the directional objectives for the entire institution, while
lower levels will develop attuned objectives and plans to achieve them. Top management‘s strategic plan
for the entire institution becomes the outline premise of activities for the lower level planning.
Some features of strategic plans are:
18
 They determine the long term objectives of the institution and deal with allocating resources and
deciding on the alternatives to be chosen that best suit the interest of the institution and the
stakeholders.
 They are made by the top management as they deal with the holistic development of the entire
institution
 They are forward looking as they focus on what we are today and what we wish to be in future.
Thus, ideally they shall be effective if they are flexible enough to adjust to the changing needs
and aspirations of its stakeholders.
 These plans provide the framework and direction of planning at the lower level
 Tactical Plans
Tactical plans are the strategies that the head of the institution adopts to achieve the objectives set in
the strategic plan. A tactical plan is concerned with what the lower level units within each department
must do, how they must do it, and who is in charge at each level. Tactics means the way in which the
means needed to activate a strategy and make it work are decided. Tactical plans have narrower scope
and shorter time frame than strategic plans. These plans usually span one year or less because they are
considered short-term goals. Long-term goals, on the other hand, can take several years or more to
accomplish. Normally, it is the departmental responsibility to take the broad strategic plan and identify
specific tactical actions.
Some features of Tactical plans are:
 These plans are for a shorter time duration (time frame usually less than 3 years) and are
usually developed by departmental heads.
 These plans help in the implementation of strategic plans by defining activities to be
performed by various departments.
 These involve allocating resources and work among faculty of each department.
Operational plans are the ones developed for short term, may be even less than one year. The function
of these plans is to determine actions or activities to be performed so as to maintain strategic and
tactical plans. Thus, an operational plan is one that a faculty member uses to accomplish his or her job
responsibilities. Operational plan can be a single-use plan or a continuing plan.
 Single-use plans: These plans apply to the activities that have one time occurrence or those
that do not recur or repeat. For example, a lecture delivered in a class is a single-use plan
19
because it deals with the who, what, where, how, and how much of a lesson to be taken in a
lecture.
 Continuing or ongoing plans: These are usually made once and maintain their value over a
certain period but undergo periodic reviewing to avoid it from becoming irrelevant or
obsolete.
Examples:
 A policy: "it is a past or current statement or series of statements which explain,
recommend or exclude a course of action or actions to be taken to run the institution.
These statements are usually written, but they could be oral".
It provides a broad guideline to head of institutions to follow while dealing with
important decisions. Typical human resources policies like faculty recruitment,
terminations, performance appraisals, pay increases, and discipline are all policy matters.
Policies are important because they help an institution establish rules and procedures that
can produce not only standards of quality for learning, but also expectations and
accountability.
 A procedure: it explains how activities are to be carried out. For example, most
institutions have procedures for purchasing books in the library or equipments in the
laboratory. This procedure will have steps to be taken at various levels. By defining
these steps and the sequence in which they are to be taken, procedures "provide a
standardized way of responding to a repetitive problem".
 A rule: it tells the faculty members or students what should be done and what not to be
done. Rules are ―dos‖ and ―don‘ts‖ statements put in place to promote the uniform
treatment and behavior of employees. For example, students who do not have 75%
attendance are barred from sitting in the final exam. This rule is uniform for all students
irrespective of their stream, year or department.
20
Practice task
Q. 1 Short questions
a) Discuss the various types of plans
b) Define a policy and procedures
Feedback
Ans. a)There three types of plans
Strategic, Tactical and Operational Plan

 A strategic plan is a summary of various steps to be taken keeping in mind the goals
of the entire institution. Strategic planning begins with formation of the institution‘s
mission.
 Tactical plans are the strategies that the head of the institution adopts to achieve the
objectives set in the strategic plan. A tactical plan is concerned with what the lower
level units within each department must do, how they must do it, and who is in charge
at each level.
 Operational plans are the ones developed for short term, may be even less than one
year. The function of these plans is to determine actions or activities to be performed
so as to maintain strategic and tactical plans.
b) Policy -it is a past or current statement or series of statements which explain, recommend or
exclude a course of action or actions to be taken to run the institution. These statements are
usually written, but they could be oral.
Procedure it explains how activities are to be carried out. This procedure will have steps to
be taken at various levels. By defining these steps and the sequence in which they are to be
taken, procedures "provide a standardized way of responding to a repetitive problem".
21
Conclusion
Change and advancement of knowledge are inevitable in any society and to live up to the expectations of
the new needs, a futuristic approach to planning is very important. It is must for the efficient functioning
of an educational institute to plan to upgrade its all activities, curricular, co-curricular, R & D etc. to work
for developing the integrated human personalities. The Institutional Planning helps in meeting its
objectives by reducing duplicities of efforts, reducing uncertainties, increasing controls, providing
competitive edge. Effective planning always makes basis of an efficient institute.
Bibliography
2. Edgar F. Huse, Management, West Publishing Company, Minnesota, 1995.
3. Harold Koontz and Cyril O‘Donnel, Essentials of Management, Tata McGraw Hill, 2000.
4. L.A. Allen, Management and Organisation, Tokyo, McGraw-Hill, 1980.
5. MISHRA, V., PUNDIR, V., INSTITUTIONAL PLANNING: THE WORKING PRINCIPLES,
ZENITH International Journal of Multidisciplinary ResearchVol.1 Issue 6, October 2011, ISSN
2231 5780 avl at www.zenithresearch.org.in 241.
6. Planning and Management in Higher Education. Study material for the course of PGDHE.
IGNOU, New Delhi
7. Robert Albanese, Management toward Accountability and Performance, Richard D., Irwin,
Homewood, Illinois, 1990.
11. http://www.preservearticles.com/education/what-are-the-main-aims-and-objectives-of-
12. http://www.shareyouressays.com/knowledge/what-are-the-important-characteristics-of-
13. https://www.tutorialspoint.com/management_principles/management_principles_types_plans.htm
14. http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/educational-management/institutional-management-meaning-
and-components. Institutional Management: Meaning and Components, Diksha Kashyap
22
16. http://www.managementhelp.org/plan_dec/mbo/mbo.htm

Videos on-
 Planning : Concept and Importance
 Importance of Planning in Institutions
 Types of Planning- Strategic and Operational
Web resources:
 An Overview of Institutional Planning
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eEqyh0r3WSw
 Institutional Planning by Peeyush Malhotra Gurdaspuria

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4PCByqocGdc
23
UNIT – 8.3
STRATEGIC PLANNING FOR FUTURE GROWTH

AND DEVELOPMENT
Contents Page No.
Broad Objective 3
Learning Outcomes 3
Introduction 3
8.3.1 Need and importance 4
 Strategic Planning: Concept
 Definition of Strategy
 Strategic Planning Vs Long Range Planning
 Need for Strategic Planning (Why Do It?)
 When should it be done?
 Who should do it?
Practice Test 7
Feedback 8
8.3.2 Strategic Planning Process 9
 A Model for Strategic Planning
 Steps in Strategic Planning
Practice Test 17
Feedback 17
8.3.3Swot Analysis 18
 Purposes of SWOT analysis
Practice Test 22
Feedback 22
8.3.4 Vision And Mission Formulation 24
 Mandate
 Examples of Mandate
 Criteria for Validation of Mandate
 Outcomes of Mandate Clarification
 Mission
 Length of Mission Statement
 Example of Mission Statement
 Our Core Values
 Envisioning - Developing a Vision for the
Institution
 Concept of Vision
 Envisioning
 Shared Vision
 Reasons for Envisioning
 Four Approaches to Planning
1
 Components of A Vision Statement
 Attributes of an Inspirational Vision
 A Process for Developing the Vision Statement
 Examples of Vision Statements
 Excerpts from the Vision Statement of Birla
Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi- 835
215
 Benefits of Vision Statements
Practice Test 37
Feedback 37
Conclusion 39
Bibliography 39
2
UNIT – 8.3
STRATEGIC PLANNING FOR FUTURE GROWTH
AND DEVELOPMENT
NITTTR, Chandigarh
Broad objectives
The broad objectives of the unit are to make participants
appreciate the importance of strategic planning for the growth
and development of any institution. Vision and mission
formulation based on the SWOT analysis and future goals
form important input for the learners.
Learning Outcomes
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
 Define Strategic Planning
 List the eight steps involved in the strategic planning process
 Identify the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats to a sample educational
institute
 Distinguish between “Mandate “and “Mission” and design a Mission statement for his
institute
 Specify the components and attributes of a Vision statement
 Describe the procedure to be followed for developing a Vision statement for his / her
organisation
Introduction
Strategic Planning is one of the key elements of successful management in higher education
institutions. It is a means of establishing major directions for the institution, department or the unit.
Strategic Planning process relies on the theoretical frame work of institutional management theory of
examining inside and outside the environment for taking decisions regarding institutional goals of
future. Strategic visionary actions and planning process are a way to systematically plan the
development of open education resources and practices for the future. Strategic planning processes are
considered to be a powerful tool and guideline for helping all levels of higher education institutions to
3
develop their strategic plan, and to find their competitive advantage and place within their
environment.
In this unit, you shall understand the need and importance of strategic planning for any educational
institution. You shall also understand the systematic process involved in making a strategic plan,
using SWOT analysis as a base for the same. The unit shall also help you in formulating the mission
and vision statement for your institution.
8.3.1 Need and importance

 Strategic Planning: Concept
Strategic Planning is a future oriented process wherein an organisation specifies what it
wishes to become and how it proposes to get there.
Strategic Planning helps an organisation to proactively shape its future and determine the path
and milestones that determine actual performance. Strategic Planning is a continuous,
participatory and systematic process of clarifying the organisation‟s direction, that is, its
mandate and mission, assessing its internal resources in terms of its strengths and weaknesses
and its external environment in term of its opportunities and threats, setting goals and
identifying viable strategies.
 Definition of Strategy: Strategy is a way of using the organisation‟s internal resources to

respond to its external environment I order to be successful.
 Strategic Planning Vs Long Range Planning

Strategic Planning (S.P.) and Long Range Planning (L.R.P.) for organizations are often used
synonymously. However, they differ in the following five fundamental aspects.
4
 Basis for Planning
Strategic Planning emphasizes assessment of the environment outside and inside the
organisation far more than long-range planning does. Long Range Planning was the
predecessor of Strategic Planning. Strategic Planning advanced planning process across
another threshold. Planning became more externally oriented than previously, with
environment scanning including increased focus on markets and competition. Resource
audits or assessments were conducted more realistically with resources being allocated to
areas where present and future opportunities to succeed were found rather than by
traditional approaches based on past practise.
 Focus
While both L.R.P. and S.P. focus on what an organisation should do to improve its
performance, Strategic Planning relies more on identifying and resolving issues, while
L.R.P. focuses more on specifying goals and objectives and translating them into
Budgets.
 Methodology
Strategic Planners picture an idealised version of the organisation- “Vision of Success”
and design ways of achieving it. While long-range plans typically are linear
extrapolations of the present, Strategic Plans often represent Qualitative shifts in
direction. Unlike L.R.P., in Strategic Planning there are more rigorous evaluations of
Strategic alternatives. Strategic Planners usually consider a range of possible futures and
as a result consider a variety of possible actions and try to keep the Organisation‟s
options open as much as possible so that it can respond promptly and effectively to
unforeseen contingencies. Long- range planners, tend to assume a most likely future, and
then work backward to map out the sequence of decisions and actions necessary to reach
the assumed future.
 Stakeholders involved in Planning

Long Range Plan is usually prepared by the Chief Executive Officer and Senior Managers
(Top Down Model). Strategic Planning is done involving all the staff of the organisation
and its customers (Bottom Up model). It nurtures participatory management.
 Frequency
Long Range Planning is usually done once in three or five years. Strategic Planning is
done continually and hence it adapts to reality.
5
 Need for Strategic Planning (Why Do It?)
In the past few decades, Strategic Planning has become a standard part of managerial thinking
and practice in the business world. However, only recently, the public and non-profit
organisations including educational institutions have become aware of the benefits of
Strategic Planning.
The following are the benefits of Strategic Planning :
 It enhances an institution‟s capability to proactively anticipate the changes

needed, cause the changes and manage them. So, Strategic Planning is the most
suitable approach to manage an institution, which operates in a changing
environment. The changes may result in offering new products and services as
well as modifying the institution‟s systems and processes.
 Strategic Planning is not a top down approach. It is a bottom up approach, which

requires participation of all the STAKEHOLDERS in the planning process. This
involvement, in particular, of the employees of the organisation makes them co-
owners of the plan and increases their commitment to the implementation of the
plan.
 Definition of Stakeholder: Any person, group or organisation that can place a claim
on an organisation‟s attention / resources / output OR is affected by the output.
 It enables an organisation to optimally utilise its resources to maximise its

performance and power.
 Stakeholders
 DTE
 Principal
 Professors/ Heads of Depts.
 Teachers& Support Staff
 Students & Families
 Employers &Community at large
 Definition of Power: The ability to cause change. As Strategic Planning is done

continually, it adapts to reality.
6
 When should it be done?
Strategic Planning should be done CONTINUALLY. Documented plans are produced
periodically (One or Two or Three Years) for Communication purposes. As the plan must
adapt to reality, planning has to be continuous. Strategic THIKING and ACTING must be
always present.
Strategic Planning should not be done under the following circumstances:
1. When there is no top down support for planning, and

2. When facing an immediate crisis where action is the only alternative.
 Who should do it?

Every one in the institution should be involved in the Strategic Planning Process. Since all the
operational Personnel in an organisation contribute to the Strategic Planning process, the
process itself is considered to be BOTTOM-UP. Strategic Planning cascades through the
entire institution from highest authorities to lowest level staff in the institution.
Aligning the people in the organisation with the Strategic plan is a must for effective
implementation of the plan.
Thus, strategic planning will enable an institution to clarify its future directions, establish
priorities and make decisions across levels and functions in order to serve its stakeholders
effectively, efficiently and responsibly.
Practice Task
a) _____________ helps an organisation to proactively shape its future and determine the path and
milestones that determine actual performance.
b) Strategic Planning is a ________ , __________ and __________ process of clarifying the

organisation‟s direction.
c) Aligning ____________ in the organisation with the strategic plan is a must for its effective
implementation.
d) Any person, group or organisation that can place a claim on an organisation‟s attention / resources /
output OR is affected by the output is known as a __________ .
7
Q2. Short questions
a) What do you understand by Strategic Planning?
b) How is strategic planning different from long range planning? Mention any two points of
difference.
c) Give any two benefits of strategic planning
Feedback
A. 1. Fill in the blanks
a. Strategic Planning
b. continuous, participatory and systematic
c. people
d. stakeholder
A. 2. Short answers
a) Strategic Planning is a future oriented process wherein an organisation specifies what it

wishes to become and how it proposes to get there.
b) Two points of difference between strategic planning and long range planning are:
 Strategic Planning emphasizes assessment of the environment outside and inside the
organisation far more than long-range planning does. Long Range Planning was the
predecessor of Strategic Planning.
 Strategic Planning relies more on identifying and resolving issues, while L.R.P. focuses
more on specifying goals and objectives and translating them into Budgets.
c) The following are the benefits of Strategic Planning:
 It enhances an institution‟s capability to proactively anticipate the changes needed, cause

the changes and manage them.
 It is a bottom up approach, which requires participation of all the STAKEHOLDERS in

the planning process. This involvement, in particular, of the employees of the
organisation makes them co-owners of the plan and increases their commitment to the
implementation of the plan.
8
8.3.2 Strategic Planning Process
Dear friends, I am sure that by now you must have understood the need and importance of Strategic
Planning for any educational institution for planning the directions of its growth and development.
You must have also understood that the preparation of a strategic plan is the responsibility of each and
every individual in the institute i.e. top management to the lowest level staff. In this section, we shall
understand the process involved in framing a strategic plan for an institution.
 A Model for Strategic Planning

Bryson (1988) developed a model for carrying out Strategic Planning in Public and Non profit
organisations. This model represents Strategic planning as a cyclical process consisting of
eight steps. An adapted version of this model is presented in figure.
9
 Steps in Strategic Planning
 Step 1 : Initiate a Strategic Planning Process
The first step involves three activities listed below :
1. Agreeing on a Strategic Planning Process and committing to it.

2. Constituting a Strategic Planning Group.
3. Training the members of the Strategic Planning Group.
 Activity 1 : Agreeing on a Strategic Planning Process and committing to it
Negotiate agreement with key internal (and perhaps external) decision- makers or
opinion leaders about the overall Strategic Planning effort and the key planning steps.
Their support and commitment are vital if Strategic Planning is to succeed.
 Activity 2 : Constituting a Strategic Planning Group
A Strategic Planning Group (S.P.G) has to be constituted for carrying out the various
tasks involved in formulating the Strategic Plan. The size of the group should not be
very large, 10 to 12 is ideal. The Strategic Planning Group may consist of the
following persons.
1. Director or Principal or his / her designate

2. Secretary (Process Champion)
3. All or a few Heads of Departments
4. One person having great writing skill
5. One person having great facilitation skills
10
Note: The SPG may also include at least one-woman representative.
Definition of Process Champion : Process champion is a person selected to act as the

chief coordinator of the entire strategic planning process. He / she will serve as the
Secretary of the Strategic planning Group.
The role, functions and membership of the Strategic Planning Group have top be
specified. The resources necessary to proceed with the Strategic Planning effort have to
be provided.
 Activity 3 : Training the members of the SPG
All the members of the SPG should be trained in (i) developing a Strategic plan and
(ii) Strategic management
 Step 2 : Clarify Institutional Mandate and Mission
 Activity 1 : Clarify the mandate

Mandate refers to what the institution is required to do by the outside authorising
body i.e., the legitimate higher authority (Govt./Board of Governors). Thus, mandate
is a set of externally sourced requirements and restrictions.
Actually, it is surprising how few organisations know precisely what they are
mandated to do and not do. Many organisations make one or both of two
fundamentals mistakes. Either they believe they are more tightly constrained in their
actions than they are; or they assume that if they are not explicitly told to do
something they are not allowed to do it.
Hence the mandate of the organisation has to be clarified.

 Activity 2 : Clarify Institutional Mission
The Mission statement highlights what the organisation wishes to do and become
within and beyond its mandate.
11
The mission statement is developed by the people who work in the institution, i.e Director /
Principal, faculty and staff.
The mission statement indicates institutional purpose, the general services it will provide to
respond to the needs of its stakeholders and its core values.
 Step 3 : Conduct „SWOT‟ Analysis
“SWOT” is a simple acronym for Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats. SWOT
analysis consists of the following two activities:
1. An assessment of the organisation‟s internal Strengths and Weaknesses and

2. An assessment of the Opportunities and Threats posed by its external environment
SWOT analysis provides a framework for strategic planning by helping the planners to
identify and prioritise their GOALS based on their MISSION. Further it helps in identifying
the ISSUES involved in achieving those goals as well as providing input for strategies to
resolve issues.
 Activity 1 : Assessing the Internal Environment
Internal scan or assessment of the internal environment of the institutional involves

identification of its strengths and weaknesses i.e., those aspects that help or hinder
accomplishment of the institution‟s mission and fulfilment of its mandate with respect to
the following Four Ps:
1. People (Human Resources)
2. Properties (Buildings, Equipments and other facilities)
3. Processes (Such as student placement services, M.I.S etc.)
4. Products (Students, Publications etc.)
 Activity 2 : Assessing the External Environment
External scan refers to exploring the environment outside the institution in order to
identify the opportunities and threats it faces. This involves considering the following:
1. Events, trends and forces in the Social, Technological, Economics, Environment

and Political areas (STEEP).
2. Identifying the shifts in the needs of customers and potential clients and
3. Identification of competitors and collaborators.
12
 Step 4 : Identify Thrust Areas
Based on the Mandate and Mission and using the SWOT analysis information the Strategic
Planning Group through a participatory process based on consensus has to identity a few
Strategic directions or Thrust areas for the development of the Organisation.
A thrust area is an important functional area of the organisation requiring change. It

will be related to an important output of the organisation. Unlike micro-level operations
(small activities), a thrust area will represent a major functional area like the examples given
below.
 Industry Institute Linkages

 Curriculum Development
 Continuing Education Programmes
 Management Information System
 Staff Development
 Facilities Development
 Student Services
 Environment Development
 Women in Development
13
 Step 5 : Formulate Goals and Identify Issues
Under each thrust area, a number of goals can be identified. The planners have to develop
goal statements for each goal. The goal statement should indicate what the organisation wants
to achieve and the reasons (rationale).
Further, for each goal, a number of “issues” can be identified. Issues are the problems to be
solved or overcome in achieving the goals. Issues are usually framed as questions starting
with “How will we…”or “How can we…”?”. Issues can be identified by asking a series of
questions such as Why, What, Who, When, Where and With what resources etc.
 Step 6 : Formulate Strategies and Projects
Strategy is a way of using the organisation‟s internal resources to respond to its external
circumstances in order to be successful. As effective strategy will build on strengths and take
advantage of opportunities while it minimizes or overcomes weaknesses and threats.
Strategy development begins with identification of practical alternatives for resolving the
issues. The planning team should also identify the barriers in resolving the issues. A focus on
barriers at this point helps to assure that the strategies chosen deal with implementation
difficulties directly rather than haphazardly.
After identifying a number of alternatives for resolving each issue, the planners have to
choose the most appropriate strategy by applying well –defined criteria. An effective strategy
will meet several criteria. It must be technically workable, politically acceptable to key
stakeholders and must be consistent with the institution‟s philosophy and core values. It
should be ethical, moral and legal.
 What makes the planning process Strategic?
Those actions that enable us to continually adapt, innovate, resolve issues and overcome
barriers. Strategies lead to ACTION, which leads to CHANGE.
Each Strategy chosen may be subdivided into a number of projects. i.e., a strategy can
be thought of as an integrated list of projects selected to achieve a goal.
For each project, the objectives or expected results have to be specified.
14
 Step 7 : Develop Work Plan and Action Plans
A work plan is a chart that shows the list of projects related to each of the goals in a thrust
area and indicates the time frame for each project (when each project should start and end).
Work Plan is used to develop more detailed plans called Action plan.
An Action Plan deals with the major tasks to be performed in order to complete a project. For
each task it specifies who will do it, how it will be done, when it will be done and what major
resources are needed to carry it out. It will also include indicators of success for the results
expected from the project.
Note: After developing the work plan and action plans, the planners have to compile all the
outputs of the seven steps of the planning process into a strategic plan of the
organisation. The plan should be disseminated to all the stakeholders before its
implementation.
15
 Interrelationship between Work Plan and Action Plan and Goals and Projects
In the action plan, for each task we have to specify who will do it, how it will be done, when
it will be done and what major resources are needed to carry it out. We must also specify the
indicators of success for each action plan. Indicators of success are criteria like Products,
Services, or Decisions that are observable (and time bound) and show that a project has been
achieved.
A format for action plan is given in figure below :
 Step 8 : Develop a Vision for the Institution
A vision statement is future oriented, setting the direction for the institution from a long-term
perspective. In the final step of the Strategic Planning process, the institution develops a
description of what it should look like as it successfully implements its strategies and
achieves its full potential. This description can be called as institution “VISION OF
SUCCESS”. Typically included in such description are the institution mission, its Strategic
goals, its performance criteria, basic approach to Strategic Management, core values and the
ethical standards expected of all employees. A Vision that motivates people will be
challenging enough to spur action, yet not so impossible to achieve that it demotivites and
demoralises people.
However, most organisations will be able to develop a “VISION OF SUCCESS”only after

two or more cycles of Strategic Planning. Going through several iterations of Strategic
Planning enables the planners to develop a vision of success.
16
Strategic Planning is a reiterative process. The simultaneous and ongoing procedures of
planning and implementing plans will require scrupulous monitoring and evaluating and the
flexibility to adapt, modify and update whenever necessary.
Practice Task
Q1. Short questions
a) What makes the planning process Strategic?
b) Mention briefly the various steps in strategic planning process
Feedback
A 1. Short answers
a. Those actions that enable us to continually adapt, innovate, resolve issues and overcome
barriers make the planning process strategic.
b. Various steps in strategic planning process are
A. Initiate a Strategic Planning Process
 Agreeing on a Strategic Planning Process and committing to it.

 Constituting a Strategic Planning Group.
 Training the members of the Strategic Planning Group.
B. Clarify Institutional Mandate and Mission
C. Conduct „SWOT‟ Analysis
D. Identify Thrust Areas
E. Formulate Goals and Identify Issues
F. Formulate Strategies and Projects
G. Develop Work Plan and Action Plans
H. Develop a Vision for the Institution
17
8.3.3Swot Analysis
 Purposes of SWOT analysis

SWOT analysis is conducted in order to identify an organization‟s internal Strengths and
Weaknesses and also the Opportunities and Threats posed by its external environment.
It enables the planners to identify the following:

(1) Strengths : Internal things we have that are good OR do well
(2) Weaknesses : Internal things we do not have OR d not do well
(3) Opportunities : External factors that may help in the achievement

of our Mission.
(4) Threats : External factors that may be barriers to the

achievement of our Mission.
 Internal Scan
For the internal scan the guide is to examine the four Ps- People, Properties, Processes and
Products.
(i) People (Human Resources)

,
 Teaching Staff
 Administrative Staff
 Technical Supporting Staff
 Number of staff available
 Their qualifications, commitment, motivation etc.
(ii) Properties
Infrastructure, Buildings, Labs, Libraries, Workshop, Auditorium, Guest House,
Equipment, Machinery, Tools, Vehicles, Furniture etc.,
(iii) Processes
 Governance
 Management & Administration
 Curriculum Development
 Teaching- Learning
18
 Student Support Services
 Information System (M.I.S.)
 Communication
(iv) Products
 Students
 Percentage of Pass in the Examination
 Percentage of Job-Placement
 Publications
 Items manufactured/fabricated in the Production Centre
 External Scan
For the external scan the planners have to identify and evaluate the Social, Technological,
Economic, Environmental and Political factors (STEEP) in the environment outside the
organization, which affect its success or survival.
(i) Social Factors : Demographics, Participation of

Women, Opportunities and access to
training for disadvantaged people.
(ii) Technological factors: Impact of Computers, Modern

Communication technologies etc.
(iii) Economic factors : Liberalisation, Privatization and
19
Globalisation of Economy, Development
of specific industries, Unemployment and
Underemployment, Development of
Entrepreneurs etc.
(iv) Environmental Factors: Depletion of Natural resources,

Environmental sustainability, Pollution
control, Energy consumption, Regulations
of World Trade Organisation.
(v) Political Factors : Legislation affecting education and t

training, Control of Curriculum,
Budgets and teacher qualification, Degree
of central versus local control etc.
 Information Sources
Conduct a brain storming session to identify the sources of information for

(i) Internal scan and
(ii) External scan
Discuss the difference between “Population” and “Sample” and the use of different
techniques for sample selection and select an appropriate percentage of the population as the
sample for data collection.
 Information Sources
 Questionnaires
 Suitable for conducting confidential written surveys on large
Numbers such as students
20
 Interview Schedules
 Suitable for small number of powerful individuals.
 Observation Schedules
 Suitable for assessing (i) the infrastructural facilities and their
maintenance and (ii) the various institutional processes like Teaching-learning,
Student services etc.
 Methods of Collecting Data
 Mailing the Questionnaire

 Personally administering the Questionnaire
 Conducting interviews
 Making on-site visits for observation
 Data Analysis
The data collected through above sources is analysed to finalise the results. For this purpose
various statistical tools are used for finding the inference from the collected data.
Thus, for finding the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats to an institution, the
strategic planning team need to answer the following questions.
QUESTIONS
STRENGTHS - What makes us special?

- What resources (input) strategies (Processes) and performances
(outputs) do we handle well? (Focus on the “Four Ps”)
- What are our major internal strengths ?
WEAKNESSES - What are our soft spots?

- What resources (inputs) , strategies (Processes) and performances
(outputs) do we not handle well or at all ? (Focus on the “Four
Ps”)
- What our major internal weaknesses?
OPPORTUNITIES - What trends and events can help us?

- What are the positive social, technological, economic,
environmental and political forces on us? (Focus on the
“STEEP”)
- What are our major external opportunities?
21
THREATS - What trends and events can hinder us?
- What are the negative social, technological, economic,
environmental and political force3s on us? (Focus on the
- “STEEP”)
- What are our major external threats?
-
The answers of the above questions gives an incite to the strategic planning team about the
strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats to the institution.
Practice Task
a) SWOT analysis is conducted in order to identify an organization‟s internal ___________ and

___________ along with ________ and __________.
b) For the internal scan the guide is to examine the four Ps _______ , _________, ___________ and
__________ .
Q2. Short questions:
a) Why is SWOT analysis done?
b) What are the four Ps in Internal scan?
c) What are the external factors affecting organisational environment?
d) Name various sources of information for internal and external scans?
Feedback
A.1 Fill ups:

a. Strengths and Weaknesses , Opportunities and Threats
b. People, Properties, Processes and Products.
22
A.2. Short answers
a) SWOT analysis is done in order to identify an organization‟s internal Strengths and

Weaknesses and also the Opportunities and Threats posed by its external
environment.
b) The four Ps in internal scan are People, Properties, Processes and Products.
c) The external factors are Social, Technological, Environmental, Economic and
Political
d) The various sources of information for internal and external scans are
 Questionnaires
 Interview Schedules
 Observation Schedules
23
8.3.4 Vision And Mission Formulation
Vision and Mission statement gives an institution the direction to work in future. Based on the
vision of the institutional leaders, an institute prepares its goals and targets and also prepares
strategies to achieve these goals. Institute also formulates work plan and action plan and
identifies various issues involved in the fulfilment of planned goals and targets. In this
section we shall discuss how vision and mission statement is formulated in an institution.
While formulating the mission statement the intuitional planners also need to understand,
what is the mandate of the institution
 Mandate
Mandate is a brief description of what the organisation must do and is permitted to do by the
legitimate higher authorities in their formal statements, policies and communications.
Mandate is a set of externally sourced requirements and restrictions.
While clarifying and preparing the mandate always ask and be aware of:
What is and is not ruled out by the mandate ?

emandate?
Some Educational organisations do not know precisely what they are mandated to do or not
do. They make one or both of two fundamental mistakes. Either they believe they are more
tightly constrained in their actions than they are; or they assume that if they are not explicitly
told to do something they are not allowed to do it.
 Examples of Mandate
Illustrative example of mandate is given below:
Government College of Engineering Pune, Maharashtra State
Mandate
The college is affiliated to the University of Pune and offers AICTE approved Under Graduate, Post
Graduate and Research Programmes in Engineering to candidates selected according to State prescribed
norms, using the curriculum prescribed by the University to meet the requirements of technical manpower.
The institution is administered by the Director of Technical Education and is funded by the State
Government.
The College has the responsibility to fulfil the human resource development needs of industry, business, the
service sector and society at large.
24
 Criteria for Validation of Mandate
 Does it include all the major responsibilities and duties of your organisation (if not,
include them and make it comprehensive).
 Does it contain certain things, which you wish to do? (if so, delete them from the mandate
and include them in your mission statement).
 Outcomes of Mandate Clarification
 Increased awareness of the actual mandate by the staff of the organisation and its other
stakeholders.
 Increased possibility of developing a mission that is not limited by a perception of what
the mandate is thought to prohibit.
 Mission
Mission refers to what the organisation wishes to do and become within and beyond its
mandate. The mission statement indicates organisational purpose, the general services it will
provide to respond to the needs of its stakeholders and a declaration of its core values.
A Mission Statement consists of four basic elements listed below: Purpose, Stakeholders,
Goals and Values.
 Purpose
Why the institution exists? – This is derived from and should summarise the mandate.
Every institution exists to serve the needs of some external client. This external focus
should be reflected in the statement of purpose.
 Stakeholders
A stakeholder is defined as any person, group, or organisation that can place a claim
on an organisation‟s attention, resources, or output, or is affected by that output.
Before developing a mission statement, an organisation should complete a

stakeholder analysis.
Stakeholders of an engineering Institute are :
25
Student parents Teachers Staff.
A complete stakeholder analysis will require the Strategic Planning team to identify
the organisation‟s stakeholders, their criteria for judging the performance of the
organisation, and in general how important the various stakeholders are. The
stakeholder analysis will enable the planners to decide how they should respond to
meet the expectations of their key stakeholders.
 Goals
What an institution aspires to do or become? Goals should be expressed in terms and

contexts that are relevant to the client and should add qualitatively and quantitatively
to the purpose of the institution.
 Core Values
Values are basic convictions about what is right or wrong, good or bad, desirable or
undesirable. The core values (most important values) of an organisation have to be
specified in the mission statement.
Examples:
 Equity  Staff development

 Quality  Environment development
 Innovation
The core values will help an organisation maintain its integrity. They will also
indicate “What makes the organisation distinctive or unique?”. If there is nothing
unique or distinctive about the organisation, perhaps it should not exist.
Values drive the organisation.
 Length of Mission Statement
The mission statement has to be brief; however it should be long enough to reach the target
audience.
26
 Example of Mission Statement
GOVERNMENT COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

PUNE, MAHARASHTRA STATE
MISSION STATEMENT
The College is committed to provide quality technical education and research & development
services to meet the needs of industry, business, the service sector and society at large.
The College aims to
 Become a Centre of Excellence in specific areas of engineering such as Biomedical

Engineering, Information Technology, Computer Aided Manufacturing and Non
Conventional Energy Sources.
 Deliver training using IT Enabled services.
 Provide continuing education opportunities in a dynamic learning environment.
 Facilitate the all round development of the students.
 Serve the changing needs of industry, including research and development
organizations, by establishing linkages and partnerships for providing training and
consultancy.
 Establish strong linkages with Alumni for the development of this heritage institution.
 Get autonomous status to ensure the relevance of the curricula.
 Our Core Values
 Openness
 Equity
 Development of Women
 Environmental Sustainability
27
 Envisioning - Developing a Vision for the Institution
Developing a Vision statement is the final step in the Strategic Planning process. This is done
when the Strategic Planning process and implementation have achieved some degree of
success i.e., after two or more cycles of Strategic Planning. Going through several iterations
of strategic planning enables. the planners to gain the maturity needed to develop a Vision of
success for their orqanisatton. The consensus on key decisions and the ability to resolve
conflicts constructively (both necessary to develop an effective Vision statement) are likely to
emerge only after several cycles of Strategic Planning.
 Concept of Vision
A Vision statement describes how the organisation will look when it is functioning well
(Vision of Success / Vision of Excellence). It is a guiding image of success formed in terms
of contributions to society. If a Strategic Plan is the 'Blue print' for an institution's work, then
the Vision is the "artist's rendering" of the achievement of the plan. A Vision statement is
future oriented, setting· the directions for the organisation from a long-term perspective. A
Vision of success should not be merely an extension of the present. It should picture an ideal
and inspirational future.
If you want to move people, it has to be toward Vision that is

positive for them, that taps important values, that gets them
something they desire and it has to be presented in a
compelling way that they feel inspired to follow.
Martin Luther King, Jr
The Vision of an institution is a concise word picture of the institution at some future time,
which sets the overall direction of the organisation. It is what the organisation strives to be. A
Vision is something to be pursued, while a mission is something to be accomplished. A
Mission is a statement that specifies an organisation's purpose or "reason for being". The
organisation's plans & programmes will be prioritised and designed to achieve the mission
within a specified time. A Mission statement .enables an organisation to integrate its short-
term goals with longer-term goals highlighted in the Vision. Thus, a mission statement helps
an organisation to achieve its Vision in a phased manner. A Vision will be enduring; for a
single Vision statement, an organisation may have to formulate number of Mission
statements. Each Mission leads to number of programmes and projects.
28
A Vision provides an organisation with a forward-looking, idealised image of itself and its
uniqueness. It provides members of the organisation with a view of the future that can be
shared, a clear sense of direction, a mobilisation of energy and a sense of being engaged in
something important.
A Vision provides an organisation with a sense of how things can be - what the promised land
looks like - and a belief that it is possible to arrive safely in that promised land. It gives
members of the organisation a sense of pride and purpose - a sense of uniqueness that instills
an esprit and a level of motivation that allows the organisation to function at a higher /
different level than was previously thought possible.
A Vision must be both comprehensive and detailed. A Vision of an organisation as "World

Class" or as "the industry leader" lacks the specificity that triggers aspiration in ways that
energise actions.
Vision without action is merely a dream

Action without Vision merely passes the time
Vision with action can change the organisation
 Envisioning
Envisioning is the process by which individuals or groups develop a Vision or dream of a

future state for their organisation that is both sufficiently clear and powerful to arouse and
sustain the actions necessary for that dream to become a reality.
In traditional long-range planning the assumption is one of a continuous future and there is
not a need to regard the future state of the organisation as substantially different from its past
and present state. Envisioning assumes that the organisation has or is experiencing a need for
transformation, that is, the organisation now understands that its future must be discontinuous
from its past and present.
Envisioning is a creative act. Visions are developed much like the playwright's script, starting
with an idea and then elaborating more and more.
Envisioning requires a different kind of mind-set than is typically involved in solving the day-
29
to-day operational problems in an institution. The planners should be open to new ideas and
understand and accept the need and opportunity for change.
 Shared Vision
Having a Vision statement is not enough. The Vision must be shared; the Vision comes alive
only when it is shared. The Vision must directly involve the followers and empower them.
The reiterative process of excitement and commitment occurs at the moment of sharing the
Vision as well as throughout the process of implementing the Vision.
Envisioning focuses on the end goal (the desired future state), not the means to reach the goal.
Indeed, one way for the followers to develop a sense of ownership for the Vision .is to
develop the mission, the means by which the Vision will be fulfilled.
 Reasons for Envisioning
What are the motives for developing a Vision statement for an organisation ?
 A perceived need for a common Vision and a sense of teamwork

 An experienced desire to control the organisation's destiny
 A wish to obtain / generate more resources for the operation
 A realisation that the organisation's current operational success was
no guarantee for the future
 The desire to exploit a new opportunity or deal with a new threat
 The need to pass the torch and carry it
 Four Approaches to Planning
There are four different approaches to planning (Ackoff, 1981) :
 Reactive Approach
 Planning through the rear-view mirror
 Occurs in historically static environments where the organisations
have a long history of success
 Focuses on the past. rather than the future
 Resistance to change
30
 Inactive Approach
 Going with the flow

 Ignores the need for planning
 Involves a high degree of risk
 Preactive Approach
 Preparing for the future

 The organisation assumes that the future is a given and its best
strategy is to figure out the shape of that future and prepare for it
 Proactive Approach
 Designing the future and making it happen

 The organisation believes that its own actions can shape its future. (The future is not
pre-ordinated or fixed)
 Focus is on the question of what the organisation must do differently in the future
(What should you be doing in your organisation that you are not doing today?).
 Although an organisation will need to respond to opportunities and threats beyond
its control, shaping its future can be an interactive effort and allows the organisation
to proactively shape its best possible future
For envisioning, "Proactive approach to planning" has to be adopted.
 Components of A Vision Statement
A Vision statement has to provide suitable guidance and motivation. Hence it should include:
 Mission Statement
 Strategic Goals
 Effectiveness Indicators
 Core Values and Ethical Standards
 Basic approach to Strategic Management
 Decision making process
 Short statement or slogan
31
The Vision should include a promise that the institution will support its members in pursuit of
the Vision.
The Vision statement should be short - not more than five double-spaced typewritten pages -
and inspiring.
 Attributes of an Inspirational Vision
An inspirational Vision has the following attributes:
 Focuses on a better future

 Encourages hopes and dreams
 Appeals to common values
 States positive outcomes
 Emphasises the strength of a united group
 Uses word pictures. images and metaphors
 Communicates enthusiasm & kindles excitement
 A Process for Developing the Vision Statement
 The Strategic Planning Group (SPG) that has been deeply involved in the Strategic
Planning process and the implementation should meet for a day to develop the first
draft of the Vision.
 The facilitator should create an image of an ideal future and then map back to the
present. An effective Vision will embody the appropriate degree of tension to prompt
effective organisational change. Too much tension will cause paralysis. On the other
hand too little tension will not produce the challenge necessary for outstanding
performance.
 Each member may be asked to write a Vision statement for the organisation and then
share it with the group. The facilitator can summarise and synthesize the statements.
 The task of drafting a Vision should be assigned to an individual; an inspirational
document rarely is written by a Committee.
 The draft must be reviewed by the group at the end of the day.
32
 Consensus on the substance and style of the Vision statement must be sought with
other groups of stakeholders through workshops and discussions.
 The final draft must be approved by the apex Governing body of theorganisation.
 The Vision statement has to be published as a booklet and given to every

organisational member and to key external stakeholders. Discussion of the statement
should be made a part of orientation programmes for new employees.
 Examples of Vision Statements
 Vision Statement of a Typical Indian Polytechnic
The area served by the polytechnic will have a community-based education

and training system that will provide certificate, diploma, associate degree,
and non-credit programmes and courses to young adults and employees of
private and public sector organisations focused on those groups who are most
in need.
Learning centres and facilities, both fixed and mobile, will assist both rural
and urban communities to assess their own needs with respect to learning
services and provide those services in a variety of delivery modes. These
modes will include paper, audio-visual and electronic media as the materials
for learning, while the methods will include distance-education by post and
the electronic highway, traditional classroom and shop instruction, field
placements and on-the-job training. These services will be offered in a cost-
effective way on a cost-recovery basis to maximize access by all who need
and want these learning services. Loans and grants will be made available to
those most in need from revenue generated by the Continuing Education Cell
and other marketable services.
A specialized service to train volunteer instructors and facilitators will

increase the training capabilities of the communities linked to the
polytechnic. Local and community councils will be formed or consulted with
respect to their needs.
33
Workshops on how to form partnerships will further increase the capabilities
of these community based groups to garner the resources needed to enhance
the lives of their respective local populations.
The polytechnic will initiate and maintain partnerships with local community
agencies, business and industry associations and societies, government
agencies, Non-Government organisations, labour unions and specific
businesses and industries to keep the curriculum up to date, find job
placements for students and graduates, secure equipment, materials and guest
lecturers and build the image of the polytechnic. The concepts of "customer
service" and "meeting the customer's needs" will be foremost in the design,
development, delivery and follow-up of all learning services.
The centres of excellence in each major occupational area being taught will
be developed with appropriate partners.
The highest standards of moral and ethical behaviour will be demonstrated by

all staff, thus demonstrating what is expected of all students in terms of their
behaviour.
The development of the competence of the staff in technical, professional,

academic and personal skills will be supported, encouraged and rewarded.
A system of continuous improvement will characterize the changing and

innovative practices of the polytechnic. Teams and task forces comprised of
cross-functionand cross-skill members will continuously assess and improve
the systems and processes of the polytechnic.
All governors, managers and supervisory personnel will be directly involved

in supporting all other staff to take initiatives to realize this Vision of success.
 Priority Actions to Realize the Vision of Success
 Provision of education and training for all staff in the principles and practices of
customer service, continuous improvement, team building, problem-solving,
and setting and meeting standards of performance.
34
 Collaboration with Industries, Business establishments, Commercial
organisations, Government Departments, Service organisations, Non-
Government organisations, associations and individuals to develop partnerships,
joint ventures, projects and learning service activities meeting the assessed needs
of the various target groups.
 Development and implementation of fixed and mobile training centres

whileworking with community groups, volunteer teachers, and a student-loan
system.
 Provision of professional development opportunities for all staff and special

curriculum and instructional development training for teaching staff
incorporating: employer-needs-based approaches; self-paced,
individualizedinstruction; video and computer conferencing; and the design and
development of distance education and industrial training.
 Our Short Vision Statement is :
"We Bring Quality Learning Opportunities to the Community"
Other Examples of Short Vision Statements
''Training - Anything. Any time, Any place"

"Our Graduates Excel on the job"
"We develop a Globally competitive Workforce through partnerships"
"Meeting unmet student needs"
 Excerpts from the Vision Statement of Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra,

Ranchi- 835 215
 In order to assimilate the changing needs of the times, our quest is to integrate a" the
perspectives into a well-designed Curriculum that results in more creative and logically
aware citizens.
 Nurturing Technocrats and managers for the New Millennium.
35
 Development. of individuals who can completely and confidently manage our
nation's resources with personal integrity and social responsibility.
 Establishing linkages with corporate giants in the Industry for arranging

training and Campus interview.
Our Short Vision Statement is :
"LEADERS IN TECHNICAL EDUCATION"
 Benefits of Vision Statements
A number of benefits flow from a clear, inspiring and widely shared Vision of
success :
 Provides direction.
 Reduces time and discussion on what to do next.
 Creates a focus for human energy, talent and performance.
 Encourages personnel to take initiative and be self-directed. A Vision of success
provides important permission, justification, and legitimacy to the actions and
decisions that accord with the Vision, at the same time that it establishes boundaries
of permitted behaviour.
 Motivates the staff of the organisation.
 Helps to recognise the potential barriers to be overcome
 Serves as an effective substitute for leadership
36
Practice Task

a) ____________ refers to what the organisation wishes to do and become within and
beyond its mandate.
b) ___________ are basic convictions about what is right or wrong, good or bad, desirable
or undesirable
c) Four approaches to planning are _________, _________ ,___________ and _______.
Q2. Short questions
a) Define a mandate.
b) How do you validate a mandate?
c) What do you understand by Envisioning?
d) What are the features of Proactive planning?
e) What are the components of Vision statement?
Feedback
A1. Fill in the blanks

a. Mission
b. Values
c. Reactive, Inactive, Preactive and Proactive.
A2. Short answers
a) Mandate is a brief description of what the organisation must do and is permitted to do by

the legitimate higher authorities in their formal statements, policies and communications.
b) Criteria for Validation of Mandate
 Does it include all the major responsibilities and duties of your organisation (if
not, include them and make it comprehensive).
 2. Does it contain certain things, which you wish to do? (if so, delete them from
the mandate and include them in your mission statement).
37
c) Envisioning is the process by which individuals or groups develop a vision or dream of a
future state for their organization that is both clear and powerful to arouse and sustain the
actions necessary for that dream to become a reality.
d) The features of Proactive planning are
 Designing the future and making it happen

 The institution believes that its own actions can shape its future.
 Focus is on the question of what the institution must do differently in the
future.
 Although an institution will need to respond to opportunities and threats
beyond its control, shaping its future can be an interactive effort and allows
the institution to proactively shape its best possible future
e) Components of Vision statement are the following:
 Mission Statement
 Strategic Goals
 Effectiveness Indicators
 Core Values and Ethical Standards
 Basic approach to Strategic Management
 Decision making process
 Short statement or slogan
38
Conclusion
Strategic planning is an important tool for an institution to clarify its future directions. It facilitates the
institution to establish priorities and make decisions at varied levels and functions in order to serve its
stakeholders efficiently, responsibly and effectively. A Vision and Mission statement should be
realistic and credible, well articulated and easily understood, appropriate, ambitious and responsive to
change. It should orient the institute energies and serve as a guide to action. It should be consistent
with the institutional values. In short a Vision should challenge and inspire the institutional people to
achieve the strategic goals.
Bibliography:
1. Ackoff, R.L. and Ackoff, R.L., 1981. Creating the corporate future: Plan or be planned for.
University of Texas Press.
2. Brahadeeswaran, D., Charlebois, J., Harvey, D., Heise, B., Hodson, T., and Sarkar, G., (2001)
Power Point Presentation on Strategic Planning &Management, Pune:
3. Bryson, J.M., 1988. A strategic planning process for public and non-profit organizations. Long
range planning, 21(1), pp.73-81.
4. Goodstein, L.D., Nolan, T.M. and Pfeiffer, J.W., 1993. Applied strategic planning. McGraw-Hill.
5. Pahl, N. and Richter, A., 2009. SWOT Analysis-idea, methodology and a practical
approach. Grin Verlag.
6. Rea, P.J. and Kerzner, H., 1997. Strategic planning: a practical guide. John Wiley & Sons.
7. Sinnet, W.E (1995), Strategic Planning Workshop Manual, New Delhi: ISTE and ACCC.
8. http://dev.orgwise.ca/sites/osi.ocasi.org.stage/files/resources/Strategic_Planning%20Organization
al%20Development.pdf Series -1, Organisational Development-strategic development
9. https://govinfo.library.unt.edu/npr/initiati/mfr/managebk.pdf Denise Lindsey Wells, Strategic
Management for Senior Leaders: A Handbook for Implementation
10. https://books.google.co.in/books+swot+analysis Nadine Pahl and Anne Ritcher, Swot Analysis -
Idea, Methodology and a Practical Approach
Supportive learning material: by Dr Rakesh K Wats & DR S.S. Pattnaik

Videos on
 Need and Importance
 Strategic Planning Process
 SWOT analysis
 Vision & Mission Formulation
Web resources:
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 Strategic Planning: A Model for Higher Education
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7ZSHFPwYFso
 Strategic Planning and Types of Strategic Planning

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OUHSejudhOs
 Strategic Planning Overview https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qCbSos76_Io

 Strategic Planning and SWOT Analysis
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VTH_WsyoEeM
 How to create your strategic plan. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_Q5VwDCpszY
***********
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UNIT- 8.4
ORGANISING FOR OPTIMISATION
Contents Page No
Broad Objective 3
Learning Outcomes 3
Introduction 3
8.4.1 Organising: Concept & Process 4
(A) Organising Concept 4
 Characteristics of Organising
 Importance of Organising
(B) Process of Organising 6
 Identification and enumeration of activities
 Division of activities
 Grouping-up of activities
 Assignment of group of activities
 Granting necessary rights
 Coordinating the functioning of various departments
Practice Test 7
Feedback 7
8.4.2 Organisation Structure and Design 8
(A)Organisational Structure 8
(B) Organisation Design 8

 Bureaucracy basics
 Mechanistic structure of an institution
 Organic structure of an institution
 Factors affecting organisational design in an institute
 Approaches to Organisational Design in an institute
1
Practice Test 19
Feedback 19
8.4.3Role of Responsibility, Authority and Delegation in 21
Institutional Effectiveness
 Delegation of Authority
 Management triad - of Authority, Responsibility
and Accountability
 Principles of Delegation
 Process of delegation
 Advantages of Delegation
 Barriers to Delegation
 Guidelines for Effective Delegation
Practice Test 27
Feedback 28
Conclusion 29
Bibliography 29
2
UNIT- 8.4
ORGANISING FOR OPTIMISATION

NITTTR, Chandigarh
Broad Objective
The broad objective of this unit is to make the learners aware
about the importance of organising for optimisation of
institutional resources. This learning material shall also make
them aware about the concepts of organisational design and
structures using the triad of delegation of authority-
responsibility and accountability for the effectiveness of an
Learning Outcomes
 Explain the concept of organising and its role in the optimisation of institutional resources.
 Explain the process of organising.
 Understand the concept of organisation design and organisational structure.
 Identify relevant organisational structure for his own institution based on application, advantages
and disadvantages of different organisational structures.
 Understand the importance of delegation of authority for enhancing the effectiveness and
efficiency of the institution.
 Identify the importance of authority , responsibility and accountability in the management of an
institution and correlate the same in his own institution.
Introduction
Organising in an institute involves coordination of activities, integration of actions and balanced approach
of all individuals working for achieving institutional objectives. It focuses on the optimum utilisation of
all types of resources present in and around the institution. To achieve the desired goals, the people
belonging to various hierarchical levels are delegated powers and responsibilities. The institutions are
designed differently on the basis of nature of responsibilities, delegations of authorities and size of
institution.
3
In this unit you will be have the understanding of the importance organising, its features and the process
in an institution. You shall learn the concept of the organisational structure of an institution along with the
delegation of authority and responsibility - accountability relationship for the smooth running of an
8.4.1Organising: Concept & Process

(A) Organising Concept:
Organising means collective working of two or more individuals. It involves coordination of activities,
integration of actionsand balanced approach of various people working in unison for the achievements of
common goals of an institution. It‟s the function of an institutional management which incorporates
univocally all varied inputs from institutional resources like human, physical, financial and informational
in synchronisation, combination and coordination. The ultimate objective of organising is to achieve
institutional objectives by optimum utilization of institutional resources.
According to Chester Barnard, management guru, “Organising is a function by which an institute is able
to define its role positions, the jobs related and the co-ordination between authority and responsibility”.
Hence, it become imperative for an institutional head to organise all possible resources required in
performing his role in an effective and efficient manner.
“Organising” in an institute involves the establishment of a healthy working relationship amongst the
employees, delegation of tasks/duties alongwith adequate authority to undertake those tasks. Thus,
“organizing” establishes a network of authority and responsibility relationship amongst the members like
Director/Principal, Heads of units or departments, faculty, staff etc.. The person who delegates the
authority is considered as „superior or boss‟ and other following the instructions and to whom the
authority are referred as „subordinates‟.
 Characteristics of Organising:some of the important feature of organising are-

 Basic function of any institutional management
 Sub-process of any institutional management
 Continuous process
 Collective functioning of all authorities
 Involve coordination of all resources
 Goal oriented
 Team effort
 Lay foundation of authority-responsibility relationship
4
 Importance of Organising
The organising function is an establishment of a network amongst various members of the institute
for playing their specific roles by owing responsibilities for achieving institutional objectives
collectively. It‟s a mechanism which is undertaken by the collective efforts of a team to reach up to
predetermined and planned institutional goals.
 Importance of organising in an institution:
 Provides framework: for various functions of institutional management to work in efficient

and effective way by establishing cordial relationships between “Superiors” and
“Subordinates” by directing, controlling, monitoring and planning.
 Facilitates coordination:amongst various resourcesof an institution. In educational institute
each department has its designated role and organising function will help in polling the
efforts of all departments in one common output in the form of an objective of that institute.
 Leads to specialisation:division of work also leads to specialization of tasks amongst
different competent people or departments in an institute as per their resources and
competencies. This help in establishing specialised departments or human resource.
 Helps in achieving efficiency:division of roles leads to efficient use of all types of resources,
be it human or physical resource and there by enhance overall efficiency of institute
 Promotes Employee development:decentralization of powers strengthen and develop each
faculty member to take independent decision, solve problems at his/her own level, tackle
problems single handedly and all these individual contribution ultimately leads to overall
growth of the institute
 Well defined jobs–are demarcated by institutional structure by placing “Right Man for Right
Job‟, as per their qualifications, skills and experience. Thus roles and responsibilities become
clear of every individual in the institution.
 Increases clarity of authority and responsibility:duty without delegation of authority de-
motivates faculty in any institute but this problem can be overcome by the process of
organising. Precision of roles helps in generating precise ideas and sense of responsibility
which can be materlised within given authoritative frame
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 Facilitates adaptation to change:as the change is inevitable, hence new setting and resetting
of institutional structure, process and goals are matter of routine. This change can be easily
coped up with organising functions.
(B) Process of Organising
The process of organising in an institution involves the following steps, where all leads to achievement of
the goals/objectives of an institution.:
 Identification and enumeration of activities:It is the first stage

 Identification and determination of broad objectives
 Identification and determination of broad activities
 Identification and determination of common goals.
 E.g. student‟s admission, teaching learning, evaluation, placement, budgeting and finance,
purchase, staff development etc.
 Division of activities:
 Division and sub-division of broad activities into smaller fractions
 Each fraction is called as “jobs or tasks”
 Grouping-up of activities:
 Jobs or tasks are grouped on the basis of similarity and relationships
 E.g. teaching and learning group- includes all jobs and taskspertaining to teaching
 Assignment of group of activities:

 Specific groups with allocated jobs are assigned specific department/faculty/staff
 Allocation of department/faculty/staff is based on the competence and resources
 Granting necessary rights:

 Dissemination of power/authorities/rights to department/faculty/staff to undertake the given
task effectively
 Powers/authorities/rights are delegated from highest to the lowest level of management.
6
 Coordinating the functioning of various departments:
 Organising deals with making all possible co ordinations at every level till the common goals
of the institute are achieved
 E.g. coordinating the working of individuals with their departments and those of departments
with institutional head
Practice Test
Q1. Short Questions
a)What is Organising in an institution?
b) Mention briefly the characteristics of Organising.
c) What is the importance of organising in an institute?
Feedback
Ans. a) Organising means collective working of two or more individuals. It involves coordination of
activities, integration of actions and balanced approach of various people working in unison for the
achievements of common goals of an institution.
Ans.b) Characteristics of Organising are:
 It is the basic function of any institutional management

 It is a continuous process
 It involves collective functioning of all authorities
 It involves coordination of all resources
 It is goal oriented
Ans.c) Importance of Organising in an institution
 Provides framework for superiors and subordinates to work effectively

 Facilitates coordination: amongst various resources of an institution.
 Leads to specialisation or division of work amongst different competent people.
 Helps in achieving efficiency of the institute
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8.4.2 Organisation Structure and Design
(A) Organisational Structure of an educational institution is the formal arrangement of roles of

faculty and staff in a hierarchical way. It‟s an institutional configuration showing relationships amongst
different departments and positions. The structure follows a set trend to descend information or
instructions or guidelines where every unit or department has its organized role and activities to
undertake. Each organisation has its own structured “Organisational Chart” indicating its formal split up
of composition, official lines of communication and authoritative positions.
(B) Organisation Design is a change in the organisational structure, showing its intension to
respond to change, incorporation of new ideas, techniques, procedures, approaches to have an edge over
in changing and challenging society. The design of an organisation or institute is a sequentially followed
procedure, wherein all existing misfits in the institute like work flow, procedures, structures and systems
are identified which are realigned in new frame to achieve institutional goals or targets. The design of any
institute focuses on the improvement and empowerment of work force (faculty, staff and administrator)
and technical resources of that institute. The design should have a holistic approach towards institutional
improvement.
 Bureaucracy basics
Bureaucracies are age old system of administrative hierarchy, based on formal authorities, used to
delegate orderly, fair and logical instructions to subordinates. Such a set up has clear cut division of
roles, authorities, rules, promotional avenues, but based on competencies.
Although, bureaucracies are highly structured due to clearly defined rules and procedures, but the
success of such rigid set up in today‟s fast changing environment is comparatively less. The non
flexibility of this system makes it slow responsive, less adaptable and inefficient to rapidly changing
scenario. Following the system in its original fixed frame may make the institute to perish or lag in
the long run.
Like two sides of the coin, the bureaucratic structure has also been advocated by many experts. They
are of the opinion that in all the situations, the system is no failure and if the institution does not
follow such a system, do we have any other suitable alternative available? The answer of this question
was given by research in 1960, which indicated that an organization‟s environment impacted the way
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it is managed. Accordingly a structure of the institution which may be suitable for the stable
environment may not be the same for a constantly changing one. While for the former a bureaucratic
set up is effective, the later requires a system which is continuously evolving, responsive and creative.
Based on the above analysis, two distinct frameworks viz. the mechanistic structure and organic
structure were identified.
 Mechanistic structure of an institution- has following features

 Resembles bureaucratic structure
 Follows a clearly outlined formal framework of authority
 Precisely outlined tasks/jobs
 Clearly defined rights and obligations of its faculty and staff
 Clear demarcation of line and staff positions with formal relationships amongst them
 Communication in such an organisation structure is primarily formal communication
Mechanistic set up is found in most of the Indian educational institutions or universities which
tend to follow a very rigid and formal rules and regulations because such institutions are to deal
with very large number of students. So to provide them uniform and equitable treatment they
have to follow clearly defined rules and standard operating procedures. Though such operational
procedures need investment of more time, have slow pace due to stringent hierarchical decision
making processes so ultimately make the system inefficient and irritable to many stakeholders.
This also sometimes delays the start of the teaching learning process in the institutions.
Mechanistic organisational set up are fairly appropriate in those situations when the external
environment is quite stable where clearly defined rules and regulations help them in streamlining
their activities, but when external situations are regularly changing and there are ongoing new
challenges for the system to meet the newly cropping needs, then lack of flexibility may make
result in collapse of such rigid systems.
 Organic structureof an institution: has following features

 Work better in dynamism and mutual cooperation
 Based on cooperation of all members of an institution
 Has knowledge based heads or team leaders
 Less formal in composition
 More flexible and less reliance on formal authorities
 Has power decentralization
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 Roles of members may flip but remain defined
 Continuous feedback help in reframing roles of individuals
 Promptness in decision making
 Has informal environment
 Factors affecting organisational design in an institute : design of organisation structure is

multi factorial but the more important ones are-
 Size of the institute - larger organizations have more complex structure than smaller ones
Small institute Large institute

 Don‟t have formal structure  Have formal structure of organisation
 Don‟t have organisational chart or  Clearly formed organisational chart with
specified job functions specified job functions
 Individual role is based on abilities, likes  Tasks are specialized and training based
and dislikes or need of the organisation  Clearly laid rules and regulations dictate
 Rules and regulations make boundaries work procedures
within which members can work freely  Communication within the organisation
 Generally have organic system follow proper hierarchy
 Works on the principle of harmony  Authorities are well designated
 Works on the principle of efficiency
 Generally have mechanistic system
 Life cycle of institution: just like human beings, the organizations also take birth, grow and
mature. Each stage is characterized by its own features. Mostly organisation undergoes
sequentially into each stage but sometimes the phase may be skipped or mutually swiped by
changing its structure. The stages of life cycle shows relationship between its size and age.
With every progressive stage of life cycle, the organisation become more specialized and
move from its organic to mechanistic structure.
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Birth
inception stage
without formal structure
no specific delegation of
authoroties
Maturity Youth
focus on stableility and steady growth of
security institution
losses innovation and Life cycle main focus is to become

alarge organisation
creativity of it becomes customer
focus on profits and institution oriented
efficiancies develop organic structure
gradually undergo delegation of authorities
sanility stars
Mid-life
with a large and comple
organisation
structure becomes more comple
and formal
hierchy becomes more comple
gradually becomes mechanistic
Fig. Stages of life cycle of institution and their features
 Strategy of an institute - gives it smart move to go ahead in the current race and place itself
in top position in giving product or service. Any of the following strategies can be followed,
based on its structure:
 Differentiation strategy: may be opted to the newest and best service or product. It
helps the organisation to quickly respond to societal changes and needs. This
approach can be opted by organizations with organic structure
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 Cost-leadership strategy: may be opted to provide already existing services or
products more efficiently and at lower cost. This is mainly followed by the
organisation with mechanistic structure.
 Environment in an institute: conditions which influence the environment of an organisation

includes-
 Its economic status
 Surrounding socio-cultural conditions
 Legal and political conditions regulating its functioning
 Natural environmental conditions
There are generally two types of environment for the organisation to work in: -
1. Stable environment
 Need and desires of the customers are clear and well understood
 Need and desires of the customers probably will remain consistent for a relatively
long time.
 Working and administrative structure remain constant
 Find mechanistic structure more suitable for their functioning
 Focuses on long term performances
2. Dynamic environment
 Needs and desires of customers‟ continuously keep on changing
 Working and administrative condition generally remain in turbulent.
 Regular up gradation of technology
 Find organic structure more suitable for their goals
 Make organisation proactive for change
 Approaches to Organisational Design in an institute :
Organisational design of any institute is to make efficient team to meet institutional goals. The best
design incorporates plus points of both mechanistic and organic structure. In today‟s scenario the
most acceptable design includes more of organic and lass or bureaucratic features with lesser and
12
flexible rules and regulations, decentralized authority structure etc. Team making or departmental
grouping revolves around five main approaches:
 Functional organisational design- works on the principle of clubbing specialized working

people in a unit called department. It has features like:
 Functional groups are designated as departments
 Departmental categorization is based on skills, expertise and resources, hence specialized
 Duties and responsibilities are fixed as per departmental strengths
 Single authority of each department
 Departments are further regulated by another top authority
 It has well defined channels of communication
 Categorical delegations of authorities and responsibilities
 Avoid duplication of roles, resources, hence enhances institutional productivity
Functional Structure
► Grouping of people by similar work specialty

► In a functional structure, people with similar
occupational specialties are put together in formal
groups
Director Structure for
an Educational
Institute
Dy. Director Dy. Director Dy. Director Dy. Director
Administration Finance Academics R&D
Fig. Functional organisational design in an institution
13
The approach has both advantages and disadvantages, like:
Advantages Disadvantages
 Each department becomes a specialized  Non performers don‟t get fixed
group of members and head responsibility
 Proper division of labor, hence clarity of  Division of authority may interfere with
orders and instructions institutional discipline
 Economic approach due to optimum  Delayed decision making owing to many
utilization of resources experts in ach department
 Provide environment of skills development  May leads to conflict, lack of coordination,
and scope for growth blame games and trend of disowning
 Lessens the burden of top management responsibility
 Due to specialization of heads, effective  Inter departmental clashes may arise
and efficient planning and execution is  Feeling of subordination may hamper the
possible achievement of organisational goals
 Divisional organisational design – works on the principle of grouping of people based on

similarity of purpose. Its main features are:
 Formal groups are made by clustering people with diverse occupational specialties
 Divisions of departments are as per their product or service outputs
 This design is generally found in large organisation
 Heads of departments are mainly concerned with results and resources
 The design is pro-change
 Division of work make goals achievable
 Monitoring of progress is easy
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Divisional Structure of an Edu. Institute
Service
Director Based
divisional
structure
Consultancy
Education & Instructional
Research and and
Training Material
Development Community
Programmes Development
Services
Customer
Director
divisional
structure
Industrial Foreign
Fresh Students Community
Manpower Students
Training Training
Training Training
Geographic
Director
divisional
structure
Western Northern Southern
Eastern Region
Region Region Region
Fig. Divisional organisational design in an institution

The design, too have advantages and disadvantages, like:
 Development of variety of skills in one  Not a cost-effective approach
department  Duplicity of resources or facilities for
 Ample autonomy to work without pressure each division
 Fast decision making and better operational  Differential allocation of resource lead
efficiency to conflict
 Diverse enrichment of head‟s experience in  Duplication of activities waste time,
respect to their product or service energy and resources
 Make heads accountable  Lack of functional specialization leads
 Divisional head only being accountable to dissatisfaction of functional
 Gauging of performance measurement is specialists
possible
 Matrix organisational design- is based on grouping people in an institution on the basis of

their functions and divisions. Like:
 It makes a of functional & divisional structure
15
 It forms two chains of commands
 Provide provision of cross-functional teams
 Integrate functional expertise of many people
 Reporting to two authorities, a functional group and a team head
 Motivate people working in the department
 Proper technical and general management training with focus on functional areas
Matrix Structure President Functional

An example of an industry Structure
Vice President, Vice President, Vice President, Vice President,

Project Engineering Finance Production Marketing
Structure
Project
Manager,
I
Project
Manager,
II
Project
Manager,
III
Project
Manager,
IV
Subordinate reports to both VP of Marketing (above) and Project Manager IV
Fig. Matirx organisational design in an institution

 Better cooperation  Two boss system leads to power clash
 Better problem solving  Task confusion by two sets of
 More flexibility. instructions
 Better customer service  Splitting of teams under two bosses
 Efficient performance accountability. will lead to loss of institutional
 Better strategic management objectives
.
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 Team organisational design– works on making groupings by elimination functional barriers.
It is characterized by:
 Formation of both temporary or permanent teams
 Teams work in harmony, improve horizontal relationships and solve institutional
problems in any department
 These teams are designated as “cross‐functional teams”
 Existence of effective relationships in an institute, without departmental barriers
Team-based structure of an
industry
President
Functional
structure
Vice President, Vice President, Vice President, Vice President,
R&D Design Engineering Marketing
Project Team Project Team Project Team

Project Manager, Manager, Manager,
teams Manufacturing Manufacturing Manufacturing
Product I Product II Product III
Project team
members
Fig. Team organisational design in an institution

 Break down of intradepartmental barriers  Conflict of loyalties among faculty
 Faster decision‐making and response times members
 Employees are motivated.  Problem of time management
 Elimination of levels of authorities  Much time gets wasted in meetings.
 Its cost-effective Administration
17
 Networking organisational design- is based on inter-organisational networking or “Virtual
Organisation”. It is featured by:
 Involve complex networking of institutions by computer connections
 Many independent institutions work in unison
 The working principle is hiring or delegating specialized role to specific institute
 Duties are on contract basis
 Distribution of specified duties with no duplication
 Accountability of role by each institution for its job
Network structure
Example of a personal computer company
Parts
Design Office:
assembly:
USA
China
Core of
Computer
Company
Engineering USA
Distribution
company:
Unit: Sweden
Germany
Accounting &
finance: India
Fig. Networking organisational design in an institution
Like other design, this too has some advantages and disadvantages. Like:
Advantage Disadvantage
 Small sized  Unpredictability of supply
 Flexible in functioning, due to  Lack of control over out-sourced agencies
independence  Contractual workers may not be aware of
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 Reduction of overhead expenses actual institutional goals
 Easy to operate, owing to specific role  Technical snags may interfere with target
 Specialized role of each institution dates
 Accountability is delegated  Interpretation of date from multiple sources
in varied formats
Practice Test
Q1. Fill in the blanks:
a) The __________ of an educational institution is the formal arrangement of roles of faculty and staff
in a hierarchical way.
b) The organisational design should have a _____towards institutional improvement.
c) _________are age old system of administrative hierarchy, based on formal authorities, used to
delegate orderly, fair and logical instructions to subordinates.
d) An institution may have a __________ or a __________ structure.
Q2. Short questions
a) What is Organisational structure?
b) What do you understand by organisational design?
c) Define Bureaucracies.
d) Name three factors affecting Design of an institution.
e) What are the features of Organic structure (mention any three)
Feedback
Ans. 1. Fill in the blanks
a) Organisational Structure
b) A holistic approach
c) Bureaucracies
d) Mechanistic structure, organic structure
Ans. 2 Short answers
Ans. a) The Organisational Structure of an educational institution is the formal arrangement of roles of
faculty and staff in a hierarchical way. It‟s an institutional configuration showing relationships
amongst different departments and positions.
19
Ans. b) Organisation Design is a change in the organisational structure, showing its intension to
respond to change, incorporation of new ideas, techniques, procedures, approaches to have an edge
over in changing and challenging society.
Ans. c) Bureaucracies are age old system of administrative hierarchy, based on formal authorities,
used to delegate orderly, fair and logical instructions to subordinates. Such a set up has clear cut
division of roles, authorities, rules, promotional avenues, but based on competencies.
Ans. d) Factors affecting organisational design in an institute:

 Size of the institute
 Life cycle of institution
 Strategy of an institute
Ans. e) Features of organic structure

 It works better in dynamism and mutual cooperation
 It is based on cooperation of all members of an institution
 It has knowledge based heads or team leaders
 It is less formal in composition
 It is more flexible and less reliant on formal authorities
20
8.4.3Role of Responsibility, Authority and Delegation in
Institutional Effectiveness
 Delegation of Authority- means subletting your authority and powers downwards, from
superior to subordinates. It means that someone else is entrusted to do part/parts of your job.
In an education institution, the process of delegation starts from the top i.e. Director/Principal
who has the total responsibility for the achievement of institutional goals. In order to fulfill the
responsibility of accomplishing goals, he or she delegates the work to subordinates.These
subordinates can further assign some portion of it to their own subordinates and so on, if they find
that the work assigned to them by their superior is exceeding their “Span of Control”.Delegation
is the descending movement of formal authority from one superior to next subordinate(s) for the
completion of the given task.
In view of Koontz and O‟Donnell:
 Delegation of authority is always result oriented

 Delegation of authority includes assignments of tasks
 Delegation of authority makes one responsible for task accomplishment
 Delegation of authority raise expectations from subordinates
 Management triad - of Authority, Responsibility and Accountability-
These three features in any educational institute revolve around one goal, achieving institutional
goals
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•The legal right of superior to command his subordinates.
•The power and the right of a person to use and allocate resources
•The power to take decisions and give orders
•I should be clearly defined and not misused
•Flows downward in hierarchy
Authority – •Facilitates superiors to get the work from subordinates as per their directions, desires and expected goals
•It should be always bonded to responsibility
•An individual’s duty to complete allocated task

•Responsibility with appropriate authority leads to successful accomplishment of tasks
•Responsibility flows in ascending manner, from bottom to top.
Responsibility •It lies more with middle level and lower level managements.
–
•It’s an explanations for any gap between actual performance and desired expectations
•It comes naturally with delegation and arise from responsibility
•Ultimate accountability always lies with top authority like director or principal
•Accountability cannot be delegated.
Accountability •It cannot be escaped
•E.g., ‘X’ is given a task with sufficient authority, and she delegates this to ‘Y’ and asks her to ensure that task
–
• is done well, responsibility lies with ‘Y’, but accountability still lies with ‘X’.
 Principles of Delegation:are theguidelines for effective delegation of authority in an

institution. It should have following characteristics:
 Functional Clarity: there has to be an absolute clarity from senior to subordinate
about three main aspects of task: what to do, why to do and how to do?
 Matching Authority with Responsibility:Authority and responsibility are
interlocked; hence it is very important to check that subordinates are given enough
authority as per their capabilities to perform the delegated tasks. There should not be
any mismatch between the delegated authorities, assigned responsibilities and
personal capabilities.
 Unity of Command:“Unity of Command” makes a clear bridge between a
subordinate and one superior. There should be single voice to control, means that
subordinates should be answerable or accountable to a single authority who has
delegated him or her authority to perform a set of tasks/.
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 Principle of Communication:The line of communication between seniors and
subordinates should be clear and live to avoid any kind of misunderstanding. No
instructions should have a generalised format. There should be an absolute clarity
and boundaries of delegated authorities and responsibilities. There should be an open
communication to have regular flow of feedback.
 Responsibility not Delegatable:Responsibility always lies with top administrator, in
the accomplishment of any project. So it cannot be delegated to subordinates. While
delegating authority, it becomes job of the superior to choose capable subordinate to
whom clear and achievable goals are given. After delegating authorities, he or she
cannot turn a blind eye towards the progress and accomplishment.
 Limits of Authority to be Well Defined:To avoid any ambiguity in delegating
authorities, there should a well documented administrative manual to be followed in
an institution that can give clear guidelines to delegators the scope and extent of
authority he or she can give to subordinates.
 Principle of Management by Exception:To undertake each and every task,
delegation of authority is not necessary. Certain activities, for which the senior
people of the organisation have their specailised niche, must not be delegated. To
reduce the physical and mental load to superiors, the subordinates must try to develop
their own problem solving attitude. This will prepare them to face higher challenges
and responsibilities and ultimately growth on an institute.
 Process of delegation-occurs by following given three steps:
1. Assignment of tasks and duties

2. Granting of authority
3. Creating responsibility and accountability
 Assignment of Duties–is the most important role of any senior person of an institute
for which following points should be taken care of:
 Proper definition of tasks and duties
 Matching of task given with capability of subordinate
 Clarity about expected outcome
 Granting of authority–is very important for the execution of any task. Extent of
authority depends upon the level of senior in administrative hierarchy. It can take
place by:
23
 Division of authority of senior faculty of head of the department or institution
with the subordinates.
 Delegation of enough independence to undertake the given task
 Appropriate division of powerto get effective results from the subordinates.
 Creating Responsibility and Accountability– while delegating powers a sense of
obligation, responsibility and accountability has to be inculcated amongst
subordinates. These three aspects are interlinked. It is charaterised by:
 Responsibility cannot be shifted
 It gives effectiveness to authority
Responsibility
•delegation of •obligation of an
powers by senior individual to work as
•obligation of an
faculty downwards per standerds of the
individual as per
to undertake task institute
insturctions given by
senior faculty
Authority Accoutability
Fig. Interrelationship between authority, responsibility and accountability
For maximum efficiency and quality growth of an institute, it is mandatory to design an

appropriate system to execute the delegation process. In order to make it unambiguous
the delegate‟s role should be clear in terms of his responsibility and accountability.
 Advantages of Delegation:in an institute results in its efficiency and qualitative growth,

by:
 Effective functioning  Division of work load of senior faculty
 They get ample time for jobs like policy
24
planning, co ordinations, leaderships etc.
 Quick decision making:  Subordinates with qualities like willingness,
competence and knowledge can hasten the
process of decision making, as they are also
authorized to take decisions
 Timely decisions are taken
 Reduction in managerial  Reduce routine work load of senior faculty
load  Reduce routine minor duties of senior faculty
 Senior faculty gets time to perform major and
important responsibilities
 Specialised Service:  Delegation of authority enable harnessing of
specailised skills, knowledge and expertise of
subordinates
 Enhanced Motivation:  Delegation of authority boost motivational level
of subordinates
 They feel proud of being assigned authority and
responsibility
 Develop positive attitude, team work culture,
dedications and responsible temperament
 Employee development:  Delegation of authority and responsibility
encourage subordinates to undertake new and
more challenging tasks.
 Training Ground for  Delegation of authority help the subordinates to
Executive Ability: learn the ability of critical analysis of situation
during task execution and decision making
which will help them in future
 Make them capable candidates to work at higher
level in management
 Barriers to Delegation:
Many a times there has been seen reluctance in giving and accepting delegation of authority
and responsibility from both sides, from senior faculty or heads and subordinates. Various
reasons for this reluctance are:
25
 Reluctance of senior faculty or heads-
 A feeling of superiority amongst them
 Underestimation of subordinate‟s capabilities
 Lack of patience amongst them, as delegation process is time consuming and lot
of time is to be invested for explaining, supervising and correcting
 Lack of trust and confidence in subordinates, as he or she is ultimately
accountable
 Incapability to coordinate subordinates
 Feeling of insecurity, fear of loss of power, fear of completion from subordinates
 Lack of control system in the institute to provide early warnings and corrective
measure, if need be
 Reluctance of Subordinates:
 Lack of confidence to accept additional responsibilities.
 Fear of criticism or dismissal in case of wrong decision
 Lack of incentives and appreciations
 De-motivated subordinates
 Unavailability of adequate information and resources
 Guidelines for Effective Delegation:
The following guidelinesmay help an institution in effective delegation of authority:
Type of task to be delegated:  Tasks requiring minor decisions

 Repetitive occurring tasks
 Demanding and challenging tasks, as these may lead to the
development of subordinates
Complete and clear delegations:  What, why and how of the task should be clear and precise
 Instructions should be clear to avoid repetition of instructions
To whom task must be  Clarity of vision of senior faculty while delegating a task
delegated?:  Based on competency, appropriateness and relevance of
subordinate
 Availability of time with subordinate
Provide sufficient resources:  For effective delegation of task, provision of necessary and
26
suitable resources are required
Provide relevant information:  Provision of all the relevant information on the task help in clear
understanding of action plan and its expected outcome
 Clarity of vision and goal leads to free and open communication
Establish a feedback system:  Feedback gives checkpoints
 Feedback keep superiors aware of progress of the assigned task
 Feedback help the seniors to offer advice or mid course
adjustments
Thus, by following some specific guidelines while delegating authority to faculty and staff at
varied levels in its hierarchy, the efficiency and effectiveness of any educational institution can be
attained. It will keep the employees motivated and enhance their level of sincerity and dedication
towards the objectives of the institution.
Practice Test

a) ____________ means sub letting your authority and powers downwards, from superior to
subordinates.
b) __________ , ____________ and ____________ in any educational institute revolve around

c) Subordinates should be answerable or accountable to a single authority who has delegated him, this
is nothing but ____________.
Q2. Short questions
a) What is delegation? State the features of delegation
b) What do you understand by Matching authority with delegation?
c) "Responsibility cannot be delegated"- Comment.
d) Give the steps of delegation.
e) Enlist four main advantages of delegating.
27
Feedback
a) Delegation of Authority
b) Authority, Responsibility and Accountability-
c) Unity of command
Ans. 2. Short answers
Ans. a) Delegation of authority means sub letting your authority and powers downwards, from superior to
subordinates. It means that someone else is entrusted to do part/parts of your job. It features are:
 Delegation of authority is always result oriented
 Delegation of authority includes assignments of tasks
 Delegation of authority makes one responsible for task accomplishment
Ans. b) Matching authority with delegation means that authority and responsibility are interconnected
with each other, hence it is very important to check that subordinates are given enough authority as per
their capabilities to perform the delegated tasks. There should not be any mismatch between the
delegated authorities, assigned responsibilities and personal capabilities.
Ans. c) Responsibility always lies with top administrator, in the accomplishment of any project. So it
cannot be delegated to subordinates. Only authority can be delegated not responsibility.
Ans. d) Steps in the delegation process:

 Assignment of tasks and duties
 Granting of authority
 Creating responsibility and accountability
Ans. e) Delegation helps in

 Effective functioning of the institution
 Quick decision making
 Reduction in managerial load
28
Conclusion
In today‟s scenario, every institution has to show a competitive edge by using its resources to the
maximum. Organising is the best way to achieve this goal. Based on the objectives of an institution,
institutions can design their organisational structure. This structure should have clearly defined lines of
delegation of authority linked with responsibility and accountability so that every member of the
institution is clear what to perform and within which boundaries, leading to the enhancement of
institutional affectivity.
Bibliography:
Pvt. Ltd.
USA: Harper and Row Publisher.
Irwin, 350- 366p.
8. Hersey, P; Blanchard, KH and Johnson, DE (2000). Management of Organizational Behaviour,
7th Edition, New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.
9. https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/principles-of-management/organizational-design-and-
structure/five-approaches-to-organizational-designFive Approaches to Organizational Design,
Houghton Mifflin Harcourt
10. https://www.managementstudyguide.com/organizing_importance.htmImportance of Organizing
Function
11. https://www.managementstudyguide.com/importance_of_delegation.htm Importance of
delegation
29
Videos on:
 Organising : Concept & Process

 Organizational Design and Structure
 Role of Responsibility, Authority and Delegation in Institutional Effectiveness
Web resources:
 Organizing Function of Management https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3yVsOSbbPhc

 Organizing - Concept & Process https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PDvkj7zBiOw
 Organisation Structure - Line & staff, Functional, Committee
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dXHPqYGWIkg
 Meaning, Process and Types of Organisational Structure |#1| Organising
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XrmJG_8d9Cg
 Delegation of authority | organising | https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tsj9EcAWwnE
30
UNIT 8.5
ORGANISING: PARTNERING FOR SUCCESS

Contents Page No
Broad Objective 3
Learning Outcomes 3
Introduction 3
8.5.1Working in Teams for Projects and Programmes 4
 Understanding Team
 Team
 Difference between group and team
 Team members
 Team size
 Team Development
Practice Test 8
Feedback 8
8.5.2 Building Effective Teams 9
 Characteristics of a good/effective team

 Team models
 Types of Teams
 Team Work - Meaning and Tips for better Team Work
 Steps for a better team work
 Factors Determining Success for Teams
Practice Test 15
Feedback 15
8.5.3 Networking And Partnering With Stakeholders 16
(Employers, Alumni, Community Etc.) For Success
1
 Networking and Partnering with Alumni
 Networking and Partnering with industry and
Potential Employers
Practice Test 19
Feedback 19
Conclusion 21
Bibliography 21
2
UNIT 8.5:
ORGANISING: PARTNERING FOR SUCCESS

NITTTR, Chandigarh
Broad Objective
The broad objective of this unit is to make the
participants aware about the importance of
working in team for handling different projects
and programmes in an institution. Participants
shall also appreciate the role of networking and
partnering with stake holders for the success of
the institution.
Learning Outcomes
 Understand the role of team work in the success of any institution.

 Identify different stages of team formulation in an institution and use the characteristics of an
effective team to make the process valuable for the institution.
 Understand team models and use the same for different projects and programmes of his own
institution.
 Understand the importance of networking and partnering with different stakeholders (employers,
alumni, community etc.) for making the institution responsive and up to date.
 Adopt different strategies for networking and partnering with different stake holders of the
system for enhancing the quality of the projects and programmes of the institution.
Introduction
In today’s scenario, when educational institutions are facing a lot of challenges due to diversity of
knowledge, when no individual is self sufficient to execute the assigned job, programmes and projects,
role of teams become very important. Team work brings in diversity of thoughts, opinions, experiences
and specializations, much needed for multifaceted projects and programmes of today. Understanding of
group dynamics is the important need of any educational institution. In addition to teaming for internal
3
efficiency, networking and partnering with external stakeholders of system is equally importantto become
responsive to their needs and expectationsof the quality output and recognized brand at the national and
international levels.
Through this unit, you, the learners shall understand the concept and importance of team work, team
dynamics, team models and characteristics of an effective team for handling various projects and
programmes in an institution. You shall also learn the importance of networking and partnering with the
alumni, potential employers, parents and society for enhancing the quality of services provided by the
institution by incorporating the interventions proposed by them.
8.5.1Working in Teams for Projects and Programmes

 Understanding Team -One is single but two ones make eleven. No single individual can
perform all tasks on his own, in spite of his best efforts. Team has always a multiplier impact on
one’s performance and efficiency.
 Team – can be defined as group of people with similar thought process, common goals and
interests, common objectives and line of action, and work in harmony. The members of a team
should have similar if not the same interests, working style, thought processes, attitude,
perception and likings.
 Difference between group and team- a group is a heterogeneous assemblage of people
having varied interests and goals or objectives, different working styles, and independent attitude
and thought processes. But the group of people with common goal to achieve makes a team. The
team members should always work together harmoniously and strive towards the achievement of
a common objective. Every group is not necessarily a team. E.g. in a cricket team, players with
different roles (batsman, bowler, wicket keeper, captain) have a common goal and play for a
common objective of winning. Teaming can be seen in entire animal kingdom
 Team members- people working in a group towards a well defined single aim are called team
members. Success of the team depends upon its members. The members of a team should have
following characteristics:
 They should be act in a complementary way

 They should work in unison and help each other
 They should not watch their personal interests on priority
 They should not argue with each other
 They should show egoistic behaviors
4
 They should do their best to achieve the team’s common objectives
 E.g. teams in an educational institute are admission, curriculum, research, placement
team etc.
 Team size- depends on the complexity of the task and the length of time till the task is to be
undertaken. Ideally, a team should consist of 5-10 members for maximum individual
contributions. More than 10, indicates more retiring members and dominated by a few
vociferous individuals. Too many members also lead to confusions and misunderstandings.
Less than 5, lacks combination of talents and ideas of a well balanced group.
Size of a team is dependent on the roles to be performed by the individual team members,
i.e. leader, specialist, achiever, player and challenger. One person can perform more than
role, or one role may be performed by more than one person, it is dependent on the quality of
objective to be achieved by the team.
 Leader: to lead the group towards a common objective

 Specialist: having expert knowledge of the area in which team is working
 Achiever: monitor the progress of work against targets and requesting team members
to act to achieve the objectives
 Team Player: concerned with the effectiveness of the team from the stance of inter-
personal relations
 Challenger: always questions assumptions and targets of the team.
 Team Development
Effective teams are a key to success in today’s competitive world. Efficiency of an institution
depends on the effectiveness of its teams. The employees of the institution remain motivated,
if work in harmonious teams. Teams are not permanent in nature. Teams have the potential to
immediately amass, organise, relocate, and disperse. Team development creates a captivating
atmosphere by encouraging co-operation, teamwork, interdependence and by building trust
among its members.
5
Stages of team development:
 Forming stage- is the budding stage of team formation, where the members are in
process of knowing and getting at ease with each other. The stage is charaterised by
following features where:
 Members are anxious and show wait and watch attitude

 Members lack clarity of goals, vision, expectations and respective roles
 They will have formal inter-personal relationships with less trust and openness
 Team prepares itself for operation or task to undertake
 Team writes its charter, mission statement, clarifies objectives and establishes
boundaries to work within
 Neither ideas are generated nor shared and polled
 Expectation from each member gets clarified
 Storming stage: is the one when team members begin to show their actual styles, other
features of the stage are:
 Pouring of new ideas to the accomplishment of goals

 Bit of conflicts also arise, sometimes due to mismatch of ideas
 Team undergoes fluctuation in its composition, as some members may drop out
mentally or physically.
 Recognition and publically acknowledgment will motivate the members are this
initial stage of working
 Strategic communication skills will help reducing tensions, irritations, frustrations,
impatience amongst team members
 Frequent meetings will help in discussing all minor and major issues to run smooth in
the times to come
 Norming stage: belong to conflict resolutions and it featured by:
 Mutual recognition of each other’s ideas and efforts

 Feeling of togetherness increases
 Get more socialized, may forget the focus and need to be trained
 Need regular encouragement, motivation, faithful and loyal to each other
6
 The stage is characterised by the feeling of “we: than “I” amongst members
 Performing stage- is the final and mature stage of self controlled performing people,
whose efforts need to be acknowledged and recognised. It has:
 Well trained, empowered people having self-problem solving capabilities

 Self-motivated people, capable of accepting new challenges
 Focused, performing, productive and loyal group of people with an absolute clarity of
goals
7
Practice Test
a) A group of people with similar thought process, common goals and interests is called a
___________
b) Team size depends on the ___________of the task and the __________ till the task is to be
undertaken.
c) _______________ is the budding stage of team formation
d) Teams can be ___________ or ___________
Q1. Short questions
a)What are the characteristics of team members?
b) What are the characteristics of an effective team?
c) What are the stages of development of teams?
Feedback
Ans.1. Fill in the blanks
a) Team
b) complexity, length of time
c) Forming stage
d) temporary or permanent
a) Characteristics of team members are

 They should be act in a complementary way
 They should work in unison and help each other
 They should not watch their personal interests on priority
 They should not argue with each other
 They should show egoistic behaviors
b) Characteristics of an effective team are:
 A clear defined goal
 A results-driven structure
 Competent members
 Unified commitment
 Principled leadership
 A collaborative climate
c) Stages of team development:

 Forming stage
 Storming stage
 Norming stage
 Performing stage
8
8.5.2 Building Effective Teams
 Characteristics of a good/effective team
In today’s scenario, success in any institutional workplace depends on your ability to build a
team, as well as to interact with others on that team. Together, people are able to accomplish
what one person alone cannot. This is known as synergic effect.
Following are some of the characteristics of an “Effective team”:
 A clear defined goal: This is the goal which has been communicated to all.
 A results-driven structure:The goal has been jointly decided by all the team members.
They all should be fully committed towards achieving it.
 Competent members: Each team member has the required skill set to achieve the team
objectives.
 Unified commitment: Nothing can be achieved working in silos. With the total
commitment from team members, achievement of institutional goals becomes easier.
 Principled leadership: Leadership defines a team. An able leader can chart the team’s
path to success
 A collaborative climate: Commitment from team members and an effective leadership
leads to a collaborative team with a productive work environment.
 Standards of excellence: Quality orientation is vital to the success of any institution.
 External support and recognition: Appreciation as well as timely appraisal is required
to keep the morale of the team high.
 Team goals are clearly understood by all: Communication is vital for achieving
successful completion of any project.
 Thinking out of box: Individual members have thought about creative solutions to the
team’s problem. Thinking out of the box is vital in today’s techno- economic scenario.
 Effective listening: Members are listened carefully as well as given a thoughtful
feedback. Listening to fellows and leader is an important skill for any team. The thoughts
and ideas of every member have to be listened to, with respect, no matter how silly they
may sound at first. Everyone is equal in the team, irrespective of the level of the
individual. His/her knowledge and skills are to be respected rather than his level.
9
 Understanding individual responsibilities: Everyone takes the initiative in order to get
the things done. There is no concept of passing the buck. This is an indication of clear
communication, leading to understanding of individual responsibilities.
 Each team member trusts the judgment of others: Mutual trust and respect is highly
important for the team. This is the only way to achieve institutional goals.
 The team has to be willing to take risks: Risk taking is an attitude which comes with
confidence. Confidence on yourself as well as on your team, besides the ability to face all
consequences is the basic foundation of success for a team.
 Supportive attitude: Everyone has to be supportive of the project as well as of others. A
team is one unit. Unless these cohesive forces are there, the team will never be able to
work efficiently enough.
 Team decisions: Decisions are taken by using organised as well as logical methods.
Dissenting opinions are never ignored. In fact, they are always recorded in order to be
revisited in case the future situations dictate so.
 Teams are given realistic deadlines: Team working should be target oriented. External
support as well as aid is vital to the success of any team.
An efficient team needs support from both inside and outside. It needs to meet the individual
needs of its members in order to achieve the institution’s goals.
 Team models: effective teams are the principal building blocks of the strategy of any
successful institution, be it private, non-profit or government sector. Team always remains
central methodology in any institution working towards social service or quality or value or
efficiency or performance or any other similar goals. Alignment amongst the team members
often leads to harmonization, complementarities of action and thought, quicker and better
achievement of expected outcome.
There are various types of teams, like:
 The Traditional Model-

 Has a traditional boss, who shares part of his responsibility and authority, based on
the type of issues and assignment
 Other person of the team can take the role of boss under selective situations
 The Team Spirit Model-
 Has one boss and team members work under his directions
10
 There seems perfect harmony and team spirit
 There is no sharing of authority or responsibility, hence no true team exists in real
sense
 The Cutting Edge Model-
 Self-directed work team
 No single authority
 Team members are managing themselves.
 Eachmember has the authority as well as responsibility and capable to undertake any
decisions required.
 The Task Force Model-
 Task force is also called committee
 Here a group of people comes together only for a specific time
 The group is designed to work on a special project or a task.
 The group may also include quality circles as are used in TQM efforts.
 The Cyber Team-
 Also known as “ Virtual team”
 Membersrarely meet each other;even do not see each other at all, except at the
beginning of the project.
 Members interact via e-mail, telephone or through video conferencing only.
 Very popular amongst techno oriented educational institutions
 Best way to work with distant placed team members, nationally and internationally
 Help the partners in optimum utilization of costly resources for mutually beneficial
gains.
It is important to decide the kind of models, teams in your institution fits in order to achieve
the institutions’ goals.
 Types of Teams
In every institution, there are varieties of projects, small or big; simple or complex; short term
or long term. In order to accomplish them with total success a few or too many employees are
to work together, in well set harmony, complementing each other’s role. Depending upon the
need, teams can be formed anywhere, anytime, of any size and type.
11
Various types of teams are:
 Permanent teams-don’t get dissolved even after the particular assigned tasks are over
for which these teams were designed. E.g human resources teams, operation teams,
administration teams always function effectively throughout the year and hence are
permanent teams.
 Temporary teams –most of the times, teams are raised to help and assist either
permanent teams or the members of permanent teams are busy or on leave. Such teams
lose their importance and existence, once the task is accomplished. This kind of set up is
formed, when some important and time bound assignment is to be accomplished by the
institution.
 Task Force - are formed for a special purpose or project or finding a solution to a very
critical issue/problem.The task force works on fire footings,explores all the possible
means to resolve the problem within a given deadline.
 Committee–is formed of a group of people with common interests, more or less from the
same academic, technical and experience background, attitude placed together on a
common platform to undertake a particular assignment. The committee can be of
permanent or temporary nature. E.g. cultural or sports or academic or discipline or
admission or examination committee.
 Work Force – group of people working under the guidance of expert constitute a work
force. Team selects its own leader amongst themselves and all work for a common goal.
Leader own responsibility, try to keep team motivated to get the best out of all, avoid
conflicts, appreciate one and all
 Self Managed Teams –is a team, where there is no boss or leader or supervisor, every
member is responsible and accountable to himself for his performance. Such a team
works on the principle of faith, confidence, respect and self accountability
 Cross Functional Team –has people from different areas, working for a common
objective. Such teams can come out of novel solutions of problems as they think
differently, pool knowledge from their own interest areas, join their heads and hands to
work most effectively and efficiently
 Virtual Teams –has distantly placed people but wirelessly connected. Institution and
people have technical edge work by making such teams.
12
 Team Work - Meaning and Tips for better Team Work
The collective efforts by the team members undertaken to achieve of the team’s objective are
called team work. Though there is a predefined role of each and every individual in a team
but individual performances do not count in a team and it is the collective performance of the
team members which matter the most. In a team, everyone has to work equally for the
maximum output. The best team work is based on some qualities of team members like
healthy interpersonal relationships, hard work, commitment, adjustable and flexible nature
etc.
 Steps for a better team work:
 Think about your team first - Every individual should think of his team first than his
personal interests. Do not mix your personal issues with your professional life. Keep
them separate.
 Never underestimate your team member- Do not neglect any of the members, instead
work together and also listen to each other very well. Never try to impose your ideas on
any member. Avoid downgrading any team member.
 Discuss - Before implementing any new idea/decision, it must be discussed with each and
every member on an open platform. Never ever discuss with anyone separately as the
other person may feel left out and reluctant to perform and contribute to the team.
 Avoid criticism - Stay away from negative criticism and making fun of your team
members. Help each other and be a good team player. Be the first one to break the ice and
always create a friendly environment. If you do not agree with any of your team
members, make him understand his constructively and in a polite tone. Avoid negativity
within the team.
 Transparent and effective communication - The communication must be effective,
crystal clear and precise so that every team member gets a common picture. Effective
communication also nullifies misunderstandings and confusions. Confusions lead to
conflicts and individuals waste their time and energy in fighting rather than working.
 Quality leadership - The team leader must take the responsibility of encouraging the
team members to give their level best and should intervene immediately in case of
conflict. The personality of the leader should be such that every team member should
look upon him to take his advice whenever required. He should not be partial to any
member. It is the duty of the team leader to extract the best out of his team members.
13
 Understand your team members- For better team work try to understand your team
members well. Do not just always talk business, it is okay if you sometimes go out with
your team members for lunch or catch a movie together. It improves the relations and
strengthens the bond among the team members. The team members must trust each other
for maximum output. Always try to remember the scene of the movie” 3 Idiots” where
the coach takes his quarreling women hockey team members for eating in a food joint.
 Avoid conflicts in your team- Don’t fight over petty issues and find faults in others. One
should be a little adjusting with each other and try to find an alternative best suited to all
the team members.
 Rewards and Recognition - Healthy competition must be encouraged amongst team
members. The performance of team members must be evaluated timely and the best
performer should be rewarded suitably so that the other members also get motivated to
perform. Recognitions like “The Best Team Player” or the “The Best Performer” go a
long way in motivating the team members.
 Factors Determining Success for Teams:
There are many factors that ensure a team’s success or failure. Among them, the three most
important factors are:
 Nature of Leadership:It is always said, “A team is as good as its leader and a leader is
as good as the team”. There cannot be good leaders without good team and vice versa.
Thus a leader should not be selected on the basis of seniority only but his hard skills,
competencies along with soft skills necessary to handle the tasks successfully.
 Team Collaboration: when team members’ work for individual goals, neither the team
can win nor the institution can rise. Goals of team should be treated above personal ones.
In this situation, it becomes sole responsibility of team leader to formulate strategies to
make a clear understanding between team collaboration and competition.
 Empowerment of team members:successful teams are those where the individual
member can act independently, decide on his own and should have freedom to take
decisions in the interest of institution. He should act as a leader in his own way and of
himself. Hence, a good leader and an effective institution would ensure that the “boots on
the ground” are empowered enough to act as the representatives of the team or the
institution
14
Practice Test
Q 1: Fill in the blanks:

a) Effective teams are characterised by ------- goals and -------members.
b) Creative solution comes, when members of effective team think ------- box.
c) In ---- teams, members don’t not come in direct contact with each other
Q II. Write short questions:
a). Write characteristics of different types of “Team Models”.
b). Classify teams on the basis of their longevity.
c). What are various factors determining the success of a team?
Feedback
Ans-1 Fill ups

1. Clearly defined, committed
2. Out of
3. Virtual
Ans. II.
a). Various team models are:
 The Traditional Model
 The Team Spirit Model
 The Cutting Edge Model
 The Task Force Model
 The Cyber Team Model
b). Classification of teams on the basis of their longevity:

 Permanent team- don’t get dissolved after the task gets finished
 Temporary team- raised for short while, till the particular task for which the team has been
raised , is going on.
c). Factors determining success of team:
 Nature of leadership
 Team collaboration
 Team members empowerment
15
8.5.3 Networking And Partnering With Stakeholders (Employers,
Alumni, Community Etc.) For Success
“The richest people in the world look for and build networks; everyone else looks for work. Marinate on
that for a minute.” – Robert Kiyosaki
The distance between you and your goal can diminishes with the company and guidance of appropriate
people. The proximity level to successful people correlates to your own individual success. Successstories
of any individual or institution are determined by not only connect with successful people but
the right people who will help catapult you to achieving your personal and professional goals. So it’s
crucial to grow your network and overall circle of influence.
There are two kinds of stake holders of educational institution, internal (teachers, other officials and staff)
and external (alumni, potential employers, industry and society in general).Involvement and contribution
of these external stakeholders behave as potential helpful groups in today’s socio-economic scenario
when customers’ demands are changing, market is changing from sellers to buyers, technology, processes
and products are also changing at a split of a second. The role of these stakeholders become extremely
vital for an institution to stay relevant, competitive and abreast. Networking and partnering with these
stakeholders can prove to be a valuable asset for the institutions.
 Networking and Partnering with Alumni- “An institution succeeds, if its alumni succeeds”,
a single line clearly indicates that creating an engaged and supportive alumni network is crucial
for an institution’s success. After the completion of graduation, alumni leaves the institution and
remain ignorant about their own institute, it’s the line of communication of networking with them
can keep them aware of institutional information, its strengths and weaknesses in current
scenario. It is essential for the rise of institute that, they should be kept informed so that they can
remain engaged and keep abreast on the progress of the institution. Good alumni relationships
bring many benefits to both the institution and the alumni. Various roles, alumni can play for the
institutes are:
 Institutional supporters-As graduates of the institution, alumni have a special connection
with the institution and as a result are likely to be some of its more loyal supporters. An
engaged alumni network allows the institute to benefit from the skills and experience these
people have, by offering their support to the students and the institution. If we keep them
16
properly informed and involved, they are the most loyal supporters and best brand
ambassadors, offering invaluable marketing and promotion across their personal and
professional networks.
 Expertise: Talented alumni will likely have a wealth of experience and skills to share with
current students via talks and newsletters. In certain cases, this could go even further with
alumni offering to practically support students in work placements and help them launch their
careers. They always want to “give back” to the institute by coming back and sharing their
experiences, giving right guidance to prospective and current students.
 Global partners: many a times alumni can acts as international brand ambassadors and help
out or facilitate current student’s placements, they can also help the institute in getting foreign
faculty and experts to enrich it.
 Mentors: by acting as role models, alumni can also be asked to offer practical support to
fresh carrier entrants.
 Counseling and networking: with distinguished alumni can help current students in their
career path and will benefit the institute too n getting new feathers in its cap.
 Employability: Alumni can be asked of bringing real world corporate exposure for current
students where the students can be enriched with from the experiences of their seniors in
terms of job trends;skill sets required, referrals etc.
 Financial help: as alumni always feel immense gratitude for their alma mater, wants to stay
connected with it, look ways to give back, hence with pleasure in raising funds for the
improvement and up gradation of infrastructure for teaching and pioneering research.
From above, it is quite clear that alumni have to play a very important role in the success of their
alma mater. Their engagement and whole hearted involvement in the affairs of an institution can
really make a difference in the stature and quality of the institution. Different means need to be
adopted for this depending on their skills, interests and where they are currently in their life. Even
a small gesture like a birthday e mail can make them realise that the institution still thinks of
them. With this techno savvy generation, use of social media, with photos, quotes, motivational
stories from the past can be quite popular. Celebrating the successes of alumni, dedicated alumni
blogs sharing alumni stories, triumphs and news can connect them with the institution. e-
netwoking system can be another innovative way in this direction.
Innovative, tech-friendly advances like the examples given above are likely to appeal to
millennial and are increasingly becoming important now as millennial now make a significant
17
portion of today’s alumni. A very meaningful line says about the importance of the alumni, “The
sense lies in making alumni a part of the institute’s future and not just its past”
 Networking and Partnering with industry and Potential Employers
Industry and academia have a symbiotic relationship. Industry looks to academia for qualified
candidates to add to its workforce, while educational institutions admit the brightest minds with
the promise of gainful employment. Curricula are often altered and customized to prepare
students for challenges after graduation and to suit the needs of industry. Academic research
impacts industry, and in some cases, receives funding from it.
Despite these interconnections, a gap exists between the two due to differences in their
approaches, missions, and customers. To bridge the gap, there is a great need to bridge
partnerships from both sides for mutually beneficial gains. Some of the ways to enhance the
collaboration between the two are:
 Collaborative research and development projects between industry and academic institutions
 Facilitating easy mobility of personnel among institutes, R&D laboratories and industry
(including R&D institutions connected with industry)
 Promoting institute-industry linkages by diverse means, including adjunct positions for

necessary personnel;
 Involvement of industry in multi dimensional academic assignments like finalizing skill set,
up to date curriculum, industry supported labs, industrial internships etc.
 Involvement of faculty and students in industrial problem solving and training of manpower
 Using academic labs as incubators for long-term and exploratory research. Academic
incubators are strategic areas designed by institutes to promote entrepreneurship, innovation,
and research. The incubators are spaces for exchanging new ideas and collaborating on
projects, as well as effective tools for workforce development. Industry can look to the
startups and research projects developed in these incubators as valuable investment
opportunities.
18
From above, it can be summarised that the relationship between both the partners is of
interdependence. Institutions need to adopt innovative strategies to engage industry and potential
employers for its success and socio economic development of the country.
Practice Test
a) A group of people with similar thought process, common goals and interests is called a
___________
b) Team size depends on the ___________of the task and the __________ till the task is to be
undertaken.
c) _______________ is the budding stage of team formation
d) Teams can be ___________ or ___________
Q1. Short questions
a)What are the characteristics of team members?

b) What are the characteristics of an effective team?
c) Name the various teams models
d) What are the factors determining success of teams?
Feedback
Ans.1. Fill in the blanks

a) Team
b) complexity, length of time
c) Forming stage
d) temporary or permanent
a) Characteristics of team members are
 They should be act in a complementary way

 They should work in unison and help each other
 They should not watch their personal interests on priority
19
 They should not argue with each other
 They should show egoistic behaviors
b) Characteristics of an effective team are:
 A clear defined goal

 A results-driven structure
 Competent members
 Unified commitment
 Principled leadership
 A collaborative climate
c) Various team models are:
 The Traditional Model

 The Team Spirit Model
 The Cutting Edge Model
 The Task Force Model
 The Cyber Team
d) Factors determining success of teams
 Nature of Leadership
 Team Collaboration
 Empowerment of team members
20
Conclusion: from the above content it becomes evident that an institute can scale any height if the
employee of the institute are adhered together as an effective team and the leaders have also delegated
them enough authority to take decisive steps for the progress and achievement of institutional goals.
Institutional goals and objectives can also be met by establishing meaningful relationships with its
stakeholders like alumni, potential employer, community etc.
Bibliography:
1. Arrey, O.B., 2014. Team Building as an Organization Development Strategy. Global Journal of
Management And Business Research.
3. Committee on Guidance on Implementing the Next Generation Science Standards; Board on
Science Education; Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education; National Research
Council. Guide to Implementing the Next Generation Science Standards. Washington (DC):
National Academies Press (US); 2015 Mar 27. 7, COLLABORATION, NETWORKS, AND
PARTNERSHIPS. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK285705/
Pvt. Ltd.
7.
https://www.academia.edu/23444478/Assignment_No_-
2_Organizational_Development_Interventions-
_Team_Building_Activities_Organization_Development Sana Parveen Assignment No: - 2,
Organizational Development Interventions- Team Building Activities
Irwin, 350- 366p.
21
Supportive learning material: by Dr Rakesh K Wats
Videos on
 Working in Teams for Projects and Programmes
 Building Effective Teams
 Networking and Partnering with stakeholders (Employers, alumni, Community etc.) for
Success
Web resources:
 Why Team Building is Important !! https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H_vOfqIpD60

 Type of Teamwork https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hf3C5rci_z4
 How To Build A Winning Team - 5 Best Team Building Practices | Robin Sharma
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ckEOQKmZPlI
 Build a great TEAM - Steve Jobs Rule #5 of 10
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r3c7uAJRx3U
 Success Mantra for Effective Team Building
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G_r5SvYGbmg
 5 Golden Rules for building a Great Team https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CYRpK9HBlIY
22
UNIT 8.6
INSTITUTIONAL MANAGEMENT PROCESS: STAFFING
WITH RELEVANT HUMAN RESOURCES
Content Page No
Broad Objective 3
Learning Outcomes 3
Introduction 3
8.6.1 Staffing - Concept & Process 4
 Definitions of Staffing
 Nature of Staffing Function
 Importance of staffing
 Process of staffing function
Practice test 9
Feedback 9
8.6.2 Recruitment & Selection (Rules & Regulations) in 10
Educational Institutions
 Types of Recruitment
 Process of Recruitment
 AICTE in its gazette notification, dated March 1, 2019:
 Employee Selection Process
 Selection Process
 Orientation and Placement
 Constitution of Screening cum Evaluation / Selection
Committee
 Selection Proceedings
 Selection Committee Composition for Assistant Professor,
Associate Professor and Professor both for Direct
Recruitment and Promotion
Practice test 27
Feedback 28
8.6.3 Training & Development (Rules & Regulations) of faculty 29
and staff
 Need of training
1
 Importance of training
 Training is given on four basic grounds
 Features of training and development process
 Broad objectives of a training programme
 Benefits of training
 Methods of training
 Types of trainings
 Planning for training
 Guidelines for the development of training program
 Training and development Programmes for Faulty
/Teaching Staff
 Mandatory Teacher Trainings
 Training Requirements for Promotions of Teachers from
all the Disciplines
Practice test 36
Feedback 36
Conclusion 37
Bibliography 37
2
UNIT 8.6
INSTITUTIONAL MANAGEMENT PROCESS: STAFFING
WITH RELEVANT HUMAN RESOURCES
NITTTR, Chandigarh
Broad Objective
participants about the process of staffing the
institutions with relevant human resources (faculty
and staff).Participants shall also be aware about the
rules and regulations of Government and statutory
authorities about the above procedures.
Learning Outcomes
 Appreciate the importance of staffing and its role in providing relevant human resources in an
institution.
 Identify the steps involved in the process of staffing in an institution.
 Understand the concept of recruitment and selection and identify different types and sources for
recruitment
 Use appropriate process of staffing in his own institution for facilitating the recruitment of
faculty/staff.
 Appreciate the need and importance of training in developing up to date faculty and staff.
 Identify different types of training and their applicability in different situations.
 Understand rules and regulations of Government and statutory authorities for recruitment and
selection and training and development of faculty and staff in technical institutions.
Introduction
Competent and adequate human resource is the life line of any institution. For this institutions adopt
varied practices and spend a big fortune first for their recruitment and selection, and then for their training
3
and development. Thus, staffing function of the institutional management is a highly professional
phenomenon for placing right type of people at right place and in right time. Right type of people help an
institution in raising its bar of excellence.
This unit covers the basics of staffing function in terms of its concept, nature, importance and process in
any educational institution. Basics of recruitment and selection process and the rules and regulations of
government and statutory authorities governing the same are also important inputs of this unit.
Fundamentals of Training and development and its process which are very important for the faculty and
staff of any institution for keeping them up-to-date is the important contribution of this unit.
8.6.1 Staffing - Concept & Process
The institutional performance mainly depends on the quality of its faculty and staff who are its most
important asset. The faculty and the staff working in an institute supply the talent, skills, knowledge,
expertise and experience to achieve the goals and objectives of an institute. Acquiring, deploying and
retaining such a work force is very crucial management function in an institute, so as to create a positive
impact on the effectiveness of the institution. This entire process is called as staffing. To make concept
clear, staffing can be taken as ―putting right people at the right positions and at the right time‖.
Staffing is a continuous process in every institute. Sometimes people leave the institute or institute fires
them or there is creation of new posts or seniors get retired. Hence the process of staffing is a never-
ending process in any institution.
Staffing in an institute can be defined in general, with the perspective of accomplishment of tasks
effectively and efficiently, as:-
 filling and keeping filled the positions
 identification of work-force requirements
 Making inventory of the people available
 Recruitment, selection, placement, promotion, appraisal, planning the careers, compensating,
training, developing existing staff or new recruits
There are four main building blocks for the staffing function in any institution:
 Division of work
 Departmentalization
 Hierarchy establishment
 Coordination
4
 Definitions of Staffing: as given by the different management experts are-
 Koontz and O’ Donnell- ―The managerial function of staffing involves manning the
organisational structure through proper and effective selection, appraisal and development of
personnel to fill the roles designed into the structure.‖
 Theo Haimann-―Staffing relates to the recruitment, selection, development, training,
compensation of subordinate managers.‖
 McFarland-―Staffing is the function by which managers build an organisation through the
recruitment, selection, and development of individuals as capable employees.‖
 Nature of Staffing Function
 Important managerial function- planning, organizing, directing and controlling are four
important managerial acts and all these depend upon the manpower which is made available
through the staffing function.
 Pervasive activity-or extensive activity, carried out by all levels of managers in each and
every institute.
 Continuous activity-transfers, promotions, retirements, firing, evolution of institute, popping
up of new challenges, generation of new posts make staffing function continues and life long
process
 Efficient management of personnel- a proper procedure of recruitment, selection,
placement, training and development, providing remuneration can be efficiently managed by
human resources only.
 Placement of right men at the right job- proper recruitment procedures followed by
selecting the most suitable candidate as per the job’s requirements will enable each staff to fit
into its own square hole.
 Importance of staffing :
 It helps in getting right people for the right job at the right time.
 It enables the management to understand qualitative as well as quantitative requirement
of employees with desired qualifications and experience.
 It enhances institutional productivity which can be further stepped up through proper
training of staff
5
 Regular training and development programmes for staff improves their efficiency and
effectiveness that gives them a feeling of employment assurance and scope of promotions
and finally boost up their morale
 Recruitments, selections, appraisals, promotions in staffing have to follow harmoniously
decided and uniformly communicated procedures. This action fosters peace and harmony
in an institute
 Optimum utilisation of man power in staffing results in cost effective approach of an
institute
 It facilitates the continuous growth, survival and diversification of the institution.
 Process of staffing function

The process of staffing consists of the following steps (Fig 1)
Fig. 1 Process of staffing function
 Manpower planning –
 Involves calculating and forecasting manpower requirement of the institution.

 It is the quantitative and qualitative measurement of work force.
 It creates and evaluates the manpower inventory after analyzing the required skills amongst
the existing employees through their promotion and advancement.
6
 Recruitment –
 Recruitment is a positive process in which prospective and potential employees are searched
and excited to apply for the concerned job
 Invitation and solicitation of applications from the desirable candidates.
 Creation of application pool to open options for quality search from quantity
 Scientific and appropriate recruitment results in enhanced productivity, better salaries,
motivated and consistent employees with higher morale, and better institutional reputation
 It does not need specialised skill to recruit the employees
 Selection –
 Screening out of undesirable and picking up of the best candidates from the application pool
 It needs authorities with appropriate skills to find fit ones for jobs
 Aims for the best candidate selection
 Needs précised guidelines and a well planned selection procedure, designed for achieving
institutional goals through right selections.
 Placement and orientation –
 Selection is followed by appointment of selected candidates

 Placement of right person at right post
 Orientation or introduction of the appointed employees to make them familiar with the
structure and functions of the institution
 Training –
 Training of newly appointed employees to make them aware to the new developments
 Training is based on needs and goals of occupation/institute
 It helps the new appointees to get the deepest knowledge of their specialised niche
 In the absence of formal training, hits and trials by new appointed employees may increase
cost and risks
7
 Development–
 Well designed staffing policy helps in developing the employees to take higher
responsibilities
 Development helps in preparing the employees for variety of jobs
 It widens the outlook and enhances skills
 It opens gates for individual’s as well as institutional growth
 Reduces frustration and keeps new appointees motivated.
 Enhances their output
 Promotion –
 Upgrading an employee to a higher position

 Rank, prestige and/ or status gets enhanced
 Hike of pay, powers and responsibilities
 May lead to transfer to other departments with similar job profile
 Transfer –
 Movement of employees from one to another job without any increase in pay, status or
responsibilities.
 Transfer may place the employee in different work units/departments/ branches of the
institution.
 It may be coupled with promotion
 Employees get a chance to learn the intricacies of the functioning of different departments.
 Appraisal –
 Helps in judging the employee’s effectiveness, efficiency, aptitude and other qualities in
conducting his role in an institute
 Helps in keeping a track/record of the performance, behaviour, attitudes of the employees
while performing their job
 Helps in enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness of the employees
 It evaluates following attributes of an employee-
(i) Ability to do work (ii) Spirit of cooperation
8
(iii) Job knowledge (vii) Initiative
(iv) Discipline and sincerity (viii) Problem solving abilities
(v) Managerial ability (ix) Inter personal behavior
(vi) Self-confidence (x) Intelligence etc.
 Remuneration-
 Monetary compensation to the employees for their work performances.
 It is as per the nature of job (skilled or unskilled, simple or complex, physical or mental, etc.)
 Fixation of remuneration is the most difficult and complex process
 In India (Government sector) employees categorised in different groups/levels and their
remuneration/ salary fixed accordingly.
Practice task
Q1) Staffing includes:
a) Work load estimation
b) Appointments of personnel
c) Placement and induction
d) Termination
e) All of these
Q2) Manpower planning is compulsory for:
a) Reduction in industrial unrest through correct planning
b) To make the employee development programmes effective
c) To provide a solid base for recruitment
d) To provide a solid base for selective policy
e) All of these
Q3) Job analysis is a systematic procedure for securing and reporting information defining a:
a) Specific product
b) Specific job
c) Specific goods or service
d) All these
e) None of these
Q4) What is the use of Job analysis?
a) Organisation and Manpower Planning
b) Recruitment
c) Selection
d) All of these
Q5) Job specification includes:
a) Psychological characteristics
b) Physical characteristics
c) Personal characteristics
d) Responsibilities
e) All of these
Feedback
Answer:
1-e, 2-e, 3-b, 4-d, 5-e
9
8.6.2 Recruitment & Selection (Rules & Regulations) in Educational
Institutions
Recruitment is a positive process to attract maximum number of potential candidates to apply for vacant
jobs that is followed by a negative process of elimination to reject all except those candidates found right
for the position
 Types of Recruitment: there are two types of recruitments
 Internal Recruitment –takes by transfers or promotions or re-employment of ex-employees

leading to enhanced institutional productivity as it always leads to employee’s motivation. It
takes place within the institution. The process is economical from the point of view of time,
money and efforts as the sources are readily available within the organisation. It leads to
institutional refreshment and add new vigor in its working style. This type of recruitment is
not sufficed to fulfill all manpower requirements.
Internal sources of recruitment
Transfer Promotion Re-employment
 No change of rank and  Change of rank, position,  Invitation and
responsibility powers and employment of retired or
 Shift from one to another responsibilities ex-employees in the same
job  Movement to the upper institution to fill
 Gives opportunity to work levels of the institution concerned vacancies.
under varied conditions  Quicker and easier process  May appoint them against
 Make the employee well to fill senior vacant posts part or full time vacancies
versed with different units  Motivates other  Both employee and
of institution employees too institute are well versed of
 May help him or her for  Both employee and each other
promotions institute are well versed of  Application has to come
each other from employee
 As its reward for the  Quicker, easier and
previous job done , economical process to fill
employee work further vacant posts
with more enthusiasm  Experience enriched
10
people become a
knowledge resource for
institute
 External Recruitment –is a process of recruitment where employees are recruited from
outside the organisation and the new ones recruited have no previous belonging to the
institute.
 Advertising—
 The most common method of recruitment is by giving advertisement in leading
newspapers and periodicals, which should be locally available
 Mainly used to fill up posts of managerial or technical personnel
 Advertisement should provide all details related to a job, like educational
qualifications, desired experience, salary and other perks, duties and responsibilities
etc.
 It can help in the self-screening by the prospective candidates, as it has given wider
view of requisites, expectations and offers by the institute
 It helps in getting bigger application pool to allow better selection process
 Due to large pool of applications, the process of selection becomes time consuming
and increase the financial burden on the institute
 Employment Agencies—
 Employment agencies are the kind of service providers
 These can be small or large scale organisations which help in matching personnel
demand and supply to the institutions.
 These can be run by both government as well as private agencies, catering the needs
of local or wider areas
 These agencies help in getting the employment seekers registered with them and help
in making bridges between employment seekers and givers
 In bigger cities or metropolitans, private consultancy firms provide recruitment
facilities. E.g. Tata Consultancy Service for the technical and professional employees
11
 Gate Hiring-
 It is a more suitable option to hire unskilled work force by industries
 A small write up a industry gate will help in recruitment of interested candidates
 Its quick and cheap way of recruitment
 It is the best way to get substitutions against absentees or leave vacancies
 Campus recruitment drives—
 Direct recruitment from educational institutes like colleges and universities
 Recruiting groups of big organisations develop a close liaison with educational
institutions
 Regular conduct of formal campus recruiting programmes
 Short listing of desirable candidates by holding preliminary on-campus interviews
 Final interview of short listed candidates takes place mostly at their offices.
 Leasing—
 It is a way to hire people to meet short term fluctuations in personnel needs on
leasing basis
 It is a kind of borrowing faculty and staff for specified time period with a provision
to go back to parent institution. Though at the end of leasing term an open option is
given to the employee to opt for either current or parent institution
 Mainly practiced in public sector organisations which generally face faculty and staff
crunch
 Waiting Lists –
 While selecting the most suitable candidates, a list of the best found people is made
 The number of people asked to join are as per the number of vacancies
 The remaining people in the waiting list may be called to join when ever that need
arises
 It is another way to recruit desirable people in fast and economical way as they have
been already scrutinised
 Unsolicited applications or casual callers—
 These applicants send their request applications to the institute to call them, as and
when the vacancy arises
 By appointing such casual callers, the cost of advertisement, selection and training
expenditures along with other financial benefits (pension, insurance and fringe
benefits) can be cut down by an institution.
12
 Ex-empIoyees-
 Ex-employee are those persons were earlier working in the institute but has either
retired or left due to one or another reason but wants to come back and serve
 Such ex-employees with skills, experience and good records can be again employed
 Such employees are well versed with the institutional structure and function setup,
hence do not require any formal initial training, except for the latest progresses the
institution has undergone
 Walk-Ins-
 It’s a kind of direct recruitment
 It needs proper advertisement of vacancies, specifying date, venue and time of
interface
 It does not opt for process of submission of application forms prior to selection
 E-recruitments-
 Like employment agencies, various online job portals ( naukri.com, monstor.com,
shine.com, indeed.co etc. helps in providing suitable candidates to the organisation
 These portals have lots of curriculum vitae or resume of interested candidates with
them, high lighting their skills in different areas
 Process of Recruitment: An ideal recruitment process not only invites large number of
desirable and qualified applicants, but also attracts those candidates who can undergo selection
process successfully and join the position, if offered. The process is comprised of five related
stages
 Planning- is the first stage in the recruitment process wherein following calculations are
taken into consideration:
 How many vacancies are likely to fall in coming time?
 What will be nature of these jobs?
 What objectives or targets of institution are likely to meet, if these recruitments take
place?
 How many applicants are to be contacted?
 Which type of applicants should be contacted for?
13
 Strategy development- after clearing two main points of planning, how many and what
types of recruits are needed, the next step is to focus on following points:
 Make or buy-Whether to hire less skilled employees ( MAKE EMPLOYEE) and later
institution should invest time and money on their training and education or opt for fully
skilled people (BUY EMPLOYEE). For latter category the perks have to higher than
former ones while working efficiency of institute will be higher in latter case.
 Technological sophistication- decides the methods to be used in recruitment and selection.
Use of computers, online modes, e-recruitment widens the scope of job seekers and
providers to scan wide range of self-screened applicants. Source of applicants, like
agencies, companies, open advertisements etc., will help the institute to look into their
target employees. E.g. recruitment companies or national sources can provide better
managerial and professional employees while local markets are good source of technical
staff (clerks and all blue-collar worker)
 Source of recruitment- help the institution to opt for either internal or external recruitment
 Searching- involve two steps-

 Source activation- where applicants are excited to send their application, though no actual
recruitment is taking place. This step will help in searching the most desirable candidates
for a particular post from a very pool of applications.
 Selling- involves the identification and selection of the appropriate means of
communication, both in terms of appropriate media for advertisement and explicitly of
the content of advertisement, for reaching the footsteps of potential candidates.
 Screening- involved post scrutinisation and short listing process of suitable candidates.
Screening is done primarily to remove visibly unqualified candidates. The guidelines of the
process should be legislative.
 Evaluation and control- plays an important role in recruitment, as it involves large amount
of finances as advertisement cost, administrative expenses, recruiter’s wages, over time and
outsource costs etc. The process designed should be effective and valid in terms of time, cost
and energy investments.
14
 AICTE in its gazette notification, dated March 1, 2019:
Has given following mminimum qualification for recruitments-
Minimum qualification, experience, research contributions, feedback and requisite training
requirements for different levels for direct recruitment and promotions for the faculty members are
as follows:
 Minimum Qualifications for direct recruitment as an Assistant Professor (Level – 10, Entry
Pay
57700/-)
(a) Engineering / Technology
B. E. / B. Tech. / B. S. and M. E. / M. Tech. / M. S. or Integrated M. Tech. in relevant branch
with first class or equivalent in any one of the degrees.
(b) Management
Bachelor’s Degree in any discipline and Master’s Degree in Business Administration /
PGDM /C. A. / ICWA/ M. Com. with First Class or equivalent and two years of professional
experience after acquiring the degree of Master’s degree.
(c) Pharmacy
B. Pharm. and M. Pharm. in the relevant specialization with First Class or equivalent in any
one of the two degrees.
(d) MCA
B. E. / B. Tech. / B. S. and M.E. / M. Tech. / M. S. or Integrated M. Tech. in relevant branch
with First Class or equivalent in any one of the degrees.
OR
B. E., B. Tech. and MCA with First Class or equivalent in any one of the two degrees.
OR
Graduation of three years’ duration with Mathematics as a compulsory subject and MCA
with First Class or equivalent with 2 years of relevant experience after acquiring degree of
MCA.
(e) Hotel Management and Catering Technology
Minimum 4 years Bachelor’s Degree in HMCT and Master’s Degree in HMCT or in relevant
disciplines with First Class or equivalent in any one of the two degrees.
OR
15
Minimum 4 years Bachelor’s Degree in HMCT with First Class or equivalent and minimum
of 5years of relevant experience at a managerial level not less than Assistant Manager in a 4
– star Hotel or in a similar position in the hospitality industry/ tourism industry.
(f) Architecture
B. Arch. and M. Arch. or equivalent Master’s degree in an allied field with First Class in any
one of the two degrees, and minimum 2 years’ experience in the Architecture profession.
OR
B. Arch. with First class or equivalent and minimum of 5 years’ experience in the
Architecture profession.
(g) Town Planning
Bachelor’s degree in Architecture / Planning / Civil Engineering or Master’s degree in
Geography / Economics / Sociology or equivalent AND Master of Planning or equivalent
with First class or equivalent in either in Master of Planning or any above degrees with 2
years of relevant experience
(h) Design
Bachelor’s Degree or minimum 4 year Diploma in any one of the streams of Design, Fine
Arts, Applied Arts and Architecture or Bachelor’s degree in Engineering with First class or
equivalent
AND
Master’s degree or equivalent Post Graduate Diploma in relevant disciplines with First Class
or equivalent in a concerned / relevant /allied subject of Industrial Design / Visual
Communication /Fine Arts / Applied Arts / Architecture / Interaction Design / New Media
Studies / Design Management / Ergonomics / Human Factors Engineering / Indian Craft
Studies and related fields of Engineering or Design.
AND
Minimum 2 years of professional design experience in Industry / research organization /
Design studios.
(i) Fine Arts
Bachelor’s and Master’s degree in the relevant branch with First Class or equivalent in any
one of the two degrees and minimum 2 years of relevant professional experience.
(j) Qualifications for Faculties in Science and Humanities:
The qualifications for recruitment and promotions for faculty in the disciplines of Basic
Sciences, Social Science and Humanities shall be as per the UGC Notification No. F.1-
2/2017(EC/PS) Dated 18th July, 2018 and UGC guidelines issued from time to time.
16
Note: Candidates who have done Ph.D. after the Bachelor’s Degree from institution of
National
importance with GATE/ GPAT/ CEED shall be eligible for the post of Assistant Professor.
 Minimum Qualification Norms for Direct Recruitments / Promotions for Stage –II to Stage –
VI
(a) Qualification for Assistant Professor (Senior Scale, Level – 11, Entry Pay 68900/-)
For Promotion of Incumbents
a. Qualifications prescribed for the post of Assistant Professor
AND
b. Should have completed minimum training requirements as per Annexure - III.
AND
c. Should have satisfied any one of the below mentioned set of requirements.
Set Additional To have acquired in the cadre of Assistant Professor

No. Qualification Experience Research publications in SCI Avg. 360⁰ feedback
(Years) journals /UGC /AICTE score (out of 10)
approved list of journals
1 - 4 2 8 to 10
2 - 5 1 8 to 10
3 - 5 2 5 to < 8
(b) Qualifications for Assistant Professor (Selection Grade, Level – 12, Entry Pay 79800/-)
For Promotion of Incumbents
a. Qualifications as prescribed for the post of Assistant Professor (Senior Scale)
AND
b. Should have completed minimum training requirements as per Annexure - III.
AND
Set Additional To have acquired in the cadre of Assistant Professor (Senior Scale)
17
(Years) journals /UGC /AICTE score (out of 10)
1 - 4 1 8 to 10
2 - 4 2 5 to < 8
(c) Qualifications for Associate Professor (Level – 13A1, Entry Pay 131400/-)
i. For Direct Recruitment
a. Ph.D. degree in the relevant field and First class or equivalent at either Bachelor’s or
Master’s level in the relevant branch
AND
b. At least total 6 research publications in SCI journals / UGC / AICTE approved list of
journals.
AND
c. Minimum of 8 years of experience in teaching / research / industry out of which at least 2
years shall be Post Ph.D. experience.
Note: In case of HMCT, 8 years of industry experience at a managerial level not below the
position of Head of Department handling a team of 20 persons or more in a 4 star hotel or
above category or in a similar position in the hospitality industry / tourism industry.
ii For Promotion of Incumbents
a. Ph. D. degree in relevant field and First class or equivalent at either Bachelor’s or Master’s
level in the relevant branch.
AND
b. Should have completed minimum training requirements as per Annexure – III.
AND
Set Additional To have acquired in the cadre of Assistant Professor (Senior Scale)
(Years) Journals UGC AICTE score (out of 10)
1 - 3 2 5 to < 8
2 - 3 1 8 to 10
(d) Qualifications for Professor (Level – 14, Entry Pay 144200/-)
18
(i) Direct Recruitment
a. Ph. D. degree in relevant field and First class or equivalent at either Bachelor’s or Master’s
AND
b. Minimum of 10 years of experience in teaching / research / industry out of which at least 3
years shall be at a post equivalent to that of an Associate Professor.
AND
c. At least 6 research publications at the level of Associate Professor in SCI journals / UGC
/AICTE approved list of journals and at least 2 successful Ph.D. guided as Supervisor / Co-
supervisor till the date of eligibility of promotion.
OR
At least 10 research publications at the level of Associate Professor in SCI journals / UGC
/AICTE approved list of journals till the date of eligibility of promotion.
(ii) For Promotion of the Incumbents

a. Ph. D. degree in relevant field and First Class or equivalent at either Bachelor’s or Master’s
AND
b. Should have satisfied any one of the below mentioned set of requirements.
Set Ph.D. Guided Total To have acquired in the cadre of Assistant Professor (Senior Scale)
No. Experience Experience Research publications in SCI Avg. 360⁰ feedback
(Years) (Years) Journals UGC AICTE score (out of 10)
1 1 15 3 6 8 to 10
2 2 15 3 6 5 to < 8
3 - 16 3 4 8 to 10
Note: 360° Feedback

1. The feedback obtained every year, till the date of eligibility of next stage, shall be taken as
an average of all the preceding years added together required for promotions.
2. In case the candidate fails to achieve the maximum feedback score, the subsequent year’s
may be taken into consideration while dropping the lowest feedback score in any one of the
year.
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(e) Qualifications for Promotion to Senior Professor (Level –15, Entry Pay 182200/-)
a. Ph. D. degree in the relevant field
AND
b. Minimum ten years of experience in the cadre of Professor
AND
c. At least 8 research publications in SCI journals / UGC / AICTE approved list of journals,
should have at least 2 successful Ph. D. guided as Supervisor / Co-Supervisor as a Professor.
OR
should have provided academic leadership as institution head at least for 3 years at the level
of Professor.
OR
should have provided educational leadership at state / national level at least for 3 years at the
level of Professor.
AND
d. At least one patent awarded
OR
d. Development of one MOOC course applicable at national platform
Notes:
1. The selection of Senior Professor shall also be based on academic achievements, favourable
review of academic, research and administrative work from three eminent subject experts not
below the post of Senior Professor or a Professor of at least ten years of experience.
2. The selection shall be based on ten best publications and award of Ph. D. degrees to at least
two candidates under his / her supervision during the last 10 years and interaction with the
Selection Committee constituted as per this regulation.
(f) Qualifications for Direct Recruitment of Principal / Director (Level – 14, Entry Pay
144200/- with the special allowance of Rs. 6750/- per month)
a. Ph. D. degree and First Class or equivalent at either Bachelor’s or Master’s level in the
relevant branch
b. At least two successful Ph.D. guided as supervisor / Co-Supervisor and minimum 8 research
publications in SCI journals / UGC / AICTE approved list of journals.
20
c. Minimum 15 years of experience in teaching / research/ industry, out of which at least 3
years shall be at the post equivalent to that of Professor.
Notes:
1. This position shall be of contractual in nature for 5 years and can be extended for one more
term depending upon the performance.
2. Performance assessment shall be carried out through a committee appointed by the
affiliating university.
3. After completing the final term, the incumbent shall join back his / her parent organization
in the previous designation from where he / she has proceeded with the designation as
Professor /Senior Professor as the case may be.
 Minimum Qualifications for Direct Recruitment and promotion of other

staff
Workshop Superintendent
Initial recruitment of Workshop Superintendent shall be at par with Assistant Professor with the
qualification as prescribed for the Assistant Professor in Mechanical/ Production Engineering.
Upward movement and designations shall be as per stage I to stage V of the present notification
indicated in Table 3.
Table 3: Stages of Promotion and Designations for Workshop Superintendent
Stage Designation
Entry Level, Stage-I Workshop Superintendent
Stage-II Workshop Superintendent(Senior Scale)
Stage-III Workshop Superintendent (Selection Grade)
Stage-IV Associate Professor (Workshop)
Stage-V Professor (Workshop)
Qualifications for Training and Placement Officer

a. Qualifications, service conditions and Pay scales of Training and Placement Officer shall be
same as Professor in Engineering & Technology or concerned Technical Program.
b. One of the Professors in the Institute shall be entrusted with additional responsibility of
Training and Placement Officer on rotation basis.
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c. If Professor is not available, Associate Professor / Assistant Professor may be identified for
this post.
Minimum Qualifications for direct recruitment of Assistant Librarian (Level – 10, Entry
Pay 57700/-)
a. Master’s Degree in Library Science/Information Science/ Documentation Science or an
Equivalent Professional Degree with at least First Class or equivalent and a consistently good
academic record with knowledge of computerization of library.
b. Qualifying in the National Level Test conducted for the purpose by UGC or other equivalent
test as approved by the UGC.
 Additional Requirements
Research Publications
In order to ensure quality of publications for promotions, a minimum standard would be ensured
through the following.
a) For the purpose of promotions, candidates must have published research papers in SCI
journals
OR UGC approved Journals OR AICTE approved list of journals OR jointly approved by
AICTE with respective councils / institute such as Council of Architecture / Pharmacy Council
of India /Institute of Town Planners, India.
b) In case of HMCT, 1 live case study or 1 live industry project as research / consultancy having
credential of very high standing would be recognized as equivalent to 1 publication.
c) In case of Design, Architecture and Town Planning, 1 live case study, 1 live industry project
as research / consultancy or 1 exceptional design having credential of very high standing /
obtained high level recognition would be recognized as equivalent to 1 publication.
 Employee Selection Process
Employee Selection is very important tasks as it works on ―The best fit principle‖. Where by the right
men are put against the right job. Effective selection process is based on the ―best matching” criteria in
which those candidates are selected who fulfills institutional requirements and have desirable skills to
perform their given responsibilities. The effective selection leads to institutional efficiency, reduces
absenteeism, decline drop outs and save money and time. Selection is a negative process in which all
22
inappropriate candidates are dropped and the best ones with abilities, skills, experience and qualifications
are picked up.
 Selection Process: takes place in following order-
 Preliminary Interviews-or screening interview are less formal and casual interaction with
candidates and are meant for eliminating those candidates who do not meet the minimum
eligibility criteria mentioned by an institution. These help in examining basic skills,
competencies, interests and academic and family background of the candidates. These includes
briefing up of candidates about the company and their job profile and also help the selection
board to understand, how much the candidate knows about the institution.
 Application blanks-are the second step in selection process where it is asked from the
candidates, who have cleared the preliminary interview, to fill application blank with their details
like age, qualifications, reason for leaving previous job, interest in current job, justification for
selection, claim of candidature, experience, etc.
 Written Tests-are unbiased and written tests, conducted to objectively assess the potential
candidate, like aptitude test, intelligence test, reasoning test, personality test, etc.
 Employment Interviews-is generally the final testing of the candidate to check his or her
suitability to the institute and is based on personal interaction of employee and employer. Such
interview should be conducted honestly and religiously with unbiased approach. Conventionally
conducted interviews can not a clear picture of candidate’s competencies.
 Medical examination-are carried out to ensure physical fitness of the selected candidate. Such
tests, if conducted properly will reduce employee absenteeism.
 Appointment Letter-is the last and formal step where the selected employee is finally allowed to
join the institution on a specific date.
 Orientation and Placement
Selection is a genralised process and is as per the qualifications of candidates while placement is
fitting the selected person at the right job or place. It is followed by entrusting him his roles,
responsibilities and authorities in an institution. In order to make the newly appointed employees well
versed with institution’s mission and vision structure and function, an orientation programme is
conducted with to built up the confidence level, morale and trust of fresh appointees following for
their institute. Such programmes focus on explaining:
23
 Institution’s mission and vision
 Employee’s and institution’s layout
 Modus operandi of the institution
 Departmental goals or objectives
 General rules and regulations
 Policies and programmes of the institution
 Standing Orders
 Grievance system or procedure
 Constitution of Screening cum Evaluation / Selection Committee
The AICTE has evolved following guidelines on:
 Constitution of Selection Committees for selection of Assistant Professor, Associate

Professor, Professor for direct recruitment and for promotions.
 Specified selection procedures for direct recruitment and promotions for Teachers in
Universities and Colleges.
 Selection Proceedings:
All the selection procedures of the selection committee shall be completed immediately after the
selection committee meeting itself, wherein, minutes are recorded along with the scoring Performa
and recommendation made on the basis of merit with the list of selected and waitlisted candidates
/Panel of names in order of merit, duly signed by all members of the selection committee.
 Selection Committee Composition for Assistant Professor, Associate Professor and

Professor both for Direct Recruitment and Promotion:
 For University Faculty Members:

 The Selection Committee for the post of Assistant Professor in the University shall have
the following composition:
(i) The Vice Chancellor or Acting Vice-Chancellor to be the Chairperson of the

Selection Committee.
24
(ii) Three experts in the concerned subject nominated by the Vice Chancellor or Acting
Vice-Chancellor out of the panel of names approved by the relevant statutory body
of the university concerned.
(iii) Dean of the concerned Faculty, wherever applicable.
(iv) Head / Chairperson of the Department/School
(v) An academician nominated by the Visitor / Chancellor, wherever applicable.
(vi) An academician representing SC / ST / OBC / Minority / Women / Differently-abled

categories to be nominated by the Vice Chancellor or Acting Vice-Chancellor, if any
of the candidates representing these categories is the applicant and if any of the
above members of the selection committee does not belong to that category.
 To constitute the quorum for the meeting, five minimum members out of which at least
two must be from the total three subject-experts.
 For Faculty Members in Technical Institutions:

 The Selection Committee for the post of Assistant Professor /Associate Professor and
Professor in Colleges, including Private Colleges shall have the following composition:
(i) Chairperson of the Governing Body of the college or his/her nominee from among
the members of the Governing body to be the Chairperson of the Selection
Committee.
(ii) The Principal/ Director of the College.
(iii) Head of the Department of the concerned subject in the College.
(iv) Two nominees of the Vice-Chancellor or Acting Vice Chancellor of the affiliating
university of whom one should be a subject-expert. In case of colleges notified /
declared as a minority educational institution, two nominees of the Chairperson of
the college from out of a panel of five names, preferably from the minority
communities, recommended by the Vice-Chancellor or Acting Vice-Chancellor of
25
the affiliating university from the list of experts suggested by the relevant statutory
body of the college, of whom one should be a subject-expert.
v) Two subject-experts not connected with the college to be nominated by the

Chairperson of the governing body of the College out of a panel of five names
recommended by the Vice Chancellor or Acting Vice Chancellor from the list of
subject experts approved by the relevant statutory body of the University concerned.
(vii) An academician representing SC / ST / OBC / Minority / Women / Differently-abled

categories, if any of candidates representing these categories is the applicant, to be
nominated by the Vice-Chancellor or Acting Vice Chancellor, if any of the above
members of the selection committee does not belong to that category.
 To constitute the quorum for the meeting, five of which at least two must be from out of
the three subject experts shall be present.
 For all levels of teaching positions for Government / Government Aided Colleges /
Government Autonomous Colleges, the State Public Services Commission / Teacher
Recruitment Boards wherever applicable must invite three subject experts, for which the
concerned University be involved in the selection process, by respective appointing
authority. The states, where selection in autonomous institutes has been authorized to
respective Board of Governors, shall continue but constitution of committee shall be
same as directed by AICTE.
 Senior Professor
 The Selection Committee for the post of Senior Professor shall consist of the following
persons:
(i) Vice Chancellor who shall be the Chairperson of the Committee.
(ii) An academician not below the rank of Senior Professor/Professor with minimum ten
years experience who is the nominee of the Visitor/Chancellor, wherever applicable.
(iii) Three experts not below the rank of a Senior Professor/Professor with a minimum of
ten years’ experience in the subject/field concerned nominated by the Vice-Chancellor
out of the panel of names approved by the relevant statutory body of the university.
26
(iv) Dean (not below the rank of Senior Professor/Professor with minimum ten years
experience) of the faculty, wherever applicable.
(v) Head/Chairperson (not below the rank of Senior Professor/Professor with minimum ten
years experience) or Senior-most Professor (not below the rank of Senior
Professor/Professor, with a minimum of ten years’ experience) of the
Department/School, in case Head/ Chairperson does not fulfil the above requirement, if
any.
(vi) An academician (not below the rank of a Senior Professor/Professor with minimum ten
years experience) representing SC/ST/OBC/ Minority / Women / Differently-abled
categories, if any of candidates representing these categories as the applicant, to be
nominated by the Vice Chancellor, if any of the above members of the selection
committee do not belong to that category.
 Four members, including two outside subject experts, shall constitute the quorum.
 Technical Institution Principal / Director

 The Selection Committee for the post of College Principal shall have the following
composition:
i) Chairperson of the Governing Body as Chairperson.
ii) Two members of the Governing Body of the college to be nominated by the
Chairperson of whom one shall be an expert in academic administration.
iii) One nominee of the Vice-Chancellor who shall be an expert in Management of

Higher Education.
iv) Three experts consisting of the Principal/ Director of a college, a Professor and an
accomplished educationist not below the rank of a Professor (to be nominated by the
Governing Body of the College) out of a panel of six experts approved b0y the
relevant statutory body of the affiliating University concerned.
27
v) An academician representing SC/ST/OBC/Minority/Women/Differently-abled
nominated by the Vice-Chancellor of the affiliating University.
 To constitute the quorum for the meeting, five of which at least two must be from out of the
three subject-experts shall be present.
Practice task
Q-1) Recruitment is the process of searching for prospective employees and stimulating them to
apply for _______ in organisation.
a) Jobs
b) Wage
c) Cost
d) Product
e) Termination
Q-2) Which is the source of recruitment in India?
a) Employment exchange
b) College recruitment
c) Employee reference
d) All of these
Q-3) Recruitment deals with:
a) Identification of existing source of applicants and developing them
b) Creation of new source of applicants
c) Identification of mew source of applicants
d) All of these
e) None of these
Q-4) Selection procedure includes:
a) Application form
b) Reception
c) Employment test
d) Medical test
e) All of these
Q-5) Selection includes:
a) Framing and developing application blanks
b) Checking of references
c) Formulating interviewing techniques
d) All of these
e) None of these
Feedback
Answer: 1-a, 2-d, 3d-, 4-e, 5-d
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8.6.3 Training & Development (Rules & Regulations) of faculty and
staff
According to Armstrong, M.(2001) ―Training is perceived as ―the systematic development of the
knowledge, skills and attitudes required by an individual to perform adequately a given task or job‖.
Training is followed after the orientation of employees. In this there takes place enhancement of skills,
capabilities and knowledge to perform a particular job. A well designed training programme will help in
enhancing employee performance. Training process is continuous and never ending phenomenon.
 Need of training:
For achieving a level of excellence in today’s knowledge based and fast changing environment,
every institution has to strength its core competencies so as to achieve strategic advantage that
can be done by continuous up gradation of knowledge and skills of its faculty and staff by
different types of training. Training of employees takes place after orientation takes place.
Training needs also arise when there are job changes or person changes or performance
deficiency. Training needs can be identified through variety of assessment tools like self-
appraisal, assessment by head, peer review, assessment sheets and other investigations.
Training is the process of enhancing the skills, capabilities and knowledge of employees for
doing a particular job. Training process moulds the thinking of employees and leads to quality
performance of employees. It is continuous and never ending in nature. Training is crucial for
organizational development and success. It is fruitful to both employers and employees of an
organization. An employee will become more efficient and productive if he is trained well.
Fig 1 Process of training and development
29
 Importance of training:
Training of an employee bears double benefit, to an individual as well as to institution. It

increases the efficiency and productivity of both. The main objectives of training programme are:
 To make the new employees familiar with the organizational mission, vision, rules and
regulations and the working conditions.
 To refresh and enhance their knowledge.
 To make them aware of any updations and amendments in existing technology or equipment
in the institute
 To prepare them for promotion and career growth (for previously employed candidates)
 Training is given on four basic grounds:
 New candidates who join an organization are given training. This training familiarise them
with the organizational mission, vision, rules and regulations and the working conditions.
 The existing employees are trained to refresh and enhance their knowledge.
 If any updations and amendments take place in technology, training is given to cope up with
those changes. For instance, purchasing new equipment, changes in technique of production,
computer impartment. The employees are trained about use of new equipments and work
methods.
 When promotion and career growth becomes important. Training is given so that employees
are prepared to share the responsibilities of the higher level job.
 Features of training and development process:
 Should focus on the improvement in the performance of the individuals.

 Should be an organised activity to enhance the knowledge and skills of its faculty and staff.
 It’s a systematic way to transfer both hard and soft skills to the employees.
 Its mutually beneficial to both parties, employees and institution
 Training facilitates the employees in learning specific hard skills and the development
facilitates the enrichment of his personality and management skills.
30
 Broad objectives of a training programme:
 Keep institute updated with current changes in knowledge and technological advancements
 Update knowledge and skills levels of faculty and staff
 Bring about attitudinal changes in faculty and staff to deal with upcoming challenges, they
learn to work out of comfort zones
 Bring about improvement in the overall performance of the institution
 Sensitize faculty and staff towards other social and environmental issues like resource
conservation, environment protection and pollution, other regulatory and statutory rules and
regulations
 Develop high end managerial skills for future promotional avenues
 Benefits of training:
 Honing of skills- expansion of knowledge and evolution of technology are too fast that
timely and technically programmed training will help in attaining and honing both hard and
soft skills amongst faculty and staff
 Improves morale of employees- Training helps the employee to get job security and job
satisfaction. The more satisfied the employee is and the greater is his morale, the more he will
contribute to organizational success and the lesser will be employee absenteeism and
turnover.
 Less supervision- A well trained employee will be well acquainted with the job and will
need less of supervision. Thus, there will be less wastage of time and efforts.
 Fewer accidents- Errors are likely to occur if the employees lack knowledge and skills
required for doing a particular job. The more trained an employee is, the less are the chances
of committing accidents in job and the more proficient the employee becomes. This makes
the work place safer.
 Chances of promotion- Employees acquire skills and efficiency during training. They
become more eligible for promotion. They become an asset for the organization.
 Increased productivity- Training improves efficiency and productivity of employees. Well
trained employees show both quantity and quality performance. There is less wastage of time,
money and resources if employees are properly trained.
 Methods of training: there are generally two ways to provide training to employees-
 On the job training-or learning by doing training
31
 Are training methods given to the employees within the everyday working
 Are simple and cost-effective methods
 The best method of training to in-proficient and proficient employees
 In –vivo training
 E.g. job-rotation, coaching, temporary promotions etc.
 Off the job training-or vestibule training
 A training given away from the actual working condition but in the areas where actual
working conditions can be duplicated like halls, reception area, entrance or any vestibule
 Training can be given via workshops, seminars, conferences, etc.
 Generally meant for new employees
 Training methods are costly and effective, provided trainee are large in number and
needed to be trained within a short time period.
 Types of trainings: on the basis of the scope of training, it can be following types-
 Short term learning program
 Long term learning program
 Limited training
 Substantial training
 Practical training
 Theoretical training
 On-job training
 Class room training
 Technical training
 Managerial training
 Induction or apprenticeship/internship/refresher training etc.
 Planning for training: an effective training should be well planned and organised, it should be
focus on-
 Clear identification of objectives
 Appropriate content selection
 Procurement of relevant and expert trainers
 Strategies of training
32
 Pre-training and post training assessment techniques
 Trainee’s previous knowledge, learning capability, interpersonal relationships
 Instructional methods and use of appropriate aids
 Guidelines for the development of training program:

 Trainees should be motivated to learn
 Training should provide diverse and novel experience
 It should ne need based
 Training content should be relevant, meaningful, well organised and based on real life
experiences
 Sessions should be short and crisp
 Regular feedback from trainees will help in program improvement
 Training and development Programmes for Faulty /Teaching Staff:
 Faculty Development Program: - helps in strengthening and encouraging the intellectual

capabilities, enhancing core expertise, hone their teaching skills and enhance their abilities to
undertake quality research activities
 Management Development Program: - helps in enhancing the managerial skills of faculty
and staff members where academicians and corporate world come and share a common
platform, encourage faculty and staff members in gaining new insights and help in their
learning and their career advancement.
 Orientation Program (OC) and Refresher Courses (RC) – helps young and experienced
faculty to orient themselves about current educational and societal issues, updated
themselves with the latest advancements in their core disciplines, improving their API
score required for promotions, career advancements. These are conducted by UGC-Academic
Staff Colleges (UGC-ASCs) and National Institute of Technical Teachers Training and
Research (NITTTRs) on a regular basis by the support from AICTE/ UGC.
 Seminars, Workshops and Conclaves: - helps the faculty members to learn and share their
research work, experiences and knowledge related to the subject and contemporary issues on
a common platform. These learning and training tools also help in their elevation of career
graph.
 Training and Learning Resource Centers – are primarily meant for in-situ training , where
programs like FDPs, MDPs and other similar courses are conducted by these specialised
33
centers of universities/Institutions and NITTTRs to update the knowledge and skills of their
faculty members regularly for their holistic development.
Thus, different methods and strategies adopted by an academic institution helps it upgrading and
updating the knowledge, skills and attitudes of its faculty and staff making them relevant to the
needs and expectations of the biggest customer of the institution, i.e. the students.
 Mandatory Teacher Trainings

 Every teacher appointed / promoted to any position here onwards with effect from the
publication of this gazette shall have to mandatorily undergo 8 online modules of
MOOCs in SWAYAM as per the AICTE teacher training policy preferably within first
year of service.
 No newly appointed faculty member shall be completing the probation without getting
the certification of completion of these 8 modules. The teacher training policy
document may be downloaded from AICTE website.
 The requirement of completing these modules as envisioned in this gazette is applicable
to all the incumbent teachers also while applying for promotion / selection to next
higher cadre only once in the career.
 Those who are eligible for promotions after the date of publication of this gazette, shall
have to meet the necessary conditions such as additional qualification, undergoing
industrial training, pedagogical training, faculty induction program, publishing research
papers etc. However, these requirements shall be permitted to be fulfilled till 31st July,
2022 so as to enable faculty members in equipping them for requisite mandatory
requirements of this gazette to avail the benefit of promotion retrospectively from the
date of eligibility.
 Training Requirements for Promotions of Teachers from all the Disciplines
 For Assistant Professor (Senior Scale): Completion of following training requirements at

the level of
Assistant Professor.
Two weeks of Faculty Development Programme (FDP) in the relevant area out of which at least one
of the FDP shall be in advanced pedagogy recognised by AICTE / UGC / TEQIP / NITTTR
/PMMMNMTT / IISc / IIT / University / Government / DTE / Board of Technical Education / CoA
34
/IIA / SPA / ITPI / NRCs / ARPIT research organization / other institute of National Importance
/Design Studio.
OR
One week faculty development programme as above and one eight weeks duration MOOCS course
with E-Certification by NPTEL-AICTE
OR
Completed two such eight weeks duration MOOCS courses with E-Certification by NPTEL-AICTE
AND
Completed minimum two weeks of relevant Industrial Training / Professional Training
 For Assistant Professor (Selection Grade): Completion of following training requirements at

the level of Assistant Professor (Senior Scale)
Two weeks of Faculty Development Programme (FDP) in the relevant area recognised by AICTE
/UGC / TEQIP / NITTTR / PMMMNMTT / IISc / IIT / University / Government / DTE / Board of
Technical Education / CoA / IIA / SPA / ITPI / NRCs / ARPIT / research organization / other
institute of National Importance / Design Studio.
OR
One week faculty development programme as above and one eight weeks duration MOOCS course
with E-Certification by NPTEL-AICTE
OR
Completed two such eight weeks duration MOOCS courses with E-Certification by NPTEL-AICTE.
AND
Completed minimum two weeks of relevant Industrial Training / Professional Training
 For Associate Professor: Completion of following training requirements at the level of Assistant
Professor(Selection Grade)
Two weeks of Faculty Development Programme (FDP) in the relevant area recognised by AICTE
/UGC / TEQIP / NITTTR / PMMMNMTT / IISc / IIT / University / Government / DTE / Board
ofTechnical Education / CoA / IIA / SPA / ITPI / NRCs / ARPIT / research organization /
otherinstitute of National Importance / Design Studio.
OR
One week faculty development programme as above and one eight weeks duration MOOCS
coursewith E-Certification by NPTEL-AICTE
OR
35
Completed two such eight weeks duration MOOCS courses with E-Certification by NPTEL-AICTE.
AND
Completed minimum two weeks of relevant Industrial Training / Professional Training.
Practice task
Q-1) Which is a technique of training?
a) Demonstration method
b) Vestibule training
c) On the job training
d) Training at training center
e) All of these
Q-2) Training involves:
a) Identification of training needs of the individuals and the institutes
b) Developing suitable training programmes
c) Evaluating the effectiveness of training programmes
d) All of these
e) None of these
Q-3) What is the objectives of training?
a) Increase in employee morale, confidence skill and productivity
b) Awareness of the problems
c) To arouse loyalty towards the institution
d) Better work decisions
e) All of these
Q-4) On the Job Training Methods means:
a) Providing study matters
b) To arrange conference
c) Development of institute
d) To work on the site
e) All of these
Q-5) Which of the following is not benefits of training and development?
a) Improve communication between groups and individuals
b) Improve Morale
c) Make the organisation a better place to work and live is morale
d) Development is a sense of growth in learning
e) Helps employees adjust to change
f) None of these
Feedback
Answer: 1-e, 2-d, 3-e, 4-d, 5- f
36
Conclusion
Competent faculty and staff are the important assets of any institution. Every institution applies varied
strategies to attract potential candidates and uses different types of recruitment methods to recruit, select
and retain this relevant resource. Application of the rules and regulations of the government and statutory
agencies gives them the defined path for adopt and practice. Analysis of the right training needs, design
of appropriate training programmes and relevant training strategies help an institution to keep its faculty
and staff motivated and up-to-date to meet the challenges of present and the future and facilitate the
institute in achieving its objectives.
Bibliography:
1. Satyendra, Sept 1, 2015 Staffing – A Function of Management
2. Worku Fentie and Tariku Sime (2016). Staffing: Practices and Challenges International Journal of
Scientific and Research Publications, 6 (4):251-258
3. Lawrent, G. and Ndibalema, P., 2012. Staffing in Educational Institutions: Experiences from
Tanzania. GRIN Verlag.
4. Breaugh, J.A., 2009. Recruiting and attracting talent: A guide to understanding and managing the
recruitment process. SHRM Foundation’s Effective Practice Guidelines Series, pp.1-33.
Pvt. Ltd.
India Pvt. Ltd.
11. https://businessjargons.com/external-sources-recruitment.html
12. https://www.managementstudyhq.com/stages-of-recruitment-process.html
13. https://www.aicte-india.org/bureaus/administration/rules-regulations AICTE regulations on pay
scales, service conditions and minimum qualifications for appointment of teachers and other
37
academic staff in Technical Institutions and measures for the maintenance of standards in
Technical Education – (Degree) Regulation, 2019
14. http://www.tmv.edu.in/pdf/Distance_education/BCA%20Books/BCA%20V%20SEM/BCA-
525%20Principles%20and%20Practice%20of%20Mgmt-II.pdf
Supportive learning material: by Dr Rakesh K Wats & Dr R.K. Sharma

Videos on:
 Staffing - Concept & Process
 Recruitment & Selection (Rules & Regulations) in Educational Institutions
 Training & Development (Rules & Regulations) of faculty and staff
Web resources:
 Staffing- An Overview https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jT8N6nXG6Co
 Management Function Staffing and How to Staff?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s4JYhIAt8iE
 Staffing Process https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FxyJWf_PsQU
 Elements of staffing function.
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bEDxZ1MsX-w
 Staffing & human resource mangement https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CysuC_kXbP4
38
UNIT 8.7
STAFFING: PROMOTION AND COMPENSATION FOR
JOB SATISFACTION
Content Page No
Broad Objective 3
Learning Outcomes 3
Introduction 3
8.7.1 Promotion of Faculty & Staff 4
 Definition
 Types of Promotion
 Purpose of Promotion
 Who Want Promotion?
 Promotion Policy
 Basis for Promotion
 Promotion Programme
 All India Council for Technical Education Notification in
its gazette notification dated March 1, 2019 has
prescribed following procedure for the promotion of
faculty in the technical institutions
Practice test 17
Feedback 18
8.7.2 Employee Compensation (Rules and Regulations) 19
 Time Rate Method
 Piece Rate Method
 Types of Compensation
 AICTE , New Delhi Gazette Notification, dated March 1,
2019, regarding pay scales and other benefits to teachers in
technical institutions
Practice test 26
Feedback 27
8.7.3 Conduct Rules 27
Practice test 32
Feedback 32
Conclusion 32
Bibliography 33
1
UNIT 8.7
STAFFING : PROMOTION AND COMPENSATION FOR
JOB SATISFACTION
NITTTR, Chandigarh
Broad Objective
The broad objective of this unit is to make the learners
appreciate the role and importance of promotion and
compensation for job satisfaction of the faculty and staff in an
academic institution. They shall also be aware about the rules
and regulations of Government and statutory authorities in
terms of promotion, compensation and conduct of faculty and
staff in an educational institution.
Learning Outcomes
 Understand the concept and importance of promotion of employees in an institution.

 Understand and apply the rules and regulations for promotion of faculty and staff of Government
and statutory authorities.
 Appreciate the importance of compensation in motivating faculty and staff in an institution.
 Understand and apply the rules and regulations of compensation of faculty and staff of
Government and statutory authorities.
 Appreciate the importance of do‟s and don‟ts of conduct of employees for maintaining proper
work environment in an institution.
Introduction
The most precious resource of any institution is its faculty and staff. Hence, retaining these is highly
necessary for the success of the institution. It benefits both, the institution as well as the faculty and staff.
Employees‟ retention is important because the cost of replacing and re-training new employees is very
high, especially when they are highly talented and possess specialized skills that are hard to get.
Committed and competent faculty and staff are valuable to an institution because they can ensure that
good education is being delivered to their students. It also facilitates in enhancing the reputation of the
institution. Thus, to promote the worthy individuals and compensating them with appropriate packages is
2
one the important personnel policies of best institutions. Recognition of their value, motivate the
individuals to give their best to the institution.
The present unit covers different aspects of promotion starting with its concept, purpose, types, process
and personnel promotion policy of an institution. The unit throws some light on the role of compensation
in keeping the employees morale high and tries to give inputs on types of employee compensations and
the basis for the same. In addition do‟s and don‟ts of conduct of employees which are very important for
keeping healthy work environment and discipline in the institution are also the main constituents of this
unit.
8.7.1 Promotion of Faculty & Staff

Promotion or internal recruitment or is an important means of selection in an institution. It helps to meet
the aspirations and expectations of faculty and staff from their institution. It provides a ready supply of
qualified and experienced human resource to the institution. The employees put in hard and dedicated
effort in their job, when they know that it will lead to their institutional promotion .
 Definition:
Different authors have defined promotion in different ways:
According to Scott and Clothier “A promotion is the transfer of an employee to a job which pays
more money or one that carries some preferred status.”
Pigors and Myers defines promotion as“ the advancement of an employee to a better job in terms of
greater responsibilities, more prestige or status, greater skill and especially, increased rate of pay or
salary”.
Thus, Promotion is vertical movement of faculty and staff within their own institution. It is the
upward movement of employees from one job to another higher one, which is usually associated with
an increase in salary, status and responsibilities. Promotion of an employee may be permanent or
temporary depends on the requirements of the institution.
In-built motivational value is an important feature of promotion of any employee in an institution as it

elevates his authority, power and status. e.g. Assistant Professor promoted to Associate Professor and
so on.
Policy of an institute to fill in higher position vacancies through promotions from within is considered
to be a very good personnel policy. This provides inducement and motivation to the employees to
work hard, on one hand, and removal of feelings of stagnation and frustration on the other.
3
 Types of Promotion:
In an institution, promotion given to employees can be classified into three categories:
 Horizontal promotion:
It is a type of promotion in which an employee is shifted in the same category, e.g. a

junior clerk promoted to senior clerk. It is important to note that in such a promotion an
employee may be shifted from one department to another within the same institute, or
from one institutional campus to another campus.
 Vertical Promotion:
This is a type of promotion in which an employee is promoted from a lower category to

higher category. This involves increase in salary, status, authority and responsibility. In
broader terms, promotion means „vertical promotion‟.
 Dry Promotion:
When a higher level job is assigned to an individual without increase in salay, it is called
a „dry promotion‟. An example of „dry promotion‟ is a University Professor made Head
of the Department with no increase in salary. A lower level manager promoted to senior
level manager without increase in salary or pay.
Such promotions are made when there is resource/fund crunch in the institution or some
employees give more weight age to status or authority than money.
 Purpose of Promotion:
 Recognise employees knowledge, skills and expertise and utilise the same to enhance
institutional effectiveness.
 Reward employees for higher productivity.
 Develop competitive spirit and inculcate the zeal in employees to acquire better knowledge,
skills and attitudes.
 Boost employees morale and satisfaction.
 Build loyalty towards institution.
 Promote good human relations.
 Increase sense of belongingness.
 Retain skilled and talented people.
4
 Attract competent, trained and hard working people.
 Impress the other employees that opportunities, too, are available for them if they also
perform well.
According to Dale Yoder, “Promotion provides incentive to initiative, enterprise and ambition;
minimises discontent and unrest; attracts capable individuals; necessitates logical training for
advancement; and forms an effective reward for loyalty and cooperation, long service, etc.”
 Who Want Promotion?
Employees differ greatly in their aspirations. Although, most of the employees want promotion, but
there may be a few who do not want to be promoted. Some of the reasons for refusing a Promotion
may be:
 A „dry promotion‟ may be refused by the employee as it does not provide any monetary gain
 Many employees are not desirous of moving ahead as it would separate them from „their
fellow colleagues. They may not like to forego the association with their colleagues.
 Some employees may not avail a promotion as it may lead to their transfer away from family
station or the place of their liking.
 Promotion involves „risk‟ which many employees do not want to take. A person holding
technical position may not like to avail administrative position. Fear of failure on the higher
position or sometimes, even loss of present employment due to same may be the one of the
reasons of employees refusing promotion.
Nevertheless, it is the duty of any good institutional administration to provide an opportunity for
promotion to every employee. Individual may not accept the promotion due to his personal
reasons but still it gives him a motivation and satisfaction that his work and experience is being
recognized. Employees feel contended if the promotion goes to the individual who really deserves
it.
 Promotion Policy:
Promotion benefits both the employees and the employer as it motivates the former and the later
gets a qualified and competent human resource. However, it must be done with a great caution, as
one wrong promotion may invite implications of one type or the other for the institution. So to
say, it is like a double-edged weapon. Every institution needs to design and implement a suitable
5
promotion policy for its employees, which may incorporate some of the following features to
make it sound and effective policy:
 Provide equal opportunities for promotion across all jobs, departments, and regions.
 Applicable uniformly to all the employees irrespective of their background.
 Fair and impartial.
 Basis of promotion clearly spelt out and made known to employees.
 Correlated with career planning. Both fast (bunching) and delayed promotions must be
avoided as these adversely affect the institutional effectiveness.
 Entrusting appropriate authority with the task of making final decision.
 Trial based promotion. The performance of the employee must be monitored. In case, the
promoted employee does not show the desired performance, provision must be there in the
promotion policy to revert him/her back to the former position.
 Good mix of promotions made from both inside and outside the institution.
 Basis for Promotion
In an education institution the promotion of the faculty and staff can be made on the following
basis:
 Seniority i.e., length of service

 Merit, i.e., performance
 Educational and technical qualification
 Potential for better performance
 Career and succession plan
 Vacancies based on institute‟s organisational chart
 Motivational strategies like job enlargement.
 Training
As a matter of fact, no single basis of promotion is acceptable and applicable to all the
institutions. Every basis has some strengths and weaknesses. For example, while promotion on
the basis of seniority gives satisfaction to the senior faculty/staff, it causes frustration to the junior
talented ones.
Similarly, promotion based on merit motivates competent faculty and staff to work harder while
employees unions oppose it on the justification of its subjectivity. In India, promotion in the
6
government institutions is mostly made on the basis of seniority of the employees. In case of
private institutions, merit is given due weightage in promoting employees. Here, the promotion
policy is to promote the best one available.
 Promotion Programme—:
Every educational institution, whether big or small, should have a sound and systematic
promotion programme. This programme may have a uniform mix of both viz. Promotion from
within and Promotion from outside sources as both of these types have their own pros and cons.
 Promotion from within
The ladder of employees promotion must be clearly drawn and communicated to all the
employees. Dead end jobs must be clearly indicated in such ladders. It is better for the institution
and its employees if a „promotion chart‟ is prepared for the purpose. It is the duty of institute to
inform the employees, whenever a vacancy arises. Interested individuals must be motivated to
apply within the specified time. In no case, promotion should be forced on employees.
The following arguments can be given in the favour of promotion from within the institution:
 The internal employees are already familiar with the set up and the environment within
the institution and can handle new assignments/jobs without any difficulty.
 It provides motivation to employees to work hard. The morale of employees of such
institution is pretty high.
 It will also improve institution‟s interpersonal relations. The recognition of the abilities
of the employees for promotion is a fundamental factor for job satisfaction.
 The cost involved on training will also be less as internal employees are mostly
acquainted with the institutional objectives, policies, practices and standards.
 The possibility of selecting an undesirable employee is completely eliminated.
 Promotion from outside sources:
When a vacant post is filled up from the sources outside the institution, it infuses new blood and
also keeps the institution dynamic. For top managerial positions, the outside sources are
invariably tapped as every new individual joining the institution brings a set of new skills,
knowledge and attitude to fill the skill gaps existing in the institution, benefitting the institution in
the long run. However, if all the vacancies are filled up from outside, the existing internal staff
will have no motivation to work hard. Thus, it is very essential for the success of an institution to
7
have a promotion policy which is a blend of growth opportunities for the employees of the
institution as well as the potential to infuse fresh talent from outside.
 All India Council for Technical Education Notification in its gazette notification dated
March 1, 2019 has prescribed following procedure for the promotion of faculty in the
technical institutions
Annual Process of Promotion:
Every University / College / DTE shall ensure that the selection process for direct recruitment for
various positions is carried out annually so as to maintain required faculty numbers and cadre ratio
as per AICTE norms so that no loss is caused to students. Interviews for the promotions of the
faculty members shall be carried out at a regular span annually to avoid any stagnation in career
growth of faculty members.
Candidates who do not fulfil the minimum requirement proposed in the Regulation, will have to be
re-assessed after a period of one year. The date of promotion shall be the date on which he / she
satisfies all the minimum requirements and successfully reassessed.
The constitution of the selection committee as applicable to these appointments / promotions of the
Assistant Professor to Associate Professor and Associate Professor to Professor or Professor to
Senior Professor is enumerated in Annexure-II. Various stages of promotions/ direct recruitment
and mode of selection are given in Table 2.
A teacher who wishes to be considered for promotion may submit in writing in the prescribed
proforma as evolved by the concerned University / College duly supported by all credentials to the
Principal / Director of the College, within three months in advance of the due date, that he / she
fulfils all requisite qualifications.
The entry level and consecutive stages of promotions are shown in Table 2
Table 2: Stages of Promotion/ Direct Recruitment and mode of selection
Stage Designation
Entry Level, Stage-I Assistant Professor
Stage-II Assistant Professor (Senior Scale)
Stage-III Assistant Professor (Selection Grade)
Stage-IV Associate Professor
Stage-V Professor
Stage-VI Senior Professor
8
Constitution of Screening cum Evaluation / Selection Committee
The AICTE has evolved following guidelines on:
(a) Constitution of Selection Committees for selection of Assistant Professor, Associate Professor,
Professor for direct recruitment and for promotions.
(b) Specified selection procedures for direct recruitment and promotions for Teachers in
Universities and Colleges.
Selection Proceedings:
All the selection procedures of the selection committee shall be completed immediately after the
selection committee meeting itself, wherein, minutes are recorded along with the scoring Proforma
and recommendation made on the basis of merit with the list of selected and waitlisted candidates /
Panel of names in order of merit, duly signed by all members of the selection committee.
Selection Committee Composition for Assistant Professor, Associate Professor and Professor both
for Direct Recruitment and Promotion:
I. For University Faculty Members:
(a) The Selection Committee for the post of Assistant Professor in the University shall have the
following composition:
(i) The Vice Chancellor or Acting Vice-Chancellor to be the Chairperson of the Selection
Committee.
(ii) Three experts in the concerned subject nominated by the Vice Chancellor or Acting Vice-
Chancellor out of the panel of names approved by the relevant statutory body of the
university concerned.
(iii) Dean of the concerned Faculty, wherever applicable.
(iv) Head / Chairperson of the Department/School
(v) An academician nominated by the Visitor / Chancellor, wherever applicable.
9
(vi) An academician representing SC / ST / OBC / Minority / Women / Differently-abled
categories to be nominated by the Vice Chancellor or Acting Vice-Chancellor, if any of
the candidates representing these categories is the applicant and if any of the above
(b) To constitute the quorum for the meeting, five minimum members out of which at least two
must be from the total three subject-experts.
II. For Faculty Members in Technical Institutions:
(a) The Selection Committee for the post of Assistant Professor /Associate Professor and
Professor in Colleges, including Private Colleges shall have the following composition:
(i) Chairperson of the Governing Body of the college or his/her nominee from among the
members of the Governing body to be the Chairperson of the Selection Committee.
(ii) The Principal/ Director of the College.
(iii) Head of the Department of the concerned subject in the College.
(iv) Two nominees of the Vice-Chancellor or Acting Vice Chancellor of the affiliating
university of whom one should be a subject-expert. In case of colleges notified / declared
as a minority educational institution, two nominees of the Chairperson of the college from
out of a panel of five names, preferably from the minority communities, recommended by
the Vice-Chancellor or Acting Vice-Chancellor of the affiliating university from the list of
experts suggested by the relevant statutory body of the college, of whom one should be a
subject-expert.
v) Two subject-experts not connected with the college to be nominated by the Chairperson of
the governing body of the College out of a panel of five names recommended by the Vice
Chancellor or Acting Vice Chancellor from the list of subject experts approved by the
relevant statutory body of the University concerned.
(vii) An academician representing SC / ST / OBC / Minority / Women / Differently-abled

10
nominated by the Vice-Chancellor or Acting Vice Chancellor, if any of the above
(b) To constitute the quorum for the meeting, five of which at least two must be from out of the
three subject experts shall be present.
(c) For all levels of teaching positions for Government / Government Aided Colleges /
Government Autonomous Colleges, the State Public Services Commission / Teacher
Recruitment Boards wherever applicable must invite three subject experts, for which the
concerned University be involved in the selection process, by respective appointing authority.
The states, where selection in autonomous institutes have been authorized to respective Board
of Governors, shall continue but constitution of committee shall be same as directed by
AICTE.
III. Senior Professor
(a) The Selection Committee for the post of Senior Professor shall consist of the following persons:
(i) Vice Chancellor who shall be the Chairperson of the Committee.
(ii) An academician not below the rank of Senior Professor/Professor with minimum ten years
experience who is the nominee of the Visitor/Chancellor, wherever applicable.
(iii) Three experts not below the rank of a Senior Professor/Professor with a minimum of ten
years‟ experience in the subject/field concerned nominated by the Vice-Chancellor out of
the panel of names approved by the relevant statutory body of the university.
(iv) Dean (not below the rank of Senior Professor/Professor with minimum ten years
experience) of the faculty, wherever applicable.
(v) Head/Chairperson (not below the rank of Senior Professor/Professor with minimum ten
years experience) or Senior-most Professor (not below the rank of Senior
Professor/Professor, with a minimum of ten years‟ experience) of the Department/School,
in case Head/ Chairperson does not fulfil the above requirement, if any.
(vi) An academician (not below the rank of a Senior Professor/Professor with minimum ten
years experience) representing SC/ST/OBC/ Minority / Women / Differently-abled
11
categories, if any of candidates representing these categories as the applicant, to be
nominated by the Vice Chancellor, if any of the above members of the selection
committee do not belong to that category.
(b) Four members, including two outside subject experts, shall constitute the quorum.
IV. Technical Institution Principal / Director
(a) The Selection Committee for the post of College Principal shall have the following composition:
i) Chairperson of the Governing Body as Chairperson.
ii) Two members of the Governing Body of the college to be nominated by the Chairperson
of whom one shall be an expert in academic administration.
iii) One nominee of the Vice-Chancellor who shall be an expert in Management of Higher
Education.
iv) Three experts consisting of the Principal/ Director of a college, a Professor and an
accomplished educationist not below the rank of a Professor (to be nominated by the
Governing Body of the College) out of a panel of six experts approved b0y the relevant
statutory body of the affiliating University concerned.
v) An academician representing SC/ST/OBC/Minority/Women/Differently-abled categories,

if any of candidates representing these categories is the applicant, to be nominated by the
Vice-Chancellor of the affiliating University.
(b) To constitute the quorum for the meeting, five of which at least two must be from out of the three
subject-experts shall be present.
Government of India, Modified Assured Career Progression Scheme(MACPS) for Staff
There shall be three financial up-gradations under the MACPS, counted from the direct entry grade on
completion of 10, 20 and 30 years‟ service respectively. Financial up-gradation under the Scheme will
be admissible whenever a person has spent 10 years continuously in the same grade-pay.
12
The MACPS envisages merely placement in the immediate next higher grade pay in the hierarchy of the
recommended revised pay bands and grade pay as given in Part-A of the first schedule of the CCS
(Revised Pay) Rules, 2008. Thus, the grade pay at the time of financial upgradation under the MACPS
can, in certain cases where regular promotion is not between two successive grades, be different than
what is available at the time of regular promotion. ln such cases, the higher grade pay attached to the
next promotion post in the hierarchy of the concerned cadre/organisation will be given only at the time
of regular promotion.
The financial upgradations under the MACPS would be admissible up-to the highest grade pay of Rs.
12000/ in the PB-4. Benefit of pay fixation available at the time of regular promotion shall also be
allowed at the time of financial upgradation under the Scheme. Therefore, the pay shall be raised by 3%
of the total pay in the pay band and the grade pay drawn before such upgradation. There shall, however,
be no further fixation of pay at the time of regular promotion if it is in the same grade pay as granted
under MACPS. However, at the time of actual promotion if it happens to be in a post carrying higher
grade pay than what is available under MACPS, no pay fixation would be available and only difference
of grade pay would be made available. To illustrate, in case a Government Servant joins as a direct
recruit in the grade pay of Rs.1900 in PB-l and he gets no promotion till completion of 10 years of
service, he will be granted financial upgradation under MACPS in the next higher grade pay of Rs. 2000
and his pay will be fixed by granting him one increment plus the difference of grade pay (i.e. Rs. 100).
After availing financial upgradation under MACPS, if the Government servant gets his regular
promotion in the hierarchy of his cadre, which is to the grade of Rs. 2400, on regular promotion, he will
only be granted the difference of grade pay between Rs. 2000 and Rs. 2400. No additional increment
win be granted at this stage. 5. Promotions earned/upgradation~ granted under the ACP Scheme in the
past to those grades which now carry the same grade pay due to merger of pay scales/upgradations of
posts recommended by the Sixth Pay Commission shall be ignored for the purpose of granting
upgradations under Modified ACPS. The pre-revised hierarchy (in ascending order) in a particular
organization was as under: -
(a) A Government servant who was recruited in the hierarchy in the pre-revised pay scale Rs. 5000-
8000 and who did not get a promotion even after 25 years of service prior to 1.1.2006, in his case as on
1.1.2006he would have got two financial upgradations under ACP to the next grades in the hierarchy of
his organization, Le., to the pre-revised scales of Rs. 5500-9000 and Rs. 6500-10500.
(b) Another Government servant recruited in the same hierarchy in the pre-revised scale of Rs. 5000-
8000 has also completed about 25 years of service, but he got two promotions to the next higher grades
of Rs. 5500-9000 & Rs. 6500-10500 during this period. ln the case of both (a) and (b) above, the
promotions/financial upgradations granted under ACP to the pre-revised scales of Rs. 5500-9000 and
13
Rs. 6500-10500 prior to 1.1.2006 will be ignored on account of merger of the pre-revised scales of Rs.
5000- 8000, Rs. 5500-9000 and Rs. 6500-10500 recommended by the Sixth CPC. As per CCS (RP)
Rules, both of them will be granted grade pay of Rs. 4200 in the pay band PB-2. After the
implementation of MACPS, two financial upgradations will be granted both in the case of (a) and (b)
above to the next higher grade pays of Rs. 4600 and Rs. 4800 in the pay band PB-2. ln the case of all
the employees granted financial upgradations under ACPS till 01.01.2006 ,their revised pay will be fixed
with reference to the pay scale granted to them under the ACPS. ln the case of ACP upgradations
granted between 01.01.2006 and 31.08.2008, the Government servant has the option under the CCS (RP)
Rules, 2008 to have his pay fixed in the revised pay structure either (a) w.e.f. 01.01.2006 with reference
to his pre-revised scale as on 01.01.2006; or (b) w.e.f the date of his financial upgradation under ACP
with reference to the pre-revised scale granted under ACP. ln case of option (b), he shall be entitled to
draw his arrears of pay only from the date of his option i.e. the date of financial upgradation under ACP.
ln cases where financial upgradation had been granted to Government servants in the next higher scale in
the hierarchy of their cadre as per the provisions of the ACP Scheme of August, 1999, but whereas as a
result of the implementation of Sixth CPCs recommendations, the next higher post in the hierarchy of
the cadre has been upgraded by granting a higher grade pay, the pay of such employees in the revised
pay structure will be fixed with reference to the higher grade pay granted to the post. To illustrate, in the
case of Jr. Engineer in CPWD, who was granted Ist ACP in his hierarchy to the grade of Asstt. Engineer
in the pre-revised scale of Rs.6500-10500 corresponding to the revised grade pay of Rs.4200 in the pay
band PB-2, he win now be granted grade pay of Rs4600 in the pay band PB-2 consequent upon
upgradation of the post of Asstt. Enggs. ln CPWD by granting them the grade pay of Rs.4600 in PB-2
as a result of Sixth CPC's recommendation. However, from the date of implementation of the MACPS,
all the financial upgradations under the Scheme should be done strictly in accordance with the hierarchy
of grade pays in pay bands as notified vide CCS (Revised Pay) Rules, 2008. With regard to flxation of
his pay on grant of promotion/flnancial upgradation under MACP Scheme, a Government servant has an
option under FR22 (1) (a) (1) to get his pay fixed in the higher post/ grade pay either from the date of his
promotion/upgradation or from the date of his next increment viz. Ist July of the year. The pay and the
date of increment would be fixed in accordance with clarification no.2 of Department of Expenditure's
O.M. N0.1/1/2008-1Cdated 13.09.2008. Promotions earned in the post carrying same grade pay in the
promotional hierarchy as per Recruitment Rules shall be counted for the purpose of MACPS.
Consequent upon the implementation of Sixth CPCs recommendations, grade pay of Rs. 5400 is now in
two pay bands viz., PB-2 and PB-3. The grade pay of Rs. 5400 in PB-2 and Rs.5400 in PB-3 shall be
treated as separate grade pays for the purpose of grant of upgradations under MACP Scheme. 'Regular
service' for the purposes of the MACPS shall commence from the date of joining of a post in direct entry
14
grade on a regular basis either on direct recruitment basis or on absorption/re-employment basis. Service
rendered on adhoc/contract basis before regular appointment on pre-appointment training shall not be
taken into reckoning. However, past continuous regular service in another Government Department in a
post carrying same grade pay prior to regular appointment in a new Department, without a break, shall
also be counted towards qualifying regular service for the purposes of MACPS only (and not for the
regular promotions). However, benefits under the MACPS in such cases shall not be considered till the
satisfactory completion of the probation period in the new post. Past service rendered by a Government
employee in a State Government/statutory body/Autonomous body/Public Sector organisation, before
appointment in the Government shall not be counted towards Regular Service. 'Regular service' shall
include all periods spent on deputation/foreign service, study leave and all other kind of leave, duly
sanctioned by the competent authority.
The MACPS shall also be applicable to work charged employees, if their service conditions are
comparable with the staff' of regular establishment. Existing time-bound promotion scheme, including
in-situ promotion scheme, Staff' Car Driver Scheme or any other kind of promotion scheme existing for
a particular category of employees in a Ministry/Department or its offices, may continue to be
operational for the concerned category of employees if it is decided by the concerned administrative
authorities to retain such Schemes, after necessary consultations or they may switch-over to the MACPS.
However, these Schemes shall not run concurrently with the MACPS.
The MACPS is directly applicable only to Central Government Civilian employees. 1t will not get
automatically extended to employees of Central Autonomous/Statutory Bodies under the administrative
control of a Ministry/Department. Keeping in view the financial implications involved, a conscious
decision in this regard shall have to be taken by the respective Governing Body/Board of Directors and
the administrative Ministry concerned and where it is proposed to adopt the MACPS, prior concurrence
of Ministry of Finance shall be obtained.
lf a financial upgradations under the MACPS is deferred and not allowed after 10 years in a grade pay,
due to the reason of the employees being unfit or due to departmental proceedings, etc., this would have
consequential effect on the subsequent financial upgradation which would also get deferred to the extent
of delay in grant of first financial upgradation.
On grant of financial upgradation under the Scheme, there shall be no change in the designation,
classification or higher status. However, financial and certain other benefits which are linked to the pay
drawn by an employee such as HBA, allotment of Government accommodation shall be permitted..
The financial upgradation would be on non-functional basis subject to fitness, in the hierarchy of grade
pay within the PB-1.Thereafter for upgradation under the MACPS the benchmark of 'good' would be
15
applicable till the grade pay of Rs. 6600/- in PB-3. The benchmark will be 'Very Good' for financial
upgradation to the grade pay of Rs. 7600 and above.
ln the matter of disciplinary/ penalty proceedings, grant of benefit under the MACPS shall be subject to
rules governing normal promotion. Such cases shall, therefore, be regulated under the provisions of the
CCS (CCA) Rules, 1965 and instructions issued thereunder. T
he MACPS contemplates merely placement on personal basis in the immediate higher Grade pay /grant
of financial benefits only and shall not amount to actual functional promotion of the employees
concerned. Therefore, no reservation orders/roster shall apply to the MACPS, which shall extend its
benefits uniformly to all eligible SC/ST employees also. However, the rules of reservation in promotion
shall be ensured at the time of regular promotion. For this reason, it shall not be mandatory to associate
members of SC/ST in the Screening Committee meant to consider cases for grant of financial
upgradation under the Scheme.
Financial upgradation under the MACPS shall be purely personal to the employee and shall have no
relevance to his seniority position. As such, there shall be no additional financial upgradation for the
senior employees on the ground that the junior employee in the grade has got higher pay/grade pay
under the MACPS.
The 7th CPC of its report has recommended inter-alia as follows:
MACP will continue to be administered at 10, 20 and 30 years as before in the new Pay Matrix. The
employees will move to immediate next level in the Pay Matrix as given in PART A of schedule of the
CCS (Revised Pay) Rules, 2016. Fixation of pay will follow the same principle as that for a regular
promotion in the Pay Matrix. MACP will continue to be applicable to all employees‟ upto Higher
Administrative Grades (HAG) level except members of Organised Group A Services.
Benchmark for performance appraisal for promotion and financial upgradation under MACPs to be
enhanced from Good to Very Good. Therefore for grant of financial upgradation under MACPs, the
prescribed benchmark would be @Very Good for all the posts. The changes will come into effect
from 25th July 2016.
Thus, following these norms any institution can conduct the promotion of faculty and staff in an
effective and transparent manner
16
Practice Task
1. Which of the following is not usually a characteristic of employee promotion?
a) Upward movement b) Decrease in authority and responsibility
c) Permanency d) Merit or seniority as basis
2. Find the odd man out on the basis of information about kinds of promotion.
a) Horizontal promotion b) Vertical promotion
c) Open system of promotion d) None of these
3. All the following are sources of internal recruiting except:
a) Transfers b) Promotions
c) Advertisements d) Retrained employees
4. Promotion which does not receive any increase in salaries is called:
a) Zero promotion b) Horizontal promotion
c) Dry promotion d) None of these
Feedback
1. b 2. d 3. c 4. c
17
8.7.2 Employee Compensation (Rules and Regulations)
Compensation is the total cash and non cash payments that are given to the faculty and staff in lieu of the
work they do for any educational institution. It is one of the biggest expenses of any institution.
Compensation provides basic attraction to an employee to perform his job efficiently and effectively. It
leads to employee motivation. Salaries constitute an important source of income for the employees and
are the major part of employees‟ compensation. These also determine their standard of living. Salaries
affect the employees‟ productivity and work performance.
Compensation is more than employees‟ regular salaries. It also includes many other types of wages and
benefits. Thus, the amount and method of compensation are very important for both the management and
the employees of any institution.
Broadly, there are two basis of fixing an employee‟s compensation
1. Time Rate Method

2. Piece Rate Method
These methods of employee compensation are explained below in detail
 Time Rate Method: Under time rate system, compensation is directly linked with the time
spent or devoted by an employee on his job. The employees are paid a fixed pre-decided amount
on hourly, daily, weekly or monthly basis irrespective of their output. It is a very simple method
of compensation. It leads to minimum wastage of resources and lesser chances of accidents. Time
Rate method leads to quality output. This method is very beneficial to new employees as they can
learn their work without any reduction in their salaries. This method encourages employees‟ unity
as employees of a particular group/cadre get equal salaries. In India most of the permanent faculty
and staff members in education institutions get their salaries based on this method. Most of their
salaries are on monthly basis.
There are some drawbacks of the Time Rate Method. This may lead to tight supervision,
indefinite employee cost, less efficiency of employees as there is no distinction made between
efficient and inefficient employees, leading to lesser motivation to talented and efficient
employees.
18
Time rate system is generally more suitable in those situations where the work is non-repetitive in
nature and emphasis is more on quality output rather than quantity output as in educational
institutions in India.
 Piece Rate Method: It is a method in which compensation is made on the basis of units or
pieces produced by an employee in an industry or classes/periods taken by a teacher in an
educational institution. In this system emphasis is more on quantity output rather than quality
output. Under this system the identification of employee cost per unit is not difficult because
salaries differ with output. There is less supervision required under this method. This system
improves the morale of the hard working employees as the salaries are directly related with their
work efforts. There is greater work-efficiency in this method. Many educational institutions,
especially in private sector pay salaries to teachers/ staff on this basis i.e. per class/period of
teaching or output per period/hour.
There are some drawbacks of this method, such as it is not easily computable, leads to
deterioration in work quality, wastage of resources, lesser unity of employees and insecurity
among the employees.
Piece rate system is more suitable where the nature of work is repetitive and quantity is
emphasised more than quality.
 Types of Compensation
In India, some of the compensations given to employees for their work are as follows:
 Base pay (salary or hourly wages)

 Dearness allowance
 House rent allowance
 Overtime wages
 Travelling allowance
 Bonus pay
 Children education allowance
 Paid maternity leave to women
 Other no-cash benefits
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 Base pay
Base pay is the initial pay given to faculty and staff in an institution. The base pay is essentially the
minimum amount an employee can expect to receive before taxes and other deductions. Base pay
includes an employee‟s base salary or hourly wages.
 Base salary vs. total compensation
An employee‟s base pay does not include compensation that might raise the wages above the base
level. For example, dearness allowance, house rent allowance, bonus, over time wages, and other
allowances are not part of base pay of an employee. These types of allowances are included in the
employee‟s total compensation.
 AICTE , New Delhi Gazette Notification, dated March 1, 2019, regarding pay scales
and other benefits to teachers in technical institutions
Categories of Institutions to whom the regulations apply
These regulations shall apply to all diploma level technical institutions imparting technical
education and such other courses / programs approved by AICTE and areas as notified by
the council from time to time.
Date of Effect
a) Pay Scales and DA: The revised pay-scales shall be effective from 1.1.2016.
b) Other Allowances: Allowances such as Leave Travel Concession, Special Compensatory

Allowances, Children's Education Allowance, Transport Allowance, House Rent Allowance,
Deputation Allowance, House Building Allowance, Travelling Allowance etc. shall be applicable
from the date as notified by the Central Government / respective State and UT Government from
time to time.
Revised Designations and Mode of Appointments
There shall be only three designations in respect of teachers in degree level technical institutions as
far as cadre structure is concerned, namely Assistant Professor, Associate Professor and
Professor as given below in Table 1. Also there shall be no change in the present designations in
respect of Library, Physical Education and Training & Placement Personnel at various levels.
Following mode of appointment shall henceforth be used:
Sr. Designations of Entry Level Mode of Appointment

No. Teaching Faculty Pay
1 Assistant
Faculty Professor 57700 10 Direct Recruitment
2 Assistant Professor (Senior 68900
(Rs 11 Promotion
Scale)
.)
20
3 Assistant Professor (Selection 79800 12 Promotion
4 Associate
Grade) Professor 131400 13A1 Promotion / Direct Recruitment
5 Professor 144200 14 Promotion / Direct Recruitment
6 Senior Professor (HoD) 182200 15 Promotion
7 Principal / Director 144200 14 Direct Recruitment
New Pay Structure
The new pay structure shall involve a pay matrix with an ascending series of levels and ascending
cells in each level. The new pay matrix shall subsume the pay band and grade pay in one simple
chart as given in Annexure - I. The pay matrix shall comprise of two dimensions – a horizontal
range of levels starting from the lowest level in the hierarchy and ascending to the highest level,
with the levels being numbered from 10 to 15 covering the entire gamut of Teachers and other
Academic Staff. Within each level, the salary increases as one goes down vertically, with each
progression of going down represented by a “Cell”. Each Cell within that level represents the steps
of annual financial progression of 3%. On recruitment / promotion, an employee shall join at a
particular level and progress within the level as per the vertical range. The movement shall be based
on annual increments till the time of his /her next promotion. When the employee will receive a
promotion, he/she will progress to the next level in the horizontal range till it exhausts.
Levels and Cells
The method followed by the 7th CPC shall be adopted in the academic pay structure also, moving
from the concept of Pay Band and Academic Grade Pay to that of Levels and Cells. The changes
will appear only due to the existing difference between the two streams in terms of Academic Grade
Pay vis-à-vis the corresponding Grade Pay. The levels for academic pay shall be numbered as per
the corresponding non-academic level. Thus, the levels are numbered as 10, 11, 12, 13A1, 14, & 15
corresponding to the present AGP of Rs. 6000, 7000, 8000, 9000, 10000 and 12000 respectively.
Pay Matrix and Fixation of Revised Pay
For Fixation of pay of an Employee in the Pay Matrix as on 1st January 2016, the existing pay (Pay
in Pay Band plus Academic Grade Pay) in the pre-revised structure as on 31st December, 2015 shall
be multiplied by a factor of 2.57, rounded off to the nearest Rupee, and the figure so arrived at, will
be located in that level in the Pay Matrix and if such an identical figure corresponds to any cell in
the applicable level of the Pay Matrix, the same shall be the pay, and if no such cell is available in
the applicable level, the pay shall be fixed at the immediate next higher cell in that applicable level
of the Pay Matrix. If the figure arrived at in this manner is less than the first cell in that level, then
the pay shall be fixed at the first cell of that level of Pay Matrix.
If more than two stages are bunched together, one additional increment equal to 3% may be given
for every two stages bunched, and pay fixed in the subsequent cell in the pay matrix.
Date of Increment
(i) Annual increment is given in the Pay Matrix at 3%, with each cell being higher by 3% over the
previous cell in the same level, rounded off to nearest 100. Annual increments to each
employee would move up in the same academic level, with an employee moving from the
existing cell in the academic level to the immediate next cell in the same academic level.
21
(ii) There shall be two dates of increment i.e. 1st January and 1st July of every year, provided that
an employee shall be entitled to only one annual increment on either one of these two dates
depending on the date of appointment, promotion or grant of financial upgradation.
(iii) The increment in respect of an employee appointed or promoted during the period between the
2nd day of January and 1st day of July (both inclusive) shall be granted on 1st day of January
and the increment in respect of an employee appointed or promoted during the period between
the 2nd day of July and 1st day of January (both inclusive) shall be granted on 1st day of July.
Pension, Gratuity, Family Pension, GPF, Leave Encashment and Other Pensionary Benefits
All pensionary benefits including leave encashment shall be extended to faculty members and
otherstaff such as Library, Physical Education and Training & Placement Personnel as per the revised
norms recommended by the 7th CPC and implemented by the Government of India / State and UT
Governments.
Incentives for New Entrants
New entrants as well as existing faculty members of degree level institutions should be provided with
a desktop computer / laptop / office furniture and a printer with internet connectivity in their office so
as to make a faculty member computer savvy and to enable them to have access to the latest
technology.
Grant for Professional Development
All teachers may be given a grant up to Rs.75,000/- per year on a reimbursement basis, which may be
permitted to be accumulated up to 3 years towards acquiring the membership of Professional
Societies and for participating in national / international conferences/workshops etc.
Sabbatical Leave for faculty
To encourage interface between technical education and industry, the faculty members shall be
entitled to sabbatical leave of six months for working in industry / professional development, subject
to the condition that the faculty has a teaching experience of minimum five years. Such leave,
however, shall be available to a teacher only twice in his / her teaching career.
Incentives for Ph. D. and other Higher Qualification
(i) Five non-compounded advance increments shall be admissible at the entry level of a recruitee
as an Assistant Professor possessing a Ph.D. awarded in a relevant discipline by the recognized
University following the due process of admission test, course work and external evaluation as
prescribed by the UGC or the admission process adopted by the institutes established under the
Act of Parliament or students having valid GATE / GPAT score for admission to Ph.D. or
students selected for Ph.D. program under National Doctoral Fellowship program of AICTE /
Prime Minister‟s Research Fellowship program.
22
(ii) Those possessing Post-graduate degree in M.Tech. / M. Arch. / M. Plan. / M. E./ M. Pharm. /
M. Des. / M. S. etc. recognized by the relevant statutory body / council shall be entitled to two
non compounded advance increments at the entry level.
(iii) Teachers who complete their Ph.D. degree while in service as Assistant Professor shall be
entitled to three non-compounded increments fixed at increment applicable at entry level as
Assistant Professor only if such Ph.D. is in a relevant discipline of the discipline of
employment and has been awarded by a recognized University following the due process of
admission test, course work and external evaluation as prescribed by the UGC or the admission
process adopted by the institutes established under the Act of Parliament or students having
valid GATE / GPAT score for admission to Ph.D. or students selected for Ph.D. program under
Quality Improvement Program (QIP) / Teacher Research Fellowship (TRF).
Fixation of Pay
The fixation of pay and designations of incumbents in the revised pay scales shall be as
given in Annexure- I.
Incumbent faculty members / principals who are in AGP of 10,000/- as per 6th CPC, shall be
fixed in the appropriate cell corresponding to Level 14 of pay matrix table recommended by 7 th
CPC.
Annexure-I
Pay Matrix Table for Degree Level Technical Institutions
(All figures are in Rupees ( ₹ ))

Pay Band in VI 15600 – 39100 37400 - 67000 67000-79000
CPC
Assistant Professor Associate Professor Senior
Cadre Title Professor Professor
Grade Pay in
VI CPC 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 0
Entry Pay 21600 25790 29900 49200 53000 67000
Cell No. Level 10 11 12 13A1 14 15
1 57700 68900 79800 131400 144200 182200
2 59400 71000 82200 135300 148500 187700
3 61200 73100 84700 139400 153000 193300
4 63000 75300 87200 143600 157600 199100
5 64900 77600 89800 147900 162300 205100
6 66800 79900 92500 152300 167200 211300
7 68800 82300 95300 156900 172200 217600
8 70900 84800 98200 161600 177400 224100
9 73000 87300 101100 166400 182700
23
10 75200 89900 104100 171400 188200
11 77500 92600 107200 176500 193800
12 79800 95400 110400 181800 199600
13 82200 98300 113700 187300 205600
14 84700 101200 117100 192900 211800
15 87200 104200 120600 198700 218200
16 89800 107300 124200 204700
17 92500 110500 127900 210800
18 95300 113800 131700 217100
19 98200 117200 135700
20 101100 120700 139800
21 104100 124300 144000
22 107200 128000 148300
23 110400 131800 152700
24 113700 135800 157300
25 117100 139900 162000
26 120600 144100 166900
27 124200 148400 171900
28 127900 152900 177100
29 131700 157500 182400
30 135700 162200 187900
31 139800 167100 193500
32 144000 172100 199300
33 148300 177300 205300
34 152700 182600 211500
35 157300 188100
36 162000 193700
37 166900 199500
38 171900 205500
39 177100
40 182400
Note: The end-points of any column do not signify the end points of the pay received at that
level. As was the case in the earlier provision of traditional pay scales, the last point does not
represent the maximum pay of that level for calculation purposes. The end-points of the
column should not be treated as the maximum and minimum of a pay scale to calculate the
average pay for any level.
24
Practice Task
Q1. Which is the method of wage payment?
a) Time wage c) Both of these

b) Piece wage d) None of these
Q2. Under ___________system of compensation is directly linked with the time spent or devoted by an
employee on his job.
a) Piece wage b) Time rate

c) Basic pay d) Both of these
Q3. Which of these is an incorrect statement?
a) Base pay means minimum basic salary

b) Base pay includes traveling allowance
c) Total compensation includes base pay and fringe benefits
d) Total compensation is more than base pay
Q 4. Compensation management consists:
a) Job evaluation
b) Wages and salary administration
c) Fringe benefits
d) All of these
Feedback
1. c 2. b 3. b 4. d
25
8.7.3 Conduct Rules
The Central Civil Services (Conduct) Rules, 1964 impose various restrictions on the Government
servants. These rules shall apply to every person appointed to a civil service or post (including a
civilian in Defence Service) in connection with the affairs of the Union. Every Employee holding a
supervisory post shall take all possible steps to ensure the integrity and devotion to duty.
For an efficient administration an efficient civil service is necessary. Efficient civil services depends
upon the method of recruitment, security of service, payment of good salaries and opportunity for
further promotion. Keeping this end in view our constitution has empowered the Central / State
Governments to regulate recruitment and conditions of service of persons appointed to public service
under Article 309, 310, 311, 312, 312-A and 313 of the Constitution.
Under rule 3 of the above said Conduct Rules, every Government employee shall at all times:
 Maintain absolute integrity

 Maintain devotion to duty; and
 Do nothing which is unbecoming of a Government employee.
A Government employee holding a supervisory post shall take all possible steps to ensure the integrity
and devotion to duty of Government employees under his control. The direction of the official
superior shall be in writing. Oral directions to subordinate shall be avoided as far as possible. Where
oral direction becomes unavoidable, the official superior shall confirm it in writing immediately
thereafter.
A Government employee who has received oral direction from his superior shall seek confirmation of
the same in writing whereupon it shall be the duty of the officer to confirm the directions in writing.
Employment of near relatives of Government employees in private undertakings enjoying

Government patronage
No government employee shall use his position or influence to secure employment for any member of
his family in any company and firm.
No Government employee shall in the discharge of his official duties deal with any matter or give any
sanction or contract to any company / firm where a member of his family is interested in such matter /
contract.
Taking part in Politics and Elections

No Government employee shall be a member of or be associated with any political
party/organization which takes part in politics. It shall also be his duty to ensure that no member of his
family takes part in any political party / movement. Similarly, he shall not canvass, interfere or take
part in any election to any legislature or local authority. He can however, exercise his right to vote.
Joining of associations by Government Employees

No Government employee shall join or be a member of an association the objects of or activities of
which are prejudicial to the interest of the sovereignty and integrity of India or public order or
morality.
26
Demonstration and Strikes
No Government employee shall participate in any demonstration which is prejudicial to the interests of
the sovereignty and integrity / security of India, public order / decency or morality or resort to any
form of strike in matter pertaining to his service.
Criticism of Government
No Government employee shall in any radio broadcast or in any document published in the press shall
criticize any policy or action of the Government.
Gifts:
No Government servant shall accept any gift which shall include free transport, boarding, lodging or
any other service from any person other than a near relative or personal friend having no official
dealings with the Government.
Private trade Employment

No government employee shall except with previous sanctions engage in any trade, business or any
other employment.
Movable / Immovable and valuable property

Every Government employee is required to file property return at such intervals as may be specified
by the Government. Such a return shall show his assets / liabilities of his movable / immovable
property and assets.
No Government servant shall except with the previous knowledge of the prescribed authority acquire
or dispose of any immovable property by lease, mortgage, purchase, sale, gift, etc. in his own name or
in the name of any member of his family.
Canvassing of non-official or other influence

No Government employee shall bring any political or other influence upon any superior authority to
further his interests in respect of matter pertaining to his service under the Government.
Restriction regarding Marriage

No Government employee who has a wife living shall contract another marriage without first
obtaining the permission of Government.
No female Government employee shall marry any person who has a wife living without first obtaining
the permission of the Government.
Consumption of intoxicating drinks and drugs

A Government employee shall:
 Strictly abide by any law relating to intoxicating drinks or drugs in force in any area in which he
may happen to be for the time being;
 Not be under the influence of any intoxicating drink or drug during the course of his duty and;
refrain from consuming any intoxicating drink or drug in a public place;
27
 Not appear in a public place in a state of intoxication.
Prohibition of Sexual Harassment of Working Women

No Government Employee shall indulge in any act of sexual harassment of any woman at her work
place.
Every Government employee who is incharge of a workplace shall take appropriate steps to prevent
sexual harassment to any woman at such workplace.
Prohibition from employing children below the age of 14 years

No Government employee shall employ to work any child below the age of 14 years.
Any breach of the aforesaid provisions of the conduct rules shall be construed as a misconduct on the
part of a Government employee for which he shall liable to be proceeded against under the Civil
Services (Punishment and Appeal) Rules for minor or major penalty.
Do’s and Don’ts for Central Government Employees as per CCS (Conduct) Rules
Do’s
1 Maintain absolute integrity at all times.

2 Maintain absolute devotion to duty at all times.
3 Maintain independence and impartiality in the discharge of your duties.
4 Maintain a responsible and decent standard of conduct in private life.
5 Render prompt and courteous service to the public.
6 Observe proper decorum during lunch break.
7 Report to your superiors the fact of your arrest or conviction in a Criminal Court and the
circumstances connected therewith, as soon as it is possible to do so.
8 Keep away from demonstrations organized by political parties.
9 Maintain political neutrality.
10 Manage private affairs in such a way as to avoid habitual indebtedness or insolvency.
11 If any legal proceedings are instituted against you for the recovery of any debt or for
declaring you as insolvent, report the full facts of such proceedings to the competent
authority.
12 Act in accordance with the government policies
13 Observe courtesy and consideration to Members of Parliament and State Legislatures.
14 In performance of duties in good faith, communicate information to a person in accordance

with the „Right to Information Act, 2005′ and the rules made there under.
Don’ts:
28
1 Do not enter into any private correspondence with Foreign Embassies or Missions/ High
Commission.
2 Do not accept lavish or frequent hospitality from any individual, industrial or commercial
firms, organizations, etc., having official dealings with you.
3 Do not accept any offer of the cost of passage to foreign countries or hospitality by way of
free board and lodging there, if such offers are from foreign firms contracting with
Government.
4 Do not accept invitations to you and members of your family for free inaugural flights
offered by Air India, Indian Airlines Corporation or Foreign Airlines.
5 Do not accept any gift from any foreign firm which is having official dealings.
6 Do not engage yourself in canvassing business of Life Insurance Agency, Commission
Agency or Advertising Agency owned or managed by the members of your family.
7 Do not lend money to or borrow money from or deposit money as a member or agent, with
any person, firm or private company with whom you are likely to have official dealings. Do
not otherwise place yourself under pecuniary obligation with such person, firm or private
company.
8 Do not approach your subordinates for standing surety for loans taken from private sources
either by you/your relations/friends.
9 Do not undertake private consultancy work.
10 Do not speculate in any stock, share or other investment.
11 Do not purchase shares out of the quota reserved for friends and associates of Directors of
Companies.
12 Do not bid at any auction of property where such auction is arranged by your own officers.
13 Do not stay as guest with foreign diplomats or foreign nationals in India.
14 Do not invite any Foreign Diplomat to stay with you as your guest in India.
15 Do not accept or permit your wife or dependants to accept passage money or free air
transport from a Foreign Mission / Government or Organization.
16 Do not bring any political influence in matters pertaining to your service.
17 Do not consume any intoxicating drinks or drugs while on duty
18 Do not appear in public place in a state of intoxication.
19 Do not indulge in any act sexual harassment of any women at her work place.
20 Do not employ children below 14 years of age.
21 Do not accept award of monetary benefits instituted by Private Trusts / Foundations, etc.
22 Do not make joint representations in matters of common interest.
23 Do not indulge in acts unbecoming of a Government servant.
24 Do not be discourteous, dishonest and partial.
25 Do not adopt dilatory tactics in your dealings with the public.
26 Do not convey oral instructions to subordinates. If any oral instruction is issued due to
urgency, confirm it in writing as soon as possible.
29
27 Do not practice untouchability.
28 Do not associate yourself with any banned organizations.
29 Do not join any association or demonstration whose objects or activities are prejudicial to
the interest of the sovereignty and integrity of India, public order and morality.
30 Do not give expressions to views on Indian or foreign affairs, while visiting foreign
countries.
31 Do not get involved in unauthorized communication of any official document or any part of
thereof or classified information to any Government servant or any other persons to whom
you are not authorized to communicate such document or classified information.
32 Do not join or support any illegal strike.
33 Do not give or take or abet giving or taking of dowry or demand any dowry directly or
indirectly from the parent or guardian of a bride or bridegroom.
34 Do not address the higher authority prematurely on the same issue unless it is established
that all the points or submission made earlier have not been fully considered by the
immediate superior head of office or any other authority at the lowest level competent to
deal with matter.
35 Do not use your official position or influence directly or indirectly to secure employment for
any number of your family in any company or firm.
Although, these conduct rules are applicable to the employees working in government institutions, but
they are equally valuable for the employees in private, semi government or other types of institutions as
these are the do‟s and don‟ts of the right behavior, moral values and conduct guidelines for any individual
to follow for a disciplined and professional approach to work and life.
Practice task
Q.1 Fill up the followings:
1. Oral directions to subordinate shall be ---------- as far as possible.

2. No Government employee shall be a ---------of or be associated with any political party
3. No Government employee shall employ to work any child below the age of-----------.
4. Conduct rules are applicable to the employees working in government institutions as well as in ---
--------.
5. There should ------ be any type of ------- against woman in the working place
Feedback:
1. Avoided
2. Member
3. 14 years
4. Government aided institutions
5. Not, sexual harassment
30
Conclusion
Promoting faculty and staff is one of the personnel policies of the best institutions. This way they are able
to retain their employees who are competent, specialized and well accustomed with the working and work
environment of the institute. This also, on one hand, leads to a great saving of cost which may have to be
spent on employing and training new employees, and on the other enhances the overall efficiency of the
institute due to higher work motivation of the retained employees. Appropriate compensation also
enhances the morale of the employees to work hard for enhancing the quality of services and the
institutional output. Application of conduct rules gives the clear guidelines about the do‟s and don‟ts for
better working, facilitating in better work culture in the institutions, and thereby an enhanced reputation in
the world outside.
Bibliography:
1. Palwasha BIBI et.al. “ The Impact of Compensation and Promotional Opportunities on
Employee Retention in Academic Institutions: The Moderating Role of Work Environment”
International Journal of Economic Perspectives, 2017, Volume 11, Issue 1, 378-391.
1. Satyendra, Sept 1, 2015 Staffing – A Function of Management

2. Worku Fentie and Tariku Sime (2016). Staffing: Practices and Challenges International Journal of
Scientific and Research Publications, 6 (4):251-258
3. Lawrent, G. and Ndibalema, P., 2012. Staffing in Educational Institutions: Experiences from
Tanzania. GRIN Verlag.
4. Breaugh, J.A., 2009. Recruiting and attracting talent: A guide to understanding and managing the
recruitment process. SHRM Foundation’s Effective Practice Guidelines Series, pp.1-33.
Pvt. Ltd.
India Pvt. Ltd.
31
11. https://businessjargons.com/external-sources-recruitment.html
12. https://www.managementstudyhq.com/stages-of-recruitment-process.html
13. https://www.aicte-india.org/bureaus/administration/rules-regulations AICTE regulations on pay
scales, service conditions and minimum qualifications for appointment of teachers and other
academic staff in Technical Institutions and measures for the maintenance of standards in
Technical Education – (Degree) Regulation, 2019
14. http://www.tmv.edu.in/pdf/Distance_education/BCA%20Books/BCA%20V%20SEM/BCA-
525%20Principles%20and%20Practice%20of%20Mgmt-II.pdf
Supportive learning material: by Dr R.K. Sharma

Videos on:
 Promotion of Faculty & Staff
 Modified Assured Career Progression Scheme
 Conduct Rules
Web resources:
 Basics: Compensation https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wZoRId6ADuo
32
UNIT 8.8
STAFFING: FINANCIAL AND PURCHASE PROCEDURES FOR

INSTITUTIONAL MANAGEMENT
Content Page No
Broad Objective 3
Learning Outcomes 3
Introduction 4
8.8.1 Financial Procedures 4
 Guidelines for Financial Management in Institutions

 Need of Financial Management in Educational Institutions:-
 Stake holders to Educational Institutions
 Financial Information required by educational institution
 Sources of Financial Information
 Financial Management of Educational Institute
 Functional aspect of financial management
 Importance of financial planning in educational institute
 Financing Higher Education in India
 Accounting Standards in Higher Educational Institutions
 Accounting Practices in Educational Institutions
 Setting Accounting Standards for Education Institutions
 Responsibilities of Government Auditor and Internal Auditor
 Objectives of financial planning
Conclusion 18
Practice task 19
Feedback 19
8.8.2Purchase Procedures 20
 General Financial rules procedure regarding procurement and

inventory
 Public Account
 Finance Accounts
 Presentation of Annual accounts
 Administrative Ministries / PSUs / Subordinate / Statutory /
Autonomous
 Annual Accounts
 Proforma Accounts
1
 Capital And Revenue Accounts
 Conversion of outstanding loans into equity investments or grants-
in-aid
 Procurement Of Goods And Services
 E-Publishing
 E-Procurement
 Recommendations for effective control to adopt General financial
rules for procurement of goods and services procedure in
Educational Intuitions
Practice task 34
Feedback 34
Conclusion 35
Bibliography 35
2
UNIT 8.8
STAFFING: FINANCIAL AND PURCHASE PROCEDUR

ES FOR INSTITUTIONAL MANAGEMENT
Author: Mr. JS Bali

NITTTR, Chandigarh
Broad objective:
After going through this unit, the learner shall be able
understand the importance of financial management in an
academic institution by following applicable rules and
procedures regarding financial and purchase management as
provided in General Financial Rules, 2017.
Learning outcome:
After going through this material the learner shall be able to:
 Understand the Concept and salient features of financial planning
 Appreciate the need of financial management in educational institutions
 Understand the financing of higher education in India
 Understand the functional aspect of financial management
 Understand accounting standards in higher educational institutions
 Understand Important terminology in GFR 2017
 Know about Annual accounts and capital and revenue accounts

 Know and apply procedure for procurement of goods and services
 Apply E-Publishing and E- Procurement
 Use recommendations for effective control to adopt General financial rules for procurement of
goods and services procedure in Educational Institutions
3
Introduction:
Management of finances is one of the most important activities which lead to the success or failure of
any institution because this is the resource which gets going every activity undertaken by any
institution. For this purpose government has given some guidelines which act as a road map in the
management of finance. Although these guidelines are applicable for government/government aided
institutions, but private institutions can also use these as a fundamental basis for their financial
management.
The inputs in this unit have been designed to provide learners the fundamentals of General Financial
Management based on GFR 2017. This unit also provides inputs regarding procurement of goods and
services by the institution.
8.8.1 Financial Procedures

 Guidelines for Financial Management in Institutions
Concept and Salient features of Financial Planning
The concept of finance in educational institution is much different than conventional business or
profit making organization. The educational institution looks at finance from a different point of
view. They consider financial functions as a basic activity to manage funds for research,
development and maintenance of institute Educational institute often do not have adequate
sources of funds, balance between receipts and payment are hardly matched. Often the dearth of
funds is major constrain in development of these institutions. The need for efficient financial
management arises due to resources scarcity, inadequacy of funds and limited sources of revenue.
Therefore every educational institute must go for efficient and systematic financial management.
Following are the characteristics of finance function in educational institution.
 Financial planning is focused at systematic acquisition and development of funds
 The purpose of finance planning is stabilization of financial position.
 Sources of finance in educational institution are restricted by nature. It is because of

regulatory frame work for governance the educational institute.
4
 The principle source of revenue for educational institute are related with internal resource i.e.
fees / charges and external sources are like Grant in aid, donations etc.
 The fees are defined by the regulatory institution. As such the education institution cannot
change fees more than as what is guided by regulatory institute or bylaws of institute. It is
not the discretion of the institute to revise the fees at will. Educational institution cannot take
unspecified fees without prior permission of the regulatory bodies. Especially fees like
capitation fees or fees based on donation or donation related objectives. Often it is not
permitted by regulatory authority without prior sanctioned.
Other fees and sources of revenue like Grants in aid are decided a formula set by the government.
The grants are offered for the specific purpose and cannot use for the purpose other than specified
purpose.
The salient features of financial management in educational institute are as under :-
 Anticipating financial needs – To prepare estimate of financial requirements for specific

scheme.
 Acquiring financial resources – To procure funds through select sources of receipts.
 Allocating funds to scheme – To ascertain requirements and allot funds.
 Administrating the allocation of funds – To maintain control of process, fund utilization.
 Analyzing the performance of funds – To measure the extent of achievements of goals.
 Accounting and reporting to management – To justify the fund utilization and supplies the
report of the same.
 Need of Financial Management in Educational Institutions:-
The term finance is indicated explaining importance of finance, funds and money in particular
institution or for a particular activity. Nothing can be simply achieved unless and until every
institute works out for efficient financial management.
The function of finance is usually comprises of their basic activities; These are:-
 Acquisition
 Allotment
5
 Distribution of profit or surplus
 Acquisition – Unless and until an institute acquires fund, it cannot allot it to any
activity as we all know sources of funds are limited. Money surplus is restricted and
no one can generate money at will. Acquisition of funds therefore is a tough and
critical task. More the sources of finance better will be the scope of acquisition of
funds.
However, no institution can acquire finance and funds at will. The capacity to acquiring
funds depends on following factors:-
 Nature of the Institute / business
 Tenure of services
 Reputation and credibility acquire
 Types of services offered
 Cost of production and generation of services most likely set of users or

beneficiaries
 Type and nature of stake holders
 Willingness and ability of users and beneficiaries to pay for the services offer
 Continuity or perpetually of demands for services
 Internal strength of institute to generate its own funds
 Patronage or benevolent assistance available
The acquisition of fund is also determined by certain other features such as
 Philosophy of the institute
 Vision, mission and goals of the institute
 Regulatory from work
 Competitive environment
6
The concept of acquisition thus has many dimensions. It will be difficult to relay on own
particular factor to decide the sources of fiancés or mode of acquisition of funds.
 Allotment of Fund - Educational institution and even other institute not working for
profit find it difficult t make a rational, judicious and adequate allotment of funds to
variety of activities. There are men constraint and factors that restrict proper
allotment funds. The tangible factors restricting allotment of funds are
 Nature of activity undertaking
 Revenue and capital aspects of expenditure
 Needs for various departments or services
 Availability of funds
 Requirement and expectation of beneficiaries and users
 Regulatory requirements
 Managerial requirements
 Necessary expenses for effective organization and working of the system.
 Distribution of Funds - It is one of the important aspects of financial management.

The institute has to be rationale while distributing its profit and surplus. It is
especially for institute not working for profit because such institute usually has
limited sources of earnings. These institutes cannot sustain the pressure of shortage
or scarcity of funds. These institutes have selective priorities which they need to
satisfy into order to sustain of grow. Therefore these institutions have to design their
strategies for survival and development.
Educational institutions have to be more cautions and judicious while distributing of

funds. Following are the determinants that decide the distribution aspect of financial
management.
 The educational institutions usually do not have sustainable long term financial
sources. Often they have to depend upon earning on certain revenue sources. As such,
their choice of earnings is restricted.
7
 The sources of revenue are determent and specific. It is very difficult for educational
institutions to change these sources.
 The heads of earnings are often regulatory system. Therefore educational institutions
have limited heads to enhance the earning sources.
 The heads of expenditure are also predetermined. Educational institutions can not
reduced expenses on certain basic areas of activities. This is also restricting their
freedom of distribution.
 The volume of surplus of educational institution is often very scanty; as such

allocation of funds is definitely challenging issue.
 The margin of surplus has to be allocated to capital reserves and general reserves
funds. Often the bylaws of such institution do not permit distribution of funds unless
and until the provision is made for such reserve.
 Though educational institute do not pay a part of profit to their stake holders in form
of dividend or share of profit. However, there is a limited surplus available even for
general welfare.
 For educational institution distribution of funds or welfare and general development or

expansion is one option. However, there are limited chances for diversification and
expansion of educational activities.
 Stake holders to Educational Institutions
There are different types of stake holders in educational institutions. The set of stake holders is
quite diversified and multiform in nature. The stake holders do not have contradictory approach to
perceive. Now every where there is limited interaction and cohesiveness in the activities of these
stake holders.
The important stake holders in educations are back bone and have valuable impact on the
financial Planning enlisted as below:-
 The management – It is the principle stake holders in educational institutions without lead
role of management or its representation educational institution do not come in to existence.
Management can be group of person from same or different walks of life which comes
8
forward to establish the institute with particular motive, cause or purpose. The stake holders –
Management are pioneer for establishing of institute, trust or body.
The principle purpose for establishing an educational institute by the management is to

perceive a cause promote and justify or expand the scope of educational activity for
particular class or mass.
 Administrators and Managers of governing bodies – Any institute whether it may be

educational or other are organized, administered or managed by people who administrated
these institutes with the help of certain select skills and abilities. The administration includes
Director, Board of Governors, Principal, Registrar, Establishment and Accounts Officers etc.
or all those who are involved in governance of these institutes. Administrators usually are
people who set policy and procedures and programs for the development of healthy
educational culture.
 Faculties – The faculties can be rightly known as backbone of educational institutions. They
offer their skills, ability and talent as well as work for a particular educational cause. No
educational institute can be imagining without faculties It helps in development of
curriculum, education system, activities and programs.
 Non Teaching Staff – It includes officers, clerks and support staff that work for
implementation of policies of educational institutes. Institute cannot run effectively and
efficiently without proper contribution of non – teaching staff. It is a crux to maintain
discipline and order. Most of the policy regarding planning, governance and achievement of
goals are effectively deployed only through administrative staff.
 Students – The sole purpose of educational institution is to help and served the student. It is
the focal point of entire education system. The whole system revolved around him. He is the
principle stake holder of the entire system. Education system works for promotion,
development and advancement of education culture which ultimately enriches the quality of
the learners. Hence, principle purpose of educational institute is to develop a learner friendly
plan.
 Parents – Parents are the intermediate beneficiaries. They are indirectly benefited through
development of their wards. Educational development of children leads to their concern and
personally enhancement, which in term enhance their chances of success in life. Therefore
every person as parents wants his wards to take good education.
9
 Potential employees – Getting quality persons as employees is the key issue before every
employer unless and until the employers get trained educated employees or potential
employees. They cannot maintain efficiency of the unit, providing skilled and caliber
employees is the one of the principle purpose of educational institute. From this view
employees are major stake holders of educational institute.
 Society – society has the great stake in educational institute. Building of good citizenship
cannot do with appropriate and quality education. Society needs citizen with character,
competi tance and society cannot grow without good citizenship competent employee‘s
caliber like scientist, engineers, architects, farmers and workers, artisans. Hence, society has a
great stake in educational institutions.
 Financial Information required by educational institution
The success of institute mainly depends on swiftness, acumen prudence ability to acquire and used
financial information. In true sense well managed educational institution are the institute that
maintained right set of required financial information.
Getting desired, necessary and timely information is the principle challenge before most of
educational institution. The roll of finance department in acquiring this information is very critical
unless and until educational institute acquire this financial information, their survival cannot be
ensured.
Following are the various types of financial information required by educational institute.
 Information regarding financial challenges happening in economy at large.
 Information regarding various rules and regulations influencing functioning of financial

information.
 Deciding the right sources to procure financial information.
 Ascertaining the accuracy and reliability of financial information.
 Deciding the utility and application of information so procure.
 Establishing appropriate system of information processing setting.
 Establishing right procedure of management reporting system.
10
 Identifying the important information required by management and providing necessary data
inputs.
 Benefiting the information to meet regulatory requirement and developing suitable reports as
well as formats.
 Sources of Financial Information
There are different sources websites/internet sites Government /Department /UGC/AICTE/PFMS

etc. rom where the requisite financial information derived by the Institute regarding :-.
 Directives, circulars, notifications, government resolutions and other orders issued

government agencies from time to time.
 Directives and reports of the educational department.
 Published annual reports and other financial data of the educational institute.
 Internally generated financial report receipts, pay statements and other financial statement.
 Observation, reports and articles published in journals related with education.
 Guidelines issued by UGC /AICTE and other apex educational institute.
 Financial Management of Educational Institute
Financial management is the core aspect of the management. Educational institute acquire funds
from certain select and define sources.
These sources cannot be modified and enhanced with each case. On the contrary there are still
many limitations on procurement of funds.
Whereas educational institute are expected to provide multiple educational services for which
huge amount of funds is required, this cannot be rightly meet. Thus there is a significant gap
between sources of finance and their application in educational institute which demands a more
systematic and rational concept of financial management.
 Functional aspect of financial management
11
Financial management is a process, discipline and techniques of effective fund utilization. As
such financial management covers a large number of functional areas related with different
activities of the institute.
Functional
•• Functional
FunctionalAreas
Areasof
ofFinancial
FinancialManagement
Management
Areas of
Financial
Management
Determining financial needs
Determining sources of funds
Financial analysis
Optional capital structure
Fixed assets management
Capital budgeting
 Determining financial needs – Ascertained various purposes for which funds will be
utilized.
 Determining sources of funds – Identifying the sources like fees, donation, grants
etc.
 Financial analysis – Ascertained areas where funds shall be deployed.
 Optional capital structure – To design suitable capital structure that meets current as
well as future requirements of institute.
 Fixed assets management – To identify various equipments and their effective

utilization.
12
 Importance of financial planning in educational institute
Educational institute need to perform will and they are the backbone of modern society. For
efficient and perpetual good performance, it is necessary that educational institute must
maintained financial soundness. This is not possible without having a good successful financial
planning.
Good educational institute develop appropriate provisions for systematic fund management. This
requires proper understanding of funds and utilization of funds. Educational institute cannot
maintain the health and strength, it the funds are scarcity and therefore these institutes need to
work for development of a suitable financial planning.
Financial planning can be addressed many challenges before educational institute Features of
sound financial planning for educational institute.
Though financial planning is required an essential by every educational institutions. However, it

must be based on sound principles and appropriate policy. A soundness and appropriateness of
financial system of planning depends upon variety of factors. The principle features of good
financial planning in educational institute can be identified as follows.
 Philosophical basis of financial management – Every organization works with a

particular philosophy and set of principles. Educational institutions are not exception to
it. They usually established and work with philosophy of service towards society. Profit
making is not the criterion.
 Estimating objectives – It is another critical area. It is estimating goals and objectives.

Every financial function has to have certain goals. These goals are tune in philosophy of
the organization. It goals gives a direction to the functioning of the organization and its
approaches to address functional and operational products.
 Policy formulation – Finance is a matter of perpetual monitoring and performance, as

such it is necessary. It is that policy be formulated to execute the decision.
 Forecasting - This involves estimation of demands, fund requirement and management

in which the funds shall be utilized. Forecasting minimize risk and gap in demand for
funds.
13
 Development of procedures – functional aspect cannot be rightly executed without
efficient, systematic and well-defined procedures. That is now the financial function is
rightly performed
 Financing Higher Education in India

After Independence higher education in India has been largely financed by the government with
the social institutions progressively withdrawing. The government's share has steadily increased
from 49% in 1950-51 to about 90% today.
It is widely accepted that there is an acute shortage of resources in the education sector in India.
Economic reforms and associated requirements of fiscal discipline have aggravated the situation.
By contrast, however, official sources claim that significant progress has been made in financing
education. In India over the last sixty years there have been major changes in the level of
financing of higher education and in priorities attached to different sectors within it. Higher
Education had been rather neglected by the early planners.
The empirical study reveals that the various recommendations as also Five Year Plans and Policy
statements recommend and emphasize to increase the percentage of plan expenses on higher
education. However, policy statements and implementation do not always go together. Actual
expenditures in the education sector have fallen far short of these targets. These recommendations
repeatedly emphasize the need for higher investment in education and the importance of different
levels of government in its financing.
The government is unable to make large allocations for higher education Private initiatives
become necessary and society in general, and industry in particular will have to play a larger role
in higher education.
Industry should come forwards to finance and design institutions that meet its specific
requirement. It is hoped that an early decision will be taken on the Private Universities Bill that is
on the agenda before Parliament.
While mobilization of resources from private sources is a necessity, it should not be forgotten that
higher education is integrally related to socio-economic development and no government can
afford to allow it to languish for want of funds in this context, the suggestion.
The UNESCO has rightly taken a view that education including higher education, significantly
contributes to the development of nation-states. The World Conference on higher education held
in Paris in October 1998 firmly stated that higher education is 'a public service'.
Thus, any nation-state treating it otherwise may seriously affect its ability to face the challenges
of knowledge society of the 21st century.
14
 Accounting Standards in Higher Educational Institutions
Admittedly, accounting is a language of a college or university, It speaks about the state of the
financial management whether an institution is appearing well or not as the institutions have been
financed by Government, UGC, industries, business houses, donors, general public, so on and so
far. What is required is complete transparency in accounting methods and standards. Accounting
standards setting exercise has been initiated and persuaded by accounting bodies all over the
world, during the past three decades. In India the Accounting Standard Board constituted by
ICAR shoulder the responsibility on formulating the accounting standards for various
organizations in general and for business and industries in particulars.
It is necessary to understand the major users and their requirements with reference to education
institutions.
A set of standards for accounting information and guidelines for its communication depends upon
an examination of who are the major users of accounting information and for what purpose they
require such information.
Following are the stakeholders, who have every right to the access of accounting information.
 State Government:
The State Government provides maintenance grant for salary and non salary expenses to
colleges and universities. The Government through its Regional Joint Director Office carries
out yearly assessment and periodical audit.
Therefore, the state government requires information about the receipts of tuition fee, other
fees etc. and salary and non-salary expenses with reference to grantable criteria as laid down
in grant-in-aid code, and the utilization of other fees such as library fees, gymkhana fees,
magazine fees, extension activities fees etc.
 UGC/AICTE and other Funding Agencies such as S & T Department:

UGC and other agencies provide financial assistance for development of under graduate
education and post graduation departments which satisfy the conditions laid down by UGC &
such funding agencies. The UGC and such funding agencies require information as per their
requirements about the grants sanctioned, released and utilization thereof, compliance of
terms & conditions, completion of work, target etc.
15
 Trustees, members of the Society, Donors, etc.:
They provide initial finance for establishment of colleges and fulfilling deficit in running the
colleges. They require information about receipt of funds, donations, utilization thereof and
reasons of deficit. 2015
 Industries, Business houses, Alumni associations, NRIs, etc.: With a view to mobilize
external resources for various development plans and projects through participation,
contributions from individual Indians or non residential Indians, Alumni Associations, public
and family trusts, industries, business houses, co-operatives, professional associations,
employees unions/associations, Municipalities, municipal corporations, are often contacted
and funds are raised. This category of funding persons/agencies require information about the
beneficiary of project/plans, funds raised and received utilization thereof and achievement of
goals, targets, … etc.
 Employees' and Teachers' Organization: Employees and Teachers are concerned with the
financial stability and sound financial management of the educational institutions. It indicates
the scope for possible wage and fringe benefit increases and security of employment and
retirement benefits, etc.
 Parents, Students: They are the backbone of every educational institution. Students pay
tuition fees and other fees to college; and eligibility fee, examination fee etc. to universalities.
They are concerned with the effective utilization of their fees and returns thereof with
reference to quality teaching, good extension activities, souvenir/magazines, seminars,
cultural activities, conduct of examination, timely declaration of eligibility and examinations
results, timely issue of mark lists and degree certificates and counselling guidance and
placement services, if possible.
 Society at Large: As higher education is main instrument of social transformation and the
government funds are given to educational institutions out of taxes paid by the society at
large, it is concerned with the effective and proper utilization of funds and scarce resources
by the educational institutions, universities and colleges.
16
 Accounting Practices in Educational Institutions
There are defiantly gaps in accounting practices in mainly educational institutions, universities and
colleges. It is unfortunate to state that there is no transparency in financial management and
accounting practices in educational institutions.
It is also unfortunate that there is no mechanism to detect such gaps, misappropriation of funds and
changes in utilization of funds.
 Setting Accounting Standards for Education Institutions

The main aim of setting Accounting Standard is to bring about uniformity in financial reporting and
to ensure consistency and comparability in the data submitted by educational institutions. Standards
for accounting information ought to be attended by an accounting system in providing information
needed by the aforesaid seven types of users.
The standards determine the quality of information. Hence usefulness of accounting data is to be
ensured. While standards are closely related to accounting theory, there is difference between two
in that accounting theory is concerned with attributes of the accounting system itself, whereas
accounting standards are concerned with the quality of the information generated by that system.
43 As there are gaps in accounting standards laid down by Institute of Chartered Accountants of India
(ICAI), standards may be set either by the government, university and/or management of the
colleges or educational institutions. The concepts and standard underlying accounting for financial
reporting purpose are called generally accepted accounting principles. There may be a number of
approaches. The determination of certification of current major practice: a common law approach
i.e. case by case as a distillation of experience and the use of an implicit or explicit conceptual
frame work is needed.
 Responsibilities of Government Auditor and Internal Auditor

It is often noticed that these two agencies carry out their responsibility without any preset
accounting standards. The entire task of auditing the accounts and financial management of
educational institutions is taken very lightly. The control over effective utilization of scarce
resources is often diluted.
It is, therefore, high time to define the role and responsibilities of auditors of educational
institutions and the accounting standards and practices.
No doubt the interest of all the aforesaid users of educational institutions must be safeguarded.
Internal audit system must be implemented with quality and seriousness; management control
system must be perfect and effective. Misappropriation, frauds, misrepresentations must be
17
detected and curbed at their initial stage. Auditions must see whether the accounting standard
have been strictly followed by the educational institutions or not.
 Objectives of financial planning :
The purpose of financial planning are :-
 To understand the concept of financial management and its importance.
 To examine the need for financial management in educational institutions.
 To study the silent features of financial management of educational institutions.
 To understand the process and practices of financial management in educational

institutions.
 To know various financial systems implemented in the institutions.
 To enlist the limitations and weaknesses of prevailing financial system.
Conclusion
The Financial management of higher educational institution does include the aforesaid issues and
problems pertaining to financing pricing, accounting standards and gaps in practices in
universities and colleges. In the fast changing socio-economic context, the higher education
system will be exposed to greater pressure for expansion, which needs effective pricing of the
higher education so as to provide comprehensive finances to university & colleges.
At the same time utilization of finance & funds must be strictly in accordance with the set terms
and conditions, rules and regulations. The accounting standards must be widely accepted in
practice in which the statutory obligation should be increased and ensured in consultations with
the professional and regulatory bodies including ICAI, UGC, NAAC etc.
The gaps in practices should be seriously detected and checked so as to safeguard the interests of
the persons and bodies financing the higher education. The effective information system should
be ensured to satisfy the aforesaid users of accounting information.
18
Practice Task
1. The function of finance is usually comprises of their basic activities; These are:-
a) Acquisition
b) Allotment
c) Distribution of profit or surplus
d) All of the above
e) None of the above.
2. Functional Areas of Financial Management
a) Determining financial needs & sources of funds

b) Financial analysis
c) Fixed assets management
d) Capital budgeting/ Optional capital structure
e) All of above
f) Only Sr. No ii) & iii) of above
3. The main aim of setting Accounting Standard in Institution is to bring about:-
a) Uniformity in financial reporting and
b) to ensure consistency and comparability in the data
c) None of the above
d) All of the above
4. The important stake holders in educations are back bone and have valuable impact on
the financial Planning enlisted as below:-
a) The management/ Administrators and Managers of governing bodies

b) Faculties/ Non Teaching Staff
c) Students/ Parents
d) Potential employees/ Society
e) All of the above
Feedback
1. d 2. e 3. d 4. E
19
8.8.2 Purchase Procedures
 General Financial rules procedure regarding procurement and inventory
As we are aware that in the Government departments as well as in Institutions who generally
functioning with financial assistance i.e. Grant-in- aid/ Loans and advances /subsidies etc .are
required to follows the rules and procedure as defined under GFR-2017 for the procurement of goods
and services, incurring contingent expenditures, Pay and allowances wages and advances to
Government servants etc. as per sanctions and instructions received from time to time form the
concerned administrative departments. Therefore, It is mandatory to knows basic concepts /
Classification of Government functions at each level as defined below :-
 Short Title and Commencement:
These rules may be called General Financial Rules, 2017 and they shall come into force at once
and shall be applicable to all Central Government Ministries/Departments, attached and
subordinate bodies. The provisions contained in GFRs are deemed to be applicable to
Autonomous Bodies except to the extent the bye-laws of an Autonomous Body provides for
separate Financial Rules which have been approved by the Government.
 Definition :
In these rules, unless the context otherwise requires-
 ―Accounts Officer” means the Head of an Office of Accounts or the Head of a Pay and
Accounts Office set up under the scheme of departmentalization of accounts;
 “Administrator” means Administrator of a Union Territory, by whatever name
designated;
 ―Appropriation” means the assignment, to meet specified expenditure, of funds
included in a primary unit of appropriation;
 ―Audit Officer‖ means the Head of an Office of Audit;
 “Competent Authority‖ means, in respect of the power to be exercised under any of
these Rules, the President or such other authority to which the power is delegated by or
under these Rules, Delegation of Financial Power Rules or any other general or special
orders issued by the Government of India;
 ―Comptroller and Auditor General” means the Comptroller and Auditor General of
India;
 ―Consolidated Fund‖ means the Consolidated Fund of India referred to in Article 266
(1) of the Constitution;
 “Constitution‖ means the Constitution of India;
20
 “Contingency Fund‖ means the Contingency Fund of India established under the
Contingency Fund of India Act, 1950, in terms of Article 267 (1) of the Constitution;
 ―Controlling Officer‖ means an officer entrusted by a Department of the Central
Government with the responsibility of controlling the incurring of expenditure and/or
the collection of revenue. The term shall include a Head of Department and also an
Administrator;
 ―Department of the Government of India‖ means any of the Ministries, Departments,
Secretariats and Offices as notified from time to time and listed in the First Schedule to
the Government of India (Allocation of Business Rules);
 ―Drawing and Disbursing Officer‖ means a Head of Office and also any other
Gazetted Officer so designated by a Department of the Central Government, a Head of
Department or an Administrator, to draw bills and make payments on behalf of the
Central Government. The term shall also include a Head of Department or an
Administrator where he himself discharges such function;
 ―Ministry of Finance‖ means the Ministry of Finance of the Central Government;
 “Financial Year‖ means the year beginning on the 1st of April and ending on the 31st
of March
 ―Government‖ means the Central Government;
 ―Government Account‖ means the account relating to the Consolidated Fund, the
Contingency Fund and the Public Account; as defined in these rules;
 “Head of the Department’ means an authority or person (not below the rank of a
Deputy Secretary to the Government of India), declared by the concerned Department in
the Government of India as a Head of Department in relation to an identifiable
establishment or establishments to exercise the delegated financial powers under these
Rules;
 ―Head of Office” means (a) (a) a Gazetted Officer declared as such in the Delegation of
Financial Powers Rules and (b) any other authority declared as such under any general
or special orders of the competent authority .
 Public Account- in the part-III, transactions relating to debt (other than those included in Part-
I), reserve funds, deposits, advances, suspense, remittances and cash balances shall be recorded.
21
 Classification of transactions in Government Accounts.
As a general rule, classification of transactions in Government Accounts, shall have closer
reference to functions, programme and activities of the Government and the object of revenue
or expenditure, rather than the department in which the revenue or expenditure occurs Major
Heads (comprising Sub-Major Heads wherever necessary) are divided into Minor Heads.
Minor Heads may have a number of subordinate heads, generally known as Sub Heads. The
Sub Heads are further divided into Detailed Heads followed by Object Heads. The Major
Heads of account, falling within the sectors for expenditure heads, generally correspond to
functions of Government, while the Minor Head identify the programmes undertaken to
achieve the objectives of the functions represented by the Major Head. The Sub Head
represents schemes, the Detailed Head denotes sub scheme and Object Head represent the
primary unit of appropriation showing the economic nature of expenditure such as salaries and
wages, office expenses, travel expenses, professional services, grants-in-aid, etc. The above
six tiers are represented by a unique 15 digit numeric code.
 Public Financial Management System (PFMS) :—

 Public Financial Management System (PFMS), an integrated Financial Management
System of Controller General of Accounts, Government of India, shall be used for sanction
preparation, bill processing, payment, receipt management, Direct Benefit Transfer, fund
flow management and financial reporting
 All the ministries sanctioning grant-in- aid shall register all implementing agencies till last
level of implementation on PFMS to track fund flow and unspent balances.
 All the payment, to the extent possible shall be released ‗just-in-time‘ by the Ministries
through PFMS.
 Detailed Demand for Grants (DDG), as approved, must be uploaded on PFMS at the start
of each Financial Year.
 All the re-appropriation orders, surrender order shall be generated through PFMS system.
 All grantee institutions shall submit Utilization Certificates on PFMS.
 Finance Accounts.
Annual accounts of the Government of India (including transactions of Department of Posts
and Ministries of Defence and Railways and transactions under Public Account of India of
Union Territory Governments), showing under the respective Heads the annual receipts and
disbursements and statement of balances for the purpose of the Union, called Finance
22
Accounts, shall be prepared and signed by the Controller General of Accounts countersigned
by the Secretary (Expenditure), Ministry of Finance.
 Presentation of Annual accounts.

The Appropriation and Finance accounts mentioned above, shall be prepared by the respective
authorities on the dates mutually agreed upon with the Comptroller and Auditor General of
India, in the forms prescribed by the President on the advice of the Comptroller and Auditor
General of India and sent to the latter for recording his/her certificate. The certified Annual
Accounts and the Reports relating to the accounts shall be submitted by the Comptroller and
Auditor General of India to the President in accordance with the provisions of Section 11 of
the Comptroller and Auditor General‘s (Duties, Powers and Conditions of Service) Act, 1971
and Clause (1) of Article 151 of the Constitution of India.
 Administrative Ministries / PSUs / Subordinate / Statutory / Autonomous Bodies

may have financial stakes in Public Private Partnerships (PPP)/ Production Sharing Contracts
(PSCs)/ Joint Ventures (JV‘s)/ Subsidiary companies etc. In such case details of the financial
stakes of the Government or other entities mentioned above, should be disclosed in the Annual
Report of the Administrative Ministry.
 Ministries/Departments will use PFMS platform for processing of payments for cash / in
kind transfers to individual beneficiaries as per framework laid down by Department of
Expenditure, Ministry of Finance.
 Implementing Agencies shall generate Electronic Utilisation Certificate (E-UCs) on
PFMS portal and submit them online. E-UCs shall be used to certify that money was
actually utilized for the purpose for which it was sanctioned to eliminate the need for
physical generation of UCs.
 Transaction charges for the financial intermediaries facilitating DBT payments shall be
paid as stipulated by Ministry of Finance by the department.
 Annual Accounts
 Appropriation Accounts. Appropriation Accounts of Central Ministries (other than

Ministry of Railways) and of Central Civilian Departments (excluding Department ofn
23
Posts and Defence Services) shall be prepared by the Principal Accounts Officers of the
respective Ministries and Departments (under the guidance and supervision of the
Controller General of Accounts) and signed by their respective Chief Accounting
Authorities i.e., the Secretaries in the concerned Ministries or Departments. Union
Government Appropriation Accounts (Civil) required to
 Maintenance and submission of subsidiary accounts and statements by department
units.
The Head of the unit shall arrange to obtain the orders of Government regarding the nature
and form of subsidiary accounts and statements, if any. Such accounts and statements shall
be submitted to the Accounts Officer on such date as may be required by him. The same
shall be appended to the Appropriation Accounts of each year.
 Performa Accounts
 Subsidiary Accounts of Government Departments undertaking commercial activities.

Where the operations of certain Government Departments working on a commercial or
quasi-commercial basis e.g., an industrial factory or a store cannot be suitably brought
within the cash based Government accounting system, the Head of the units shall be
required to maintain such subsidiary proforma accounts in commercial form as may be
agreed between Government and Comptroller and Auditor General of India. This includes
the maintenance of suitable Manufacturing, Trading, Profit & Loss Accounts and Balance
Sheet.
 Capital And Revenue Accounts
 Capital Expenditure.
Significant expenditure incurred with the object of acquiring tangible assets of a permanent
nature (for use in the organisation and not for sale in the ordinary course of business) or
enhancing the utility of existing assets, shall broadly be defined as Capital expenditure.
Subsequent, charges on maintenance, repair, upkeep and working expenses, which are
required to maintain the assets in a running order as also all other expenses incurred for the
day to day running of the organisation, including establishment and administrative
expenses, shall be classified as Revenue expenditure. Capital and Revenue expenditure
shall be shown separately in the Accounts.
24
 Conversion of outstanding loans into equity investments or grants-in-aid.
Government takes from time to time, suitable measures to strengthen/ restructure the Capital
base of public sector enterprises so that these enterprises can improve their performance and
productivity. As a part of the package scheme, financial relief in the form of conversion of
outstanding loans into equity investments or grants-in-aid are also agreed to. Where loans
outstanding against Public Sector Undertakings are proposed to be converted into equity
investments in or as grants-in-aid to the Public Sector Undertakings, the approval of the
Parliament to such proposals, shall be obtained by including a token provision in the relevant
Demands for Grants or Supplementary Demands for Grants as may be found expedient. The
details of such conversion of loans may be explained in the relevant Budget/Supplementary
Demand documents. After obtaining the approval of the Parliament, the balances under loans
and the progressive expenditure of the Capital Heads of Accounts shall be corrected
proforma in the relevant Accounts of the Union broad principle that Revenue should pay or
provide a fund for the adequate replacement of all wastage or depreciation of property
originally provided out of capital grants. Only the cost of genuine improvements, which
enhance the useful life of the asset whether determined by prescribed rules or formulae, or
under special orders of Government, may be debited to Capital. Where under special orders
of Government, a Depreciation or Renewals Reserve Fund is established for renewing assets
of any commercial department or undertaking, the distribution of expenditure on renewals
and replacements between Capital and the Fund shall be so regulated as to guard against over
capitalization on the one hand and excessive withdrawals from the Fund on the other.
Expenditure on account of reparation of damage caused by extraordinary calamities such as

flood, fire, earthquake, enemy action, etc., shall be charged to Capital, or to Revenue, or
divided between them, depending upon whether such expenditure results in
creation/acquisition of new assets or whether it is only for restoring the condition of the
existing assets, as may be determined by Government according to the circumstance of each
case.
Expenditure on a temporary asset cannot ordinarily be considered as a capital expenditure

and shall not, except in cases specifically authorized by the President on the advice of the
Comptroller and Auditor General of India, be debited to a Capital Head.
25
 Procurement Of Goods And Services
As in above Para‘s , the efforts made to explain accounting procedure ,definitions

terminology being applied in accounting system recalled to refresh the practical knowledge
of all concerned, for their awareness, how the Government or Institutions accounts are to
be maintained . Now we are going to explain the General financial rules and procedure
regarding procurement of the goods and services
 Authorities competent to purchase goods. An authority which is competent to incur

expenditure may sanction the purchase of goods required for use in public service in
accordance with provisions in the Delegation of Financial Powers Rules, following the
general procedure contained in the following rules.
Procurement of goods required on mobilisation Procurement of goods required on
mobilisation and/ or during the continuance of Military operations shall be regulated by
special rules and orders issued by the Government on this behalf from time to time
.
 Powers for procurement of goods.
The Ministries or Departments have been delegated full powers to make their own
arrangements for procurement of goods. In case, however, a Ministry or Department does
not have the required expertise, it may project its indent to the Central Purchase
Organisation (e.g. DGS&D) with the approval of competent authority. The indent form to
be utilised for this purpose will be as per the standard form evolved by the Central
Purchase Organisation .
 Rate Contract.
DGS&D shall conclude rate contracts with the registered suppliers for such goods, which
are not available on GeM, and are identified as common use items and are needed on
recurring basis by various Central Government Ministries or Departments. DGS&D will
furnish and update all the relevant details of the rate contracts on its website. The
Ministries or Departments shall follow those rate contracts to the maximum extent
possible.
26
 Government e-Market place (GeM) provided under Rule 149 of GFR-2017 - That
DGS&D or any other agency authorized by the Government will host an online
Government e-Marketplace (GeM) for common use Goods and Services. DGS&D will
ensure adequate publicity including periodic advertisement of the Items to be procured
through G-e-M for the prospective suppliers. The Procurement of Goods and Services by
Ministries or Departments will be mandatory for Goods or Services available on G-e-M.
The credentials of suppliers on GeM shall be certified by DGS&D. The procuring
authorities will certify the reasonability of rates. The G-e-M. portal shall be utilized by
the Government buyers for direct on-line purchases as under :-
 Up to Rs.50,000/- through any of the available suppliers on the G-e-M, meeting
the requisite quality, specification and delivery period.
 Above Rs.50,000/- and up to Rs.30,00,000/- through the G-e-M. Seller having
lowest price amongst the available sellers, of at least three different
manufacturers, on GeM, meeting the requisite quality, specification and delivery
period. The tools for online bidding and online reverse auction available on G-e-
M. can be used by the Buyer if decided by the competent authority.
 Above Rs.30,00,000/- through the supplier having lowest price meeting the
requisite quality, specification and delivery period after mandatorily obtaining
bids, using online bidding or reverse auction tool provided on G-e-M..
 The invitation for the online e bidding/ reverse auction will be available to all the
existing Sellers or other Sellers registered on the portal and who have offered
their goods/services under the particular product/service category, as per terms
and conditions of GeM.
 The above mentioned monetary ceiling is applicable only for purchases made
through G-e-M.. For purchases, if any, outside G-e-M. relevant GFR Rule shall
apply.
 The Ministries/Departments shall work out their procurement requirements of
Goods and Services on either ―OPEX‖ model or ―CAPEX‖ model as per their
requirement/ suitability at the time of preparation of Budget Estimates (BE) and
shall project their Annual Procurement Plan of goods and cycle from date of
issuing the tender to date of issuing the contract should be published when the
tender is issued.
 The Government Buyers may ascertain the reasonableness of prices before
placement of order using the Business Analytics (BA) tools available on GeM
27
including the Last Purchase Price on G-e-M, Department‘s own Last Purchase
Price etc.
 A demand for goods shall not be divided into small quantities to make piecemeal
purchases to avoid procurement through L-1 Buying /bidding reverse auction on
G-e-M or the necessity of obtaining the sanction of higher authorities required
with reference to the estimated value of the total demand.
 Registration of Suppliers
 With a view to establishing reliable sources for procurement of goods commonly
required for Government use, the Central Purchase Organisation (e.g. DGS&D)
will prepare and maintain item-wise lists of eligible and capable suppliers. Such
approved suppliers will be known as ―Registered Suppliers‖. All Ministries or
Departments may utilize these lists as and when necessary. Such registered
suppliers are prima facie eligible for consideration for procurement of goods
through Limited Tender Enquiry. They are also ordinarily exempted from
furnishing bid security along with their bids. A Head of Department may also
register suppliers of goods which are specifically required by that Department or
Office, periodically. Registration of the supplier should be done following a fair,
transparent and reasonable procedure and after giving due publicity.
 Credentials, manufacturing capability, quality control systems, past performance,
after-sales service, financial background etc. of the supplier(s) should be carefully
verified before registration.
 The supplier(s) will be registered for a fixed period (between 1 to 3years)
depending on the nature of the goods. At the end of this period, the registered
 Performance and conduct of every registered supplier is to be watched by the
concerned Ministry or Department. The registered supplier(s) are liable to be
removed from the list of approved suppliers if they fail to abide by the terms and
conditions of the registration or fail to supply the goods on time or supply
substandard goods or make any false declaration to any Government agency or
for any ground which, in the opinion of the Government, is not in public interest.
 The list of registered suppliers for the subject matter of procurement be exhibited
on the Central Public Procurement Portal and websites of the Procuring Entity/ e-
Procurement/ portals.
28
 Debarment from bidding.
 A bidder shall be debarred if he has been convicted of an offence—
o under the Prevention of Corruption Act, 1988; or
o the Indian Penal Code or any other law for the time being in force, for causing
any loss of life or property or causing a threat to public health as part of
execution of a public procurement contract.
 A bidder debarred under sub-section (I) or any successor of the bidder shall not be
eligible to participate in a procurement process of any procuring entity for a period not
exceeding three years commencing from the date of debarment . Department of
Commerce (DGS&D) will maintain such list which will also be displayed on the website
of DGS&D as well as Central Public Procurement Portal.
 A procuring entity may debar a bidder or any of its successors, from participating in any
procurement process undertaken by it, for a period not exceeding two years, if it
determines that the bidder has breached the code of integrity. The services on GeM
portal within 30 days of Budget approval.
 The bidder shall not be debarred unless such bidder has been given a reasonable
opportunity to represent against such debarment.
 Enlistment of Indian Agents. As per the Compulsory Enlistment Scheme of the
Department of Expenditure, Ministry of Finance, it is compulsory for Indian agents, who
desire to quote directly on behalf of their foreign principals, to get themselves enlisted
with the Central Purchase Organisation (eg. DGS&D). However, such enlistment is not
equivalent to registration of suppliers as mentioned under Rule 150.
 Reserved items another Purchase/Price Preference Policy.
(i) The Central Government, through administrative instructions, has reserved all items
of hand spun and hand-woven textiles (khadi goods) for exclusive purchase from
Khadi Village Industries Commission (KVIC). It has also reserved all items of
handloom textiles required by Central Government departments for exclusive
purchase from KVIC and/or the notified handloom units of Association of
Corporations and Apex Societies of Handlooms (ACASH).
(ii) Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSME) have notified
procurement policy under section 11 of the Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises
Development Act, 2006.
(iii) The Central Government may, by notification, provide for mandatory procurement of
any goods or services from any category of bidders, or provide for preference to
29
bidders on the grounds of promotion of locally manufactured goods or locally
provided services.
 Rule 154 provide that Purchase of goods without quotation Purchase of goods up to the
value of Rs. 25,000 (Rupees twenty five thousand) only on each occasion may be made
without inviting quotations or bids on the basis of a certificate to be recorded by the
competent authority in the following format.
―I am personally satisfied that these goods purchased are of the requisite quality and
specification and have been purchased from a reliable supplier at a reasonable price.”
 Rule 155 of GFR provide that Purchase of goods by Purchase Committee. Purchase of
goods costing above Rs. 25,000 (Rupees twenty five thousand only) and upto
Rs.2,50,000/- (Rupees two lakh and fifty thousand only) on each occasion may be made
on the recommendations of a duly constituted Local Purchase Committee consisting of
three members of an appropriate level as decided by the Head of the Department. The
committee will survey the market to ascertain the reasonableness of rate, quality and
specifications and identify the appropriate supplier. Before recommending placement of
the purchase order, the members of the committee will jointly record a certificate as
under:-
“Certified that we, members of the purchase committee are jointly and individually
satisfied that the goods recommended for purchase are of the requisite specification
and quality, priced at the prevailing market rate and the supplier recommended is
reliable and competent to supply the goods in question, and it is not debarred by
Department of Commerce or Ministry/Department concerned.”
 Rule 156 (1) provide that Purchase of goods directly under Rate Contract. In case a
Ministry or Department directly procures Central Purchase Organisation (e.g. DGS&D)
rate contracted goods from suppliers, the prices to be paid for such goods shall not exceed
those stipulated in the rate contract and the other salient terms and conditions of the
purchase should be in line with those specified in the Rate Contract.
 Rule 157 also provide that a demand for goods should not be divided .into small
quantities to make piecemeal purchases to avoid the necessity of obtaining the sanction of
higher authority required with reference to the estimated value of the total demand.
 Rule 158 provide that Purchase of goods by obtaining bids. Except in cases covered
under Rule 154,155, and 156(1), Ministries or Departments shall procure goods under the
powers referred to in Rule 147 above by following the standard method of obtaining bids
in :
30
(i) Advertised Tender Enquiry
(ii) Limited Tender Enquiry
(iii) Two-Stage Bidding
(iv) Single Tender Enquiry
(v) Electronic Reverse Auctions
 E-Publishing
 It is mandatory for all Ministries/ Department s of the Central Government, their
attached Subordinate Offices and Autonomous/Statutory Bodies/Institutions to
publish their tender enquiries, corrigenda thereon and details of bid awards on the
Central Public Procurement Portal (CPPP).
 Individual cases where confidentiality is required, for reasons of national security,
would be exempted from the mandatory e-publishing requirement. The decision to
exempt any case on the said grounds should be approved by the Secretary of the
Ministry/Department with the concurrence of the concerned Financial Advisor. In the
case of Autonomous Bodies and Statutory bodies‘ approval of the Head of the Body
wi th the concurrence of the Head of the Finance should be obtained in each such case.
Statistical information on the number of cases in which exemption was granted and
the value of the concerned contract should be intimated on a Quarterly basis to the
Ministry of Finance, Department of Expenditure.
 The above instructions apply to all Tender Enquiries, Requests for Proposals,
Requests for Expressions of Interest, Notice for pre Qualification/ Registration or any
other notice inviting bids or proposals in any form whether they are advertised, issued
to limited number of parties or to a single party.
 In the case of procurements made though DGS&D Rate Contracts or through any
other Central Procurement Organizations (CPOs) only award details need to be
published.
 These instructions would not apply to procurements made in terms of provisions of
Rules 154 (Purchase of goods without quotations) or 155 (Purchase of goods by
purchase committee) of General Financial Rules.
 E-Procurement
 It is mandatory for Ministries/ Departments to receive all bids through e-procurement
portals in respect of all procurements.
31
 Ministries/ Departments which do not have a large volume of procurement or carry
out procurements required only for day-to-day running of offices and al so have not
initiated e-procurement through any other solution provided so far, may use e-
procurement solution developed by NIC. Other Ministries/ Departments may either
use e-procurement solution developed by NIC or engage any other service provider
following due process.
 These instructions will not apply to procurements made by Ministries / Departments
through DGS&D Rate Contracts.
 In individual case where national security and strategic considerations demands
confidentiality, Ministries/ Departments may exempt such cases from e-procurement
after seeking approval of concerned Secretary and with concurrence of Financial
Advisers.
 In case of tenders floated by Indian Missions Abroad, Competent Authority to decide
the tender, may exempt such case from e-procurement.
 Recommendations for effective control to adopt General financial rules for

procurement of goods and services procedure in Educational Intuitions:-
 Sources of finance to Institute :-

 External – Grants in Aid / Loans/Capital /Revenue receipt
 Internal --- Collection of fees/ consultancy charges for services rendered /Rents .
 Other Misc receipts
 Preparing periodical Estimate to procure Goods and services :-
 Centralized Periodical Assessing the requirement of goods and services as per
services being rendered by the Institute.
 Assessment to procure goods made strictly according to optimum level of
quantity of said items used in the last three years in the departments as per stock
registers maintained in the department.
 The procurement of Excess quantity, over stocking should be avoided as it
resulted into to blockage of funds /space with the said material in the stores.
 Periodical physical verification of the stores and disposal of obsolete and
unserviceable material with the approval of the competent authority.
32
 Budget allocation and Sanction of the competent authority as per Delegations of
power :-
 Major head/detail head/scheme and item wise amount provided for specific
requirements in Annual Budget prepared by the Institutions.
 Specific sanction of the Competent authority as per delegation of power obtained
prior to placing purchase orders.
 Single tender system procedure should be adopted after obtaining Proprietary
Article Certificate in the prescribed form under the provisions of Rule 166 of
GFR-2017 from competent authority. ,where it is knowledge of the user
department that only a particular firm is manufacturer of required goods .
 Always procure the items goods as per as per DGSD standardized Descriptions
and specifications should be clearly mentioned in the tenders documents showing
the nature ,quantity ,time and period and place of delivery.
 Two stage bids system adopted where character and subject matter of
procurement is subject to rapid technological advances or market fluctuations or
both or
 To enter in contract for the purpose of research, experiment ,study or
development
 Purchase from the G-e-m portal is mandatory as per GFR provisions under Rule
149 specifies items/goods and services available in the G-e-M portal.
Thus, by applying these rules in letter and spirit will help an institution in effectively and transparently
procuring goods and services and thus leading to appropriate utilisation of public money.
33
Practice Task
Answer the following Questions

1. Procurement of ……………or enhancing the utility of existing assets, shall broadly be defined
as ……………..
2. Statutory Bodies/Institutions to publish their tender enquiries, corrigenda thereon and details of
bid awards on the…………… …………………
3. Proprietary Article Certificate(PAC) in the prescribed form issued under the provisions of
GFR-2017…………………… from competent authority.
4. It is mandatory for Ministries/ Departments to receive all bids through …………………portals
in respect of all procurements.
5. Ministries or Departments shall procure goods under the powers referred to in Rule 147 above
by following the standard method of obtaining bids in :
(i) Advertised/ Limited Tender Enquiry
(ii) Two-Stage Bidding/ Single Tender Enquiry
(iv) Single Tender Enquiry/ Electronic Reverse Auctions
(v) All of above
(vi) None of above
Feedback
Answer:
1. i) Assets ( ii) Capital expenditure
2. Central Public Procurement Portal (CPPP).
3. Rule 166
4. E-procurement
5. (v) All of above
34
Conclusion
General Financial rules provide guidelines to the institutions for better financial management, absolutely
necessary for the success of the institution. These also provide the basis for planning future projects and
programmes as these can also be used as the measures for controlling any ambiguity in budgeting,
financing, procurement and purchase of goods and services.
Bibliography
 Financial Management ----- Extracts from - "International Journal
of Higher Education Management (IJHEM) "
 GFR-Procurement Procedure & Accounting Extracts from-- "Swamy's Compilation of General
Fianacial Rules -2017"
 http://vnit.ac.in/academic/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Purchase_Procedure.pdf
 http://www.iitk.ac.in/centralstores/old/store_purchase_manual.pdf
 http://www.bpswomenuniversity.ac.in/pdf/PurchaseProcedureRegulation.pdf,chapter-12,
Purchase Procedure Regulation
 http://sps.iitd.ac.in/PDF/SGP.pdf, Study on Government Procurement by Devika Malhotra, Jan.,
2012
Supportive learning material: by Dr. Kalyan Bhattachariya
Videos on-
 Inventory control
 Physical verification
 Financial procedures
 Procurement procedures
********
35
UNIT 8.9
ACADEMIC LEADERSHIP
Content Page No
Broad Objective 3
Learning Outcomes 3
Introduction 3
8.9.1 Academic Leadership – Concept & Importance 4
 What is leadership?
 What is Academic Leadership?
 Leaders Vs. Manager or Leadership Vs Management
 Qualities of a good Academic Leader
 Importance of Academic Leadership
 Challenges for Academic Leaders
Practice test 10
Feedback 10
8.9.2 Theories of Leadership 12
 Trait Theory of Leadership

 Behavioral Theory of Leadership
 House’s Path Goal Theory
 Fiedler’s Contingency Model of Leadership
 Leadership-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory
 Transformational Leadership Theory
 Transactional Leadership Theory
Practice test 21
Feedback 22
8.9.3 Styles of Leadership 23
 Autocratic leadership style
 The Laissez Faire Leadership Style
 Democratic / Participative leadership style
 Bureaucratic leadership
Practice test 24
Feedback 25
Conclusion 26
Bibliography 26
1
UNIT 8.9
ACADEMIC LEADERSHIP
NITTTR, Chandigarh
Broad Objective
The main objective of this unit is to highlight the importance
of academic leadership for any educational institution.
Through theories and styles of leadership, the learners shall
also become aware to handle different situations and
individuals
Learning Outcomes
 Appreciate the importance of academic leadership for the growth and development of any
institution.
 Understand the challenges for an academic leader in today‟s scenario.
 Understand the theories of leadership and their applicability in academic institutions.
 Understand and apply different models of leadership based on theories for the growth and
development of an institution.
 Understand and apply different styles of leadership on diverse subordinates and in varied
situations
Introduction
By now, you must have understood role and importance of different aspects of management in fulfilling
the goals and objectives of any educational institution. If now, a simple question is asked, what is the
single most important factor, which can lead to success or failure of any institution? Some of the replies
will be: clear vision, total commitment of employees, team work, positive attitude, effective
communication or highly motivated staff etc. etc…..
2
However, the research says, the single most important factor for the success or failure of any institution is
the quality of leadership. Although, all the other factors indicated above are very important for any
institution/organisation, but they all come under the one big umbrella, i.e. the quality of leadership. It is
the leader, who creates an environment, for all to become committed; it is his effective communication
which makes the goals look easy; it is he who motivates everybody to perform the best; and so on.
If, quality of leadership is so important, then we must need to understand what is the quality of
leadership? Even before understanding this, it is equally important to know what leadership is. Why is it
so important for any academic institution? What are the basic theories behind quality of leadership? What
and why people use different styles of leadership in different situations and with different individuals?
In this unit, we shall try to find the answers of all the above questions. The answers will make you
appreciate the importance of a leader in the life of any academic institution.
8.9.1 Academic Leadership – Concept & Importance
 What is leadership?
Leadership is a process by which a manager can direct, guide and influence the behavior of his
subordinates towards the achievement of goals in a given situation. It is the ability of a manager
to encourage the subordinates to work with commitment, confidence and vigor.
Leadership is an interpersonal influence exercised in a situation for the achievement of objectives.

It is the capacity of an individual to influence a group towards the realisation of a goal. Leaders
are required to develop future visions, and to motivate the organisational members to want to
achieve the visions.
According to Keith Davis, “Leadership is the ability to persuade others to seek defined objectives
enthusiastically. It is the human factor which binds a group together and motivates it towards
goals.”
Effective leadership is based upon ideas, but it won't happen unless those ideas are communicated
to others in a way that engages them enough to act, as the leader wants them to act.
 What is Academic Leadership?
3
Academic leadership is the name given to the leadership in an academic setting or institution as a
special subdivision of leadership. It includes roles of creating vision and mission, setting goals
and objectives, formulating policies and programmes, guiding, directing and motivating faculty
and staff, and organising the resources for the growth and development of an academic
institution.
In an academic setting, leadership may refer to the following:
 Head of the institution i.e. the principal or director leading the institution
 Head of the department leading his department and
 Faculty leading group of students in a class
Roles of each and every academic leader are equally important for the overall success of an
academic institution.
 Leaders Vs. Manager or Leadership Vs Management
These two terms are mostly used synonymously, but have different connotation
It is important to understand that leadership is an essential part of effective management. As a
crucial component of management, remarkable leadership behaviour emphasizes on building an
environment in which each and every member develops and excels. As discussed above,
Leadership is the potential to influence and drive the group efforts towards the accomplishment of
goals. This influence may originate from formal sources, such as that provided by acquisition of
managerial position in an organization/ a principal‟s/director‟s position in an academic institution.
A manager must have traits of a leader, i.e., he must possess leadership qualities. Leaders develop
and initiate strategies that build and sustain competitive advantage. Institutions require robust
leadership and robust management for optimal efficiency.
Leadership differs from management in a sense that:
Managers/Management Leaders/Leadership
Managers lay down the institutional structure and Leaders provide direction by developing the
delegate authority and responsibility institutional vision, they communicate it to the
employees (faculty and staff) and inspire them to
achieve it.
Management includes planning, organising, Leadership is main part of directing function of
4
staffing, directing and controlling; management. Leaders focus on building
relationships, promoting teamwork, listening and
motivating the followers.
Managers get their authority by virtue of their Leaders gets their authority from their followers
position in the institution.
Managers follow the institutions' policies, The leaders follow their own instinct.
programmes and procedures
Management is more of science as the managers Leadership is an art. In an institution, if the
are systematic, analytic, planned, standard, logical managers are required, then leaders are essential.
and more of mind
Management deals with the technical dimension in Leadership deals with the 'people' aspect in an
an institution institution.
Management is reactive Leadership is proactive.
 Qualities of a good Academic Leader-An academic leader must have multidimensional

traits which shall make him effective and efficient and thus, a liking of every individual in an
institution. However, for making him a welcome personality, it is important that he may have
most of the following qualities:
 Physical appearance- A leader must have a pleasing appearance. Physique and health are
very important for a good leader.
 Vision and foresight- A leader should has farsighted vision and be able to sense the scenario
of future in terms of socio-economic, industrial, technological changes. He should be able to
forecast the educational trends and predict the requirements and envision the future of his
institution. A leader cannot influence others, unless he exhibits these capabilities to his
subordinates. Based on this forecasting, ha can plan and initiate logical projects and
programmes in an institution.
 Intelligence- An academic leader should be intelligent enough to identify problems and
difficult situations and based on his analytic capabilities be able to find the solutions to take
the institution towards the path of success. Therefore, a positive bent of mind and mature
outlook is very important.
5
 Communicative skills- A leader must have a clear thought process and be able to
communicate the policies and procedures clearly, precisely and effectively and thus influence
his subordinates i.e. faculty and staff to follow the goals and objectives of the institute.
Effective communication shall also be helpful in persuasion, stimulation and inspiration of
others in tough and changing times.
 Fair and Just- An academic leader must have a fair outlook, free from bias and without
reflecting his willingness towards a particular individual. He should develop his own opinion
and base his judgments on facts and logic.
 Knowledge of work- A leader should be master of his own area and very precisely knowing
the nature and intricacies of the work of his subordinates. By providing right guidance, he
shall be able to win the trust and confidence of his subordinate faculty and staff.
 Sense of responsibility- Responsibility and accountability towards an individual‟s work is
very important to bring a sense of influence. A leader must have a sense of responsibility
towards institutional goals, only then he can exploit the maximum of the capabilities of his
colleagues. By arousing himself to give the best, he can motivate and inspire others to give
their best to the common goal of giving best quality output in terms of competent students.
 Self-confidence and will-power- Confidence in self is important to earn the confidence of
others. An academic leader should be trustworthy and able to handle the difficult situations
with full vigor and will power.
 Humanist-Human are the most important resource of any institution, be it teachers, technical
and supporting staff, and students. Dealing with such a resource is different than material and
machines. This resource has emotions, feeling and attitudes which keep on changing from
time to time. An academic leader with humanistic approach knows best, how to be personal,
caring, considerate and attentive to the needs and expectations of subordinates to win their
hearts and thus the minds for the best output of the institution.
 Empathy- It is an old saying “Stepping into the shoes of others”. This is very important
because fair judgment and objectivity comes only then. A leader should understand the
problems and constraints of employees and also have a complete view of their needs and
aspirations from him and the institute. This helps in improving human relations and personal
contacts with the employees.
 Importance of Academic Leadership
6
Leadership is an important function of institutional management which helps in maximising effectiveness
and efficiency to attain institutional goals. The following points justify the importance of leadership in an
institution
 Setting of Goals: One of the most important duties of an academic leader is to clearly define
goals of the institution and thus, laying down the foundation for the goals, policies and
procedures for the individual departments and their members. By doing this, he sets the clear
roadmap for each individual in the institution to follow towards the achievement of overall
institutional objectives. He also acts as a guide in interpreting the goals, policies and procedures.
 Initiates action- By setting the clear goals, policies and procedures and unambiguously
communicating the same to his subordinates, an academic leader sets the ball rolling for action
by himself and his subordinates towards the path of institutional excellence.
 Organisation of activities: An effective leader assigns the tasks to his subordinates and delegates
them the authority to complete those within the defined boundaries of institutional rules and
regulations. He gives them the autonomy to adopt innovative ways and means for the completion
of those tasks and activities. By following objectivity in assigning tasks and activities among his
subordinates, he reduces the chances of conflict between them and thus developing a harmonious
working environment in the institution.
 Achieving Coordination: By integrating the goals of the institution with the goals and interests
of individuals, an academic leader is able to inculcate a sense of commitment and pride in the
members of the institution to collaborate work for achieving the mission of the institute of
providing world class education to its students.
 Motivation- A good leader acts like a catalyst in the development of institution. With his
catalytic energy, he is able to able to motivate himself as well as his subordinates to give their
best for the institution.
 Builds work environment- Often a leader is held responsible for maintaining a good and
amiable work environment for his employees. By maintaining a cordial and healthy work
environment, he is able to generate a sense of belongingness and pride in institutional members
and thus enhancing their engagement, leading to better work output.
 Providing guidance- A good leader not only supervises the activities of his subordinates but acts
as a guide and a mentor in undertaking challenging projects and programmes. Guidance here
means instructing the subordinates the way they have to perform their work effectively and
efficiently.
7
 Creating confidence - Confidence is an important factor which can be achieved through
expressing the work efforts to the subordinates, explaining them clearly their role and giving
those guidelines to achieve the goals effectively. It is also important to listen to the grievances
and problems and take necessary action(s) in removing the same. By this effort any academic
leader can create confidence about him in the minds of subordinates.
 Building morale- Morale denotes willing co-operation of the employees towards their work and
winning their trust. An effective academic leader boosts the morale of his subordinates and
colleagues during tough times so that they give in their best for the achievement of goals.
The importance of leadership can be summed up by the following quote, “I am more afraid of an
army of 100 sheep led by a lion than an army of 100 lions led by a sheep" - Talleyrand
 Challenges for Academic Leaders
Just like in business world, which cannot survive without effective leaders, in today‟s scenario an
educational institution also needs a dynamic leader to help it sail through the tough times of change
and groom it for achieving the goal of excellence. The importance of effective and efficient leaders in
academics has arisen more due to some of the following reasons:
 Higher education is a becoming complex phenomenon, characterised by reduced public
funding and increased reliance on institute-industry partnership to generate funds for
research and other development activities.
 Increasing administrative and reporting requirements to statutory, affiliating and accrediting
agencies are making it increasingly difficult for higher education institutions to strike a
balance between meeting the demands of both corporate and academic worlds.
 Industrial and global requirements are changing faster than one can think of. Today we need
such dynamic curriculum that can meet the needs of industry and global world of today and
tomorrow.
 Faced with increasing internal and external regulations, building and retaining the academic
rigor, is one the most pressing challenges for the academic institutions today
 Starting of the process of rating of Indian academic institutions and universities by
national/international credit rating agencies and reputed industry associations and
professional bodies have kept them on toes to update and upgrade their systems and processes
continuously. A strong rating system will give rise to healthy competition amongst
institutions and universities and help improve their performance.
8
To meet the above mentioned challenges, we need a strong leader who has a vision for his
institution and a strategic plan for meeting the challenges of above changed requirements.
Practice task
Q1. Fill in the blanks:
a) __________ is the potential to influence and drive the group efforts towards the accomplishment
of goals.
b) __________gets his authority by virtue of his position while _________gets his authority from his
followers.
c) _____________ is the name given to leadership in an academic setting or institution as a special
subdivision of leadership.
d) A leader must have ____, _____ and ___________ . (Mention any three traits of a leader)
Q2. Short questions

a) Define leadership
b) State any two differences between a leader and a manager
c) What is academic leadership?
d) Mention any four qualities of a good leader.
Feedback
a) Leadership
b) Manager, leader
c) Academic leadership
d) Vision, pleasing personality, communication skills
a) Leadership is the ability to persuade others to seek defined objectives enthusiastically. It is the
human factor which binds a group together and motivates it towards goals.
b) Difference between leader and a manager
 Managers lay down the structure and delegate authority and responsibility whereas leaders
provide direction by developing the institutional vision. They further communicate it to the
employees and inspire them to achieve it.
 Manager gets his authority by virtue of his position in the organization. while leader gets his
authority from his followers
c) Academic leadership is the name given to leadership in an academic setting or institution as a

special subdivision of leadership. It includes such roles as creating vision and mission based on
science and research data for the organization, setting up creative ideas and managing
teamwork.
9
d) Qualities of a good leader
 Must have vision and be futuristic

 Must have good communication skills
 Must be empathetic
 Must have a sense of responsibility and accountability
8.9.2 Theories of Leadership
A lot of research, particularly by behavioural scientists, have been undertaken to find out the answer to
the question: What makes a leader effective? Is his/her success due to his/her personality, or his/her
behaviour, or the types of followers he has, or the situation in which he works, or a combination of all
these? These researches, however, could not give a satisfactory answer to the question. However, these
researches have resulted in various theories or approaches on leadership. The prominent among these are
trait theory, behavioural theory and situational theory. Each theory has its own contributions, limitations,
assumptions, and frame work of analysis. The understanding of these theories of leadership provides a
guideline to judge as how a leader emerges.
 Trait Theory of Leadership
Trait is a relatively enduring quality of an individual. The trait approach of leadership seeks to
determine „what makes a successful leader‟ from the leader‟s own personal characteristics. From the
very beginning, people have emphasized that a particular individual was a successful leader because
of his certain qualities or characteristics. This approach was quite popular between the years 1930 to
1950.
This theory of leadership is based on the concept that “leaders are born and not made”. People are
born with certain traits in them which make them leaders in their life. This model of leadership is
based on the characteristics of, both successful and unsuccessful leaders, and is used to predict
leadership effectiveness. The resultant list of traits is compared with those of potential leaders to
assess their likelihood of success or failure.
Scholars working on the trait approach attempted to correlate physiological (appearance, height, and
weight), demographic (age, education and socioeconomic background), personality (self-confidence,
and aggressiveness), intellective (intelligence, decisiveness, judgment, and knowledge), task-related
(achievement drive, initiative, and persistence), and social characteristics (sociability and
cooperativeness) with leader emergence and leader effectiveness.
10
Successful leaders definitely have interests, abilities, and personality traits that are different from
those of the less effective leaders. Through many research studies conducted, a set of core traits of
successful leaders have been identified. These traits are not responsible solely to identify whether a
person will be a successful leader or not, but are essentially seen as preconditions that endow people
with leadership potential.
Among the core traits identified are:

 Achievement drive: high levels of ambition, high level of effort, energy and initiative
 Leadership motivation: an intense desire to lead others to reach shared goals
 Honesty and integrity: trustworthy, reliable, and open
 Self-confidence: Belief in one‟s self, ideas, and ability
 Cognitive ability: Capable of exercising good judgment, strong analytical abilities, and
conceptually skilled
 Knowledge of business: Knowledge of industry and other technical matters
 Emotional Maturity: well adjusted, does not suffer from severe psychological disorders.
 Others: charisma, creativity and flexibility
The trait approach gives rise to questions: whether leaders are born or made; and whether leadership
is an art or science. However, these are not mutually exclusive alternatives. Leadership may be
something of an art; it still requires the application of special skills and techniques. Even if there are
certain inborn qualities that make one a good leader, these natural talents need encouragement and
development. A person is not born with self-confidence. Self-confidence is developed, honesty and
integrity are a matter of personal choice, motivation to lead comes from within the individual, and
the knowledge of business can be acquired. While cognitive ability has its origin partly in genes, it
still needs to be developed. None of these ingredients are acquired overnight.
On critically examining this theory, it can be observed that, this theory of leadership is very simple.
It fails to provide clear cut results. It does not consider the whole environment of the leadership, of
which trait may be one factor. Moreover, no generalisation can be made about various traits for
leadership as there are considerable variations in traits established by various researchers.
This approach of leadership presents the following problems:

 There cannot be generalisation of the traits for a successful leader.
11
 No evidence about the degree of the various traits has been given as people have
different traits with varied degrees.
 Measuring the traits is a problem. Though, various tests to measure the personality traits
are there, however, no definite conclusion can be drawn based on them.
 There are many people with the traits specified for leaders, but they are not good leaders.
This theory, however, gives clear indication that leader should have certain characteristics. This may
help the management to develop such qualities through training and development programmes in
future managers.
 Behavioural Theory of Leadership:
This theory emphasises that effective leadership is the result of strong role behaviour of an individual.
Leadership is shown by a person‟s actions/ acts more than his traits. Though, traits influence actions,
these are also affected by other factors like followers, goals, and the environment in which these
occur. Thus, there are four basic elements of leadership – leader characteristics, follower
characteristics, goals and environment – which affect each other in determining a suitable behaviour.
Leadership acts may be viewed in two ways. Some acts are functional (favourable) to leadership and
some are dysfunctional (unfavourable). The dysfunctional acts are also important in leadership
because these de-motivate subordinates to work together. As such a leader will not act in this way.
The dysfunctional acts are inability to accept subordinate‟s ideas, display of emotional immaturity,
poor interpersonal relations, and poor communication.
A leader uses his skills (technical, human, and conceptual) to lead his followers. Technical skill refers
to a person‟s knowledge and proficiency in some process or technique. Human skills are the ability to
interact effectively with people and to build team. Conceptual skill deals with ideas and enables a
manager to deal successfully with abstractions, to set up models , devise plans etc. Behaviour of a
manager in a particular direction will make him good leader while opposite of this would discard him
as a leader. Setting goals, motivating people for achieving goals, raising the morale, building team
spirit, effective communication, etc., are the functional behaviours for a successful leader.
The basic difference between trait approach and behavioural approach of leadership is that the former
emphasises some particular trait of the leader while later emphasises particular behaviour by him. It is
12
true that favourable behaviour provides greater satisfaction to the followers and the person can be
recognised as a leader. However, this approach suffers from one weakness - a particular behaviour
may be effective at a time, while at the other time same may not be effective. This means the time
factor becomes a crucial element which has not been considered in this theory.
 House’s Path Goal Theory
This theory was developed by Robert House and has its roots in the expectancy theory of motivation.
The basic premise of this theory is that an employee‟s perception of expectancies between his effort
and performance is greatly affected by a leader‟s behavior. The leaders help their team members/
employees in attaining rewards by clarifying them the paths to goals and removing the obstacles to
their performance. They do so by equipping them with appropriate information, timely support, and
the resources which are required by them to complete the job/task.
Robert House‟s theory advocates servant leadership. As per this servant leadership theory,
leadership is not viewed as a position of power, rather, leaders are expected to act as coaches and
facilitators to their subordinates. According to House‟s path-goal theory, a leader‟s effectiveness
depends on several employee and environmental contingent factors and certain leadership styles. All
these are indicated in the figure 1 below:
Fig.9.1 House‟s Path Goal Theory
 Fiedler’s Contingency Model of Leadership
13
E. Fiedler‟s contingency theory of leadership effectiveness was based on a wide range of group
effectiveness studies, and concentrated on the relationship between leadership and organisational
performance. This is one of the earliest situation-contingent leadership theories given by Fiedler.
According to him, if an organisation attempts to achieve group effectiveness through leadership, then
there is a need to assess the leader according to his underlying trait, the situation faced by the leader,
and construct a proper match between the two.
 Leader’s trait
In order to assess the attitudes of the leader, Fiedler developed the „least preferred co-worker‟
(LPC) scale in which the leaders are asked about the person with whom they would least like to
work. The scale consisting of 16 items is used to reflect a leader‟s underlying disposition toward
others. The items in the LPC scale are pleasant / unpleasant, friendly / unfriendly, rejecting /
accepting, unenthusiastic / enthusiastic, tense / relaxed, cold / warm, helpful / frustrating,
cooperative / uncooperative, supportive / hostile, quarrelsome / harmonious, efficient / inefficient,
gloomy / cheerful, distant / close, boring / interesting, self-assured / hesitant, open / guarded.
Each item in the scale is given a single ranking of between one to eight points, with eight points
indicating the most favourable rating.
Friendly Unfriendly
--------------------------------------------------------------------
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Fiedler states that leaders with high LPC scores are relationship-oriented and the ones with low
scores are task-oriented. The high LPC score leaders derived most satisfaction from interpersonal
relationships and therefore evaluate their least preferred co-workers in fairly favorable terms.
These leaders think about the task accomplishment only after the relationship need is well
satisfied. On the other hand, the low LPC score leaders derived satisfaction from performance of
the task and attainment of objectives. Only after tasks have been accomplished, these leaders work
on establishing good social and interpersonal relationships.
 Situational factor
According to Fiedler, a leader‟s behavior is dependent upon the favorability of the leadership
situation. Three factors work together to determine the favorability of a situation is to a leader.
 Leader-member relations – determine willingness of the group members to follow the
leader‟s guidance, the degree of trust and likeness by the group members
14
 Task structure – determine the clarity of the group‟s task, (structured or unstructured),
and the extent to which the assigned task can be carried out by detailed instructions
 Position power – is determined by his organisational position that influence his authority
on group members so that his order can be complied with and accepted.
With the help of these three variables, eight combinations of group-task situations were
constructed by Fiedler. These combinations were used to identify the style of the leader
(Figure.9.1.3)
Table 9.1 : Breakdown of Most Effective Leader Style
Leader-Member Leader's Position Most Effective

Task Structure
Relations Power Leader
Good Structured Strong Low LPC
Good Structured Weak Low LPC
Good Unstructured Strong Low LPC
Good Unstructured Weak High LPC
Poor Structured Strong High LPC
Poor Structured Weak High LPC
Poor Unstructured Strong High LPC
Poor Unstructured Weak Low LPC
 Criticism of Fiedler Contingency Model:

 Lack of flexibility
 Matrix results does not give any scope of adoption of another leadership style
 Matrix results favor only replacement with another type of leader
 The middle range results do not give clarity of type of leadership
15
 Leadership-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory
Informal observation of leadership behaviour suggests that leader‟s action is not the same towards all
subordinates. The importance of the potential differences in this respect is brought into sharp focus by
Graen‟s leader-member exchange model, also known as the Vertical Dyad Linkage theory. According to
this theory leadership consists of a number of dyadic relationships linking the leader with a follower. The
quality of the relationship is reflected by the degree of mutual trust, loyalty, respect, support and
obligation.
According to the theory, leader establishes different kind of relationships with various groups of
subordinates on the basis of the perceived similarity with respect to personal characteristics, like age,
gender, or personality.
 In-group- favoured by the leader, members receives considerably more attention and has more
access to the organisational resources, these are taken as competent at performers.
 Out-group- disfavoured by the leader, they receive fewer valued resources from their leaders
these are taken as incompetent at performers.
. The relationship between leaders and followers follows three stages:

 Role taking: it is the assessment of the talent and abilities of new members by providing them
opportunities to demonstrate his capabilities.
 Role making: involves informal and unstructured negotiation on work-related factors between
the leader and the member. A leader like member will succeed while the members who betray
may be put out of team.
 Routinisation: results in routine interactions between team members and their leaders, a regular
hard work, loyalty and trust will help in making them in-group members
The LMX 7 scale assesses the degree to which leaders and followers have mutual respect for each
other‟s capabilities, feel a deepening sense of mutual trust, and have a sense of strong obligation to
one another. Taken together, these dimensions determine the extent to which followers will be part of
the leader‟s in-group or out-group.
In-group followers tend to function as assistants or advisers and to have higher quality personalised
exchanges with the leader than do out-group followers. These exchanges typically involve a leader‟s
emphasis on assignments of interesting tasks, delegation of important responsibilities, information
16
sharing, participation in the leader‟s decisions, as well as special benefits, such as personal support
and support and favorable work schedules.
 Transformational Leadership Theory
Creating high-performance workforce has become increasingly important, especially in today‟s

competitive and fast changing scenario. To do so leaders must be able to inspire institutional
members to go beyond their task requirements. As a result, new concepts of leadership have emerged
- transformational leadership being one of them.
Transformational leadership may be found at all levels of an institution: teams, departments, units,
divisions, and institution as a whole. Transformational leaders are visionary, inspiring, risk-takers,
daring, and thoughtful thinkers. They have a charismatic appeal. But charisma alone is insufficient for
changing the way an institution operates. For bringing major changes, transformational leaders must
exhibit the following four factors:
Fig. 9.2 Transformational Leadership Theory
 Inspirational Motivation: The foundation of transformational leadership is the promotion of

consistent vision, mission, and a set of values to the members. Their vision is so compelling
that they know what they want from every interaction. Transformational leaders guide
followers by providing them with a sense of meaning and challenge. They work
enthusiastically and optimistically to foster the spirit of teamwork and commitment.
17
 Intellectual Stimulation: Such leaders encourage their followers to be innovative and
creative. They encourage new ideas from their followers and never criticise them publicly for
the mistakes committed by them. The leaders focus on the “what” in problems and do not
focus on the blaming part of it. They have no hesitation in discarding an old practice set by
them if it is found ineffective.
 Idealized Influence: Leaders of this type believe in the philosophy that a leader can
influence followers only when he practices what he preaches. The leaders act as role models
that followers seek to emulate. Such leaders always win the trust and respect of their
followers through their action. They typically place their followers needs over their own,
sacrifice their personal gains for them, and demonstrate high standards of ethical conduct.
The use of power by such leaders is aimed at influencing them to strive for the common goals
of the institution.
 Individualized Consideration: Leaders act as mentors to their followers and reward them
for creativity and innovation. The followers are treated differently according to their
knowledge and talents. They are empowered to take decisions and are always provided with
the needed support to implement them.
 Transactional Leadership Theory
The transactional style of leadership was first described by Max Weber in 1947 and then by Bernard
Bass in 1981. This style is most often used by the managers. It focuses on the basic management
process of controlling, organising, and short-term planning.
Transactional leadership involves motivating and directing followers primarily through appealing to
their own self-interest. The power of transactional leaders comes from their formal authority and
responsibility in the institution. The main goal of the follower is to obey the instructions of the leader.
This style can also be mentioned as a „telling style‟.
The leader believes in motivating through a system of rewards and punishment. If a subordinate does
what is desired, a reward will follow, and if he does not go as per the wishes of the leader, a
punishment will follow. Here, the exchange between leader and follower takes place to achieve
routine performance goals.
These exchanges involve four dimensions:
18
 Contingent Rewards: Transactional leaders link the goal to rewards, clarify expectations,
provide necessary resources, set mutually agreed upon goals, and provide various kinds of
rewards for successful performance. They set SMART (specific, measurable, attainable,
realistic, and timely) goals for their subordinates.
 Active Management by Exception: Transactional leaders actively monitor the work of their
subordinates, watch for deviations from rules and standards and taking corrective action to
prevent mistakes.
 Passive Management by Exception: Transactional leaders intervene only when standards
are not met or when the performance is not as per the expectations or standards. They may
even use punishment as a response to unacceptable performance.
 Laissez-faire: The leader provides an environment where the subordinates get many
opportunities to make decisions. The leader himself abdicates responsibilities and avoids
making decisions and therefore the group often lacks direction.
Table 9.2 Difference between Transactional and Transformational Leaders

Transactional leadership Transformational Leadership
Leadership is responsive Leadership is proactive
Works within the institutional culture Works to change the institutional culture by
implementing new ideas
Transactional leaders make employees Transformational leaders motivate and empower

achieve institutional objectives through employees to achieve institutional objectives by
rewards and punishment appealing to higher ideals and moral values
Motivate followers by appealing to Motivate followers by encouraging them to

their own self-interest transcend their own interests for those of the
group or unit
19
Practice task
a) Trait theory seeks to determine ________________ of effective leaders.
b) ________________ theory advocates servant leadership.
c) Fiedler‟s contingency theory of leadership effectiveness was based on the relationship between
_____________ and ____________ .
d) ________________ involves motivating and directing followers primarily through appealing to
their own self-interest
Q2. Short questions

a) What are the core traits identified in leaders, as per the Traits Theory?
b) According to Transformational leadership theory, what are the four characters to be exhibited by
leaders?
c) State two differences between Transformational leader and Transactional leader.
Feedback
Ans. 1 Fill ups:
a) personal characteristics
b) House‟s Path Goal
c) leadership and organizational performance.
d) Transactional leadership
Ans. 2.
a) Leaders as per the Traits Theory must have the following traits:
 Achievement drive
 Leadership motivation
 Honesty and integrity
 Self-confidence
 Cognitive ability
 Emotional Maturity
b) Transformational leaders must exhibit the following four factors:

 Inspirational Motivation
 Intellectual Stimulation
 Idealized Influence
 Individualized Consideration
c) Two differences between Transactional leadership and Transactional Leadership are:
20
 Transactional leadership is responsive while Transformational Leadership proactive
 Transactional Leadership is works within the organizational culture while Transformational
Leadership works to change the organizational culture by implementing new ideas
8.9.3 Styles of Leadership

Today‟s all academic institutions are in a state of flux. They are bound to be in a state of dynamism as
every day a new challenge is faced by them. These are congregation of multicultural, multilingual and
multinational people where people from different walks of life come to work together for teaching
learning process. In order to survive, flourish and lead in these diverse conditions, the leader of such an
institute is bound to play multifaceted roles and use varied styles of leading this diverse group of
individuals in diverse situations. Some of the important leadership styles are as follows:
 Autocratic leadership style:
This is the style of leadership where an academic leader has a complete command over his group of
subordinates. The subordinates or his team members cannot put forward their views or opinions or
ideas even though they may be the best in terms of team‟s/ institute‟s interests. They cannot criticise
or even question the leader‟s ideas or way of getting the things done. The leader himself gets the
things done as per his thought process, wishes, ideas, perceptions and styles. Though this style of
leadership may not of much liking of the subordinates, still this style is quite suitable in some
situations, nature of work and individuals. The greatest advantage of this style is speedy decision-
making, even in toughest and emergent situations, and greater productivity under the leader‟s
supervision. Some of the major drawbacks of this style of leadership are that it leads to greater
employee dissatisfaction, absenteeism and turnover. This style of academic leadership works quite
effectively when the leader is most competent in performing the identified task, the job is
monotonous, unskilled and routine in nature and the subordinates/team members are quite raw for that
task/assignment or where the project is highly time bound and risky. This style of leadership is
sometimes also called as telling style.
 The Laissez Faire Leadership Style:
In this style of leadership, an academic leader totally trusts his subordinates/team members to
perform the job themselves. He just concentrates on the intellectual/rational aspect of his work and
does not focus much on the management aspect of his job. He tells the members about the
21
boundaries of their authority in dealing with the assigned job, but does not interfere in the ways and
means they adopt in completing the task, meaning thereby that they are given full autonomy in
handling that task themselves. The team members/employees are welcomed to share their views
and provide suggestions which are best for the institutional interests. This style of academic
leadership works fairly effectively when the employees (faculty and staff of the institution) are
skilled and knowledgeable, loyal, experienced and intellectual.
 Democratic / Participative leadership style:
In this style of leadership, an academic leader invites his subordinates/ team members to participate
in decision making process as equal partners and encourage them to give their opinions,
suggestions, ideas for facilitating the decision making, though the ultimate decision-making power
rests with the leader. The leader guides the employees on what to perform and how to perform,
while the employees communicate the leader their experiences and the suggestions if any. The
major advantages of this style of leadership are that it leads to highly motivated, satisfied, and more
skilled employees. It leads to an optimistic and open work environment and even encourages
creativity and innovation, highly beneficial for the institution in the long run. This leadership style
has the only drawback that it is time-consuming and thus, least applicable in the times of
emergency.
 Bureaucratic leadership:
Academic leaders applying this style of leadership strictly adhere to the pre defined institutional
rules, regulations and policies. They also expect and make it sure that the other employees too
strictly follow the rules and procedures. Promotions take place on the basis of employees‟ ability to
adhere to the institutional rules. This leadership style develops gradually over time and is most
suitable when safe work conditions and quality in output are required. This style of leadership
discourages creativity and does not make employees self-contented and happy as it prohibits their
free and divergent thinking.
22
Practice task
a) _____________is one who centralizes the authority in himself and does not delegate authority to
his subordinates.
b) ____________ style of leadership leads to satisfied, motivated and more skilled employee
c) A bureaucratic leader strictly adheres to ___________ and _________.
d) ___________ style of leadership works only when the employees are skilled, loyal,
experienced and intellectual
Q2. Short questions
a) Name the various styles of leadership.
b) What is the advantage of Democratic leadership style?
c) What style of leadership works when employees are non participative, lack initiative and
loyalty?
Feedback
a) An autocratic leader
b) Democratic
c) Organizational rules and policies
d) Laissez Faire

a) Different styles of leadership are
 Autocratic leadership style
 The Laissez Faire Leadership
 Democratic/Participative leadership
 Bureaucratic leadership
23
b) Advantage of democratic leadership style is that it leads to satisfied, motivated and more skilled
employees. It leads to an optimistic work environment and also encourages creativity.
c) The style of leadership that works when employees are non participative, lack initiative and loyalty
is Autocratic.
Conclusion
In today‟s scenario, when the educational institutions are facing a lot of challenges due changing socio-
economic, technological patterns, when needs of stakeholders are changing and educational scenario is
also becoming highly competitive. In this type of educational world, the role of academic leaders is also
changing from managing the resources to leading the institutes from the front with a new vision and
appropriate response to these requirements. They have to deal with of human resources who are
multicultural, multi skilled and diversified thought processes. One style of leadership fit for which was fit
for all in the past may not be rule with type of multi talented human resource. Learning from the theories
of leadership, they have to adopt different styles with different individuals, varied situations for their
success as well as the success of their institutions.
Bibliography
Pvt. Ltd.
4. Hunsaker, PL (2001). Training in Management Skills. 397-426p. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Simon and Schuster.
9. Pareek, Udai & T. V. Rao(1981). Designing and Managing Human Resources System. New
Delhi: Oxford & IDH.
24
10. Motivating Employees, Anne Bruce and James S. Pepitone, McGraw-Hill, 1998.
11. Organisational Behaviour, P.G. Aquinas, Excel Books, 2007.
12. Organisational Behaviour, Stephen P. Robbins, Timothy Judge, Seema Sanghi, Person, Prentice
Hall, 2008
13. The Psychology of Leadership, David M. Messick, Roderick Moreland Kramer, Routledge, 2005.
14. https://www.igi-global.com/chapter/strategic-university-leadership-for-aligning-the-worlds-of-
academia-and-business/173626
15. https://www.managementstudyguide.com/leadership_basics.htm
Supportive learning resources: by Dr. SS Pattnaik

Videos on
 Academic Leadership – Concept & Importance

 Theories of Leadership (2 Nos)
 Styles of Leadership
Web resources
 Workshop on Academic Leadership for Leaders and Principals by Dr. Gururaj Karajagi
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r6_EheyRuUQ
 Speaking at the National Conference of Academic Leadership on National Education
Policy at AICTE. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ToYcAaJLJRk
 Academic Leadership: Changing Conceptions, Identities and Experiences in UK HE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uJT7Mr6Vuqk
 Ten Leadership Theories in Five Minutes
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XKUPDUDOBVo
 Leadership Styles https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T8_jy5gsS48
 Leadership - Theories & styles https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KNbrtvglBjE
******
25
UNIT-8.10
DIRECTING THROUGH INSTITUTIONAL
COMMUNICATION
Contents Page No.
Broad Objective 2
Learning Outcomes 3
Introduction 3
8.10.1 Institutional Communication (internal & 4

external)-Concept & Process
 The Communication Process

 Importance of Communication
 Managing crisis
 Types Of Communication
 Internal And External Communication
 Difference between Communication and Effective
Communication
 Features of effective Communication-
 Principles For Effective Communication
 Role of Effective Communication in an institution
 Communication Models
Practice Task 15
Feedback 16
8.10.2 Communication Barriers 18
 Role of communication barriers in ineffective communication
Practice Task 20
1
Feedback 20
8.10.3 Communication Skills for Effectiveness 21
 Written Communication
 Speaking Communication
 Nonverbal Communication
 Reading Skills
 Listening Skills
Practice Task 28
Feedback 28
Conclusion 29
Bibliography 29
2
UNIT-8.10
DIRECTING THROUGH INSTITUTIONAL
COMMUNICATION
Author Dr. Rakesh K Wats
NITTTR, Chandigarh
Supportive Dr. Meenu Wats
Team DAV College, Chandigarh
Broad Objective
make the learner aware, how an
academic leader directs the activities in
an institution through communication.
The learning material in this unit shall
concept and process of institutional
communication (internal and external)
and enhancing its effectiveness using
relevant communication skills.
Learning Outcomes
 Appreciate the importance of communication in the life of an institution.

 Identify the different types of communication and their applicability in different situations.
 Identify different models of communication in an institution.
 Enlist barriers in institutional communication.
 Apply relevant communication skills for enhancing the interpersonal relations and overall
effectiveness of the institution.
Introduction
Communication is the life line for the success of any institution as it is provides the basis for all
directions from the academic managers to the lower staff and feedback and suggestions from lower
staff to top management. Institutions use different models for enhancing the effectiveness of
communication. Communication always faces some barriers, which may be physical, emotional,
3
psychological or others. It is role of the institutional leaders to minimise these barriers by using
appropriate communication skills so that communication flows uninterruptedly for the achievement of
objectives.
The present unit covers all these major issues concerning communication in any institution. The main
inputs covered are, the concept and importance of communication, types of institutional
communication, models of communication in an institution, barriers to communication and
communication skills for the institutional effectiveness.
8.10.1 Institutional Communication (internal & external)-Concept

& Process
Communication is a tool of passing information from one to another person. It has to take place by
some medium involved in the process. This can be between two animate or inanimate objects or
between one animate and or another inanimate or vice-versa. In the process of communication,
SENDER is the one whose direction or information is to be given to another, while the one who
receives, understands, interprets and responds according to it is termed as RECIPIENT or
RECEIVER.
Sender Information Receiver
Fig. 10.1 Process of communication
Communication and more precisely effective communication is the clarity of thoughts of a sender and
their proper dissemination to the recipient. All living beings on this planet are able to communicate
with each other with the help of one or another means (S. F. Scudder, 1980)
Definitions- some of the important definitions are:
According to Keith Devis, ―Communication is the process of passing of passing information and
understanding from one to another person. It is a kind of bridge of meaning between people by virtue
of which a person can cross the ruin of misunderstanding that separates two persons‖.
According to Leland Brown, ―Communication is the transmission and interchange of facts, ideas,
feelings or course of action‖.
4
According to George Terry, ―Communication is a continuous and thinking process dealing with the
transmission interchange of facts, ideas, feelings or course of action‖.
 The Communication Process
The process involves three phases:
 Delivery of information or instructions by sender after encoding as content,

 Use of medium/media to pass on the information
 Finally response of the recipient after the understanding and interpretation of information and
giving back the feedback via media that the communication has been precisely received.
o Flow of communication process starts with sender and ends up with feedback, as-
Source Encoding Dispatch Reception Decoding Response

Feedback
The process can also be understood in the following way-
• Content -(encoding the information, data,

Sender diagram, analysis, report etc.)
• (Information)↓ ↑(Feedback)
medium
• Decodes & or understands the information

Receiver and responds
 Importance of Communication:
The working, efficiency and viability of an institution are based on the type, extent, kind and efficacy
of its communication. The real purpose of communication in any institution is/are:
 Exchange of ideas- joining of heads is equally important as joining of hands. Healthy

discussions lead to evolution of the best ideas that are good for faculty as well as institutional
growth.
 Reduce work duplicity- intra institutional or departmental discussions will make a common
platform for all faculty members to share their projects, performances, goals and tasks and
once openly and properly communicated, will reduce the duplication load to be taken up by
another people within the same institution.
5
 Framing fixed time frame- teams are built on the bridges formed by communication.
Institutional or departmental communications helps in team building and sharing of loads or
delegation of work amongst faculty members that will result in to fragmentation of work and
leading to the completion of projects on desired time line.
 Addressing of grievances and problems- An effective communication opens all doors and
window in an institution and allow air of misunderstanding, congestions of behavior,
misinterpretation of instructions let blow away. Head of institutions or seniors are to play a
pivot role in this kind of interpersonal communication. This can be done by verbal or written
or sometimes non-verbal ways of communication. Such communications should be done
promptly to nip the evil in bud.
 Setting up of goals and targets- for the growth of an institution, long term planning with
clear vision is required. Accordingly the targets and goals are settled by the head of institution
by can be achieved by the team work of faculty for which an open communication plays an
important role.
 Managing crisis- Ups and downs are part and parcel of every institution but resolution is
done by the joint and sincere efforts of one and all belonging to that institution. In such
situations effective communication amongst all acts as life line for the institution and also
adhere the faculty and staff together.
 Types Of Communication
Broadly communication is divided into following types (on the basis of different criteria as
indicated in Fig. 10.2) -
Fig. 10.2 Various types of communications
6
On the basis of parties involved in communication, the communication is of following two types:
 Internal and External Communication:
For the successful functioning of an institution, both internal and external communications are
required.
 Internal communication- is flow of information or exchange of ideas within any institution,

with respect to or irrespective of the hierarchy. This more frequently used method of
exchange of information that can take place via any medium like personal contact, telephonic,
e-mail, LAN etc. This type of communication in any institution helps making mission of the
institute clear to one and all, resolving day to day issues, clearing some doubts about any new
project to be dealt by that institute, prompt solution of any potential problem
There are many ways to conduct internal communication within any educational or training institute.
 Vertical- follows hierarchical sequence in either direction like-

o Downward- descending flow of instructions from the head of the institution to
lowermost position
o Upward- ascending or flow of certain suggestive steps from lower to higher
ranks in an institution
 Horizontal- the communication between colleagues belonging to same ranks like
amongst professors or associate professors or any other rank
 Diagonal- it s a situational option to fill gaps in vertical communication
 External communication- it is an exchange of information that may happen within as well as

outside the institution. Such a communication can be formal or informal. In external
communication, an institute is to connect itself with its alumni, governing bodies, stake
holders (students), public, social personalities, leaders, artiest, reformers or any personality in
the interest of the institution. The medium can be any like formal letters, web pages, reports,
7
presentations, posters etc. Formal communication is well designed and regulated while such
riders are not applicable to non-formal one.
INTERNAL EXTERNAL
COMMUNICATION COMMUNICATION
NOTICE, REPORTS LETTERS, FAXES, DIRECT MAILS

MEMOS, FACE TO FACE ADVERTISEMENTS
EMAILS VIDEOS, WEBSITES

TEAM BRIEFING PAMPHLETS , BROCHURES
PRESENTATIONS
On the basis of formality, the communication is of following two types:
 Formal and Informal Communication:
 Formal communication- also known as ―Official Communication‖ is a type of

communication that follows a pre-defined channel. It’s always a reliable type of
communication, having well defined written documentation, always correct, though slow as it
has to follow hierarchical routes.
 Informal communication- also known as ―Grape-wine Communication‖ is a type of

communication that has no specific channel. It may not be a reliable type of communication,
as it never has any defined written documentation, may even incorporate rumors. It’s
generally faster than formal communication and stretches in all directions.
On the basis of media involved, the communication is of following types:
 Verbal and non-verbal Communication:
 Verbal communication-is the most commonly used tool in which the information
flow is through words, speeches, presentations, dialogues, speeches, discussions etc.
Such a means of communication has to be enriched by loudness, speaker’s pitch,
clarity of words and intricate weaving of thoughts, well designed content etc. Verbal
communication become effective only when appropriate words in well intricate
manner are used. Even visual communication is also a type of speechless
8
communication where the information is passed on to respondent via signboards,
displays, hoardings, banners, maps, charts etc.
 Non verbal communication-or speechless communication and is not dependent upon the use
of spoken words. It is aided by gestures, expressions, body part movements, body language,
body postures, eye contact etc. It is the best way of passing instructions during formal or
official meetings. The verbal and non-verbal communication can be of following types, using
different media of expression:
Fig. 10.3 Various types of communication media
When communication has no specific criteria of classification, the communication may be of

following two types:
 Mass communication- is a type of communication, when information is to be passed
on to the large number of people. It has more influential way of communication in
today’s society. It may use news papers, T.V., internet, social media etc.
 Personal communication- it’s a communication between one to another person. It’s
part of social communication. It takes use of SMS, private letters, private emails,
telephone, mobile phone etc. It may be verbal, non-verbal, written, visual etc.
 Interpersonal communication- it’s an exchange of information, feelings and meaning
through verbal and non-verbal messages between two or more people. It may be either
formal or informal, depending upon the situation. (Work place or social situation). It
helps in making better relationships at work place. Good inter-personal makes sound
base of team culture.
9
 Difference between Communication and Effective Communication
Passing on of information from sender to respondent via any media is communication but when
the information is properly decoded, understood by the recipient in the way sender wants to pass
on, it is called effective communication. When the content, the sender passing to the recipient are
clear enough to create desirable and appropriate response or consumes more than recommended
time of response or unable to elicit the response is called as ineffective communication.
Effective communication is an important tool for the smooth and efficient working of an
institution as it reduces the chances of misunderstandings, conflicts, errors, repetitiveness, and
time spent on decoding by subordinates. Some of the feature of effective communication are as
follows:
 Features of effective Communication-
Effective communication is based on the following criteria:
 To the choice of words or its content

 Precision and crispness the content
 Clarity and sensibility of content
 Use of meaningful words /phrases for encoding
 Loud and clear pitch of speaker
 Capture listener’s attention regularly
 Keep cross checking by feedback
 Correct pronunciation of words
 Principles For Effective Communication
The effectiveness of the communication process in an institution is based on certain fixed and flexible
features. These are called as ―Seven Cs” of effective communication.
 Clarity- follows the principle of KISS (Keep It Short and Straight), simple and concrete
words, short and simple sentences help in conveying the real essence of massage
 Concreteness- of the information is supported by well researched data and figures. The
language should be interpreted uni-vocally, no ambiguity, no confusion. Teaching passed
on by such methods of communication will be understood once for all.
 Conciseness- be it teaching or passing on of instructions is effective only if the there is
consistency in storyline which is well supported by facts and figures. Variations of
10
statement lead to confusion in the mind of recipient. Content of communication should be
specific to the target and it leads to generation of expected outcome.
 Correctness- be it any language used for communication, it has to be grammatically
correct. It adds to the trustworthiness of the sender and seriousness of the recipient.
Fig. 10.4 Seven Cs of communication
 Consideration- the content to be passed on to the targets or consideration should be their

need based, related with their age and level of education, should related to their previous
knowledge and relate to them. The content of communication should reflect the benefit, the
recipient going to gain out of it.
 Completeness- of the massage or information happens when it is based on facts, full of

explanations, sub divided properly to reach the recipient’s perception. The content must be
encoded to cover all ―Ws‖. Why are we dealing with this topic, which will be the benefited,
from Where to get its literature, where can you make use of this concept etc.
 Courtesy- the approach of the speaker should be friendly and courteous, use of respectful
words make them feel comfortable and better listeners. Follow the 3rd Law of Newton in
using respectful words with your targets.
Over the years two more Cs have been added to make the communication more effective. These are:
 Creativity- use of new words, phrases, expressions, citied with appropriate examples, makes
text more and clearly understandable. It’s just putting an old wine in new bottle to sell it
better but it require inputs, lateral thinking of the encoder and a conscious effort.
 Credibility- of the content is based on your tone. The clearer it is the better your massage is
conveyed. The confident tone of a teacher or administrator can be trusted.
11
 Role of Effective Communication in an institution:
Effective communication plays an important role in an institution as the clarity of

transmission of thoughts between the head of the institution and faculty or teacher and
students is the pedestal on which the success of any institution stands out. It also helps in
achieving institutional goals. It is able to pass on the clear cut expectations of the team leader
or institutional head to all team members which help in enhancing the productivity of any
institution. In official matters more and clear use of verbal communication should be
preferred. Following theories help in identifying appropriate communication approach based
on the type of organisational structure.
Weber’s Classic Organizational Theory of Fixed Structures- this theory holds well where
institution is working in a bureaucratic manner with clear and defined roles and
responsibilities. In this situation the methods and means of communication should be
hierarchical, structured and clear.
Deetz’s Managerialism Theory- incorporates democratic approach of communication in an

institution where other people of the institution are taken into the loop of communication and
feedback was given its due importance in decision making process. This theory is more
naturally evolved theory and more suitable in current scenario.
 Communication Models
A number of the models of communication have been designed by various workers in the field
enabling clear, easy, comprehensible and proper depiction of an idea, thought or a concept in a
simpler way by using diagrams, pictures, equations etc.
 Aristotle Model – was the first model designed in this direction wherein the sender has been
assigned the key role of communication that is to design the content too meticulously and
carefully that his or her respondents, who are supposed to be passive listeners, must respond
in a desired way. This model gave maximum weight age to all attributes of an effective
communication. This model is generally picked up by public speakers, politicians, sales
people, military commandants, religious leaders etc.
12
 Berlo’s Model- operates on SMCR model (source/sender, message/content, channel/medium
and receiver). It gives weight age to emotional aspect of the message. This model focuses
more on the communication skills, attitude, knowledge, social system and culture of sender
and recipients
 Shannon and Weaver Model (1954)- the most accepted model. It works on its 6
components i.e., source, encoder, noise, decoder, receiver and feedback. The model explains
the importance of noise in creating miscommunications. The model is not applicable in mass
communications and is primarily one way. (Fig. 10.5)
Fig. 10.5 Shannon and Weaver Model of communication
13
Information Source (Thought / message)
↓
Transmitter (Brain to mouth) [Along with noise and distractions-external
barriers]
↓
Signal
↓
Recipient (Receives the signal)
↓
Final Destination (Finally gets the message)
 Schramm’s Model (1954) - He laid importance on the encoding and decoding of the
information for effective communication as the former plays its role in converting though of
the head of the institution into the content and latter helps in the proper and exact
interpretation of the speaker’s mind. According to this model communication is two way
process whereby feedback between faculty and head of any institution determine the efficacy
of the communication. (Fig. 10.6)
Fig. 10.6 Schramm’s Model of Communication
Sender
M↓ ↑M
Receiver
14
 Helical Model (Frank Dance, 1967) and Westley and MacLean’s Model (Bruce Westley
and Malcolm S. MacLean Jr., 1957) (Fig. 10.7)
Helical model Westley and MacLean Model
Figure 10.7: Helical Model (Frank Dance and Westley and MacLean’s Model
Both these models are contradictory to each other. The first one believes that communication
is an inherent property while second suggests that it is initiated by external or outside
competitive world induces the institutional head to pass on information to the subordinate
faculty to work as per new targets or guidelines pouring into the system due to regular
evolution of educational systems or policies and work culture. The latest changes are to be
inducted in the current educational system to make it viable and result oriented. An efficient
head of the institution will follow more of second model.
Use of an appropriate model by the institutional managers helps in enhancing the quality of
communication in that institution.
Practice Task
a) The process of communication involves two parties namely ______________ and

_______________ .
b) ___________ is putting the old wine in the new bottle.
c) On the basis of expressions, communication can be _______or _________ .
15
d) Flow of information or exchange of ideas within any institution, with respect to or irrespective
of the hierarchy is called _________ .
Q2. Short questions
a) What are the phases involved in the communication process?
b) Why is communication important?
c) Name the 7 Cs of communication.
d) What is non verbal communication?
Feedback
a) Sender, receiver
b) Creativity
c) Oral Communication or Written Communication
d) Internal communication
a) Phases involved in the communication process are
 Delivery of information or instructions by sender after encoding as content,

 Use of medium/media to pass on the information
 Finally response of the recipient after the understanding and interpretation of information
and giving back the feedback via media that the communication has been precisely
received.
b) Communication is important because
 It helps in exchange of ideas that are good for faculty as well as institutional growth.
 It reduces work duplicity and makes a common platform for all faculty members to share
their projects, performances, goals and tasks
16
 It helps in team building and sharing of loads or delegation of work amongst faculty
members that will result in to fragmentation of work and leading to the completion of
projects on desired time line.
c) The 7c are: Clarity, Concreteness, Conciseness, Correctness, Consideration, Completeness, and

Courtesy.
d) Communication that is not dependent upon the use of spoken words and is aided by gestures,
expressions, body part movements, body language, body postures, eye contact etc.
17
8.10.2 Communication Barriers
Any obstacle or barrier that leads to the misinterpretation or misunderstanding of the information sent
from the sender by the receiver is termed as ―Communication Barrier‖. Such barriers make the
communication ineffective. These can be intentionally or unintentionally created actions by either
sender or recipient. The communication process may be hampered by multiple barriers. Some of these
are:
 Linguistic Barriers-due to multilingual nation, use of a particular language or dialect

becomes one of the main barriers, especially in educational institution, where in majority of
the times information from teachers is passed on with the help of linguistic tool.
 Psychological Barriers- speech disorders, stage fear, public speaking fear, mental anxieties
also interfere with the effective dissemination of information from teacher to students or
seniors to junior in institutional hierarchy.
 Emotional Barriers- like anger, humuor, depression, anxiety hampers the ease and comfort
levels during communication hence decline the IQ of communicator. Such emotions also blur
the decision making capabilities and leads to distorted encoding.
 Physical Barriers-like noise, improperly functioning equipment, wrong setting arrangement
etc. are some of the hurdles, which can be easily managed and rectified to enhance effectivity
in communication.
 Cultural Barriers-the sender should be well versed with this aspect of its recepients, like
foods, religion, dressings, animals and plants and other values of the society. The knowledge
of these aspects helps in better communication within as well as outside the institution.
 Organizational Structure Barriers- are due to lack of transparency within the institution.
Partialities and institutional politics also hamper effective communication within it.
 Attitude Barriers- people with introvert or clingy nature or too egoistic or inconsiderate
behaviors are not able to communicate effectively neither during internal nor external
communication.
 Perception Barriers- use of very difficult or uncommon or unclear words often leads to
differential perception by recipients.
18
 Physiological Barriers- certain health disorders like voice shrillness, dyslexia becomes
barricade, especially during verbal communication
 Technological Barriers & Socio-religious Barriers- lack of pace of a sender or institution

with fast evolving technology also becomes a cause of ineffective communication. A
patriarchal and religiously rigid society puts barriers in front of female communicators or the
ones from lower strata of society.
 Role of communication barriers in ineffective communication
 Noise- is an external barrier that results in the disfiguring the message. It hampers proper
interpretation of words or idea behind the message. Neither the sender nor the recipient of the
information is to be blamed for this situation
 Unorganized thought- when the sender of the information is not clear about the thoughts,
need to be disseminated and the chaos of thoughts leads to improper weaving of ideas and
these haphazard thoughts make the poor communication and results in ineffective
communication. That’s why it is always said think before you speak.
 Wrong interpretations- it happens at the end of the receiver. It generally happens either by
misinterpretation of words (generally homophones) or some missing link in communication
 Not Understanding the receiver – this happens when the sender is unable to keep pace with
the interest of the listener. Either the anecdotes are not suitable or irrelevant to the recipient.
 Ignoring the content- irrelevant and unclear content cannot hold the receiver for a longer
time. For effective communication the content of the information has to be encoded very
properly so as to capture the attention of recipient for long times.
 Avoiding the Listener- a bond with the receiver is must for effective communication. A
positive body language plays an important role in creating this bond and listener will never
feel aloof
 Not confirming with the recipient- an effective communicator never just flows with rut of
information. One must keep vigilant check whether the information one wants to pass on, is
being fully and rightly caught by recipient.
 Not understanding the mood of the recipient – sender of the information should be very
clear about the level of receptivity, both psychologically and physically. Receivers should be
mentally stimulated to receive hundred percent of what sender wants to pass on.
 Low pitch and tone- despite of the accuracy of content, crispness and relativity of encoded
thoughts, low pitch spoils the show. Tone of the sender should be clear, sound and well
punctuated.
 Different cultural level- is sometime called ―Internal Barriers‖. Difference of work
pressures, levels of comprehensions and understanding, opacity amongst team workers,
19
difference of expectations, peer rivalries etc. results in ineffective communication between
institutional administrator and subordinates.
Thus, institutional managers need to initiate appropriate strategies for minimizing the barriers to
communication otherwise the achievement of institutional goals and objectives will become difficult.
Practice task
Q1. Short questions
a) What are communication barriers? Name various barriers in communication
b) What is the role of barriers in effective communication?
Feedback
Ans. 1
a) Communication barriers are obstacles that lead to the misinterpretation or misunderstanding of

the information sent from the sender to the receiver. Various barriers in communication are
Linguistic barrier, Attitudinal barrier, Emotional barrier, Psychological barrier.
b) Barriers lead to ineffective communication as
 It hampers proper interpretation of words or idea behind the message.

 Leads to Wrong interpretations
 Leads to misunderstanding the receiver
 Does not understand the culture of listener
20
8.10.3 Communication Skills for Effectiveness
External and internal communication takes place by variety of means. It can be through presentations,
talks, reports, discussions etc. All types of formal and informal means become tools in this type of
communication. The effective communication should be a mix of more than one mode.
Effective communication happens when all the barriers of communication are broken strategically or
skillfully.
 Written Communication
Written communication plays a very important role in institutional communication. It

can be in the form of power point presentations, official circular and notices, online
communication etc. Written communications are preferred over verbal one, as former
is better for the keeping these as records.
 Effective presentations: should be meticulously prepared and effectively presented
 Preparation of effective presentation - Making presentations of varied types have

become an integral part in today’s teaching. The presentation should be too effective
to convey the communicator’s thoughts and contents. Through presentations all types
of data, results and reports need to be projected, hence should be effectively prepared
and projected. A good presentation can make your or institutional image or otherwise
spoil it. Some important points need to be taken care of while preparing it. Like:
o Should be made on ―Microsoft Office Power Point‖

o Number of slides, per topic should range between 10-15
o Slides should be kept simple, if these are for formal communication, for students
some images or clips can be incorporated
o Avoid the use of flowery language, it may lead to ambiguities
21
o Avoid the use of stylish fonts, it may hamper clear reading of text
o Before the start of preparation of slides, do jot down all important points to be
incorporated
o Try to adhere to time allotted to finish the presentation, neither get too fast nor
slow
o Try to use clear words, short sentences which should convey, what you wants
o Support your presentation with charts, graphs, tables and pictures to make it
better explanatory.
o Try to add examples from real life experiences for the assertion of your points
o Should avoid duplication of content, it may make presentation too long to lose
interest of recipients
o Starting slide should be for your and institutional introduction with last one
acknowledgement to listeners.
o Frame the content keeping your target listeners or audience in mind
 Presentation of effective presentation - good presentation must be delivered in the

best way. The content and its communication go hand in hand and should be
complementary in nature. Some use tips are:
o Always greet your target group and begin your presentation with a smile- BANG
ON EFFECT.
o Create a friendly ambience.
o First introducing yourself and your institution
o The introduction should be well prepared and practiced
o Capture the attention of your recipient and try to maintain throughout the session
o Speak clearly and explain confidently with strong conviction
o Explain all figures, data and other details properly by using pointers
o Do incorporate your life time experiences it will help the receivers to related
themselves too with your presentation
o Keep audible pitch and pace
o Don’t lose eye contact with listeners, it’s a magic wand
o Pause in between to invite queries and resolve them. This will also break
monotony
o Feel relaxed, calm, comfortable and composed
o Your should be properly dressed, especially during formal communication
o Make appropriate use of non-verbal communication tools like face expression,
hand movements, posture etc.
22
o Read your presentation before delivery, it add to your confidence
o Check ambience of room, it should be distraction and disturbance free
o Do check your system, on which you intends to give your presentation
 Effective circulars and notices:

These are the most commonly used means of written communication in any educational
institution, where directions and information from the higher authorities are sent to all
relevant concerned for necessary actions on the same. Some of the guidelines to enhance
the effectiveness of circular and notices are as follows.
 Guidelines to write effective circulars and notices:
o These should be brief and specific

o Language should be grammatically correct and simple
o These should eb written taking into account the level of target group
o These should be placed on main notice boards
o Even a copy of these can also be sent by email
o Notice or circular should be duly dated
o It must carry all relevant information
o In case of very important notice or circulars, these should be duly circulated and
signed by all concerned
 Effective on-line communication:

The most commonly used online communication is by writing emails. It can also be by
writing blogs, video and audio conferencing, through social networks, forums, chat rooms etc.
This mode is most used method of communication in technological times. But these must be
used with great caution and skill, as social media must be used very carefully. Some of the
tips to improve their efficiency are:
 Guidelines to write an effective email-
o Emails should have short, crisp and clear content

o It should be self explanatory
o Avoid use of capital letters, unless required
o It should be grammatically correct
o Try use of Arial font with text size 12
o Try to make it simple without glary icons and images
o It should be used as a means of multiple communication
23
 Speaking Communication
 Be clear about what you want to say-

 Effectiveness of communication is directly dependent upon the clarity of the
thoughts of a speaker
 Learn how to mold your message into effective communication
 Don’t take much time to come to the main point of agenda
 Make use of the best expressible words, phrases and examples
 Keep audible tone and pitch and it should be pleasant to listen
 Be very clear of the outcome of your talk, accordingly frame your speech or
lecture
 Repeat major points in very tactful way using different ways and means to assert
them in the mind of listeners
 Speak according to the levels of understanding and receptivity of listeners
 Make an outline of your content, fix the frame and jot down points to make the
best and effective sequence
 Use of language skills-
 Try to use active sentences
 Use gender neutral language
 Try to use more of plurals
 Use short sentences, avoid run-on and rambling sentences
 Woman should be addressed with their first name while men with Mr. Surname
 Try to use descriptive words, similes, metaphors, stories to stimulate listener’s
sensory channels.
 Be confident, speak fearlessly-
 Always focus on listeners, your massage and successful outcome instead of fear
of failure
 Start your lecture or speech with smile, positive note like greetings and
confidence
 Come prepared, it boost the confidence level
 Speak with passion and enthusiasm
 Stop in between and listen –
 Make your conversation like a tennis game, keep delivering and receiving the
thoughts
 Don’t push your thoughts, do give respect to other’s viewpoints
 Don’t just hear, listen to your listeners
24
 This two way communication resolve so many problems, misunderstanding,
miscommunications between teacher and taught or administrator and faculty
 Body Language and overall personality-
 Show a positive body language reflecting your confidence and comfort
 Dress up nicely, neatly and formally to be followed as a role model for your
pupils or colleagues
 Keep smiling to make your listeners feel comfortable, never fume and look
furious
 Avoid negative expressions like anxiety, depression, frustration
 Show balanced emotions
 Be Honest-
 As a head of the institution, one should neither hide any fact nor conceal any data
from faculty, it may hinder in creating an appropriate response
 As a teacher never pass on half known information, as once a concept get
wrongly engraved it will remain as such lifelong or may take long to reframe it
correctly.
 Do cite the source of data for authenticity
 Know the need of customer-
 Discover the motive of listeners
 Deliver the content as per the need of your listeners
 Keep asking questions and give then opportunity to fill the gaps or supplement to
content
 Frame questions, the way you want to address the generation of response
 Never discuss personal issues publically
 Avoid listener’s day dreaming-
 Due to the time lag between frequency of processing of information (@400-600
words/min.) and speaking speed (@125-150 words/min.), another process of day
dreaming starts in listeners brain
 Avoid it by catching their attention by visual clues, humuor, stories, lifetime
examples etc.
 Day dreaming interfere with communication efficacy
 Know when to communicate-
 Right word ant right time hit the target
 Be careful about the time of communication, avoid early morning of late hours
call to your colleagues or faculty or staff
 Try not to disturb anyone during break times or vacations, unless urgent

25
 Be open and positive to feedback-
 Without feedback, the communication loop remains open and the efficacy
remains under questions
 Be ready for negative feedback too, don’t lose temper in such situations
 Positive feedbacks motivate you while negative ones are for improvement and
corrections, so welcome these.
 Don’t keep grudges against students or subordinates, if they give some negative
feedback
 Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal communication is the one which is passed on to recipient by physical cues and has
been proved as one of the best mode for effective communication as it accounts for 55 percent of
perceived communication. The efficacy of this non-verbal communication depends upon:
 Correct posture- without slouching and locked arms but with smiling face and eye contact
 Over-communicate just to communicate-according to a study ―the tappers and the listeners
―communication tapers down gradually with every passing time so for the effective and
efficient communication a clear and over communicate.
 Avoid relying on visual aids- non verbal cues like storytelling, citing real time experiences
sometimes become more effective in conveying the message than using power points
presentations always. For effective communication use power points presentations as
supportive tool only.
 Request for honest feedback- honest feedback helps in highlighting all those point, which
are making communication ineffective, which the sender have overlooked. Feedback should
be welcomed from all seniors, colleagues and juniors.
 Keep your audience engaged- all listeners have limited attention span, to retain their
attentivity make your discussion interactive. Stimulate audience with hypothetical questions;
invite people to call out their thoughts to enrich discussion.
 Use the PIP approach- PIP approach to presentation is based on the ―Purpose, Importance
and Preview‖. Purpose will set the mind of listeners towards the topic, importance will clear
the relevance and preview will help the listeners visualize the frame work of topic and help in
exciting the audience.
 Master the art of timing- too lengthy or short communications either becomes boring or
ineffective or could not be comprehended. An appropriate length of time frame should be
fixed.
26
 Add novelty to improve audience retention- retention of new ideas is always quicker and
longer than old and previously known concepts. So keep inserting new threads to weave
thoughts colorfully. Insertions should be made with great care like jokes, funny anecdotes or
emotions with facial gestures.
 Try to become a likable speaker- with your smile, friendly attitude, by lowering your
defensive tactics, not indulging in arguments, welcome other’s perceptions etc.
 Be alert or have presence- while communicating don’t get lost be always in present or be in
the moment. Let your body and mind work in unison. Exude awareness, strength, poise and
confidence. Let your body speak your mind’s language.
 Be flexible- in changing your mindset and your opinion, have control over conversation, be
willing to compromise, have an attitude of ―get over it and move on‖.
 Positive touch- if need be and there is no resistance, even physical touch with clear and
positive intensions can convey what words fails to do. The touch must indicate warmth, care
and understanding.
 Earn respect than laughs- the beginning of the speech or presentations can be in a lighter
way to warm up the listeners but never end up with laughter. It wash away the impact of
content
 Show mannerism- words like thanks, please, excuse me, wonderful create a bridge between
speaker and listener to make a smooth flow of communication. Always try to use those words,
which may hurt someone.
 Reading Skills
 Keep update with current events- the effective communicator must keep pace with latest
events at local level as well as around the globe. A good speaker should be well read too.
Reading habit will enrich speaker’s vocabulary, expression of language, citation of examples,
appropriate correlations of current events with topic etc
 Diverse reading- Reading should not be restricted to text books or learning material, to
capture the attention of your listeners, you need to read and narrate some motivational stories,
success and failure stories, citing good quotes and many more of your and student’s interest.
 Listening Skills
Listening enable us to receive accurately the message and also to interpret it as per the
intensions of the sender. It plays an important role in the effective communication. In-
effective listening leads to misunderstanding of the message and that leads to break-down of
27
communication. Effective listening is the building blocks of success. It differs from hearing
as latter is only the practical aspect while listening is the strategy.
There are mainly 4 types of listening:
1. Appreciative listening- when the listener enjoys the speaker
2. Critical listening- when the listener analyse the speaker, determine the agenda of
talk, identify key points and make his/her opinion.
3. Relationship listening- also called as therapeutic or empathetic listening. It is the
most common type of listening while dealing with people like friends, co-workers,
colleagues to solve their issues, problems, conflicts or to extend support.
4. Discriminative listening- involve looking at body language, tome change, sound
modulations, comparison of past words with present and interpret the underlying
massage.
There are certain important points to attain effective listening skills-
1. Face the speaker and maintain eye contact

2. Be attentive, but relaxed.
3. Keep an open mind.
4. Listen to the words and try to picture what the speaker is saying.
5. Don't interrupt and don't impose your "solutions."
6. Wait for the speaker to pause to ask clarifying questions.
7. Ask questions only to ensure understanding.
8. Try to feel what the speaker is feeling.
9. Give the speaker regular feedback.
10. Pay attention to what isn't said—to nonverbal cues.
Thus, the effective use of these communication skills help in creating the right culture in any
institution where every member contributes to the best of abilities for the achievement of objectives.
Practice task
Q1. Short questions
a) What are the main guidelines to write an effective email?
b) What points should be kept in mind in using verbal communication?
28
Feedback
Ans. 1
a) Main guidelines to write an effective email are
 Emails should have short, crisp and clear content

 It should be self explanatory
 Avoid use of capital letters, unless required
 It should be grammatically correct
 Try use of Arial font with text size 12
b) Points to be kept in mind in using verbal communication
 Be clear about what you want to say

 Use of language skills-(Try to use active sentences, Use gender neutral language etc)
 Be confident, speak fearlessly
 Stop in between and listen
 Be honest and understand the listener
Conclusion
Academic leaders direct the activities of their subordinates through different communication means
for achieving the institutional goals and objectives. Different types of barriers viz. physical,
emotional, cultural etc. pose hindrances in this communication. For the enhancing the effectiveness,
institutions’ use appropriate communication models. These means help them to effectively reach even
the lowest corners of the institution and thus motivating people to work cohesively for the institutional
goals.
Bibliography
1. Aggarwal, Vir Bala and V. S. Gupta (2001). Handbook of Journalism and Mass
communication. Concept Publishing Company
2. Dalton, M; Hoyle, DG & Watts, MW (2000). Human Relations. 2nd edition. United States
of America: South – Western Educational Publishing.
3. Dessler, G (2000). Human Resource Management. 7th Edition, New Delhi: Prentice Hall
of India Pvt. Ltd.
29
4. Hersey, P; Blanchard, KH and Johnson, DE (2000). Management of Organizational
Behaviour, 7th Edition, New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.
5. Megginson, LC; Mosley, DC and Pietri, PH (1983). Management: Concepts and
application. USA: Harper and Row Publisher.
6. Mulder, P. (2012). 7 C’s of Effective Communication. Retrieved [insert date] from

ToolsHero:https://www.toolshero.com/communication-skills/7cs-of-effective-
communication
7. Murphy, H.A. et al., (2000). Effective Business Communication. McGraw-Hill.
9. Rue, LW and Byars, LL (1995). Management - skills and application. 7th Edition.
Chicago: Irwin.
10. Scott M. Cutlip, Allen H. Center (1952). Effective public relations: pathways to public
favor. Prentice-Hall.
11. Stoner, JAF and Freeman, R E (1994). Management. 5th Edition, New Delhi: Prentice-
Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.
12. Tripathi, PC and Reddy, PN (2001). Principles of Management. New Delhi: Tata
McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Ltd.
13. Wadkar, A (2016). Life Skills for Success. New Delhi: SAGE Publications India Pvt. Ltd.
 Institutional Communication (Internal and External Communication) –

Concept, and Process
 Barriers in Institutional Communication
 Communication Skills for Effectiveness
Web resources
 What is Organizational Communication?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e5oXygLGMuY
 Communication Skills - The 6 Keys Of Powerful Communication
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XCc6-qr0Gww
 DPSI Kickoff - Understanding Institutional Involvement in Student and Faculty
Social Communication https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZMfkjCurV14
 WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF COMMUNICATION?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sl_BkpPGZtY
 Barriers to Effective Communication
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=slq1nAhZuqE
 7 C's of Effective communication. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7JZ1v-
VwTXg
 The Art Of Effective Communication - Tony Robbins
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KqKAG-hRIyE
30
UNIT 8.11 (b)
MENTORING, COACHING & COUNSELING FOR

HIGHER PERFORMANCE
Contents Page No.

Broad Objective 2
Learning Outcomes 2
Introduction 2
(A) Mentoring – Concept & Significance 3
 Who is a Mentor and Mentee?
 When and why to mentor someone?
 Stages of Mentoring Relationships – the Informational
Mentor to the Guiding Mentor to the Confirming Mentor
 Mentoring Process
Practice Task 9
Feedback 9
(B) Coaching – Concept and Significance 10
 Who is a Coach?
 When and why to coach?
 Stages of a Coaching Session
 The GROW Model
Practice Task 15
Feedback 15
(C) Counseling – Concept & Significance 16
 When and Why to Counsel?
 Process of Counseling
 Counseling Strategies
Practice Task 19
Feedback 19
Conclusion 20
Bibliography 20
UNIT 8.11.4
1
MENTORING, COACHING & COUNSELING FOR
HIGHER PERFORMANCE
Author Prof.(Dr.) Sunil Dutt

NITTTR, Chandigarh
Broad Objective:
 Understand the concept, significance and process of

mentoring, coaching & counseling
Learning Outcomes:
 Define mentoring and explain its significance

 Describe the characteristics of a mentor & mentee
 Explain the process of mentoring
 Define coaching and explain its significance
 Explain the stages of a coaching session
 Explain the concept and significance of counseling
 Describe the process and techniques of counseling
It is assumed that the learners are quite familiar with the concept of institutional management and
administration. The learners are also known to significance of institutional management for enhancing
effectiveness and efficiency.
Introduction
Dear learners, as you know that every management (be it an institution, organization or industry) wants
better results. It wants better performance of its employees towards the accomplishment of some pre-
determined institutional objectives.
As a manager, we may require to perform the role of mentoring, coaching, and counseling. By doing this,
we help employees solve problems, make better decisions, that are preventing them to acquire new skills,
2
and otherwise grow in their careers. Many managers use these three terms interchangeably but in reality
mentoring, coaching & counseling are the skills used to achieve different outcomes. The role of a
manager is much more challenging, for example, focusing on achieving better results, providing a
leadership to his/her team, listening to their problems empathetically, and even disciplining the team
when needed. Thus, learning to deal with all these simultaneously and at the same time be effective while
performing various roles is not easy.
The learning material will enable the learner to help his/her employees maximize their contribution
at work through mentoring, coaching & counseling. Therefore, it is important for a leader/manager to
understand these concepts and as well as know when and why to mentor, when and why to coach and
when and why to counsel someone in your team.
(A) Mentoring – Concept & Significance
Mentoring is a learning relationship between individuals who collaborate and share mutual responsibility
and accountability for helping the mentee work toward the fulfilment of clearly and mutually defined
learning goals. It can be used to assist individuals at specific stages of development and lasts for a
sustained but a definite period of time. The mentoring relationship provides an opportunity to both parties
for their growth & development and, thus, can be of mutual benefit. Source: (Zachary, 2002:28).
Especially, for new employees, mentoring sessions can help them gain a better understanding of the
organization, its goals and advancement criteria.
In other words, it is a “voluntary relationship that exists between a person of lesser experience and a
person of greater experience that is based on mutual trust and respect”. Mentoring is normally carried out
to educate employees with high potential for performing bigger roles in future or to share their
experiences with employees who either have to work in their new roles or who have just joined the
organization. Mentoring involves sharing knowledge, experience and offering and receiving guidance and
advice. Its purpose is not to link with employee performance objectives and it is also not done to impact
the mentee‟s performance. In fact, Mentoring is..."off-line help provided by one person to another in
making significant transfer of knowledge, thinking or work" (Clutterbuck, D & Megginson, D, 1999).
“There is a great man who makes every man feel small.

But the real great man is the man who makes every man
3
feel great” (G.K. Chesterton). It implies that new
employees or those who are undertaking new roles and are
not performing to meet organizational goal(s), need
someone to identify their potential and show them what
they must do to develop personally and professionally. By
improving their skill sets and appreciating their good work,
a mentor will make the employee feel great.
Mentoring occurs when a more experienced older person extends a helping hand to a younger
employee grow and advance by providing support, advice and encouragement. Many
organizations have started implementing mentoring process with a belief that creating a bond
between a senior and a junior employee helps both and benefits the organization as well. The
younger one can pick up practical knowledge & skills from the mentor and gain insights into the
organizational culture and philosophy that otherwise might take years to discover.
There are a few myths, associated with mentoring which needs to be understood before starting
the mentoring relationship. These are described here:
a) Mentoring is a one way traffic. Here, both mentor and mentee benefit from each others‟ strengths
and experiences.
b) A mentoring relationship can only be face-to-face. It may not always be possible. E-mails, ICT or
phones can also be used.
c) Mentoring is a time-consuming process.
d) Expectations are the same for everyone.
e) Mentors must not be a younger. Age is not a criteria from being a mentor.
f) Developing a mentoring relationship is complicated. Training provides a variety of resources to
guide the mentoring process.
g) It can work only with one mentor at a time. Different mentors provide unique knowledge to the
mentee, hence more than one mentor can offer varied learning experiences.
h) Mentoring relationships begin on its own. It is the mentee, who chooses a mentor he/she respects
and trusts to help him/her reach his/her goals.
4
To conclude, a mentor who feels secure in the organization because of a good mentoring
relationship and is thus likely to think about searching for another job. It is an excellent
arrangement for an organization to help manage the career stages of its employees.
 Who is a Mentor and Mentee?
 Who is a Mentor?
Anyone, who provides knowledge, skill, perspective, insight, or wisdom as helps to another person, in
a relationship irrespective of duty or obligation. By sharing the knowledge and insights that the
mentor learned through the years, he/she facilitates personal and professional growth in an individual.
The characteristics of an effective Mentor are:
 A mentor can identify the Potential in others as he/she views others positively that greatly
increases the chances of transfer of learning.
 He/she has faith in the capabilities of others. He/she believes that the mentee can perform
effectively.
 He/she is a Resourceful & Networked Guide. He/she enjoys a positive reputation and is highly
regarded by others. Being a repository of information, he/she provides just-in-time learning.
 He/she displays Patience and Tolerance. He/she allows mentees to make errors in work and
uses such errors/shortcomings as opportunities to teach/learn.
 He/she inspires others. He/she possesses the ability to build up mentees' self-esteem and
encourages them.
 He/she sees the Big Picture. With a larger perspective, he/she helps mentees produce relevant
suggestions and bring up such suggestions that the mentee would otherwise not consider.
In fact, middle level managers may prove to be best at helping new employees acquire knowledge
and develop specific skills, whereas senior managers may prove to be more effective at providing
organization‟s vision.
 Who is a Mentee?
A mentee is anyone who wants to learn from someone who knows and provides the valuable advice
for the professional and/or professional and/or personal growth & development of the individual. Or,
he/she is anyone who has the desire to gain from someone else‟s experience through guidance and
support. Also known as a protege, refers to the less experienced person who is benefiting from the
5
acquired knowledge, skills and years of practice of the more experienced individual. The
characteristics of a good Mentee are:
• He/she is goal-oriented and thus focuses on setting and accomplishing goals.

• He/she is not satisfied with goals that he/she can reach too easily and thus seeks for challenges.
• He/she takes Initiative as he/she does not wait for managers to notice his/her abilities.
• He/she shows willingness to Learn. He/she is curious about what he/she does not know and
hence asks for assistance or resources when faced with uncertain circumstances.
• He/she accepts personal responsibility. He/she does not blame others for things going wrong, or
procrastinate, but readily admits and owns the failures and shortcomings.
 When and why to mentor someone?
There is hardly a situation in the organization that a manager needs to mentor each person in his/her
team. If the organization has realized the necessity of offering a formal mentoring program, choose
employees to with high potential and pair with mentors whose experiences they wish to imbibe. In
addition, the organizational leaders may choose to mentor those employees who are not on their team
but who may wish to learn something from the identified mentors. A fellow manager who is new to
the organization or to the role may also be mentored. Mentoring is usually carried out with the focus
of developing someone and sharing knowledge to enable the individual to perform his/her current or
future roles effectively. The focus of mentoring is not to influence an individual performance, but it is
to bring a positive and significant effect on the individual‟s professional life as a result of mentoring
relationship.
 Stages of Mentoring Relationships – the Informational Mentor to the Guiding Mentor

to the Confirming Mentor
Let us understand the various stages of mentoring relationships.
 The Informational Mentor (the sage on stage). This is suitable when the mentee is new and
does not have lot of confidence to decide for himself/herself and the mentor relationship is
beginning. A mentor in the role of a sage is one who has wisdom that he/she has acquired with
age and experience. In such a situation he/she draws on experience and acts as a role model, leads
by example. In addition, the mentor provides a step by step to problem solving. At this stage,
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communication is more one way, i.e., giving information and advice. The mentor teaches, praises
and helps the mentee get started.
 The Guiding Mentor, i.e., Guide on the Side. At this stage, the mentor makes suggestions and
persuades the mentee. He/she probes the mentee and draws out ideas. In addition, the mentor
makes the person accountable and ensures they stay on track. After this stage, the mentee having
the ability and confidence can explore ideas and try out mentor suggestions. There is a rapport
between the participants in the mentoring relationship.
 The Confirming Mentor, i.e., empathetic sounding board. The mentee now becomes confident
and proactive. The mentor listens empathically and clarifies goals, directions and ideas;
encourages individual decision making and makes mentee accountable for his/her own decision
making. To conclude, the mentor acts as sounding board, a person whose reaction to something
serves as an indicator of its acceptability.
 Mentoring Process
Now let us learn the steps involved in the conduct of a mentoring session.
 Step 1: Planning for Mentoring
At this stage, the task is to find or choose a Mentor. When identifying potential mentor, you may
look for the following traits:
• Job performance. Ask questions like: Is he/she recognized as an effective leader? Is he/she
considered role model of character and values? Does he/she develop subordinates well? Does
the prospective mentor have strategic outlook planning and thinking?
• Interpersonal Skills. Ask questions like: Does he/she has a history of positive relationships
with a diverse scope of individuals? Does he/she has a history of freely sharing experiences
and insight with others? Is he/she a trusted resource in his/her own organization? Is he/she
someone you feel you could trust and spend time with?
• Learning Capacity. Ask questions like: Is the prospective mentor aware of his/her strengths
and weaknesses? Is he/she personally committed to continuous growth and receptive to new
ideas and approaches?
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 Step 2: Initiation Phase Meetings
Acquaint with each other. Verbalize your vision and purpose of the partnership. Here, mentors
help mentees plan a task or session by asking them to: State the goals of the task or session;
Summarize the task or session. In addition, the mentor clarifies the roles/list the actions of those
involved in the task or session and finally itemize the challenges and opportunities associated
with performing the task or session.
 Step 3: Observation
Now, the mentor watches the mentee attentively and gathers information on how well the
mentee‟s plan worked followed by sharing of this information by the mentor with the mentee
during the reflective conversation, i.e., consolidation and feedback phase.
 Step 4: Reflective Conversation
During this part of the mentoring process, the mentor consolidates the information and provides
feedback on the information gathered in Step 3, and the mentee responds to the mentor‟s
summary and feedback.
 Step 5: Ending the Formal Relationship: Closure and Evaluation
Review mentee‟s goals and progress. Make sure an important goal has not been overlooked. Plan
a formal acknowledgement or celebration of the relationship. Prepare for the final review.
Identify what you have gained. Identify accomplishments as a mentor-mentee pair, and examine
what you have both learned through the process
To conclude, mentoring involves sharing knowledge, experience and offering and receiving guidance and
advice. Its purpose is not to link with employee performance objectives and it is also not done to impact
the mentee‟s performance
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Practice Task:
A. In which of the following Employees 'career hazards' are dealt?

a) Coaching b) Counselling c) Development d) Mentoring
B. A Mentor is one who is:

a) a very smart person
b) giving support and career advice to a less- experienced person
c) a psychologist
d) a counselor
Feedback
A. (d).
B. (b)
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(B) Coaching – Concept and Significance
As already discussed, a mentor is normally someone who is older

and possess more experience than the mentee, whereas, a coach
does not require to know everything and possess more experience
necessarily. A coach uses questioning and feedback technique to
facilitate an employee‟s thought and learning process. Mentoring is
not usually carried out by the person‟s manager while coaching is
done by the manager/leader as part of his/her responsibility towards
the team.
Coaching involves two-way communication to help an employee learn more to facilitate his/her
performance at work. Basically, coaching aims at influencing the performance of the employee.
“Coaching is a process that enables learning and development to occur and thus performance to
improve. To be a successful a Coach requires a knowledge and understanding of process as well
as the variety of styles, skills and techniques that are appropriate to the context in which the
coaching takes place" (Eric Parsloe, 1999).
As such, a coach evaluates the employee‟s performance; provides insights for improving his/her
performance; offers leadership, reinforcement and supportive climate to help him/her achieve
that improved performance.
 Who is a Coach?
In the organization, a coach is can be a peer or manager who motivates employees, helps them acquire
skills through instruction and provides reinforcement and feedback while working with them. Role of a
coach can be performed by:
 Providing feedback to employees based on 3600 assessment,

psychological tests or interviews with subordinates, peers &
bosses.
 Help employees acquire knowledge & skills for themselves by
providing experts or lecturing them about techniques of obtaining
feedback from others.
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 Providing the resources such as mentors, training courses or job experiences to the employees
not otherwise accessible to them.
 Withholding judgments and evaluation of employee performance against pre-determined goals.
 Influencing employees to change their undesirable behavior through their mutual and active
involvement.
The characteristics of a good coach include: empathetic, supportive, practical and self-confident. On the
other hand, employees who being coached need to be open-minded, willing and interested.
 When and why to coach?
Coaching is required when an employee needs help mastering skills and figuring out how to apply
instructions. For example, when an employee does not how to organize a departmental meeting, he is
given input on specific steps involved in the process. Coaching enables the employees to identify:
 their own goals

 various ways to reach them
 present status at work and areas they need to improve
 action plan
Coaching is required when you want to improve the performance of an employee, set monthly,
quarterly or yearly performance goals leading to change his/her behaviour for the better.
 Stages of a Coaching Session
Coaching process involves: identifying the problem, clarifying the alternatives, deciding on an action
plan and implementing the action plan. The following steps will help you in performing the role of a
coach:
 Step 1: Building a Relationship of Mutual Trust.

It is very much essential because conduct of an effective coaching meeting without first building
some degree of trust is impossible.
 Step 2: Opening the Meeting

During this stage, the manager needs to clarify, in an anxiety-free and non-evaluative climate, the
rationale of arranging the meeting. In other words, it means restating in a friendly, non-judgmental
manner, the purpose of the meeting that was planned before the schedule of the appointment.
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 Step 3: Getting Agreement
Probably, the most vital step in the coaching process is to get the employee to agree verbally on the
existence of a performance issue. A manager can not commit a mistake of avoiding the performance
issue on the assumption of knowledge of the significance of mistake to the employee. A manager
must persuade an employee about the existence of a performance issue by defining the nature and
significance of the issue and getting him/her to identify the consequences of not changing his or her
undesirable behavior.
The skill of specifying the behavior involves: (a) Citing specific examples regarding the performance
issue; (b) clarifying your expectations on his/her performance in the situation, and (c) encouraging the
employee to agree on the existence of a performance issue.
Likewise the skill of clarifying consequences involves: (a) probing to get the employee to articulate
his or her understanding of the consequences concerning the performance issue, and (b) asking the
employee to agree on the existence of a performance issue.
 Step 4: Exploring Alternatives

After getting the employee to agree on the existence of a performance issue, encourage the employee
to identify alternative solutions for improving or correcting the issue. Be cautious not to jump in with
your own alternatives rather help the employee to think of any. Encourage the employee for specific
alternatives rather than making generalizations. Here the purpose of the coach is to let the employee
maximize the number of alternatives and discuss their advantages and disadvantages and not to
choose an alternative as it is the next step.
This stage involves the skill of reacting and elaborating. A manager must acknowledge the
suggestions offered by the employees; discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the suggestion(s).
In addition, employee may be asked to explain the ways of resolving the issue under discussion.
 Step 5: Getting a Commitment to Act

This stage will enable the employee choose an appropriate alternative out of many. But be careful
about not forcing upon the employee the choice as solution to the issue/problem. The manager must
ensure a commitment from the employee about what and when the action will be taken. Provide
sufficient support and offer praise to the employee‟s choice.
 Step 6: Handling Excuses

Employee self-justification for not keeping the promise may occur during the coaching meeting. For
handling such excuses, a manager must rephrase the point by taking a comment, perceived by the
12
employee to be blaming, and cast it again as reinforcement for him to study his or her behavior.
Ensure to react empathetically to provide back up support to the employee in situation.
 Step 7: Providing Feedback

Employees value the importance of performance feedback (both positive and corrective) if given on
continual basis by the manager. Hence, an effective manager must take care of a few critical things
while giving feedback to employees. Feedback should:
 Be given timely, i.e., immediately after the interaction or completion of the project, or
observation is made.
 Be specific. Use those specific words that themselves give direction. For example, statements like
"You did a great job" or "You didn't take care of the clients' concerns very well" are too vague
and don't provide sufficient insight into the behavior you would like to see changed or repeated.
 Focus on the "what," not the "why”. Do not give the judgmental feedback. Begin with "I have
observed..." or "I have seen..." and then refer to the behavior. Criticize the behavior and not the
person. Describe what you saw and heard and how those behaviors influence the team, client, etc.
 Use a sincere tone of voice. Raise the words and not the voice. Use a tone that exhibits
affirmation, love, satisfaction, empathy and not frustration, disappointment or sarcasm.
 The GROW Model
Let us now learn framework for structuring the mentoring or coaching sessions, a GROW Model
which stands for: Goal; Current Reality; Options (or Obstacles); and Will.
Originally developed Sir John Whitmore along with

other coaches, the model provides a good way to
think about how you would plan a journey. This
implies that deciding where you are going, i.e., the
goal; determining where you currently are; exploring
various ways (the options) to reach your destination;
and finally establishing the will, you ensure that
you're committed to making the journey, and are
prepared for the obstacles that you could meet on the
way.
The following steps can be undertaken to structure a coaching or mentoring session using the
GROW Model:
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 Establish the Goal
Firstly identify the behavior that you want to change, and then structure this change as a goal. Ensure
that the goal is a SMART one, i.e., Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic, and Time-bound.
A coach may consider the following useful questions in this step:

 How will you know that you have achieved the goal or that the problem or issue is solved?
 Does the goal fit with him/her overall career objectives or with the team's goal?
 Examine the Current Reality
Now, encourage your team member to describe the current reality. Analyze the problem and ensure
that you have not missed any information that they need in order to reach their goal effectively. The
solution may start to emerge as soon as your team member describes about his/her current reality.
A coach may consider the following useful questions in this step:

 What is happening now (what, who, when, and how often)? What is the effect or result of this?
 Have you already taken any steps towards your goal?
 Does this goal conflict with any other goals or objectives?
 Explore the Options
On exploring the current reality, it's time to encourage employee to determine all of the possible
options for reaching his/her goal. Brainstorming session can be conducted for generating as many
options as possible followed by discussion these options leading to decision about choosing the best
ones. The leader can also offer suggestions in this step. But it is important that the employee should
offer suggestions first, and let him/her do most of the talking while the leader can guide him/her in
the right direction, without actually making decisions for him/her.
A coach may consider the following useful questions at this stage:

 What else could you do to reach the goal? What do you need to stop doing in order to achieve the
goal?
 What if this or that constraint were removed? Would that change things?
 What are the advantages and disadvantages of each option? What obstacles stand in your way?
 What factors or considerations will you use to weigh the options?
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 Establish the Will
Examining the current reality and exploring the options is not enough. In fact, your role is to get the
employee to commit to specific actions in order to move forward towards his/her goal. In other
words, help him/her establish the will and boost his/her motivation. Finally, make them accountable
to certain degree by reviewing his/her progress and allow him/her to change his/her approach if the
original plan isn't working.
To conclude, the emphasis of coaching is on facilitating the individuals‟ work skills development and
acquisition; and consequently improved personal performance. The main focus is to improve the
individual‟s understanding of self and their impact on others; particularly people with different needs
and wants from them.
Practice Task:
C. Which of the following deals with one-to-one collaboration between an external

expert and a manager for developing the leadership skills of the later?
a) Coaching b) Mentoring c) Orientation d) None of these
D. Is it True OR False „Coaching is the application of specific skills True OR False
to sustain and improve the performance of employees that

managers supervise‟?
E. Which of the following is NOT one of the major Coaching Roles?

a) Coach as Guide c) Coach as Mentor
b) Coach as Judge d) Coach as Motivator
Feedback
(C) (a).
(D) Yes, you are True.
(E) (b).
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(C) Counseling – Concept & Significance
After learning the concepts of mentoring and coaching, it can be stated that mentoring and coaching are
all one to one activities. Mentoring deals with equipping the employee with requisite knowledge & skills,
coaching deals with ability problems while counseling deals with personal problems. In addition,
counseling can be done in order to resolve the emotional problem of an employee. However, the broad
purpose of mentoring, coaching and counseling is to improve the employee‟s performance.
While coaching deals with increasing an employee‟s performance, and focusing on tasks, counselling
deals with an employee‟s attitudes & behaviour. The employee‟s behaviour may directly impact his
performance. But it may also impact the performance or spirit of the team as a whole. Counselling is
needed when the employee‟s behaviour is affecting the performance of the team. For example, when an
employee has an attitude, emotional or family problems, or, difficulty in getting along with a co-worker
or frustration over a lack of career progress in the organization, or a drinking problem affecting his/her
performance, he/she needs to be engaged in counseling behaviours. As such counseling provides
employees a useful opportunity to work through problems in a confidential & supportive climate. It
provides employees direct access to basic forms of helping, viz., provision of information, direct action,
lecturing, advice, coaching, feedback, etc. Typically it involves meeting of employee with an advisor
especially on one-to-one basis.
“Counseling is a professional relationship between a professionally trained competent counsellor and an

individual seeking help in gaining self-understanding and improved decision-making and behaviour
changing skills for problem resolution and for developmental growth” (Pietrofesa et al., 1978). It is the
process of giving help to an individual faced by a problem, by making her/him understand and accept
her/his assets and liabilities and then arrive at a solution to the problem and then implement the decision.
Now the question comes to mind is: What Counseling is „NOT‟? It is neither „Advice Giving’ nor is it
dictating to others. It is NOT solving another‟s problem, but helping him/her to solve his/her own
problems. It is NOT carrying another person‟s burden, but assisting him/her to carry and face his/her own
problems. It is NOT making „Decisions‟ for others. It is helping them to arrive at their own decisions.
The personal qualities of a good counselor include empathy, warmth, genuineness, positive regard,
concreteness sense of humour, self-awareness etc.
16
 When and Why to Counsel?
While coaching can begin with a goal, however, counseling always begins with a problem or issue
that needs to be addressed. Counseling is normally used by people who have personal or professional
issues affecting their work. Coaching is something you will do for employees who are both high and
low performers while, counseling helps the employees gain insight into their feelings, behavior and
alternatives.
Counseling is done when the counselor observes that employee‟s behavior is:
 causing the team discomfort, i.e., when there is confusion about undertaking projects
 affecting his/her output, i.e., when there are concerns about poor performance or disagreements
with performance
 affecting the team‟s output
It is worth mentioning that out of the mentoring, coaching and counseling skills, it is the counseling
that is probably the most tough as it involves getting to the root cause of a person‟s behaviour and
then getting him/her to change it.
Counseling can be directive, non-directive and participative. Directive counseling deals with listening
to the counselee‟s problems, deciding with the course of action to be taken and motivating him/her to
work in the direction to solve the problem. Non-directive counseling involves skillful listening and
encouraging the counselee to open up and explain the problem and determine the appropriate
solution. Participative counseling involves a mutual counselor-counselee relationship that establishes
a cooperative exchange o ideas to help the counselee solve his/her problem.
 Process of Counseling
Let us now learn the stages involved in the process of counseling. These include: rapport building;
defining the problem; defining the goal; exploring alternatives & confronting incongruity; and
generalization. The detailed description is given below:
 Rapport Building. This stage involves building of rapport with the client/employee, i.e., making
him/her feel at ease. Here the focus is on skill of building of TRUST & attending skill.
17
 Defining the Problem. This stage involves assessment of the problem. This can be carried out
by helping client/employee to do self exploration and analyze the behavior causing
problem. The skills required on the part of the counselor are „active listening‟ and „asking
probing questions‟ for understanding underlying emotions of the client/employee. This
process of assessment involves a series of skills of observation, inquiry, recording
information, forming hypotheses, hunches etc.
 Defining the Goal. Setting Goal is important to give structure to the entire counselling process.
This involves data analysis by taking stock of the assets and liabilities of the client/employee.
Here, the skills required are Paraphrasing & Empathy.
 Exploring Alternatives and Confronting Incongruity. This stage involves selecting and using
counseling strategies to help the client/employee to make „action oriented‟ solutions and explore
for alternatives and motivation for implementing the decisions. Here, the skill required is decision
making.
 Generalization. This implies termination and follow-up, i.e., testing the merits of new
solutions, adopting them and seeing their workability. If satisfactory, then appreciate and
dissolve the counseling relationship. A sudden break in relationship may become
traumatic for a client/employee, therefore, the counselor should prepare the
client/employee for termination. Here, the skill required is learning detached attachment.
 Counseling Strategies
As a counselor, you may use the following strategies while counseling the employees:
 Maintain confidentiality and show trust that they can open up and share the reasons for many
personal problems
 Speak less and briefly paraphrase and clarify.
 You have to listen patiently and empathetically if you want to be good in communication.
Empathetic listening inspires openness and trust.
 Build positive self-concept. Provide reassurance to them that their problems have solutions and that
they have the ability to improve.
18
 Reflect employee feelings. Be concrete- by asking for examples in vivid details of feelings and
thoughts.
 Counselor should ask open-ended questions. In addition, when in doubt, focus on feelings and
guide the counselee to find his/her own way to finding solutions to the problems.
To conclude, counseling can identify employee‟s serious problems like depression, family disorders,
debilitating phobias etc. requiring professional treatment by a medical practitioner, psychologist etc.
Practice Task
F. The aim of Counseling is to:
a) ensure that clients are on the correct medication

b) promote personal growth and productivity
c) provide a successful diagnosis in psychopathology
d) solely address behaviour
Feedback
F. (b).
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Conclusion
Mentoring, Coaching and Counseling can provide ample benefits to organizations of all sizes, be it a
small, medium or large businesses. When these are conducted in an efficient and effective manner,
mentoring, coaching and counseling provide employees ways to learn and grow within the organization
and along their own career paths. While mentoring deals with equipping the employee with requisite
knowledge & skills, coaching is about enhancing an employee‟s performance, and focusing on tasks,
counseling deals with an employee‟s behavior.
Bibliography
1. Blanchard, PN; Thacker, JW and Ram, VA (2012). Effective Training – Systems, Strategies &
Practices. New Delhi: Pearson.
2. Chesterton, GK Quotes. https://www.goodreads.com/author/quotes/7014283.G_K_Chesterton.
3. Clutterbuck, D & Megginson, D (1999). Mentoring Executives and Directors. Butterworth-
Heinemann; 1 edition.
4. http://new.coachingnetwork.org.uk/information-portal/what-are-coaching-and-mentoring/
5. http://pcaddick.com/index.html. Building Effective Partnerships (accessed on 10.03.2018).
6. Hunsaker, PL (2001). Training in Management Skills. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
7. Jerome, PJ (1998). Coaching through Effective Feedback. New Delhi: Wheeler Publishing.
8. Matt M. Starcevich (2009). Center for Coaching & Mentoring,
Inchttp://www.coachingandmentoring.com/Articles/mentoring.html.
9. Moorhead, G & Griffin, RW (1999). Organizational Behaviour. 5th Edition. Delhi: AITBS Publishers
& Distributors.
10. Noe, RA (2010). Employee Training & development. 5th Edition. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill
Education Pvt. Ltd.
11. Parsloe, E (!999). The Manager as Coach and Mentor. CIPD Publishing.
12. Pietrofesa, JJ et al. (1978). Counseling: theory, research, and practice. Chicago: Rand McNally
College Pub. Co.
13. Shookla, MS (2004). A handbook opf Human Relations. Delhi: Macmillan India Ltd.
14. Zachary, LJ (2000). A Manager's Guide to Mentoring. 2nd Edition. Jossey-Bass.
15. Whitmore, J (2010). Coaching for Performance: The Principles and Practices of Coaching &
Leadership. Nicholas Brealey Publishing.
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Support Learning Resources:
 Video films on „Mentoring for Improving Performance‟ developed/recorded by Professor
(Dr.) Sunil Dutt, NITTTR, Chandigarh.
 Video film on „Coaching for Improving Performance‟ developed/recorded by Professor (Dr.)

 Video films on „Counseling for Improving Performance‟ developed/recorded by Professor

(Dr.) Sunil Dutt, NITTTR, Chandigarh.
Web Resources
1. 17 Motivational Quotes to Inspire you to be Successful. https://www.success.com/17-
motivational-quotes-to-inspire-you-to-be-successful/.
2. Mentoring: How to be an effective Mentor - Golden Nugget #6. https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=3dD2VCsPrsg.
3. What is Mentoring? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qoy5MifHuLs
4. Soft Skills - Coaching & Mentoring. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ngTPeNdIWAE
5. What coaching is? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Esh75mbmucY.
6. Mentoring vs. Coaching. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I0z-bVUk_CU.
7. Counselor: Basic Skills of a Counselor. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lJXSf-cx8V8
8. Employee Counseling & Wellbeing. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FEXPgPMiTI4
9. Counselling for Employees. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kTTKDUudl24
*****
21
Unit- 8.12
Directing through Planned Change & Innovation for
Institutional Growth and Development
Contents Page No.

Broad Objective 3
Learning Outcomes 3
Introduction 4
8.12.1 Managing Planned Change - Need, Importance 4
and Process
 Definitions of Change management by various authors
 Types of Change Management
 Key Objectives behind the Planned Change Management.1
 Stakeholders involvement in the Planned Change Management
 Need and Importance of the planned change management
 Importance of the planned change management for an
educational institution-
 Various Planned Change management models
 Process for a successful planned change management
Practice Test and Feedback 14

8.12.2Managing Creativity and Innovation 15
 Concept of Creativity and Innovation
 Levels of creativity
 Innovation
 Difference between creativity and innovation
 Categories of creativity: as per Kaufman and Beghetto (2009)
1
 Characteristics of creative Individual
 Creativity and innovation management models
8.12.3 Establishing climate for creativity and 21
innovation
 Barriers to creativity and innovation
 Positive organisational culture
 Ways to inculcate creativity
 Innovative ideas for teaching
Conclusion 27
Bibliography 27
2
Unit- 8.12
Directing through Planned Change & Innovation for
Institutional Growth and Development

NITTTR, Chandigarh
Supportive Team Dr. Meenu Wats
Broad Objective
The objective of this unit is to make the
participants appreciate the importance of
planned change in the present fast changing
and competitive educational scenario. The
participants shall be also aware of the role of
creativity and innovation in planned change
and sustainable growth and development of
the institution.
Learning Outcomes
1. Appreciate the importance of planned change in the life of an institution.
2. Identify the drivers of change and their impact on an institution.
3. Understand theories and models of planned change and apply the relevant model in
his own institution.
4. Appreciate the importance of creativity and innovation for the growth and
development of institution in today‟s scenario.
5. Understand models of creativity and innovation management and their applicability in
an institution.
6. Understand barriers to creativity and innovation in an institution.
7. Identify the ways and means to establish creative environment in the institution.
3
Introduction
When knowledge and technology is moving with leaps and bounds, teaching with old
conventional methods will be an obsolete practice. To make teaching effective both teacher
and student has to think out of box. Creative persons become untiring work forces who are
able to find solution for every problem and able to work under all situations happily. The
rapidly and continually changing education system, in India as well as at the global level,
requires changing trends in educational and institutional management. It requires constant
innovation and development of the pedagogy and faculty as per the required demands of the
market or a need of planned change management, required to achieve the desired goals.
This unit covers the above two issues of managing planned change and creativity and
innovations in institutions. The inputs in the unit are directed towards the concept of planned
change management in changing educational scenario, its means and models of
implementation, creativity, innovation, and the models relating to these two aspects. It also
incorporates the barriers, techniques to break barriers of creativity, ways and means to go for
effective creative teaching.
8.12.1 Managing Planned Change - Need, Importance and Process

In today‟s continuedly changing ecosystem, world has malformed into the global village, the
place where institutions must face with the everyday new challenges & competition and in-
order to embrace the persistence and growth, they need to opt with the regularly changing
ecosystem of industry & society demands. Change management is a cumbersome practice for
the education institutions, as it requires constant innovation and development of the pedagogy
and faculty as per the required demands of the market. This involves a detailed study and
practical approach to balance the commercial and social aspects of the establishments. The
leadership plays the significant role towards planning, implementing and managing the
change management within the institution.
In India the need for the First concept/need for the change management can be track down
from 1991.This was the time, when Indian government announced significant liberalization
in the polices. This was the first direct exposure of the Indian economy and ecosystem to the
world market. The second push for the “Change Management” was the time when internet go
introduced in the year 1995 and the Indian population started experiencing the globalization,
although it has been sweeping the world much before the given time period. These reforms
pushed the Indian institutions towards the race of global competition with the
4
private/government players in the education segment across the globe and made the
establishments to cope up with the rapidly changing capabilities and compositeness with the
vastly changing students & faculty needs& expectations, innovation and technology, to
compete in the world of wage base employment and entrepreneurship. In today‟s scenario the
institutions have understood the need of Change Management. “Change” is required to
survive the current scenario and with the future trends but this very complex and challenging.
It demands a very effective and careful study of the objectives, stakeholders, principles and
the factors defining the degree of change required. However, if the given scenarios are taken
into consideration and the management equitably contributes, this will germinate the
sustainable grounds for creativity and innovation, which is the key of long-term success and
sustainability.
 Definitions of Change management by various authors,
“By definition, progress means change. This is not always comfortable. It may challenge
our assumptions, and the way we are used to doing and seeing things. It asks us to have
faith in the larger picture, the eventual results, and each other. We need energy to deal
with it, and perspective, and sometimes just a sense of humour”.
Sheldon Levy, President’s Newsletter to the Ryerson Community, Spring 2007
“The systematic approach and application of knowledge, tools and resources to deal with
change. Change management means defining and adopting corporate strategies,
structures, procedures and technologies to deal with changes in external conditions and
the business environment.”
SHRM Glossary of Human Resources Terms, www.shrm.org
“A systematic approach to dealing with change, both from the perspective of an

organization and on the individual level...proactively addressing adapting to change,
controlling change, and effecting change.”
Case Western Reserve University
 Types of Change Management

In this fast-changing ecosystem, the institutions should be more adaptable and flexible to
survive the globalization change. Many a times the changes are in a planned format by
keeping in view the specific objectives and goals but, in some situations, some are
5
unplanned changes. However, institutional change can be implemented in any one of the
following ways as described below:
Change
Management
Un-Planned
Planned Change
Change
Management
Management
Fig. 12.1 Explaining types of change management

 Planned Change Management: Planned change is defined as a strategic move by the
institutions, implemented with the futuristic objective to achieve the given goals. This
can be administered by changing the pedagogy& types of training, bringing a change
in the administrative system and accountability nature.
 Un-planned Change Management: is the immediate response to various unforeseen

implications in the ecosystem due to various reasons. Unplanned change can be
regarded as a change which takes place within an institution not in a planned manner
or as a strategic intervention but introduced in an unplanned manner.
This section of the unit will dowel competencies of planned change management with
discussion on the
 Objectives (Goals) behind the change management (Planned),
 Major stake holders in the process of change management.
 Significant factors for the successful implementation of the planned change
management.
 Few Successful models behind the planned change management.
6
 Key Objectives behind the Planned Change Management.2
The concept of planned change management focuses on achieving the key institutional
goals and directing the growth to new heights. The given objectives can be defined in
forms,
 Internal Planned Change Objectives.
 External Planned Objectives.
Against this background, lets us discuss the key internal &external objectives behind the
planed change management,
External
Objectives
Internal
Objectives
Fig. 12.2 Showing interlinking of internal and external objectives
 Internal Objectives for the planned change management-includes

 Developing an Innovative culture in the institutions.
 Setting up of a principle for the modernization culture within the hierarchy.
 Setting up acceptance and positive resistance for the innovative strategies
within the faculty and members of staff.
 Introducing the peer group learning and adapting the best practices model.
 Introducing/setting up of a concept of thoughtful & change leadership.
 Setting up of the accountability & responsibilities and matching it with the
performance review/report.
 Defining and aligning the institution and faculty goals.
7
 Developing a success model for communication & socialization of change for
reducing resistance to change.
 Addressing the ecosystem changes and improvising the delivery.
 Improvising the faculty and staff acceptance and continuing with the change
motion and prepare them for change. .
 Improving the performance of the human resources
 12 Measuring the impact/result from the planned change management
 Developing a clear path for sustaining the planned change management.
 External objectives for the planned change management

 Vision to follow the cope-up with the administrative setup in the institute.
 Rebuilding the image of the establishments.
 Matching with the changing ecosystem (Industry & Demographic).
 Redefined structure and size of the institution.
 Accelerating with the rapidly changing technology and inventions.
 Adapting with the changing data processing, project management and
communication.
 Adapting and excelling with the market outreach and market capitalization by
the institute.
 Following up with the process of improvising the institute standards with the
international level.
 Stakeholders involvement in the Planned Change Management

The stakeholder‟s identification plays a vital role towards the success of the planned
change management and after identification, it is equally important to involve them
wisely and seamlessly to achieve the desired result. The stakeholders can be categorised
into four types-
8
Managment Customers
Influencer/
Teachers/Trainers
Unions/Sup
/Scholars
port Staff
Fig. 12.3 Showing stake holders in planned change management and their interlinks
 Management: here represents the leadership of an institute. At the initial

stage they define the vision & mission for an institution. They also levy the
foundation for the inevitable goals needed to be achieve through this plan
change management.
 Direct Beneficiaries: in the educational setup includes students and parents or
the society. During the process of planned change management, it is important
to keep in mind their expectation and after process consequence on them. So,
it is advisable to consider them as an integral part of the stakeholder process.
 Teachers, Trainers and Research Scholars: at the institute level play a vital
role towards achieving the desired goals for an institute. They also play a
significant role towards implementation process of the planned change
management.
 Influencers, employee unions, industry association, Institution
Associations and Support Staff: are the one who either directly or indirectly
get involved towards the decision making. So it becomes equally important to
keep them in the loop towards achieving the desired results.
 Need and Importance of the planned change management
An institution‟s need to opt for the planned change management can be derived from its
vision and the path to achieve the required goals. On the other hand, planned change
management plays a significant role towards overcoming the competition, developing
compositeness and leading the institution to the sustainable goals. In this section we will
discuss various need driven factors towards the planned change management,
9
Internal External
Fig. 12.4 Factors involved in planned change management
 Internal Factors: are the one which influence through the internal ecosystem
of the institution and need some measures to achieve the desired results.
 Institutional Goals- are expressed as; new achievements institution has
defined to target in the coming future. This can be like introducing new
courses, new stream, increasing the candidate‟s intake and many more but,
this is one of the greater needs to opt for the planned change.
 Poor Management-can lead to the failure finally resulting in the shutting
and job loss. In order to revamp the historian methods, it is advisable to
install planned change management.
 Institutional Values/Mandate-with shift or change in the institutional
mandate and can lead to the germination of planned change management
need for the institution.
 Optimum Utilization of resources-are required making the institution
more profitable and result oriented, it is much advisable to change the
current setup with the new setup.
10
 External factors: are mostly driven by the external ecosystem and with the
ever-increasing competition and race to perform and shine.
 Adapting the Change- with the regular changing environment, it has
become necessity to apply the planned change management to receive the
desired results.
 Market competitiveness and Outreach- with the cut throat competition
and demands of the stakeholders, it is required to do the needful and reach
it to the desired goals.
 Sustainable Goals- most of the institutions have moved towards achieving
the sustainable goals and it is only possible through change management.
 Importance of the planned change management for an educational institution-

 It helps in building a platform for more successful & sustainable change for
the institution.
 Controlling the level of change with the given circumstances, and amount of
change happening, it is good to have a planned change to have control over the
situation.
 Controlling the output and results.
 Streamlining institutional practice with institutional values. Planned change
management always propel the path of aligning the institutional practice with
institutional values.
 Developing the internal capabilities and preparing the institute for the future.
 Various Planned Change management models-

There are several planned change management models available to be used for the
purpose of institutional change. In the part of the chapter we will discuss the three
models:
 Lewins Model:
This model was developed by Kurt Lewin. The shared in this model depicts that‟s
planned change management should be developed in such a manner that the change
induced is permanent. The model has shared the three-dimension modelling.
Phase-1:
 It is unfreezing Stage or reducing forces
 that keep things within an organization the way they are.
11
 It happens through so-called "psychological disconfirmation."
 For example, running an institution over the wide innovation survey and
evaluating the results.
Phase-2:
 Two is movement (changing) stage
 It is the shifting the organization‟s behaviour through initiating and
intervention.
Phase -3:
 Three is refreezing or stabilizing the organization in a new state of steadiness
 This step is not possible without support mechanisms.
 For example, building a solid corporate innovation capability.
 Action research model:
Action research activities are typically top-down approach, which happen in series of
research and action and requires considerable collaboration between staff and externals. It
can also be known as self-design model.
Main steps of the action research model:
 Identification of the Problem.
 Acknowledging the behavioural science expert.
 Accumulating the information through (interviews, observation, questionnaire,
performance data) and preliminary diagnosis.
 Feedback from the customers/students/staff/parents.
 Internal & external stakeholders jointly addressing the problem and develop the
joint action plan.
 Jointly conducting the impact analysis through data collection and if required
addressing the action plan.
 Positive model
Positive model is the combination of from both Lewin‟s model and the specifics of action
research. The positive model focuses on the optimum utilization of the resources to reach
new heights. Main steps of the positive model are:
Step1- initiating the inquiry to address the required details of the problem
Step 2- the identification of the best practices implemented to address the problem
Step 3- Intimating an innovation plan to address the issue.
Step 4- Implementing the new plan of action.
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Step 5- revisiting the issues and identifying the gap areas, if any.
 Process for a successful planned change management-
Planning plays an important role in the planned management, but it is equally important
to execute the planning in the right ways. Most of the failures happened due to lack of
implementations. In the below process, a step by step procedure to implement the planned
change management has been outlined:
• What Leadership wants to achieve?

Start with the end goal
• Identify the stakeholders.
in mind
• Identify the opposition.
• Leaders should understand the

Understand the culture.
institution’s culture
• Clear dissemination of the requirment.
• Staff Meatings.
Seamless • Email communication.
Communication • Proper demonstration/one-to-one
meetings.
Understanding the • Open disucussion with the stakeholders.

resistance • Understanding their point of view.
• performing the required amendments.
• Controlling the deviations.

Controlling &
• Giving incentives to motivate the
Incentivisation
stakeholders.
• Measuring the achievements.

Learn & Measure • Learning from mistakes is important.
Thus, executing each and every step of planned change very carefully, shall help the
institutions to come out of the chaos of change and get the desired results of planned
change, the institution expects out of it.
13
Practice Task
a) In the changing educational scenario institutions must be _______ and ______to survive the
globalisation change.
b) Change can be either ________ or ________ .
c) Lewins‟s model of change depicts that change management should be ________ .
Q2. Short questions

a) Define Change management.
b) Define the types of change.
c) Name the various stakeholders in the process of change management.
d) Mention any two points to state the importance of planned change management in an
institution.
Feedback
Answer 1. Fill in the blanks
a) adaptable and flexible
b) planned or unplanned
c) permanent
Answer 2. Short answers

a) It is the systematic approach to deal with change both from the perspective of an organisation
and on the individual level.
b) There are two types of change management
 Planned change management- it is a staregic move by the institutions implemented

with the futuristic objective.
 Unplanned change management- it is the immediate response to various unforeseen
implications in the environment due to various reasons.
c) Various stakeholders in the change management process are the management, the faculty and
other staff, research scholars, the students, the society like industry associations etc.
d) The importance of planned change management in an institution:
 It helps in building a platform for more successful and sustainable change for
institutions
 Controlling the level of change with the given circumstances and amount of change
happening, it is good to have a planned change.
14
8.12.2 Managing Creativity and Innovation
 Concept of Creativity and Innovation
Creativity is nothing but to see the same thing from a different perspective or it is a
different way of thinking and doing same thing. Creativity starts when old notions or
boundaries are broken and we start moving in unknown territories. In today‟s fast
progressive world, we need to train teachers and students as thinkers who can explore
their own interests rather than stereotyped outputs of the educational system. The career
of a student cannot be visualised the way he conducts in class or does his assignments but
also based on the skills which he or she attains and displays outside the classroom. These
are the real assets of any institution. In the current knowledge society, both creativity and
innovation are in maximum demand and educational institutes are considered as the best
place to unlock the creative potential of the gifted teachers and students.
As per Bilton (2007), creativity is not an individual trait, but a process influenced by
diverse individuals while others like Sternberg, 1988, Mayer, 1995, Madjar, Oldham,
Pratt, 2002, Hennessey and Amabile, 2010) advocated individual‟s role in enhancing
institutional creativity where as culture, management processes of an institution and one‟s
own intellectual ability, personality, and inner motivation are some of the extrinsic and
intrinsic factors influencing the creativity of an individual. According to some other
authors, the people working in team, where all the members are not very specialised and
have conflicts due of different levels have more chances to evolve out with better ideas
due to creative thinking. Creativity is believed to require integration of diverse knowledge
as it is a multidimensional process and work on the combination of different thinking
styles (Bilton, 2007) and requires collective teamwork than one individual‟s talent.
Although, creativity may be defined differently by varied authors but divergent thinking,
novelty, diversity and originality are some of the key words of every definition.
Creativity is a combination of functional knowledge, imagination, and creative ideas.

The degree of the generation of ideas, thoughts and patterns and their correlation with
new concept depends upon the level of person‟s knowledge-base and level of
imagination. Only knowledge cannot make anyone creative unless one has the ability to
make a new figure from old bits and pieces
15
 Levels of creativity- There are three levels of creativity
 Discovery: is the lowest level of creativity. It is an act of finding either something
new or an unknown old. It is just like giving new shape to any new thought or
observation after its new interpretation and reasoning on the basis of previous
knowledge,
 Invention: it is a higher level of creativity. It is the mature form of discovery that
ripens with time under given circumstances.
 Creation: the highest level of creativity.
 Innovation-
Innovation is the implementation or application of a new idea, a more effective device
or process to find a better solution that meets new and unarticulated requirements. It
can also be understood as a process that bridges various novel ideas to have a
noticeable impact like productivity, effectiveness, quality, competitiveness in an
institute.
 Incremental – a positive progress in a product or service, a very safe type of
practice as it is less risk taking
 Radical - finding and implementing an absolutely new way to fix old problem.
Here risk involved is more and faces initial difficulties, that‟s why it is practiced
less.
 Difference between creativity and innovation:
Two words creativity and innovation are very commonly used and repeatedly in
everyday conversations. According to Hemline et al, (2013) “Throughout history,
science, technology, and innovation have been central to societal and economic
development, with human curiosity and creative endeavours often being crucial to
finding scientific, technological, and innovative solutions to the problems confronting
humankind.”
Creativity Innovation
 Habit of learning  Generation of new ideas and new way
 It is an active process, which is skill to look at things
and knowledge based  Adoption of new methods to make
 It exists at individual or group or valued products
institutional level  Has ideas of some output
 Its formation of new and useful ideas to  It‟s like a verb, indicating the process of
16
make some product or provide service doing something new or in a novel way
or to undertake procedures or processes  Need hard work with persistence and
 It precedes innovation and is an perseverance
intrinsic motivation  Its production along with
implementation of new ideas
 It‟s an extrinsic motivation
 Categories of creativity: as per Kaufman and Beghetto (2009)
According to this approach the person may fall into one or more categories which are
not age specific. The boundaries of the categories are blur.
 Big-C creativity (or „high‟ creativity)-

 Explains the creativity of those people who could give shape to their
discipline with their inventions
 The work of such creators have been accepted as innovative and ground-
breaking
 Such a level of creativity is a rare thing to achieve
 It occur in inventors
 Pro-c creativity –
 This type of creativity needs sincere effort of long time ( usually 10 years)
to develop
 Most of the academicians and researchers attain this level of creativity
 Little-c creativity-
 Such creators act with flexible approach
 Use intelligence and novelty in day to day course
 Able to create new and meaningful things
 Such creations need help of already existing knowledge like internet, you-
tubes, web sites, instagram etc.
 It is attained by school-age learners
 Mini-c creativity –
 It is the „novel and personally meaningful interpretation of experiences,
actions, and events‟
 It can be easily nurtured by teachers and parents.
17
 Occurs in individuals with flexibility, intelligence and novelty” in their
thought process
 Is not obvious, as have ideas and their interconnections
 Such creators can make their own junctions of existing and new
knowledge to understand the subject properly
 Characteristics of creative Individual- are
 Personal Traits: in a problem solver should be
 Persistence
 Curiosity
 Energy
 Intellectual honesty
 High level of general intelligence
 Self-motivation: or self driven individual should be
 Happily working
 Enthusiastic
 Able to accept the challenges
 Working sensibly on important projects
 Self belief
 Commitment to the idea
 Special Cognitive Abilities: means that the problem solver should have:
 Specialized knowledge to work in a particular niche

 Generalised problem-solving abilities
 Tactics for creative thinking
 Risk-orientation: stands for attributes like:
 Unconventional thinking approach

 Open hearted acceptance to challenges
 Risk taking abilities
 Approach to do things differently
18
 Expertise in the Area: other qualities in a problem solver should be
 Inherent and acquired talent

 Well versed experience
 Specialised knowledge of target field
 Synergistic qualities: to make the flow of multidirectional ideas, the teacher

should have:
 Ability to work synergistically in a project team

 Should not have egoistic temperament
 Social Skills: solution of any problem comes with soft skills like:
 Healthy interpersonal relations

 Open mindedness
 Nature of good listening
 Keen observation
 Skill of healthy discussions
 Soft spoken
 Assertive but not rigid.
 Creativity and innovation management models-
 Free time model- where each faculty chooses his or her own time schedule and
duration to be used on innovative projects
 Time spent model- according to this, the faculty is given free hand to use the time
but the institution values the time spent on innovation by the faculty member.
 Determined time model- this model helps the faculty to focus on creative
initiatives during the events like lectures, contests, and meetings organised by an
institute.
 Defined time model: This model provides a percentage of the working hours of
an institute which can be used to create innovation its faculty.
Thus an ideal model for an educational institute must be comprehensive, should focus
on individual‟s (faculty & students) characteristics and have factors that influence a
positive knowledge environment
19
Practice Task
Q1. Short questions
a) Name various levels of creativity

b) Define innovation
c) What are the characteristics of a creative person? Mention any five.
d) What are mini c creativity people?
Feedback
Answer 1.
a) Levels of creativity are
 Discovery
 Invention and
 Creation
b) Innovation is the implementation or application of a new idea, a more effective devise or

process to find a better solution that meets new and unarticulated requirements.
c) Characteristics of a creative person are:
 Personal traits like persistence, curiosity, energy intellectual

 Self motivation
 Self cognitive abilities like specialised knowledge to work in a particular niche.
 Risk orientation
 Synergistic qualities
d) It is the novel and personally meaningful interpretation of experiences, actions and events. It
can be easily nurtured by teachers and parents, and occurs in individuals with flexibility and
intelligence in their thought process.
20
8.12.3 Establishing climate for creativity and innovation
Creativity and innovation are major tools for keeping pace with growing knowledge. If an
institution is looking stale, it shows that there exist some internal as well as external barriers
to achieve these attributes either at individual or institutional levels.
 Barriers to creativity and innovation- Various barriers, which interfere with the
inculcation of these attributes, belong to either an individual or team or leader or
institution.
 More use of virtual objects (like computers) rather than with real stuff
 Rigidities of rules and regulations in an institute hamper freedom of thoughts
 Lack of clarity of expectations discourages creative thoughts amongst faculty
 Lack of engagement is an important barrier to creativity and innovation.
 Prototyping and enforcing the rules, resources are another valid point that can be a
barrier to creative thinking
 Lack of resources, including financial constraints and lack of time, is one of the most
common barriers to innovation
 Undeveloped corporate identity.
 Bureaucratic temperament of institutional authorities can also cause deceleration of
creativity and delay innovation.
 Inappropriate reward system discourages faculty to take initiatives
 Lack of freedom to put forward one‟s ideas and implementation procedures
discourage faculty to undertake novel ideas
 Unrealistic targets, inappropriate feedback, lack of institutional support, unrealistic
time frames are some of the common obstacles to reach the goal set by creative
faculty
 Negative interpersonal competition does not let creative faculty to flourish
 Fear of rejection and job insecurity amongst faculty members will not let them
speak their mind
 Condemnation of a hot creative individual or team or idea will lead to the
disappointment and thus snubbing their mental creativity
 Rigid academic norms and institutional culture
21
Barriers to creativity and innovation can be broken by the institutional heads and all
other persons, by shifting institutional culture towards positive side.
 Positive organisational culture: promotion of creativity and innovation in an

educational institute depends upon the following features of it:
 Democratic and open environment: the success of creative ideas based on:
 Encouraging faculty to undertake calculated risks
 Acceptance of failures
 Promotion of interpersonal relationships
 Liberal approach to organising and reorganising teams
 Provide full freedom to teachers to accomplish tasks
 Must give clear objectives to teachers to fulfil
 Good management: of the institutional head by opting-
 To be as a good role model

 Enthusiastic approach
 Practice of good communication skills
 Protective attitude for the project team from external distraction and
interference
 Delegation of tasks to team member‟s based on their skills and interests
 Setting a clear method of solving the problems without defining tight
boundaries.
 Sufficient resources: the institute should provide-
 Access to all necessary resources i.e. All desired facilities/ equipment/

information/ funds etc.
 Encouragement: the institute head should-
 Appreciate new ideas

 Create fearless atmosphere
 Make all team members mentally free of threatening evaluation.
 Recognition: the head of institute should work on the principles of:
22
 Appropriation and positive feedback
 Recognition
 Reward
 Sufficient time: the team leader should:
 Frame target without time constrains

 Faculty must get ample time to think creatively about the problems and the
tasks,
 Faculty should feel free to explore different perspectives
 There should not be an imposition of already-determined approach.
 Positive pressure: in order to generate a positive institutional internal pressures,

the head should focus on:
 An internal competitive atmosphere will help in generating a positive

pressure
 Must create a sense of urgency from competition with outside
organisations to avoid complacency
 Let the team feel a general desire to accomplish the task important for the
growth of institution
 Ways to inculcate creativity
Creativity is neither a subject which can be taught conventionally nor a “lip-service” to be

made in a hypocritical way but can be fostered through the right kind of environment in
an institute. Creativity is both inherent as well as acquired. The appropriate stimuli at a
proper time through best suitable examples to a specific target group can make faculty as
well students to think out of box, hence become creative. To inculcate innovation in an
institution, internal communication skills need to be honed, so as to convey the massage
clear and sound. It applies equally to faculty and students. Though there is no thumb rule
but still there are some tried and tested ways and means to inculcate creativity in an
educational institute, which are as follows :
 Make curriculum problem solving based
 Appoint faculty of desired qualities than just “monkey-teachers”
23
 Institute should have “being one step ahead” motto to survive on the competitive
edge
 Real life applications of subjects
 Provide openness or freedom for student‟s expression in the institution
 Organising seminars and workshops
 Organising art exhibitions and creative classroom activities
 Holding cultural festivals, dance and music shows
 Faculty members encourage healthy discussion among students
 Create an innovative platform where the objectives of the institute are made clear
to all stakeholders
 Provide equal opportunity to one and all for ideas discussion
 Avoid sporadic speeches and cold memos
 Be open for risk taking approaches
 Provide ample time to undertake innovative projects
 Innovative policies need to improve upon continuously
 Institution should reward the innovators and creators to promote the culture
 Creativity can only be taught in educational institute via creative teaching
 Innovative ideas for teaching:
It is generally said, “The best teachers are those who show you where to look, but don‟t
tell you what to see”. The biggest challenge in today‟s scenario is to make the students sit
and concentrate on what you as a teacher want to teach them. For making this happen, the
focus has to be laid on how to teach. Some of the following practices can be taken into
consideration:
 Creative teaching- will capture their interest and excite their minds, can be done
by introducing the topic with the help of visual exercises followed by welcome of
different ideas and freedom to undertake relevant activities.
 Audio and video Tools- incorporation of tools like models or filmstrips or
movies or pictures, info graphics or other mind mapping or brain mapping tools or
smart apps will help the imaginations of students to grow further as these
stimulate more than one sense at a time.
 “Real-world” learning- by relating the topic or agenda with real life situations
make the targeted listeners more attentive, involved and focused.
24
 Brainstorming- will make many brains to focus on a single issue with multi-
oriented solutions. Such techniques provide a positive platform to voice the
thoughts of students. The brainstorming can be simple or group or paired
brainstorming. But it has to be framed with some ground rules.
 Classes outside the classroom- relevant field trips not only break the boredom of
four walled teaching but also refresh the students and enhance long lasting
learning.
 Role Play- helps in strengthening interpersonal relationships amongst them and
the students step out of comfort zone easily.
 Storyboard teaching- induces step by step learning, enhances imagination and
visualisation of complex concepts
 Welcome new ideas- make teacher as well students receptive to change and open-
minded.
 Work together- inculcation of team spirit invites interesting teaching strategies
from other colleagues to make your teaching innovative.
 Initiate clubs or groups- provides a platform to share and grow your and
student‟s passion
 Make your profession as passion- passionate teaching neither makes you feel
bored not your students dumb. Stress free teaching is naturally creative and
effective, as it is generally said “Mind is like a parachute, it only works when it is
free”.
 Introduce your topic in the best possible way- best beginning is half battle won.
An interesting introduction of the topic will make your target listeners adhere to
you and the topic.
 Powerful question- set by a teacher can help in stimulating curiosity and
generating creativity.
Hence a positive attitude and environment plays the key role in creating and
enhancing creativity and innovation amongst the members of any institution.
Practice Task
25
a) Creativity is both ________ and _______
b) __________ can capture the interest and excite the mind of students
Q2. Short questions
a) What are the various barriers to creativity?

b) How can you inculcate creativity?
c) Suggest three innovative ideas for teaching.
Feedback
a) inherent and acquired
b) Creative teaching
Q2. Short answers

a) Barriers to creativity are
 More use of virtual objects rather than real stuff
 Rigidities of rule and regulation in an institute
 Lack clarity of expectations
b) Creativity can be inculcated by the following:

 Make curriculum problem solving based
 Appoint faculty of desired qualities
 Provide openness and freedom to teachers
c) Three innovative ideas for teaching

 Creative teaching to capture mind of students
 Using audio visual aids
 Incorporation of digital aids like clips, films etc
 Role play and story board teaching
Conclusion
For the survival and further success, especially when the socio-economic and cultural
scenario throughout the world is fast changing, it is extremely vital that the educational
26
institutions prepare themselves for the change. They need to be responsive to these changes
by designing strategic plans and adopting innovative strategies; otherwise they shall be out of
business. Using planned change model based actions, out of box thinking of faculty and staff
shall only make them sail through the tide of changed trends and expectations.
Bibliography
1. Adriansen, H.K. (2010) How criticality affects students‟ creativity. In C. Nygaard, N. Courtney
& C. Holtham (eds.) Teaching creativity – creativity in teaching, pp.65-84. Libri Publishing,
UK
2. Bruce, A. and Birchall, D. (2009), Fast Track to Success: Innovation, Prentice Hall,
Edinburgh Gate, Harlow
3. Dawson, P. and Andriopoulos, C., 2014. Managing Change, Creativity and Innovation. Sage.
4. Grossman, S.R., Rogers, B.E. and Moore G.R. (2006). Unlocking Creativity in the
Workplace, Jaico Publishing House, Mumbai.
5. http://www.styljanje.com/manage-creativity-and-innovation-within-the-organisation/ Janja
Popović Sept. 2017
6. https://medium.com/@janja.popovic/how-to-manage-creativity-and-innovation-within-the-
organisation-76dc447b6cb6
7. https://reva.edu.in/blog/importance-of-creativity-and-innovation-in-academics Importance of
Creativity and Innovation in Academics
8. https://www.heflo.com/blog/business-management creativity and innovation management:
organised chaos? By Pierre Veyrat Sept. 12, 2017
1
9. https://www.managementstudyguide.com/forces-of-organizational-change.htm/
10. Mansouri, Ali (2015) Building a Culture of Creativity and Innovation in Higher Education
Institutions.
Supporting learning material: by Dr. Rakesh K Wats

 Managing Planned Change - Need, Importance and Process
 Managing Creativity and Innovation
 Establishing a Climate for Creativity and Innovation
Web resources
 Kurt Lewin's Change Model Organization Change and Development

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oDzwYp2CXxo
 Theories of Planned Change,Development
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s9OF4OA9mx0
27
 Creativity and Innovation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FXJUDyqobbM
 Managing Excellence through Innovation & Creativity By Dr RK Watts
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ECanMeLQuSU
 Managing Creativity and Innovation Harvard Business Essentials
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-8b1weVNZBg
*************
28
UNIT 13
MANAGEMENT OF GOALS, TIME AND

ATTITUDES
Content Page no.

Broad Objective 3
Learning Outcomes 3
Introduction 4
8.13.1 Managing Goals

➢ Concept of Goal
➢ Characteristics of Goals
➢ Setting Goals Effectively
➢ Obtaining Commitment to Goals
Practice Test 8
Feedback 8
8.13.2Managing Time 10
➢ Causes of Time Wastage

➢ Conserving Personal time
Practice Test 15
1
Feedback 16
8.13.3 Managing Attitudes 17
 Concept of Attitude
 Benefits of Positive Attitude
 How Attitudes get formed?
 Attitude Structure
 Attitude Change
 Developing and Maintaining a Positive Attitude
Practice Test 21
Feedback 21
Conclusion 23
Bibliography 23
2
UNIT 13
MANAGEMENT OF GOALS, TIME AND

ATTITUDES
Dr. Sunil Dutt Professor & Head Education and Educational Management Department, National
Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Sector-26, Chandigarh (India)
Broad Objectives:
• Understand the concept, importance and management of

Goals
• Know the time wasters and management of time effectively
• Understand the concept, importance and development of
right attitudes
Learning Outcomes:
• Explain the concept and importance of Goal

• Describe the characteristics of a good Goal
• Explain the tips to managing goals
• Explain the concept and importance of Time
• Identify the causes of time wastage
• Explain the techniques of managing/utilizing time
• Explain the concept and importance of Attitude
3
• Explain the techniques of managing Attitude
Introduction
Dear learners, as you know that the performance of any productive system can be measured by two
factors: the effectiveness and the efficiency. Effectiveness is concerned with producing the right kind of
output possessing the desired characteristics Efficiency on the other hand, indicates the manner in which
the inputs are used by the system, i.e., the system uses inputs in a „right‟ way. For achieving effectiveness
and efficiency, it is essential for every individual to learn to manage goals, time and attitudes.
This learning material will enable learners apply the systematic approach to design of instruction.
8.13.1 Managing Goals
Many persons who are ambitious look at other colleagues, see what they produce, and set their own
goals slightly higher. Unfortunately, this won‟t make you productive. The majority of persons have
limited outputs. So even if you do 10 per cent more, your output will still be small. In order to
succeed in almost anything, it is necessary to set realistic, but ambitious goals. Now let us learn,
what a goal is? What are the characteristics of good goals? How the goals can be managed?
 Concept of Goal:
A goal setting is the basic skill in planning any activity in the organization as the goal provides direction
for management decisions and the bench mark against which actual achievements can be measured.
Now, the question arises, what is a Goal?
A goal is the objective, target or end-result expected from the completion of tasks, activities, or
programs. Goals are the foundation of all our planning activities. They provide the direction for
management decisions as well as the criteria against which actual accomplishments can be measured.
Goal setting serves four main purposes:
4
• It provides an explicit, recorded statement of what one intends to accomplish.
• Setting goals provides a basis for measuring performance of an individual in particular and that of an
institution in general.
• What is expected and what is desired increases positive motivation to achieve goals.
• Knowledge about where you exactly want to go is more likely to get you there than trying different
strategies haphazardly.
 Organizational goals can be:
 Official goals which are developed by the upper management in the organization. Can you
list a few with respect to your organization?
 Operative goals for which middle management is responsible. Can you list a few with
respect to your organization?
 Operational goals for which first line supervisors and employees are responsible. Can you
list a few with respect to your organization?
The basis of good is stating goals explicitly. Clarifying goals involves making sure that all employees
have understood:
I. What they are being asked to do (their areas of accountability) and II. What good performance
looks like (performance standards by which they will be evaluated).
 Characteristics of Goals:
Following basic characteristics can guide us in defining and setting

goals:
❖ Specific. A goal is meaningful to an employee only when it clearly indicates his or her task
which in turn, can be objectively measured. As a manager, define the employee‟s task as
completely and specifically as possible. This can be achieved by using the language in which
the employee can understand. If the goal is vague, e.g., please do the best you can, the
employee would interpret in different ways depending upon his/her knowledge, ability,
experience and ambition. On the other hand, if the goal is specific, e.g., decrease failure rate by
10%, would direct the employee to the desired response.
❖ Challenging. If the goals are reached too easily, they would offer no challenge to the employee.
5
On the other hand, if set unrealistically beyond his/her reach, goals would create frustration and
tension and, thus, employees settle for performance much more than their capabilities.
❖ Time Limits. Open-ended goals, not linked with a specific time limit are likely to be neglected
because no sense of urgency is associated with them. As a manager, assign tasks to employees
indicating a time limit.
❖ Employee Participation. Goal setting motivates people, increases their commitment when they
are involved in their own goal setting. Thus. They will tend to engage in much more goal-
directed activity. On the other hand, if the goals are assigned by the manager, the employees are
likely to give up more easily because they perceive these as their boss‟s goal and not as their
own.
❖ Feedback. Feedback shows you how you are progressing in relation to your desired outcome.
Tell people how they are doing by regularly assessing their work. Inform them of their strengths
and weaknesses and indicate specifically how they can improve upon their performance.
 Setting Goals Effectively:
Goal setting is an essential tool for thinking about your future vision/dream, and for motivating
yourself to turn the vision/dream of the future into reality. The following steps can be employed for
establishing goals:
 Setting Goals: Employees will make a real effort to achieve goals which they perceive as
specific, measureable, attainable, time bound and realistic. Define and indicate to the employee
what you expect of them in clear words, i.e., define their job descriptions (what they are
expected to perform, how these are to be performed, time limits etc.). Set interim goals for
yourself or your subordinate to accomplish in the next three to six months.
 Mutual Goal Setting: Involving employees in setting goals would result in ready acceptability
of these goal by them.
 Setting Priorities: Almost everybody is ambitious but few know what they really want to
achieve. Ask yourself, which goals are most important? Is there a real need to do the task in
hand at all? Prioritize your goals/tasks with a specific deadline for each goal. Focus on “A”
tasks which are most significant.
6
 Measurable Indicators: Set and make known the criteria of measuring the attainment of goals.
Establish a system of obtaining feedback to know if the person is doing the job well.
 Standards of Performance: Set clear and unambiguous standards. Let them know what is
expected of them. There should be minimal, acceptable and outstanding levels of performance
determined for each goal.
 Incentives and Benefits: Devise a scheme of providing incentives and benefits if an employee
is doing a good job.
 Obstacles to Goal Accomplishment: Anticipate the problems that are likely to be faced by the
employees towards the accomplishment of their goals.
 Action Steps: Prepare an action plan indicating the steps to be undertaken to accomplish the
goals.
 Praising and Reward: What happens if the goal is accomplished?
 Reprimands and Redirection: Prepare a plan of action in case the goal is not accomplished.
 Obtaining Commitment to Goals:
The mere existence of goals is no assurance that employees accept and are committed to them.
Actually commitment to work towards goal attainment comes from inside. Hence, goal setting will not
work if the employee is not internally committed to his/her goals. In order to increase acceptance and
commitment, a manager can employ the following tips:
❖ Explain goal relevance to personal needs and values. Inform the employees about the
relevance/rationale of institutional goals to their personal needs and values and how their
7
achievement will ultimately benefit him/her.
❖ Provide managerial support. Employees should be given enough support in the form
infrastructure, other resources, time etc. required for achieving goals. Be visible to the
employees as they may need your guidance and support.
❖ Use participation. Research has indicated that commitment increases when manager and
employees are jointly involved in their goal setting. They tend to engage in much more goal-
directed activity before they become frustrated and give up. Encourage them to contribute their
ideas toward goal accomplishment.
❖ Convince employees that goal attainment is within their capabilities. Employees should be
made aware of their potentialities and accepted as they are. This will help them to enhance their
self-worth, contribute to their aspirations and, in turn, will motivate them for work.
❖ Use rewards on attainment of their goals in a timely manner. Be fair in giving rewards. Do not
reward all individuals equally. Rewards should be based on performance. Create competitions
for rewards.
Practice Task:
A. Define a goal.
B. Differentiate between Official and Operative Goals of an organization.
C. State the basic characteristics of a Good Goal.
D. Are the following statements with regard to goal setting True OR False ?
a. Participation of people reduces employee commitment to
goals.
b. To avoid confusing employees, leader should never deviate
from original plans.
Feedback
A. A goal is the objective, target or end-result expected from the completion of tasks,
8
activities, or programs.
B. Official goals are, developed by upper management, whereas Operative goals are those for
which middle management is responsible.
C. Specific; Challenging; Time Limits; Employee Participation; and Feedback.
D. (a) False (b) False
9
8.13.2Managing Time
Time is a valuable, scarce and irreplaceable resource, once it has passed, it can never be reclaimed. If you
can't get yourself organized and need more than 24 hours in a day, it means you need to know how you
can make your own time more productive. Since we are unable to alter the 24/7 plan but we can follow
certain guidelines for getting the most out of time available to all of us in an organization. The present
module cannot tell you how to add extra hours to your day, it can enable you to lift time pressure burden
from your mind by helping you to train yourself to do more in less time without extra fatigue of loss of
effectiveness.
For an individual, working in an organization or managing his/her section/unit/department, to be really

productive, it is essential not only to work hard but to be organized, set priorities, juggle conflicting
demands and duties, and consciously plan and schedule personal time, i.e. to work smarter, not harder.
Time has been regarded as the most important parameter in determining the performance and, hence a
section head/manager has to make a study of how his time is spent. An ineffective head/manager can
improve upon his effectiveness if he makes a study of how his time is spent, analyzed the study and
finds out the areas which need his personal involvement and those which do not. This demands,
therefore, time management. An effective head/manager does his time management by maintaining a
diary of precisely what he does each day and the activity time. This data collection will identify the
areas in which the head/manager has difficulty in time management. An analysis of how one spends
one‟s time and improves upon effectiveness and efficiency in the work would make him/her an
organized personality.
 Causes of Time Wastage:
Generally, people blame others for their poor use of time and point out external factors as the primary
source of time waste. In reality, the person concerned himself/herself is mainly responsible for wastage
of time. Following are the important causes of time wastage:
10
 Indecision. Lack of ability to decide quickly and accurately is a source of time wastage. Can
you identify reasons of indecision?
 Failure to delegate. An ineffective head/manager trying to do everything personally and is not

entrusting to another person a job together with the authority to do it, is simply contributing to
wastage of effort and time.
 Procrastination. Procrastination, the world‟s number one time – waster, is a Latin word for
tomorrow. It implies the tendency of postponing things due to one reason or the other. Can you
identify the reasons?
 Failure to Communicate Failure to communicate effectively is the root cause of wasted effort.
When the superior does not give precise directions or does not accurately communicate the
assignments to those who were to carry them out leading to wastage of time.
 Lack of Planning and Prioritizing When the tasks are not properly planned and prioritized,
the employees get deviated from the goal of the section or the organization.
 Interruptions Many interruptions in the organization like frequent telephone calls or mobile
notifications, drop-in visitors on regular intervals, the hastily called meetings etc. cause wastage
of time. Can you identify more reasons at your workplace?
 Lack of Focus/Starting Point Many a times the task seems so large that you do not know
where to begin. The employee spends valuable time in thinking about the task itself.
 Poor Filing System One becomes confused when file folders are not labeled properly and the
papers/documents are not filed in the concerned files timely. Thus, you lose time and energy
when things are harder to locate.
11
 Over Commitment As already discussed, effectiveness at work depends upon knowing what to
do and what not to do. Over-commitment is a sure road to failure or a breakdown in your
health.
 Failure to Look Ahead. It means dealing with the problems only after they have become so
severe that they demand immediate attention.
 Lack of Self-discipline/Motivation Lack of self-discipline makes a person just wish to do

things, yearning and wanting to achieve something, but he/she is not able to do anything well or
on time. In addition, when the subordinates are not motivated, their commitment decreases.
 Poor Interpersonal Relations Can you comment on „how poor interpersonal relations result in
wastage of time?
There could be more causes of time wastage. For example, simply being tired contributes to wasted
time (wasting time during tea or smoking); Poor physical and mental state can make the situation even
worse. Can you identify more causes of time wastage at your workplace?
 Conserving Personal time:
Determination to make best use of time is essential. Following approaches may be useful in improving
time efficiency:
 Communicate properly. Do it right the first time is the good rule of time management.
Communicating effectively helps one to achieve time management. Always provide clear,
concise and legible instructions to your employees. Use a common language and develop
an art of listening.
 Learn to Delegate Overcome the need to do everything yourself. Delegating as much as

possible to others is central to effective management of time. Delegation will help you to
motivate your employees, train them and which, in turn, develop them besides lightening
12
your burden. Learn how to delegate and what to delegate.
 Control Interruptions Manage your emails and phone calls to real communications and
don't let them manage you. Avoid using phone calls, and other social media as a tool for
socializing. Plan outgoing calls and emails as it will save lot of your time. Plan your time
for checking emails/WhatsApp or Facebook massages, and avoid continuous notification of
incoming emails. Delegate information giving/inquiry calls. In addition, do not believe in
open door policy. Set a definite appointment with a definite duration. e.g., daily at
11.30AM for 15 minutes for subordinates, and at 4.30PM for 30 minutes for visitors
 Make up your mind to Decide quickly Be quick in decision making rather than
postponing. Avoid crisis management by becoming creative and introducing different ways
of doing things. Handle mails just once and decide what is to be done to it.
 Learn to say No Effectiveness at work depends upon knowing what not to do. Learn to
decline it politely, and constructively. Stick to your decisions. If you find it difficult to say
'No' at the first instance, you may do it easily by citing reasons to justify your position, e.g.,
"I understand this is urgent for you, but I have other priorities which I must deal with first
for the good of the business". You may show people your schedule, which justifies and
proves how you prioritize and manage your time.
 Cut down Paper Work Scrap unnecessary reports, forms, books, files etc. Keep a clean
desk and well-organized systems, but don't be obsessive about it. Send copy to only directly
concerned section or employee. Make a habit of clearing the desk completely or at least
organizing before leaving the office as it will get you the next day off to a good start.
 Carefully Plan and Set Priorities Planning is the keystone to time management. We
plan our activities, however, to avoid consequences even more unpleasant than the labour
of planning. Writing down a plan makes a stronger commitment to goal accomplishment.
Time management enables you commit to action plan. Set a deadline for the plan. A good
manager always plans his/her day the night before. You can prepare a „to do list‟ for the
next day. Prioritization of activities makes you an organized personality. Prepare a „to do
list‟ both for yourself and your subordinates.
13
You may make an analysis of how you are currently and effectively spending your time. In case,
you are unable to do it, keep a time log for a few days. Indicate the activity involved each day in
each time block for one full week and ask questions yourself: was this a typical week? If not, why?
Which phone calls were unnecessary? And why? and so on. Knowing exactly what's wrong will
surely help you to improve it. An example of a time log is given here:
Time Log
NAME:
DATE:
ACTIVITY START FINISH TIME SPENT HOW DO COMMENTS

YOU PLAN
THIS, DO
NOW?
Prepare a time budget for repetitive tasks such as weekly review meetings, tests etc. Studies have
shown that the more time we spend planning a project, the less we require for actually completing it.
14
Use a diary or an activity planner for scheduling what and when to do things, and time-slots for things
you know will need doing or responding to.
 Keep yourself Physically and Mentally Balanced Enjoy what you are doing. Express
emotions and cultivate tolerance and understanding of others‟ feelings. Take time to relax as it
reduces stress. Conserve your energy and build your health by following sensible guidelines
over sleep, diet, rest, relaxation.
 Give yourself an Appraisal You may ask yourself: What are your strengths & weaknesses?
What are the tasks you do well or the tasks you don‟t do well? Or What knowledge, skills and
attitudes you need to acquire to become more effective in your work. After critically analyze
yourself, you may identify areas in which you require training.
 Become an Organized Personality When faced with a pile of things to do, you go through
them quickly and make a plan of what to do and when. After this do first thing first or one at a
time. Do not under any circumstances leave tasks half-way. Avoid attempting lots of jobs at
once - even if you can handle different tasks at the same time. Set daily targets and be firm and
diplomatic in dealing with time allocated for phone calls, e-mails, meetings, paperwork, and
visitors, etc. To conclude, time is the scarcest resource and, unless it is managed, nothing else
can be managed. Therefore, management should view time as an asset/resource and not as
something to be watched or feared. For improving your own time management, you may train
yourself towards better planning; prioritizing; understanding yourself; controlling your
environment; delegating; and identifying what habits, routines and attitude that you need to
change.
Practice Task
E. The best strategy for planning out your time effectively is:
a) Delay any unnecessary work
b) Prioritize all your tasks
c) Ignore all the unexpected work
15
d) All of these
F. The best time management technique(s) is/are:.
a) Clean up and get organized
b) Concentrate on one key task at a time
c) Make good use of technology
d) All of these
G. Procrastination refers to the tendency of postponing things on to
next day.
H. Name the interruptions in the work place.
I. List a number of practical matters which need final attention or adjustment before operational
installation of a system.
Feedback
E. (b)
F. (d).
G. Yes, you are True.
H. Frequent telephone calls; drop-in visitor without an appointment; colleague indulging in gossip when
you in thought process etc.
16
8.13.3 Managing Attitudes
Your attitude contributes to success. Now the question is: can a leader/manager be a good leader/manager
without a good attitude? Can parents, teachers, sales persons, employees/employers be good in their roles
without a good attitude? People develop certain attitudes and tend to make decisions based on these
attitudes. Thus, for achieving efficiency and effectiveness at work or in personal life, it is essential for
every individual to learn to manage attitudes at his/her level.
 Concept of Attitude:
An attitude is a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some
degree of favor or disfavor (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). An attitude is "a general and enduring positive or
negative feeling about some person, object, or issue." (Petty & Cacioppo, 1981). In other words, these are
17
evaluative statements – favourable or unfavourable – concerning people, objects, or events. These reflect
how we feel about something. When someone says „I like my job‟, he/she is expressing his/her
attitude about work.
Attitudes are the accepted ways of responding to situations that we have learned, based on our values,
beliefs, and assumptions we hold. We acquire attitudes from our parents, teachers and peers. We watch
the manner our family and friends behave, and accordingly we shape our attitudes and behaviour to adjust
with theirs. People copy the attitudes of popular individuals or those they respect and admire.
Your attitude is the first thing people pick up during face-to-face conversation. Attitude is infectious just
as laughing, yawning, and crying are infectious. In organizations, attitudes are important because they
affect job bahaviour. If employees believe, e.g., that leaders or managers are all in conspiracy to make
employees work harder for the same or less money, then, it makes sense to try to understand how these
attitudes were formed, their relationship to actual job behavioiur and how they can be made more
favourable.
A person can have thousands of attitudes, but organizational behaviour focuses our attention to a limited
number of job related attitudes. Here we will deal with three attitudes:
❖ Job satisfaction implies an employee‟s general attitude towards his/her job, i.e., an employee with
a high level of job satisfaction is likely to hold positive attitude towards the job.
❖ Job involvement indicates the extent, to which an employee identifies with his/her job, actively
participates in it, and considers his/her performance important to self-worth. It is related to fewer
absences and lower resignation rates.
❖ Organizational Commitment is an employee‟s orientation towards the organization in terms of
his/her identification, loyalty and involvement. Less committed employee is more likely to see
himself/herself as an outsider.
 Benefits of Positive Attitude:
Let us have a look at benefits of Positive attitudes to an individual in specific and an organization in
general as detailed below:
For you as an individual For Organizations
– Makes for a pleasant personality – Increases productivity/profits
18
– Is vitalizing – Fosters team work, better relations with
– Enhances your enjoyment of life colleagues
– Helps inspires others around you – Improves quality
– Helps you become a contributing member – Makes for a congenial atmosphere
of society & an asset to country – Reduces stress
– Breeds loyalty
However, negative attitudes lead to resentment, bitterness, ill health, a purposeless life and high stress
levels. The characteristics of a Positive Employee can be summarized as:
● He/she knows hard work is good for the soul (a sense of being a competent person)
● He/she decides to enjoy his/her work ... no matter what.
● He/she sees the good in every situation.
● He/she asks how they can do more than is expected.
 How Attitudes get formed?
Attitudes are formed by various factors, including our experiences, our personal values, and our
personalities. Let us take an example: if we value honesty and sincerity, we are likely to form favourable
attitudes towards a manager whom we believe to be very honest and hard working. Knowledge of the
basic structure of an attitude helps us to see how attitudes are formed and can be changed.
 Attitude Structure:
Attitudes contain three components:

❖ Affect: A person‟s affect (feelings/interests/values) is toward something. For example, he does
not like Ramesh because he discriminates against persons with disabilities.
❖ Cognition: A person‟s cognition refers to the knowledge he/she presumes to have about
something. For example, you may intend to work with a leader/manager because you think you
know where he/she stands on several issues.
❖ Intention: An intention guides a person‟s behaviour. For example, if you like your
leader/manager, you may tend to take another assignment from him next time. When two sets of
cognitions are contradictory, a person experiences a level of conflict and anxiety called cognitive
dissonance. Because the attitudes are contradictory with each other, the person probably will
19
experience a certain amount of stress and discomfort and may try to reduce these feelings by
changing the attitude, or altering the behaviour.
 Attitude Change:
Attitudes do not remain stable as personality attributes. New information, e.g., may change attitudes. In
addition, attitudes can also change when the object of the attitude becomes less important or irrelevant to
the person. Individuals may change their attitudes as a way to reduce cognitive dissonance. Stress is
another condition that distorts attitudes. Can you think about situations when we change our
attitudes?
 Developing and Maintaining a Positive Attitude:
You may develop positive attitudes by feeling good about ourselves. The following tips may help you to
build positive attitudes amongst yourself and others in the organizations:
 Engage in positive Self-talk. Change negative self-talk into positive self-talk.
 Believe in yourself and say „I can do‟.
 Visualize the Positive that you are a good, productive person would help you develop a positive
 attitude.
 Look for the bright side.
 Put your sense of humour to work (Making work fun).
 Establish challenges. Analyze yourself: what are your strengths? Weaknesses? Set you goals to
 overcome your weaknesses and enhance your strengths.
 Develop healthy personal relationships with your colleagues.
 Make a Habit of doing it now.
 Turn a radio/music on. Read motivational books or view inspiring videos.
 Reward yourself. Enjoy a cup of coffee on completing an assignment with family or friends.
 Be open-minded and obtain feedback from your superiors and subordinates.
 Beware of negative people, i.e., stay away from negative influences.
 Creating job satisfaction (learn to treat burnout, work holism, stress)
 Keep your life balanced. Start your day with something positive.
 Don‟t give up. Show perseverance.
20
 Attack problems head-on. Present your boss with suggestions for solving problems rather than
just problems. Be honest about problems.
Practice Task
I. A general and enduring positive or negative feeling about some object, person, object,
event or issue is called as a(n)___________.
J. Job involvement is an individual‟s general attitude towards
his/her job.
K. Attitudes have three components: affect, cognition and behaviour.
L. Work attitudes can be reflected in an institution/organization through
a) Job Satisfaction c) Both (a) and (b)
b) Organizational Commitment d) Neither (a) nor (b)
Feedback
I. Attitude
J. Yes, the correct answer is False.
K. Yes, the correct answer is True.
L. (c)
21
Conclusion
To conclude, an attitude is a psychological tendency that is expressed be assessing a particular entity with
some degree of favour or disfavor. It can affect an individual behavior which, in turn, the productivity of
an organization. Thus, we need to know the tips of building positive attitudes amongst ourselves and our
dear and near ones.
22
Bibliography:
1. Adair, J (1989). Effective Time Management. Calcutta: Rupa and Cop.

2. Dalton, M. Hoyle, DG & Watts, MW (2000) Human Relations. 2nd Edition, USA: South –
Western Educational Publishing.
3. Drucker, PF (1964). Effective Executives (Plan Management Series) London: Pan Books.
4. Eagly, AH & Chaiken, S (1993). The psychology of attitudes. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt, Brace,
& Janovich, 794 pp.
5. Hersey, P., Blanchard, KH & Johnson, DE (2000), Management of Organizational Behaviour,
New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.
6. Hunsaker, PL (2001). Training in Management Skills. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
7. Khera, Shiv (2014). You Can Win: A Step by Step Tool for Top Achievers. Bloomsbury India.
8. Lauren, RJ & Susan, KJ (1991). Time Management for Executives. Calcutta: Rupa and Co.
9. Manktelow, J and Birkinshaw, J (2018). Mind Tools for Managers - 100 Ways to be a better
Boss. New Jersey: John Wiley @ Sons, Inc.
10. Moorhead, G and Griffen, RW (1999). Organisational Behaviour – Managing People and
Organization. Delhi: AITBS Publishers and Distributors.
11. Mullins, LJ (1998). Management and Organizational Behaviour. Allahabad: Wheeler Publishing
– A division of AH Wheeler and Co. Ltd.
12. Petty, RE; Cacioppo, JT & Goldman, R (1981). Personal involvement as a determinant of
argument-based persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41(5), 847-855.
13. Robbins, SP (1994). Organizational Behaviour – Concept, Controversies and Applications, New
Delhi. Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.
14. Thomas, M (2004). A New Attitude. Delhi: Jaico Publishing House.
15. Support Learning Resources:
16. Video film on „Managing SMART Goals‟ developed/recorded by Professor (Dr.) Sunil Dutt,
NITTTR, Chandigarh.
17. Video film on „Time – Concept, Value and Time Wasters‟ developed/recorded by Professor (Dr.)
18. Video film on „Managing Time Effectively‟ developed/recorded by Professor (Dr.) Sunil Dutt,
NITTTR, Chandigarh.
23
19. Video film on „Attitude – Concept and Importance‟ developed/recorded by Professor (Dr.) Sunil
Dutt, NITTTR, Chandigarh. Video film on „Managing Attitudes‟ developed/recorded by
Professor (Dr.) Sunil Dutt, NITTTR,Chandigarh.
Web Resources
1. Aggarwal, Shashi (2018). Attitude Part 1: Organization Behaviour. https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=tyn37X2-2WY.
2. Usha, BK (2011). Leadership Attitude. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ncEU6PVzfBs.
3. SWS Psychology (2017). Attitude / Components of Attitude / feature of attitude.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YwZ7TIak5Xw.
4. Maheshwari, Sandeep (2017). Time Management Tips | How to utilize time effectively|
Time Management. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7OwAeYLDysg.
5. Vaden, Rory (2015). How to Multiply your Time. https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=y2X7c 9TUQJ8.
6. GCFLearnFree.org (2018). Tips for Effective Time Management. https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=RiI1NkaDXlQ.
7. The Art of Improvement (2018). A Complete Guide to Goal Setting. https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=XpKvs-apvOs.
8. Better than Yesterday (2018). Setting SMART Goals - How to Properly Set a Goal.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PCRSVRD2EAk.
9. Adams, RL. 15 Time Management Tips for Achieving Your Goals. https://www.entrepreneur.
com/article/299336 (downloaded on 07.08.2019).
10. MindTools. Personal Goal Setting. Planning to Live Your Life Your Way. https://www.
mindtools.com/page6.html
24
25
UNIT 8.14

MONITORING AND CONTROLLING FOR HIGHER
PERFORMANCE
Content Page No.
Broad Objective 4
Learning Outcomes 4
Introduction 4
8.14.1 Monitoring and Controlling-Concepts and 5
Processes
➢ Characteristics of Good Monitoring System

➢ Process of Monitoring:
➢ Control
➢ Need for Control
➢ Characteristic of Control
➢ Process of Control
➢ Frameworks for Monitoring and Control
1
Practice Task 10
Feedback 10
8.14.2 Designing Effective Institutional Control Systems 11
 Controlling Quality of Students Entering Higher Education

 Controlling Size of Affiliating Universities
 Control Salary of Faculty
 Control Culture
 Control Methodology
 Control Assessment Methods
 Controlling Accountability
 Controlling Continuous Improvement
 Control Certificate Courses
 Control Quality of Top Leaders in Educational Institutions
 Control Research
 Control Collaborations
 Control Student Feedback
 Harness Creativity Potential
 Control Accessibility
 Control Employability
 Control Interference of Political Parties Control Influence of
English language and western culture
 Proposed Model for Effective Institutional Control Systems
Practice Task 19
Feedback 19
8.14.3 Legal and Disciplinary Proceedings - CCS (CCA) 20

RULES, 1965
Practice Task 28
2
Feedback 28
Conclusion 29
Bibliography 29
3
Unit 8.14
Institutional Management Process: Monitoring and
Controlling for Higher Performance
NITTTR, Chandigarh
Supportive Team Dr. Bimal Anjum
Broad Objective
The broad objective of this unit is make the
learners understand the importance of monitoring
and control in directing the institute towards the
achievement of set objectives by measuring,
analyzing and correcting the performance
initiatives undertaken by the institute. It shall make
him aware about the steps to be taken in designing
an appropriate control system for his institute.
Learning Outcomes
● Understand the concept and importance of monitoring and control in evaluating and enhancing
the performance of an educational institution.
● Understand the framework of monitoring and control in an institution.
● Identify the parameters of an effective institutional control system.
● Design an effective monitoring and control system for his institution.
4
Introduction
Every institute undertakes many strategic decisions and actions for fulfilling its mission. In this process,
some of the actions prove effective, some less effective, which need to be corrected or improved. This is a
process, which need to be undertaken by any institute on a continuous basis, otherwise the initiatives shall
go astray. This whole system of collecting and analysing data and planning corrective actions is called
monitoring and control system. This system helps an institution in setting its right course of action for
achieving its goals and mission.
The present unit shall provide inputs on the concept and importance of monitoring and control, frame
work of monitoring and control, and parameters of an effective institutional control system. The unit shall
provide an understanding to the learners to design an appropriate control system for their institution.
8.14.1 Monitoring and Controlling-Concepts and Processes
Monitoring is a process of collecting, recording and analysing the information about the execution of
explicit and implicit plans to achieve desired objectives.
Monitoring is a continuous process where the collection of information is done at predetermined

frequency. Monitoring provides timely feedback and signs of problems in the implementation of plans.
Monitoring is designed to assist management and key stakeholders to take timely decisions to ensure
stated objectives are achieved. Monitoring provides inputs for timely intervention and corrective actions
to resolve the issues.
➢ Characteristics of Good Monitoring System:

● Purpose of monitoring should be well defined.
● Frequency of monitoring should be decided in advance.
● Methodology of monitoring should be objective and should not leave room for subjectivity and
bias.
● Nature of data should be clearly defined in advance to ensure clarity in monitoring key variables.
● It should give timely inputs to allow corrective action to be initiated so that desired objectives can
be achieved.
5
● Monitoring system should be cost effective.
● Monitoring system should be result oriented.
● Monitoring system must be able to identify the root problems.
● Monitoring system should assist top management and administrators to take right decisions.
● Monitoring system must fix the responsibilities of individuals so that monitoring brings a positive
change by enhancing accountability.
● Monitoring system should give accurate and reliable information.
➢ Process of Monitoring:
Monitoring involves following steps:
● Scanning of internal and external environment.

● Establishing targets/objectives
● Develop plans for implementation of targets/objectives
● Finalize the units of monitoring
● Finalize the frequency of monitoring
● Fixing responsibility of individuals at different levels of hierarchy
● Develop the methodology of monitoring
● Execute monitoring methodology as a pilot project.
● Review monitoring methodology based on outcome of pilot project.
● Implement revised monitoring methodology
● Collect data
● Analyze data
● Compare results with objectives
● Report the monitoring results.
● Review outcomes of monitoring and Adapt the monitoring
➢ Control:
Control is a management activity aimed at ensuring that people do what they are supposed to do.
Control system works on establishing objectives, measuring actual performance, comparing
6
actual performance with target performance, taking action to correct the deviation of performance
from target performance. Control focuses on results.
➢ Need for Control:
Control systems are needed as individuals do not always do what they are supposed to do.
Control is needed to mitigate the outcomes of undesirable actions and undesirable behaviors of
individuals. Control helps the organization/institutions to learn from experience.
➢ Characteristic of Control:
● Action oriented: Control is aimed to initiate action to correct the deviation from target
performance.
● Interlinked with Planning: Control is dependent on the planned objectives.
● Dependency on organizational structure: Control depends on structure of organization.
Control can function effectively only of organizational structure clearly specifies roles
and responsibilities of individuals.
● Authority: Control can work if responsible individuals are given adequate authority to
take necessary remedial action.
● Availability of Information: Control efficacy is dependent on accuracy and timely
availability of information to the competent authorities.
● Measurement of performance: Inaccurate and delayed measurement of performance
reduces the efficacy of control system.
➢ Process of Control:
Control comprises of four steps:
● Establishing targets
● Measuring actual performance
● Comparing actual performance with targets
● Correcting variance from targets
7
Higher education system in India has been under license raj even after liberalisation removed the
licence raj in business world to great extent. The emergence of knowledge economy and disruptions
in traditional business models has made it necessary for India to rethink the monitoring and control
system for higher education. Shrikanthan et al. (2002) recommended developing an integrated model
of quality in higher education.
OECD‐ DAC (2002) defines monitoring as “the ongoing, systematic collection of information to
assess progress towards the achievement of objectives, outcomes and impacts,” and it defines
evaluation as “the systematic and objective assessment of an ongoing or completed project,
programme or policy, its design, implementation and results, with the aim to determine the relevance
and fulfilment of objectives, development efficiency, effectiveness, impact and sustainability
(gsdrc.org).
➢ Frameworks for Monitoring and Control:

❖ Objective Evidence Based Monitoring and Control: The monitoring and control
mechanism need to use real time data on students, faculties, outcomes, research, financial
transactions. Asset based monitoring currently being used, has outlived its utility.
❖ Monitor the Service Recipient Feedback and Grievance: Education is for the students
who want to learn to enhance their life in many ways. All the monitoring and control
systems in India focus on service provider: management and faculties. No monitoring and
control system takes care of service recipient feedback. Students are treated like prisoners
of war. They have no redressal mechanism. The control mechanism must take care of the
feedback hierarchy with proper checks and balances to ensure teachers and institute
management does not harass the student.
❖ Continuous Monitoring: The existing monitoring and control mechanism is one time
activity to be done at the time of granting affiliation. That too with pre informed date of
inspections. Such pre planned inspections promote corrupt and unethical practices.
Teachers are hired only for a month or so to just present before the inspection team. After
the inspection is over the teachers are fired and again hired just before another inspection
that too is pre informed. The purpose of monitoring is defeated as the manipulation is
done in a manner that inspection team is able to find everything with regard to asset
8
based requirements is being followed. The real monitoring can happen if it is done
without any prior information. Corporate world also uses mystery shopping techniques to
measure actual quality being delivered to a customer, without service providing knowing
about the identity of customer.
❖ Technology Enabled Monitoring and Control: The use of technology by regulating
authority needs to be institutionalised. The attendance of students, entry of marks, and
lecture plan of faculties, interaction with students for feedback, online assignment and
learning support system are needed to enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of
monitoring mechanism.
❖ Monitoring the contents: The quality of education imparted would depend upon the
quality of content used by the faculties. In most of the educational institutions there is no
audit of the content delivered by the faculties. Preparing the soft copy, transcript of
lectures must be made mandatory. The content should be evaluated by an independent
subject expert. Similarly video recording of live lectures should be done to examine the
methodology used by the faculty. The recorded videos should be analysed by experts to
assess the actual real life delivery, participation of students and outcome of the lecture
delivery.
❖ Outcome Based Ranking: The accreditation and ranking agencies do asset based
evaluation. As a result of asset based evaluation, the outcome orientation is missing. The
educational institutes with best assets and infrastructure may have poor learning
outcomes, but still get affiliation and ranking.
❖ Monitor Faculty Turnover: The quality of management can be monitored by the
stability of faculties in an educational organisation. The faculty turnover data should be
published online and information of joining and vacancy of any employee must be
reported to regulatory agency within
❖ Monitor the Financial Transactions: The corporate sector is well regulated, as the
balance sheet is audited and is disclosed. It leads to efficient allocation of resources as
flow of funds is determined by market forces. On the other hand education sector is
unregulated in financial transactions. The lack of transparency has led to people with
criminal background enter into education as it has become a business without any
9
monitoring agency. All the educational institutions must disclose the balance sheets and
the balance sheet should be in public domain like corporate sector.
The reality is that education is managed as for profit activity, but allowed to work as not for profit
entity to serve political goal of donations for party funds. Declaring education as a section 25
company will improve composition of board of directors, governance, outcomes and
accountability of the educational institutions.
Practice Task
1. ……………….teach us allocation of funds in education.
A. Annual Budget B. Cash book C. Bank statement D. None of these
2. Institutional time table means
A. Institutional working hours B. Activities in Institute
C. Institutional controlling D. None of these
3. The most important tool for Educational institute is
A. Teaching B. Time table
C. Syllabus D. Assembly
4. Effective institutional environment is effected by-
A. Meeting pupil need B. Empowering staff
C. Friendly environment D. Monthly meeting
5. Major problem in making institutional management effective is-
A. Low literacy rate B. High drop out rate

C. Weak management D. None of these
10
Feedback
Answer:-1-A, 2-A, 3-B, 4-C, 5-C
8.14.2 Designing Effective Institutional Control Systems:
For the effectiveness of any educational system, it is very important that an appropriate system be
designed so that its output is controlled to meet the expectations its various stakeholders. Some of the
important control parameters of such a system need to be:
 Controlling Quality of Students Entering Higher Education:
To improve the quality of students entering higher education, the school education system must give
more emphasis on development of critical thinking skills and innovation outlook. It can be achieved
by reducing the component of written exam and increasing the component of project work which
should focus on creativity and innovation.
The discrepancy in curriculums of different state boards should be minimized by standardization

while protecting the positive aspects of existing curriculums of the state boards. A progressive
approach is required for success for success of such an endeavor
 Controlling Size of Affiliating Universities:
The existing affiliation system of state universities has become unmanageable due to large number of
affiliated colleges. The universities have become administrative bodies conducting exams only. The
universities with large number of affiliating colleges should be divided into separate universities
monitoring 50 colleges each. A criticism of such an approach may be unwillingness of affiliated
colleges to go to a new university for loss of brand value attached due to affiliation with an
established popular university. Such an apprehension may be managed by retaining the name of old
university and renaming it according to geographical area it covers or by adding name of the popular
place of that area along with the name of old university. In short term the new universities may have
to face some problems but in the long run these universities may emerge as centers of excellence due
to better management, academic freedom, and monitoring. The success of IIT and IIM justifies
11
establishment of small universities. IIT‟s and IIM‟s are small in size as compared to the number of
students in an affiliating university managing 300 to 400 colleges. Theses institutes have been gifted
with academic autonomy not available to an affiliated college. There is no reason why other
universities cannot become centers of excellence at international level. The Gajendragadkar
committee recommended that a university should have about 30 affiliated colleges (Dubhashi (1992).
 Controlling Salary of Faculty:
The private institutions are working for profits but it is shown that it is being managed by a charitable
societies. Yash Pal (2009) argued that the condition of charitable trust for running private higher
education institutions is being exploited by many investors who have no understanding of the
responsibilities of higher education institutions.
If for profit institutions can provide healthcare services, why not education? The pseudo-charitable
institutions run the higher education institutions to provide quality education or profit, can be
analyzed easily from the poor employability of graduates. These institutions hire faculties at the
lowest possible cost and treat them as a factor of production rather than as academic resource.
 ControllingCulture:
The student exchange process may also be initiated to develop cultural sensitivity. The students
should be motivated to discuss the doubts and challenge the status quo and existing theories. Hofstede
commented about Indian attitude as “dependent on the boss or the power holder for direction,
acceptance of un-equal rights between the power-privileged and those who are lesser down in the
pecking order” (Hofstede, 2014). Manikutty et al. 2007 found that high power distance cultures are
characterized by tendency for surface learning. Surface learning cannot promote critical thinking and
innovation.
 Controlling Methodology:
The learning orientation has traditionally been result oriented in India, focused on achievement of
marks or grades in exams both for the students, as well teachers. Kuruvilla 2010 argued that such
12
result oriented teaching results in rote learning by students. The teachers in higher education should
provide a platform for the students to understand the theories and also motivate them to challenge the
existing theories and work out innovative solutions and challenge the status quo. The teacher needs to
be expert in his/her subject to support student‟s journey to find a solution to the real world problems
by modifying and creating new approaches. Kuruvilla 2010 argued that a teacher should be challenger
in addition to complier and counselor.
 Controlling Assessment Methods:
The examination system should change the focus from reproduction of facts to analysis and
Fig. 14. 1 Bloom‟s taxonomy (Source: Forehand Marry and Overbaugh)
evaluation of facts and assess the higher order learning skills of students. The lower order thinking skills
have already been tested in school education. The higher education system must differentiate itself by
testing the higher order thinking skills.
The Blooms taxonomy as in above figure 14.1should be considered at the time of preparing the guidelines
and strategy for assessment of students.
13
The knowledge state represents ability to remember, not necessarily understanding. Comprehension
involves paraphrasing or writing in own words. Both knowledge and comprehension are tested at high
school level Analysis and application can be tested at undergraduate level. Synthesis and evaluation are
higher order skills suitable for master‟s students. The teachers must be sensitized about the need to assess
higher order thinking skills for students in higher education. Kuruvilla 2010 supported the use of bloom‟s
taxonomy and Anderson and Davie Krathwol approach for Indian students.
 Controlling Accountability:
The accountability of teachers should be increased along with performance based promotions and
salary increments. The teachers should be given quantifiable objectives for their operational
performance. Though academics cannot be considered like an assembly line producing graduates, the
task of a teacher can be conceptualized and converted into quantifiable targets. Absence of
quantifiable objectives leads to lack of accountability. The quantifiable objectives are feasible for
teaching community also. The objectives can be developed as a band of acceptable performance. The
top performers should be promoted, average performers should be supported by training and poor
performers should be motivated and counseled.
 Controlling Continuous Improvement:
The academic institutions should monitor the performance of students after they pass out, to work on
continuous improvement. Though it is difficult, it can be done by involvement of Human Resource
Managers and industry executives. The alumni network and association can play an important role in
this regard. The ranking agencies should also consider the feedback of alumni while assessing the
performance of the institutions. The feedback of the alumni can be used as an input to update
syllabus, pedagogy, industry academia interface, research and entrepreneurship.
 Controlling Certificate Courses:
Develop short term certificate courses for specific industry needs and enhance student‟s
employability. The degrees have lost the relevance due to mismatch of curriculum and industry needs.
Continuously adding new certificate courses for vocational education and ensuring the outcome are
14
achieved will pave the way for inclusive education, where people with no time or financial resources
and reach to traditional higher education system will also find an opportunity to develop skills and
contribute in the development of country.
 Controlling Quality of Top Leaders in Educational Institutions:
The administrators and teachers in supervisory positions should be trained in management skills for
better performance of higher education institutions. Such programs are being offered in Indian
Institute of Management. The culture, creativity, customer, collaboration and curriculum model offers
scope to manage the operations, motivation, research and development, and customer expectations
and establish India as a hub of quality higher education in the world. The integrated approach can
transform Indian higher education institutions as centers of excellence that shine as the best in the
world.
 Controlling Research:
No industry can compete with multinational companies from developed economies by importing
technology developed in these very countries. To challenge these multinational companies Indian
industry needs to strengthen the indigenous research and development. The industry can collaborate
with academia to work on innovative technologies. The creative ideas and energy of young
studentscan be transformed to successful technologies for the future. Higher education institutions can
leverage their expertise and provide a cost effective resource for research and development. The
academic institutions should identify research areas where they have the required expertise and
collaborate with industry for joint research or contract research. Such an initiative at the macro level
can transform Indian higher education system as the research hub for the world like China has
become the manufacturing hub of the world. Naik (2004) emphasized on the requirement of
innovation which leads to creation of wealth.
The investment in R&D in India is just 1 percent of GDP whereas it is 1.75 percent in China (Bettelle
2007 cited in Rizvi and Gorur, 2012). India also performs poorly in terms of number of active
researchers per million people is 119. Whereas there are 4605 active researchers in USA, China has
15
708 researchers per million. The share of India in global publication and citation is just 1% (Rizvi and
Gorur 2012). It was further commented that the quantity and quality both are poor.
 Controlling Collaborations:
The isolation of academia with industry is a major factor for the poor employability of graduates. The
skills required by industry are not possessed by graduates because teachers are working on their
curriculum in isolation with the industry. The dictate of the university restricts their creativity and
forces them to complete the syllabus so that students can pass the exams, without any regard to the
skills required by the industry. The institutions should give top most priority to keep the curriculum
based on learning outcomes to suit the needs of the industry. The institutions must involve industry in
framing syllabus, teaching material, projects and also assessment strategy in an environment of
mutual trust and respect. The students stand to gain from such a connection as they acquire skills
which enhance their employability. Institutions get better placement of their students and this will
help to improve their ranking and admissions. Industry will benefit by getting better quality of
graduates.
 Controlling Student Feedback:
The higher education system should be accountable to the students. Though students have never been
considered as customers in Indian higher education system, the time has come when the system must
become accountable to the needs of the customer in terms of better learning experience, skill
development, industry interface and employability.
The feedback system should be implemented and made mandatory in all institutions of higher
education. The students should be asked to give anonymous feedback on teaching, support services,
labs, library, internships and placements. These feedbacks should be evaluated buy the affiliating
universities and verified by conducting interaction sessions with the students. The students should
also be given the access to give feedback to the top management of the institutions and affiliating
university or regulatory authorities in case of autonomous colleges.
16
 Harnessing Creativity Potential:
Convert class room into activity and research room. The information technology can be used to
achieve such an objective. Students having laptops or smart phones, tablets can do literature review
and use search engines and prepare work on the assignments in class rooms under the guidance of
faculties. The availability of wi-fi facilities will go a long way to transform the learning experience.
The assessment strategy should be revised to give more weightage to creativity and innovation rather
than reproduction of facts and statements in written exams. The change in assessment criteria will
force student and faculties to focus on creativity and innovation.
 Controlling Accessibility:
The reliance on private sector institutions to fill the gap in demand and supply of higher education has
increased the cost the higher education. The commercial approach of private institutions can make the
higher education out of reach of financially weaker sections of society. 29.5% people are below
poverty line based on Rangarajan Committee in 2014 (Singh, 2014).
 Controlling Employability:
A report by Team Lease indicated that 57% youth in India suffer from some degree of un-
employability (TeamLease, 2007). The poor employability is associated with outdated curriculum
which does not meet the industry needs, weak industry academia collaborations, emphasis on
examinations and lack of focus on solving real life issues and ignoring soft skills.
Higher education institutes not able to provide a critical benchmark of average employability should
be closed down. The benchmark of employability should not be the highest placement package, but
average package and job profile of the passed out students.
 Controlling Interference of Political Parties:
Interference of politicians has deteriorated the academic standards of the higher education institutions.
The political affiliation is given preference over merit of individual in appointments from lower level
to higher level. The former Prime Minister also raised concern over political interference in
17
appointments in universities (Dr. Manmohan Singh in his address in Bombay University, Press
Information Bureau, 2007).
 Controlling Influence of English language and western culture:
The higher education system has only focused on knowledge generated by developed counties and
ignored the local pool of knowledge. To address needs of Indian society, the teacher education should
also take into consideration the local knowledge base (Rajput and Walia, 2002).
➢ Proposed Model for Effective Institutional Control Systems

Industry/Start Up/Government Organisations Providing Jobs
UGC/Regulatory Authorities (Outcomes Defined)
Prospective Students/Parents of prospective Students

University/Autonomous Institutions
Board of Studies/Board of Affiliation
Affiliated College
Department(HOD)
Society
Faculty Delivery
Student
Assessment
Result of Assessment Outcome not Achieved
Outcome Achieved
The existing system which is working in isolation needs to connect to the input (prospective students and
their parents) to understand their expectations and also connect with the output
(industy/startups/government organizations providing jobs and society to understand the change in
outcomes desired and the monitoring and control systems to achieve those desired outcomes. Failure of
existing system of higher education can be attributed to isolated style of working which to keep the
population deprived of empowerment through education due to lack of political will. Unless the funding
18
of political parties by education mafias will not end, no amount of policy making, monitoring and control
system, will work in India. India got independence even decades back, now it‟s high time Indian
education system, should be freed from the claws of Lord Macaulay system of preparing clerks and
depressed individuals.
Practice Task:
1. Institutional weakness can be minimized through –
A. Motivation B. Professional skills

C. Allocation of work D. Rewards
2. Pleasant atmosphere can be maintained in Institutes with the cooperation of-
A. Staff members B. Management council

C. Community D. Director
3. The important determent of effective Academic institution is-
A. Communicational skills B. Positive enforcement

C Staff achievements D. Teaching methodology
4. Most successful criteria for effective institutional management is-
A. Planned targets B. Improved performance

C. Stress on future outcomes D. None of these
5. Most preferred and effective institutional performance tool is-
A. Validity B. Reliability
C. Fairness D. None of these
Feedback
Answer:- 1- B, 2- A, 3-B, 4-B, 5-A
19
8.14.3 Legal and Disciplinary Proceedings - CCS (CCA) RULES,
1965
Every institute expects that its employees perform to the standards and expectations set by it. However,
sometimes, the employees perform inappropriately, unbecomingly and ineptly resulting in indiscipline
and misconduct in the institutions. To check such inappropriate actions, government of India has framed
certain rules called CCS (CCA) Rules 1965. These rules impose various restrictions on the Government
servants so that every employee maintains absolute integrity; maintain devotion to duty and do nothing
which is unbecoming of an Employee.
Every Employee holding a supervisory post shall take all possible steps to ensure the integrity and
devotion to duty of all Employees for the time being under his/her control and authority. No employee
will, in the performance of his/her official duties, or in the exercise of powers conferred on him/her, act
otherwise than in his/her best judgment except when he/she is acting under the direction of his/her official
superior. The direction of the official superior shall ordinarily be in writing. Oral direction to subordinates
shall be avoided, as far as possible. Where the issue of oral direction becomes unavoidable, the official
superior shall confirm it in writing immediately thereafter. An Employee of who has received oral
direction from his/her official superior shall seek confirmation of the same in writing as early as possible,
whereupon it shall be the duty of the official superior to confirm the direction in writing. The broad
framework of these rules is given as follows:
Rule no. Explanation

RULE-1 Came into effect with from
1-12-1965
RULE 2  appointing authority

 cadre authority
20
 disciplinary authority
 head of the department
 head of office
RULE 3 -  Application  Applies to all central Government Servants

including civilians in defence services
 Does not apply to railway servants, members of
All India Services, persons in casual employment
etc
RULES 8 Appointing authorities  Group „A‟ posts : president

&9  Groups „B‟, „C‟ & „D‟ posts:-authorities specified
in the schedule
RULE 10 Suspension- by Disciplinary  Authorities who can place govt servants under
authority suspension
 Appointing authority or any authority to which it
is subordinate
 An order of suspension deemed to have been
made or otherwise shall remain in force till it is
modified or revoked by the authority competent to
do so
 Suspension can be revoked by the authority who
suspended the employee
Deemed suspension:
 A govt servant under custody for more than 48

hours for criminal or other charge
 From the date of conviction if he is sentenced to a
term of imprisonment for more than 48 hrs
RULE 11 Penalties
21
Minor penalties 1. Censure
2. Withholding of promotion
3. Recovery from pay
4. Reduction to lower stage in time scale-not
exceeding 3 years
5. Withholding of increments
6. Removal from service
Major penalties 1. Reduction to lower stage in time scale
2. Reduction to lower time scale of pay, grade, post
or service which will ordinarily be bar to
promotion
3. Compulsory retirement
4. Dismissal from service -In respect of proven
cases of acceptance of illegal gratification it is
mandatory to impose one of the major penalties
mentioned above
TYPES OF CASES WHICH MERIT ACTION FOR MAJOR PENALTIES
 Attempt to obtain illegal gratification
 Misappropriation of govt property
 Falsification of govt records
 Gross irregularity or negligence with a dishonest motive
 Misuse of official position
 Disclosure of secret or confidential information
 False claims on the govt like TA/med. Claims etc
RULE 11 Explanations to rule 11 The following are not considered as penalties-
 Withholding of increment for failure to pass

exams
22
 Non-promotion after consideration of the case by
DPC
 Reversion from higher officiating post on
consideration of unsuitability to hold such post
 Reversion of a govt servant appointed on
probation
DIES- Neither counted as service nor When a day can be marked as dies-non-
NON is a break in service
 Absence without proper permission
 When on duty left without proper permission
 While in office refused to perform duties
RULE 12 Disciplinary authorities  President may impose any penalty on any govt
servant
 Appointing authority
 Any authority specified in the schedule to rules 5,
9(2),12(2) and 24
RULE 13 Authority to institute  President or any authority empowered by him
proceedings may institute disciplinary proceedings against any
govt servant
 A disciplinary authority competent to impose any
minor penalty can initiate major penalty
proceedings
RULE 14 Procedure for imposing major  No punishment without ordering an inquiry
penalties  Disciplinary authority may itself inquire into the
charges
 Draw up imputations of misconduct or
misbehaviour in definite and distinct article
 Draw statement of imputations of misconduct or
misbehaviour in support of each article including
relevant facts, statement of admissions,
23
confessions, etc
 A list of documents and a list of witnesses-
o Appoint an inquiry authority (IO)
o A presenting officer
o Govt servant shall appear in person before
the IO
o May also take the assistance of a defence
assistant
o The IO shall return a finding of guilt to a
charge to which the govt servant pleads
guilty
RULE 14 Inquiry report  After the conclusion of inquiry, a report shall be
prepared which shall contain:
 Articles of charge and the statement of the
imputations of misconduct or misbehaviour
 The defence of the govt servant in respect of each
article of charge
 An assessment of evidence in respect of each
article of charge
 The findings on each article of charge
RULE 15 Action on inquiry report  Remit for further inquiry
 Disagree with the finding of io
 Accept the report & forward copy of the same to
co
 Consider representation
 Impose penalty or Drop charges
RULE- 16 Procedure for imposing minor  Issue charge sheet as for minor penalty
penalties  Hold inquiry if warranted
 Take representation if any from the dgs
24
 Record findings on each article
 Impose any one of the minor penalties
RULE 17 Communication of orders  Orders of the disciplinary authority shall be
conveyed in writing along with copy of the
finding on each article of charge
 Where there is disagreement the reasons for
disagreement shall also be supplied
RULE 18 Common proceedings  Where two or more govt servants are involved
 Common proceedings against the accused and the
accuser
RULE 19 Special procedure in certain Orders can be passed without following procedures in
cases the following circumstances-
 It is not reasonably practicable to hold inquiry
 In the interest of the security of state
 Conviction leading to penalty
RULE 20 Relating to officers lent to State govts
RULE 21  Relating to officers borrowed from state govts

RULE 22 Appeals Orders against which n0 appeal lies
 Any order made by the president

 An order of interlocutory nature in a
disciplinary proceeding
 Any order passed by IO in the course of
inquiry
Rule 23 Orders against which appeal lies  An order of suspension
 An order imposing penalties
 An order enhancing any penalty
 An order of reversion while officiating
in a higher post
25
 Reducing or withholding pension
RULE 24 Appellate authority  A govt servant may prefer appeal
against any orders to the appointing
authority where the order appealed
against is made by an authority
subordinate to it to the president
RULE 25 Period of limitations  No appeal lies beyond 45 days
 Appellate authority may entertain appeal
after expiry period if satisfied
RULE 26 Form and content of appeal  Separately and in his own name
 To the authority to whom appeal lies
 Shall not contain any disrespectful or
improper language
RULE 27 Consideration of appeal Appellate authority to ensure the laid down
procedure have been complied with
 Finding of the da are warranted by the

evidence on record
 The penalty imposed is adequate,
inadequate or severe
 Pass orders
 Confirm Enhance
 Reduce
 Set aside the penality
RULE 28 Implementation of order in appeal
RULE 29 Revision The president or any other empowered

authority may at any time either on his own
motion or otherwise call for records and
revise any order made under these rules and
26
may
 Confirm, modify or set aside the
order; or
 Confirm, reduce, enhance or set
aside the penalty imposed by the
order; or
 Remit the case to the authority
which made the order to
make such further enquiry as it
may consider proper; or
 Pass such other orders as it may
deem fit
RULE 29- Review The president may, at any time, either on his
A own motion or otherwise review any order
passed under CCS (CCA) Rules 1965, when
any new material or evidence which could
not be produced earlier has come or has
been brought to his notice
It is important to emphasise here that these rules are not meant to harass any individual, but framed with
an intention that employees shall work with devotion, integrity and proper behaviour for making the work
environment most amicable, user friendly and dignified as per the model code of conduct.
27
Practice Task
Q Fill in the blanks:
1. CCS(CCA) conduct rules came into effect from __________.

2. CCS(CCA) conduct rules are applicable to _________except_________.
3. Suspension can be revoked by the authority who__________.
4. Deemed suspension applies when a govt servant under custody for more than______for criminal
or other charge.
5. _________ involves Censure, withholding of promotion, withholding of increments.
6. _________involves reduction to lower stage in time scale, compulsory retirement, dismissal from
service .
7. No appeal lies beyond _______ days.
8. _________authority is disciplinary authority.
Feedback
1. 1-12-1965
2. Applies to all central Government Servants including civilians in defence services; does not apply to
railway servants, members of All India Services, persons in casual employment etc
3. suspended the employee
4. 48 hours
5. Minor penalty
6. Major penalty
28
7. 45
8. Appointing
Conclusion:
The country has witnessed a transformation in the social and political scenario in the recent past. The
change has created a hope for positive change and progressive approach in policy making, regulation and
social welfare. The long awaited transformation in higher education can be made possible if government
keeps the priorities for youth as its top priority. The problems are known to the policy makers, promoters
and administrators of higher education, but it has not grabbed the attention it deserves. No nation can
afford to ignore youth in a country where 50% of people are within 25 years of age and 65% people are
below 35 years of age. Political will is the first step to initiate the transformation of higher education
system. A favorable regulatory environment is the next step. Rationalisation of the monitoring and control
mechanism to make it less restrictive will attract dedicated and visionary people to develop world class
institutions. Right leadership at the top will attract talented individuals as teachers and create a lively and
vibrant work environment to transform higher education institutions from a dull place for getting a degree
to lively place for learning, innovation and wealth creation through entrepreneurship.
Bibliography
1. Ahluwalia, A. K., & Preet, K., (2014), An Empirical Study on Job Satisfaction amongst College &
University Teachers, Pacific Business Review International, 6 (11), accessed on December 15, 2014
2. Aspiring Minds. (2013). National Employability Report: Graduates Annual Report 2013, accessed on
August 20, 2016
3. Coolican, Hughe. (2009), Research Methods and Statistics in Psychology, 5 th Edition, Routledge,
New York
4. Kaur, J. (2013), Work-Life Balance: its correlation with satisfaction with life and personality
dimensions amongst college teachers, International Journal of Marketing, Financial Services &
Management Research
29
5. Singh, T., Singh, A., & Singh, P, (2007), Relationship of stress and job satisfaction: A comparative
study of male & female of dual career teacher couples of India, Indian Institute of Management
Bangalore
6. University Grants Commission (UGC), (2014), Genesis, accessed on July 15, 2014
7. Pareek, Udai & T. V. Rao(1981). Designing and Managing Human Resources System. New Delhi:
Oxford & IDH.
8. Stoner, JAF and Freeman, R E (1994). Management. 5th Edition, New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India
Pvt. Ltd.
10. Megginson, LC; Mosley, DC and Pietri, PH (1983). Management: Concepts and application. USA:
Harper and Row Publisher.
Pvt. Ltd.
12. https://sloanreview.mit.edu/article/the-control-function-of-management/
13. https://accountlearning.com/control-in-management-characteristics-prerequisites-steps-in-
controlling/
14. http://www.mnestudies.com/monitoring/characteristics-good-monitoring-evaluation-system
 Monitoring and Controlling- Concept and Process

 Designing Effective Institutional Control Systems
Web resources
 Chapter 18 Monitoring and controlling; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wYKGTfdvBac
 Project monitoring and control systems; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pdmAwuOno48

30
******
31
UNIT 8.15
CONTROLLING: PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL
AND MANAGEMENT
Content Page no.
Broad Objective 3
Learning Outcomes 3
Introduction 4
8.15.1 Performance Appraisal: Concept and Process 4
➢ Objective of Performance Appraisal

➢ Criteria and Standards
➢ Appraisers
➢ The Performance Appraisal Process
➢ Methods of Performance Appraisal
➢ Frequency of Performance Appraisal
➢ Problems and Ways to Overcome
➢ Problems in Performance Appraisal
➢ Overcoming the Problems
➢ Performance Management Systems in Educational Institutions
Practice Task 24
Feedback 25
8.15.2 Feedback for Performance Management 26
(Alumni, Prospective Employers, Students etc.)
1
➢ Feedback from Stakeholders of an Educational Institution
Student’s Feedback Form 29
Practice Task 30
Feedback 31
Conclusion 32
Bibliography 32
2
Unit 8.15
Controlling: Performance Appraisal and Management
NITTTR, Chandigarh
Supportive Team Dr. Bimal Anjum
Broad Objective
The broad objective of this unit is to make
the learners appreciate the role of
performance appraisal in monitoring and
controlling the performance of faculty and
staff and helping them in enhancing the
same through appropriate feedback.
Learning Outcomes
 Understand the importance of performance appraisal in monitoring and controlling the

performance of employees (faculty and staff) in an institution.
 Identify different type of appraisers and their role in assessing the performance of subordinates/
colleagues.
 Understand the process of performance appraisal in an institution.
 Identify different methods of performance appraisal and their applicability in different situations.
 Appreciate the importance of feedback in enhancing employees‟ performance.
 Understand problems in performance appraisal and try to avoid the same during the
implementation of performance appraisal process in his institution.
 Appreciate the importance of feedback from different stakeholders viz. Alumni, students, parents,
teachers etc. for enhancing the responsiveness and quality of institutional services.
3
 Understand rules, regulations and procedures of employees‟ performance appraisal.
Introduction
Employees performance appraisal (PA) plays a major role in the rational and systematic management of
human resource in any academic institution. The performance appraisal results provide foundations for
recruitment and selection of new employee; training and development decision for the current staff; and
motivating and maintaining a quality manpower by sufficiently and correctly rewarding their
performance. In the absence of a reliable performance appraisal system, human resource management
system in any academic institution is considered as a total wastage. In addition to performance appraisal,
providing the appropriate information of strengths, weakness and areas for improvement in the form of
feedback helps the employees in enhancing the quality of output provided by them.
The present unit is an attempt to make the learners aware about different aspects of performance appraisal
in enhancing the employees output and the quality of services provided by them. This unit also provides
inputs in understanding the role of feedback from different stakeholders in making the institute responsive
and adaptable to the changing requirements of today‟s socio-economic and technological scenario.
8.15.1 Performance Appraisal: Concept and Process

Performance appraisal is a systematic evaluation of employee‟s job performance and his potential for
development. A performance appraisal system not only accurately measures an employees‟ performance
but also tries to improve his future performance. This is done by reinforcing strengths, identifying
deficiencies and feeding such information back to employees. Academic institutions are using various
terms to describe the performance appraisal process. Performance review, annual appraisal, performance
evaluation, employee evaluation and merit evaluation are some of the terms used.
Hence, performance appraisal is a process by which institutions establish, measure and evaluate
individual employee‟s behaviour and performance for a finite period of time. In other words, performance
appraisal is a tool to distinguished, ascertained, assessed, recorded and developed specific work related
performance indicating strengths and weaknesses of the employees.
➢ Objective of Performance Appraisal
4
The primary objective for having a performance appraisal system, in any academic institution, is to
monitor employees‟performance, motivate them and take decision related to their development. In
case ofacademic institutions, monitoring employeeperformance requires routine documentation.
When employees are aware that the institutions is mindful of their performance and theycould be
rewarded with increment and promotions, if they will work harder. The level of morale will increased
when employees receive recognition or reward for their work. An effective performance appraisal
program will assist an academic institution in achieving its goals and objectives. A sound
performance appraisal system will help employees in:
● understanding their role and functions;
● understanding their strengths and weaknesses in respect to their role and functions in the
institution;
● providing an opportunity for individual‟s goal-setting and self-reflection.
● preparing for higher responsibilities in the future;
● helps academic institution to take variety of personnel decisions by generating periodical data
regarding each employee.
● developing a greater degree of consistency through regular feedback on performance;
● helps the institute in providing information for manpower planning;
● identifing the specific job standards and criteria for measurement
● helps academic institution in designing a suitable training and development programme for
inspiring performance of the employees
➢ Criteria and Standards

Chrudden (1984) emphasized that before conducting any evaluation, the criteria should be clearly
defined. These criteria or standards must be based on job requirements. Although the specific,
criteria vary from one job to another. In general they are based upon the concepts of quantity and
quality of performance. Therefore, in deciding performance criteria there are three basic
considerations:
● Relevance: This refers to the extent to the objectives of the job.
● Freedom from corruption: A comparison of performance should be without any bias.
● Reliability: The reliability of criteria refers to its stability or consistency.
Pratt (1986) explained that there are three elements which contribute to “good” or “bad”
performance, and should be taken into consideration when designing performance appraisal
criteria:
5
● The Job content: Job factors must be agreed upon, preferably in the form of a job
description which is reviewed at every appraisal.
● The Job context: Here organizational factors that impact on performance must also be
taken into consideration.
● The Individual: The individual‟s personality or attitudes should not be appraised, but
rather the individual‟s contribution to the organization.
Armstrong and Baron (1998) reported that the following were used as criteria for measuring
performance:
● Accomplishment of objectives
● Quality
● Customer care
● Competence
● Involvement during working in a team
● Working relationships
● line up personal objectives with organizational goals
● Flexibility
● Productivity
● Skill/learning target achieved
● Business consciousness
● Financial alertness
However, this is not a standard list of performance appraisal criteria, and the list of criteria
must always be job specific within an organizational context.
➢ Appraisers
Appraiser or rater is the most important for any performance appraisal system. Only rater can
observe employee's job performance over a reasonable period of time (for example, Quarterly).
Performance appraisal will be more accurate and useful if the evaluation comes from sources
nearest to the person being rated.During conducting performance appraisal, supervisorsare more
responsible for the evaluation process; even others could also beincluded in the procedure. These
others can be subordinates, peers, and clients or customers.
❖ Immediate Superior
Supervisors are responsible for the rewards andpunishments; they should be responsible
for evaluating performance.An employee‟s immediate supervisor has traditionally been
6
the most common choice for evaluating performance. This continues to be the case, and
there are several valid reasons for such an approach.
❖ Subordinates
It is common today for many academic institutions to letsubordinates anonymously
evaluate their supervisor's performance. Thispractice is valuable when used for
developmental rather than evaluativepurposes. Subordinate appraisal system may
beuseful for evaluating skills such as the ability to communicate, the delegationof tasks,
the dissemination of information, the resolution of personaldisputes and the ability to
work together with fellow employees.
❖ Peers
It is perceived that sometimes coworkersare in a better position than their supervisors to
evaluatetheir peers' job performances. The appraisal of an employee by peerscan be
effective in predicting future management success. The judgment bypeers often provides
a perspective on performance that is different fromthose of immediate supervisors,
provided that peers are told exactly what toevaluate, as this could skew the feedback
information.
❖ Customer Evaluation
Anyone who is in aposition to observe the behaviours or outcomes of an individual
should beincluded in the appraisal process, and this should include the
customer.Customers'objective cannot be expected to correspond entirely with those of
theindividual or the institution. However, customerprovided information can be useful
input for promotion, transfer and trainingdecisions.
❖ Self Appraisal
Employees understand the objectives, which are expected to be achieved and the standard
by which they are to be assessed. In this case, employees are in the best position to
appraise their own performance. Many people know what they did well on the job and
what they need to improve. If they are given the opportunity, they will objectively
criticize their own performance and take action needed to improve.
❖ 360 Degree feedback
360-degree, or multi-rater system is a questionnaire that asks many people (supervisors,
subordinates, peers, internal and external customers) to respond to questions on how well
aspecific individual performs in a number of behavioural areas. Multi-rater feedback
requires witness to asses a multitude of work situations which are controlled or managed
by the person who is the focus of the feedback.
7
❖ Computer Evaluation
Top management considers computer monitoring as helpingto control costs, improve
security, increase productivity and obtain moreprecise information needed for objective
appraisals.
➢ The Performance Appraisal Process

Performance appraisal process is planned, developed and implemented through below mentioned
series of actions:
❖ Establish performance standards: “Appraisal systems needs performance standard, which
help as benchmarks against which performance is measured. To be useful, standards should
relate to the desired results of each job. The performance standards or goals must be
developed after a thorough analysis of the job.
❖ Communicate the standards: Performance appraisal involves at least two parties; the
appraiser who does the appraisal and the appraisee whose performance is being evaluated.
For this purpose, performance standards must be communicated to appraisees and their
reactions should be noted down right away. If necessary, these standards must be revised or
modified.
❖ Measure actual performance: After the performance standards are set and accepted the next
step is to measure actual performance. This requires the use of dependable performance
measures, the rating used to evaluate performance.
❖ Compare actual performance with standards and discuss the appraisal: Actual
performance may be better than expected and sometimes it may go off the track. Whatever be
the consequences, there is a way to communicate and discuss the final outcome.
❖ Taking corrective action, if necessary:If needed any corrective action, must be taken by
both of the parties.
➢ Methods of Performance Appraisal

Different methods of performance appraisal are used in different organizations to achieve the
objective. Two basic categories for performance appraisal commonly used in organization are
objective methods and judgmental methods. Objective methods include actual output (i.e. no. of
units produced).In other words, objective method is a process in which each employee is assessed
under standardized conditions. In judgmental methods, ranking and rating techniques are the most
common way to measure performance. The performance appraisal methods can be explained
under the following heads:
8
❖ Annual Confidential Report (ACR)
It is mostly used in government organization. It is a descriptive report prepared, generally at
the end of every year, by the employee‟s immediate superior. The report highlights employee
strengths and weaknesses in their assigned area. In this method report is not based on the
data. In this process superior uses merely his impression in recording the behavior of
subordinates. It doesn‟t offer any performance feedback to the employee. The appraisee is not
sure about why his rating have fallen despite making his best efforts, while others are rated
high in comparison to him.
❖ Essay Evaluation
Probably the simplest method of evaluating is to write a narrative describing an employee‟s
strength, weakness, past performance, potential and suggestions for improvement. The
written essay method does not require any type of forms or extensive training to complete the
process. In this method, the rater is asked to express the strong as well as weak points of the
employee‟s behavior. This comes under the non – quantitative technique of performance
appraisal. At least in one sense, this method is beneficial because the essay contains good
deal of information about the employee and also reveals evaluator‟s abilities to conduct
performance appraisal.
❖ Critical Incidents
This method is more related to job and based on individual‟s performance than characteristic.
Under this method, the manager prepares lists of statements of every effective and ineffective
behavior of an employee. These events represent the outstanding or poor behavior of
employees on the job. This method tries to measure individuals‟ productivity in term of
incidents and special episodes which take place in job performance. These incidents are
called as critical incident. Mondy & Noe (2008) explained that, in this method, the manager
writes down employees‟ positive and negative job behavior in the evaluation term.A list of
critical incidents provides a base from which the employee can be informedabout those
behaviors that are desirable and those needing some improvement.
❖ Graphic Rating Scale (GRS)
A graphic rating scale is used as one of the oldest and most popular methods for employee
evaluation. It is a rating scale that lists variety of traits, the most common being the quantity
and quality of work, and range of performance of each individual. Here ranking is determined
by using a score which shows their performance level. The utility of this technique can be
enhanced by using it in conjunction with the essay evaluation technique, Mondy & Noe
(2008). Martina & Bartol (1986) listed following factors as performance appraisal criteria-
9
quantity and quality of work, cooperation, depth of knowledge, loyalty, honesty, attendance,
and initiative. The evaluator then checks the list and gives a rating on the scale against the
listed parameters.
The scale typically specifies five points, so a factor like job knowledge might be rated 1
(“Poorly informed about work task and responsibility”) to 5 (“Has total mastery of all phases
of the job”). Graphics rating scale is a popular method but doesn‟t provide in depth
information in comparison to essay or critical incidents methods. Even these are less time
consuming to develop and administer. This method allows for quantitative analysis and
comparison of GRS listed factors related to general behavior and characteristics, such as;
attendance, appearance, dependability, quality of work, and relationship with the people on
which the employee is rated by the supervisor.
❖ Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales (BARS)
Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales (BARS) combine major elements from the critical
incident and graphics rating scale approaches. This is also known as the behavioural
expectations scale. This method has contributed innovatively in the performance appraisal
system. In this method, the appraiser rates the employees based on items along a range, but
the example items are set which are the actual behavior on the given job rather than general
description of traits. BARS evaluate employees‟ definite, observable, and measurable job
behavior. During the appraisal process, examples of job related behavior and performance
dimensions are asked from the participants, to give specific picture of effective and
ineffective behavior regarding each performance dimension. These behavioral examples are
then translated into a set of performance dimensions, each dimension having varying level of
performance. The results of this process are explained as a behavioral descriptions, such as,
plans, anticipates, executes, solves immediate problems, carries out orders, and handle
emergency situations.
❖ Paired Comparison Method
In this method, ranking becomes more reliable and easier. In this, each worker is compared
with all other employees in the same group; for the same traits. So in brief, paired comparison
evaluates one individual‟s performance against the performance of one or more others. It is a
relative measuring device. In case of several traits, paired comparisons ranking is assigned by
tabulating each worker‟s traits. Therefore, this method seems to be appropriate but it is not
applicable when a group is large.
❖ Individual Ranking
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In this method, the evaluator compares each person with others with the pre decided work
standards (Dessler, 2000).Garcia, (2008) stated that the use of rankings scale for evaluating
peer employee may negatively affect employees' willingness to maximize their performance.
Therefore, it must be done by using predetermined goals, which will benefit the institution.
This approach gives rank –orders to employees from best to worst. If a manager has to
appraise 30 subordinates, this approach considersthe same difference between the first and
second employee as that is between the 21st and 22nd. Even in case of close employee group,
this approach doesn‟t allow for ties. The result is clear ordering of employees, from the
highest performers down to the lowest.
❖ Forced Distribution
Cascio (1998) explained this as a method of comparing employees to one another. As the
name “forced distribution” implies, the overall distribution of ratings is forced in to a normal,
or bell shaped curve. Forced distribution does eliminate clustering almost all employees at the
top of the distribution (rater leniency) at the bottom of the distribution (rather severity), or in
the middle (central tendency). However, it can foster a great deal of employee resentment if
an entire group of employees as a group is either superior or substandard. It is most useful
when a large number of employees must be rated and there is more than one rater.
❖ Weighted Checklist Performance Reports
In the weighted checklist performance report, the rater fills a form which is similar to the
forced choice performance report, but difference is that in this method various responses have
been assigned different weights. The form includes questions related to the employees‟
behavior and the evaluator answers each question either positively or negatively. However,
the evaluator is not aware of each question‟s weight. In forced choice performance reports,
the weighted checklist is expensive to design. Both methods strive objectivity, but the
evaluator does not know which items contribute most to successful performance. Employee
development, therefore, cannot result from this approach.
❖ Management by Objective (MBO) Appraisal
MBO has also been viewed as a method of appraisal. MBO requires that the management to
set specific and measurable goals for each employee and then periodically discuss the
progress towards these goals. MBO focuses attention on what must be accomplished rather
than how it is to be accomplished. In this method the jointly set objective must be fair and
attainable. Both the superiors and the subordinates must be trained for setting realistic goals
and be familiarising with the results for which they are finally held responsible.
❖ Work Planning and Review
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Work planning and review is similar to MBO. It places more emphasis on the periodic review
of job plan by both supervisor and subordinate in order to identify goals attained. Work
planning and review are based primarily on each supervisor‟s judgment about whether a goal
has or has not been attained while MBO relies more on objective, quantifiable evidence. In
practice the two approaches are often indistinguishable. In this method, performance
standards are often written in the specific percentages to indicate different levels of
effectiveness.
➢ Frequency of Performance Appraisal

What should be the frequency of appraisal? A variety of opinions have been expressed on this
question. Whenever supervisors or personnel managers feel that appraisal is necessary, it can be
conducted by them. However, systematic appraisals are conducted on a regular basis, say, every
six months or annually. The more timely the feedback, the more likely it is help improve
performance. Communication must be continual to have an effect on attitudes. Therefore,
thefrequency of the appraisal depends on the nature of the work, its function, and the
characteristics of theperson whose work is appraised. Majority of time, staff receives an annual
appraisal and for many institutions this may be sufficient. However, the frequency of the
appraisal should be related to the returns of the institution, the purpose and objective of the
scheme, and characteristics of the staff employed.
➢ Problems and Ways to Overcome

Performance appraisal process involves employees, appraisers, and organization. To maintain
coordination among all these may create problems. By focusing on the difficulties, we can begin
to address them in such a way that we can reduce their overall impact on the process. In terms of
difficulties, a few categories can be addressed:
● Focused on the individual.
● Focused on the process.
❖ Focused on the Individual: Suppose you received a graded text from professor and felt
that something was marked incorrect, that wasn‟t wrong, or that the answer was too
harshly penalised. How did you feel about that? Did you accept the score and leave it at
that, or did you question the instructor? Whenever performance evaluations are
administered (and test are one form of paper to make evaluations) apprising individual is
probably one of the most difficult aspects of the manager‟s job. Why? Because
employees are involved, sometimes managers just not like to do appraisals. We all think
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we are performing in an outstanding fashion, but that just may well be our
perception.Although our work is good and a boss recognises it, it may not be seen as
outstanding. Accordingly, in evaluating performance, strong emotions may arise and if
these emotions are not dealt with properly this can lead to greater conflicts.
❖ Focused on the Process: Whenever performance evaluations are conducted, there is a
rigid structure that must be followed. The structure exists to facilitate the documentation
process that often permits for a quantifiable evaluation. Additionally policies often exist
that dictate performance outcomes. We may also find from the appraisers‟ perspective
some uncertainty about how and what to measure and how to deal with an employee in
the evaluation process. Frequently appraisers are poorly trained in how to evaluate an
employee‟s performance. Due to lack of training, appraisers may face some error in their
judgment or permit biases into the process. Laurie J. M.(1996) said that the effectiveness
of any appraisal system relies heavily on the quality and reliability of assessment.
Variations in the consistency of reporting standards can quickly lead to a feeling of
dissatisfaction and injustice. There are many potential sources of rating errors including
for example, perceptual distortions such as stereotyping and the halo effect. Where a
senior manager has an opportunity to confirm the ratings and countersign the appraisal,
this may help to identify inconsistencies and those appraisers who appear to be too
generous or too critical in their assessments.
➢ Problems in Performance Appraisal
P. Robins (1997) pointed out the following potential problems in performance appraisal:
❖ Single Criteria
The typical employees‟ job is made up of a number of tasks. An airline flight attendant‟s job for
example includes welcoming passengers, seeing to the comfort, serving meals and offering safety
advice. If job performance was assessed by single parameter that is only the time it took to
provide food and beverages to 100 passengers, in this case the evaluation result would be limited.
More importantly, in this process, if flight attendants, whose performance evaluation is done only
by adopting this single criterion, would be motivated to ignore those other tasks in their job. In
brief, where employees are evaluated on single job criteria, employees will emphasize on the
single criteria in the execution of job.
❖ Leniency Error
Every evaluator has his own value system that acts as a standard against which appraisals are
made. In actual practice, while judging performance of employees, some evaluator‟s mark the
performance of all employees either high or low. When evaluators are positively lenient in their
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appraisal, an individual‟s performance becomes over stated, because performance is rated higher
than it actually exists. In case of negative leniency error performance is found lower than the
actual performance.
❖ Hallo Error
The hallo effect error is the tendency of an evaluator to assess an individual on one trait that
influences his or her evaluation of that person on other traits. For example, if an employee seems
to be dependable, he may become biased toward that individual and rate him high on many
otherattributes also. The college students are facing the same error during filling out teaching
appraisal forms to evaluate the effectiveness of their instructors in each semester. Students tends
to rate a faculty member as outstanding on all criterion when they are particularly appreciative of
a few things which he does in the classroom. Similarly, a few bad habits like showing up late for
lecturesor being slow in returning papers, or assigning an extremely demanding reading
requirement-might result in students‟ evaluating the instructor as poor across the board.
❖ Similarity Error
This error occurs when an evaluator rates other people by giving special consideration to those
qualities which they perceive in themselves. For example the evaluator who perceives himself an
aggressive may evaluate others by looking for aggressiveness. Therefore, those who exhibit this
characteristic tend to benefit, while others are penalised. Again, this error tends to wash out if the
same evaluator appraised all the people in the institution. However, interpreter reliability
obviously suffers when various evaluators are utilising their own similarity criteria.
❖ Low Differentiation
This type of error occurs when evaluator‟s rating behavior has social influence during evaluating
the employee in an academic institution. We can classify the evaluators in two categories: (1)
high differentiators- the one who is applying all or most of the scale, (2) low differentiators- the
one who is applying a limited choice of scale. Low differentiators always try to ignore the
differences and perceive that the universe is constant than it really is.High differentiatorsapply all
existing information to the highest extent and are capable to perceptually define irregularities and
ambiguities than are low differentiators.
➢ Overcoming the Problems

P. Robins (1997) identifiedsome of the ways to overcome these major problems in performance
appraisal, which are as follows:
❖ Multiple criteria: Successful performance appraisal requires identifying and evaluating a
number of things in a job. The more complex the job, the more are the criteria needed to assess
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the same. The critical activities are those activities which lead to high or low performance and
need to be evaluated.
❖ Focus on behavior evaluation rather than traits: Many traits are considered to be related with
a good performance but they have a little or no performance relationship. For example, traits like
initiative, loyalty, reliability, courage, and self –expression are intuitively appearing as desirable
characteristics in the document of performance behavior. In A Diary: By keeping a diary of
specific critical incidents for an employee, evaluation tends to be more accurate. Diaries, for
instance, tend to reduce leniency and halo error.
❖ Multiple evaluators: As the number of evaluator‟s increases, there is more probability of
attaining more accurate information. An increase in the number of appraisers proves the accuracy
of results also. This type of approach is generally used in athletic competitions especially in
sports like gymnastics. A group of evaluators judge the performance. In this, the highest and
lowest scores are dropped, and the final performance evaluation is made by cumulating the scores
of remaining. The logic of multiple evaluators is suitable for organization. If an employee has ten
supervisors, nine rated him excellent and only one rated him poor, the value of the one poor
evaluation can be discounted. Therefore, by moving employees within the organization and
getting a number of evaluations by using multiple assessors (as provided in 360 degree
appraisals), can increase the probability of achieving more valid and reliable evaluations.
❖ Evaluate selectively: It has been suggested that appraisers should evaluate only those areas in
which they have some expertise. If rater makes evaluations on only those dimensions on which
they are expert, we can make the evaluation a more valid process. This approach also supports
that in an organization each level have different orientations toward rates and observe them in
different settings. In general, therefore, it is recommend that appraises should be as close as
possible, in case of organization. If the existing levels separate the evaluator then there is less
opportunity, the evaluator has to observe the individuals behavior and, not surprisingly, the
greater the possibility for inaccuracies. The specific application of these concepts would result in
having impact on immediate supervisors, coworkers, and subordinates. It has been suggested, for
example, that when professors are evaluating their secretaries within department, they should use
such criteria as judgment, technical competence, and conscientiousness, whereas peers (other
secretaries) should use such criteria as job knowledge, cooperation with coworkers, and
responsibility.
❖ Train evaluators: If you can‟t find good evaluators, the alternative is to train the evaluators to
become good evaluators. There is substantial evidence that training makes evaluators more
accurate raters. Common errors such as halo and leniency are minimized or eliminated by
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conducting the workshops, where managers practice observing and rating behaviors. Case has
been observed where halo and leniency errors were decreased immediately after providing
evaluators an explanatory training sessions. This favored the need for regular refresher sessions.
➢ Performance Management Systems in Educational Institutions

Many researchers proposed that Kaplan and Norton‟s Balanced Scorecard (BSC) can evaluate the
performance of any educational institutions. The basic principle of the BSC is to develop an
inclusive set of financial and non-financial measures to practice as leading predictors, or
indicatorsto capture value-creating activities. Balanced scorecard methodcan be used to evaluate
employees performance in a higher education institution, as featured in Table 1:
Table 1. The Balanced Scorecard Approach in Higher Education
Perspective Question Explanation

1. Stakeholder What do existing and new This perspective views institutional performance
(including the stakeholders value? from the point of view of its stakeholders. It gives
government, the rise to targets that matter, including; the quality
national department and delivery of teaching students, the provision of
of education, professional development and training courses to
business and industry business and industry, outreach and collaborations
employers, parents, with external stakeholders, etc.
students)
2. Internal What internal processes This perspective views institutional performance

(academic and must be improved to through the lenses of quality education, individual
administrative staff) achieve quality educational research, engagement with trade and professional
objectives? organisations, the department‟s operational
internal processes and efficiencies, etc.
3. Organisational How can educational This perspective views organisational

Capacity institutions improve to performance through the lenses of human capital,
(or Innovation and create value? infrastructure, technology, culture and other
Learning) capacities that are key to the creation and
dissemination of knowledge. It considers the
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educational institutions‟ research output (as a
whole), and its capacity to maintain a competitive
position through the identification of training
needs of individual members of staff, and the
acquisition of new resources.
4. Financial How can an educational This perspective considers the institution‟s
(or Stewardship) institution (government, or financial performance and its use of resources. It
private entities) improve covers traditional measures such as growth, return
financial performance and on investment and profitability.
their value to trustees or
shareholders? How can an
educational institution use
its financial resources?
A serious issue for an effective BSC is the arrangement of its four perspectives with the institution‟s
vision and strategic objectives. Thus, BSC can be used to help educational leaders to track financial
results as well as monitoring the progress of their institution‟s staff.
 General guidelines for filling up the APAR form, Government of India
The Performance Appraisal Report is an important document. It provides the basic and vital inputs for
the further development of an officer. The appraisee, the Reporting Authority and the Reviewing
Authority should, therefore, undertake the duty of filling up the form with a high sense of
responsibility.
Performance appraisal should be used as a tool for human resource development. Reporting Officers
should realize that the objective is to develop an officer so that he/she realizes his/her true potential. It
is not meant to be a fault-finding process but a development tool. The Reporting Officer and the
Reviewing Officer should not shy away from reporting shortcomings in performance, attitudes or
overall personality of the officer reported upon.
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The columns should be filled with due care and attention and after devoting adequate time. Any
attempt to fill the report in a casual or superficial manner will be easily discernible to the higher
authorities.
Although the actual documentation of performance appraisal is a year-end exercise, in order that it
may be a tool for human resource development, the Reporting Officer and the appraisee should meet
during the course of the year at regular intervals to review the performance and to take necessary
corrective steps
Performa
The revised Performa for the annual performance appraisal comprises of 4 sections. The requirement
under each section and the authority responsible for filling up these sections is indicated in the table
below.
Section No. Information required Authority responsible for filling up
I Basic Information Administration division/ Personnel Dept
II Self-appraisal Appraisee
III Appraisal Reporting officer/ Review Officer, if necessary
IV Review Review Officer
Thus, the portions to be filled up by each authority are the following:-
Administration Division/ Personnel Department Section I
Appraisee Section II
Reporting Officer Section III
Review Officer Sections IV and Section III (part), if required
Instructions on filling up the different sections
Section-I
This section should be filled up in the Administration Division/Personnel Deptt. Period of report could
either be the entire reporting year, namely, from 1st of April to 31st March or a part of the year
(exceeding 3 months). In case the period of report is a full year, it should be indicated accordingly for
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example, 2003-2004. In case the period of report is less than the entire year, specific start and end dates
should be indicated, for example, 10th September 2003 – 31st March 2004.
Information on the present grade (pay-scale) as well as present post (actual designation and organization)
needs to be given. In addition the date from which he/she has been on his/her present post needs to be
mentioned.
In the table relating to reporting and review authorities the name and designation of the reporting and
review authorities should be mentioned so that the appraisee is clear about whom he/she is required to
send the report to.
The period of absence from duty, on leave, training, or for other reasons, should also be mentioned in this
section in the table provided for the purpose. Details of the training attended should be mentioned under
the remarks column of the table.
Section-II
In Section II, the appraisee is first required to give brief description of his/her duties and responsibilities.
This need not be very lengthy and would normally not exceed about 100 words. Ideally, this should be in
bullet form.
Under the revised system of performance appraisal, all officers are required to develop a work plan for the
year and agree upon the same with the reporting officer. This exercise is to be carried out at the beginning
of the year, typically within the first 15 days. In case of a change in the reporting officer during the year,
the work plan agreed with the previous reporting officer would continue to apply. The work plan agreed
upon at the beginning of the year has to again be reviewed during the month of September/October as a
mid year exercise. Based on This review the work plan may undergo some changes from that originally
prepared.
The work plans, duly signed by the appraisee and the reporting officer have to be submitted to the review
officer for his/her perusal and custody. The end of the year performance appraisal form provides for an
assessment of the accomplishments vis-à-vis the work plan agreed at the commencement of the year and
reviewed mid year. The appraisee is required to fill up the table provided by the purpose in Section-II.
It is not necessary that the work plan should be entirely quantitative in nature. While some assignments
permit quantitative work targets to be fixed, others do not. Where quantitative targets are not possible, it
would be adequate to indicate specific work proposed to be accomplished.
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The sample of possible work plans for different positions has been developed and is placed at Annex-11-
A. This may be used as a guide for officers to develop their own annual work plans. Ideally, individual
work plans should be drawn from the annual action plan of the Ministry/deptt./organization. Aggregation
of the individual work plans should really be the work plan of the Ministry/Deptt./Organization.
It is possible that an officer has accomplished certain major tasks which were not foreseen either at the
commencement of the year or even during the mid year review. Examples of these may be relief and
rescue work following a natural calamity or dealing with some other kind of emergency. Section II
provides for such unforeseen work accomplished/underway to also be recorded by the appraisee to project
his/her complete achievements during the year.
Section II also provides an opportunity for the officer to reflect upon his/her performance during the year
and indicate one item which he/she thought was a significant contributions made by him/her during the
year. It is not possible for any officer to make such significant contribution every year and hence this need
not be attempted for each year of his/her service. Examples of such contribution may be the successful
organization of a major event like the Kumbh Mela or successful conclusion of an activity that has been
going on for a long time, or even successful dealing of an emergency (e.g. major earth quake/flood).
In all such cases, the officer should reflect upon and record factors that helped in his/her performance or
hindered his/her performance. His/her reflection should also enable him/her to record his/her specific
learning from the experience and possible systemic changes that could be made. Section II provides an
opportunity for the officer to mention all of these.
This section also requires the appraisee to indicate specific areas in which he/she feels the need to
upgrade skills and attend training programs. He/she should also mention the specific steps that he/she has
taken or proposes to take to upgrade his/her skills in the identified area.
There is an increased emphasis on competency building in the new performance appraisal and career
progression system. There would be a premium on competency and skill upgradation. Hence, all officers
are advised, through a note in Section II, to keep the cadre controlling authority informed, atleast once in
five years, of all educational and training programs attended, including the details of marks/grades
secured in such programs. Similarly, all officers are advised to intimate details of professional papers
published, with all relevant details. These would be taken into account in the future career progression
and hence the need to keep the records of the cadre controlling authority updated.
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In this context it is to be noted that officers would not normally be expected to publish papers during their
first 12 years of service, when they would be in their field postings. Even at subsequent levels, publication
of papers would, at best, be an ancillary activity and not something that takes up a substantial part of an
officer‟s time, who obviously has a responsibility to discharge. This information is being sought primarily
to access the ability and willingness of an officer to think and research independently as well as structure
his/her thoughts into a meaningful document.
Section II also requires the appraisee to record certain certificates. Apart from certifying submission of
property returns, this section requires the officer to certify that he/she has undergone a medical check up
within the last two years. Such a medical certificate is being insisted upon in the larger interest of the
officer and the organization . The appraisee is also required to certify that he/she has agreed upon an
annual work plan with all his/her immediate subordinate officers for whom he/she would be the reporting
authority.
Another certificate is with regard to having submitted the annual performance report of all his/her
subordinate officers for the period under report. In case the annual performance report of any subordinate
officer could not be submitted, the reasons for the same need to be indicated in the table provided. This
could be due to the concerned appraisee not having submitted his/her self-appraisal or some delay having
taken place due to emergent work. In this connection, it is clarified that this certificate is required only in
respect of those officers for whom the appraisee is the reporting authority.
Section-III
This section relates to the actual appraisal and is to be recorded by the reporting authority. The reporting
authority must first indicate the actual period, out of the year under report, during which the appraisee has
served under him/her. In entering this information, the reporting authority may see information in Section
I, where the date from which the appraisee has been in his/her present position would be available.
Section III then requires the reporting authority to comment on section II as filled out by the appraisee,
and specifically state whether he/she agrees with the responses relating to the accomplishments. In case of
disagreement the reporting authority should highlight the specific portions with which he/she is unable to
agree and the reasons for such disagreement.
This section then requires the reporting officer to comment on the skill upgradation needs as identified by
the officer. In case, the reporting officer agrees with the training needs indicated by the appraisee, he/she
is required to indicate specific steps taken/proposed to be taken by him/her to enable the appraisee to have
the skill upgraded. In case, he/she disagrees with the appraisee, he/she should record his/her reasons for
such disagreement.
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Thereafter, this section requires the reporting authority to record a numerical grade in respect of the
workout put of the appraisee both in respect of the planned work as well as the unforeseen tasks. A
numerical grade is also required in respect of the “quality” of the output. In doing so, the reporting
authority should take into account the costs incurred (whether the appraisee has been cost conscious), the
time taken and whether the laid down rules/procedures have been adhered to in accomplishing the tasks.
The reporting authority is also required to record a numerical grade in respect of certain personal
attributes and functional competencies. As mentioned in the proforma, some of the attributes only relate
to some of the posts and need not be given in respect of officers occupying different posts.
Section III requires the reporting officer to comment on the integrity of the appraisee. In recording
remarks with regard to integrity, he/she need not limit him/herself only to matters relating to financial
integrity but could also take into account the moral and intellectual integrity of the appraisee. The
following procedure should be followed in filling up the column relating to integrity:
i. If the Officers integrity is beyond doubt, it may be stated.
ii. If there is any doubt or suspicion, the column should be left blank and action taken as under
a. A separate secret note should be recorded and followed up. A copy of the note should also be sent
together with the Confidential Report to the next superior officer who will ensure that the follow up
action is taken expeditiously. Where it is not possible either to certify the integrity or to record the secret
note, the Reporting Officer should state either that he/she had not watched the officer‟s work for
sufficient time to form a definite judgement or that he/she has heard nothing against the officer, as the
case may be.
b. If, as a result of the follow up action, the doubts or suspicions are cleared, the officer‟s integrity
should be certified and an entry mode accordingly in the Confidential Report
c. If the doubts or suspicions are confirmed, this fact should also be recorded and duly
communicated to the officer concerned.
d. If as a result of the follow up action, the doubts or suspicions are neither cleared nor confirmed,
the officers conduct should be watched for a further period and thereafter action taken as indicated at (b)
and (c) above.
The reporting authority is then required to comment on the attitude of the appraisee towards Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
The reporting officer is also required to record a descriptive pen-picture on the overall qualities of the
appraisee and his/her performance. This need not exceed about 100 words and should try to cover
22
qualities which the reporting officer feels have not been adequately covered through the specific attributes
and the work assessment. The pen-picture is also meant to be a qualitative supplement to the quantitative
assessments made earlier part of this section.
Finally, the reporting authority is required to record an overall grade. This should also be done on a scale
of 1-10, with 1 referring to the lowest grade and 10 to the highest.
This section is to be filled up by the review officer and is self-explanatory. Again, as in the case of the
reporting authority, the review authority is first required to indicate the time for which the appraisee has
served under him/her.
Thereafter he/she is required to indicate if he/she agrees with the assessments made by the reporting
officer. In case he/she does not he/she may record his/her own assessment against the work output or any
of the attributes, in the column specifically provided for the purpose in the table in Section II. In case
he/she agrees with the assessment he/she need not fill in the column meant for him/her in the
attributes/work output tables.
The review officer is required to record a pen-picture, not exceeding about 100 words. Finally he/she is
required to record an overall grade in the scale of 1-10.
Numerical Grades
At several places, numerical grades are to be awarded by reporting and review authorities. These should
be on a scale of 1-10, where 1 refers to the lowest grade and 10 to the highest. It is expected that any
grading of 1 or 2 (against work output or attributes or overall grade) would be adequately justified in the
pen-picture by way of specific failures and similarly, any grade of 9 or 10 would be justified with respect
to specific accomplishments. Grades of 1-2 or 9-10 are expected to be rare occurrences and hence the
need to justify them. In awarding a numerical grade the reporting and review authorities should rate the
officer against a larger population of his/her peers that may be currently working under them or would
have worked under them in the past.
Disclosure
The new performance appraisal system is no longer a confidential process and the entire appraisal is now
required to be revealed to the appraisee. This fits in with the primary objective of the performance
appraisal being a tool for the development of the officer. As such, the final report, after review, is required
to be communicated to the officer. For this purpose, a copy of the report should be sent to the appraisee,
after the review officer has recorded his remarks and the overall grade. A record of having sent a copy of
the report should be maintained for record.
Representation
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The appraisee may submit a representation against any observation in his/her performance appraisal. It is
expected that such a representation would only be against factual observations and not any subjective
assessment of the reporting and review authority. In case a representation is submitted, it should be routed
through the reporting and review officers to reach the cadre controlling authority. In case the reporting or
review officers, being satisfied with the contentions made by the appraisee, wish to change any of the
remarks or assessments, they may do so. In case they are not satisfied, they may give their observations, if
any, on the representation of the appraisee. The cadre controlling authority would place the representation
along-with any remarks made by the reporting and review authorities, on the representation, before a
“Referral Board” to be specifically constituted for the purpose of deciding on such representations. The
decision of the Referral Board would be final and it may result in the grades being amended in the light of
any representation that the Board may accept.
In case the appraisee has alleged malafide against the reporting and/or review officers, the Referral Board
would examine the claim. In case it is found that the allegation is without factual basis, the Referral Board
would enter the finding and, if necessary, record an appropriate stricture in the PAR for that year. At the
same time, if the claims are found to be true, it may be reflected appropriately in the report of the
reporting/review officer.
Practice Task
1. Which is not an objective of performance appraisal ?

A. Measuring the efficiency. B. Designing organizational goal.
C. Maintaining organizational control. D. Assessment of performance.
2. A_____________________is a process of evaluating an employee‟s performance of a job in terms of

its requirements.
A. Performance management B. Performance evaluation
C. Performance analysis D. Performance appraisal
3. Aim of performance appraisal is

A. Goals of organization B. Goals of employee
C. Both A & B D. Neither A nor B
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4. Actual performance of employees are compared with
A. Other members B. Standard performance
C. Previous performance D. Group performance
5. Actual performance is measured in terms of its

A. Efficiency and effectiveness B. Business by him
C. Returns to the institution D. Input and output
Feedback
Answers :- 1- B, 2- D,3- C, 4- B, 5- A
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8.15.2 Feedback for Performance Management (Alumni, Prospective
Employers, Students etc.)
Feedback means knowledge of results. It implies two things; (a) job Performance – whether „x‟ is capable
performing specific tasks that have been assigned (b) work related behavior – while performing his tasks,
whether „x‟ speaks politely to customers and works cooperatively with rest of the team members. The
appraiser and the appraise need to consider certain guidelines while giving and receiving performance
feedback. A debatable point in performance appraisal is about the feedback given to appraise. Some
authorities feel that both positive and negative result should be communicated to the appraise. Others feel
that only adverse remarks should be communicated. Still others who are in minority feel that no feedback
should be given.
The purpose of the performance appraisal feedback is to provide growth and development opportunity.
Employees want to know how they are doing but typically they are uncomfortable about getting the
feedback. Here are some of the guidelines for providing feedback to an average employee:
● Summarise employee‟s performance and be specific;
● Explain why the employee‟s performance is this;
● Thank employee for doing job;
● Raise any relevant issue such as an area of improvement; and
● Express confidence with employee‟s future good performance.
According to Boove et al. (1993), the appraisal of employees by their supervisors can improve individual
performance and provides a basis for promotion, transfer, demotion and termination. The performance
appraisal is an informal or formal process of evaluating employee‟s performance in relation to expectation
and providing feedback is a “key tool” here. Feedback is likely to be disregarded if the credibility issue is
not addressed.
➢ Feedback from Stakeholders of an Educational Institution

Different stakeholders of an educational institution viz. students, parents, teachers, alumni, potential
employers, community etc. view the performance of the institution from different perspectives.
Appropriate feedback from the above mentioned stakeholders on the relevant parameters help the
institution in evaluating the effectiveness of its performance and thereby take necessary actions to
improve the same. Some of the broad parameters for judging an institutional performance are as
follows:
● Fulfillment of institutional goals/objectives
26
● Adequacy and quality of resources
● Quality of teaching learning process
● Quality of curriculum of courses
● Quality of evaluation
● Students success index
● Quality of student output
● Level and quality of student placement
● Institution‟s reputation
● Adaptation to change- social, economic, technological, environmental etc.
● Responsiveness to community
● Continuous improvement
These dimensions of institutional performance focus on system‟s approach where the institution is to be
seen in totality in the context of its different components viz., inputs, process, product and mechanism of
evaluation.
Depending upon the perceptual aspect of institutional quality, David's and Wellison (1995): identified
three categories of respondents: students, teachers and parents. The major issues identified as indicators of
quality are as follows.
❖ Students
● Quality of teaching learning
● Satisfaction with the faculty and staff
● Communications
● Standards of student behaviour
● Quality of facilities and infrastructure in the institution
● General factors and overall satisfaction with the institution and
● The extent of equal opportunities for students
❖ Parents
● Quality of teaching and learning
● Satisfaction with faculty and staff
● Communications
● Quality of facilities available in institution for grooming students
● General factors and overall satisfaction with the institution
● Role of leadership and governing council in the institution
27
❖ Teachers
● Quality of leadership
● Communication in the institution
● Quality of Work environment for the teachers and staff
● Professional environment in the institution
● Quality of education provided by the institution
In addition to the above stakeholders, alumni and potential employers can also a vital role in enhancing
the performance of the institution. Their feedback on relevant parameters can set a right direction for the
institutional growth and development, thereby making it highly responsive to the needs of the society.
❖ Alumni
● Quality of teaching and learning
● Satisfaction with faculty and staff
● Communications
● Development of appropriate skills in students
● Quality of facilities and infrastructure available in institution for grooming students
● Role of and leadership and governing council in the institution
● Adaptation to change- social, economic, technological etc.
❖ Potential Employers
● Quality of student output
● Communications
● Quality of facilities and infrastructure available in institution for grooming students
● Role of and leadership
● Adaptation to change- economic, technological etc.
28
Based on the right inputs from these stakeholders and their whole hearted contribution, in setting
institutional goals and objectives, can go a long way in the development of any academic institution.
A standardized sample feedback Performa as developed by AICTE (gazette notification, March 1, 2019)
to judge the effectiveness of teaching and non teaching staff in an educational institution is presented as
follows:
STUDENT’S FEEDBACK
FORM
(To be used by institutions)
Academic Year: Name of the Faculty
Course Semester
Date of the feedback
For getting filled in through student
S. Description Very Poor Poor Good Very Excellent

No. Good
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
1 Has the Teacher covered entire

Syllabus as prescribed by University/
College/ Board?
2 Has the Teacher covered relevant

topics beyond syllabus
3 Effectiveness of Teacher in terms of:
(a) Technical content/course content
(b) Communication skills
29
(c) Use of teaching aids
4 Pace on which contents were covered
5 Motivation and inspiration for students

to learn
6 Support for the development of

Students‟
skill
(i) Practical demonstration
(ii) Hands on training
7 Clarity of expectations of students
8 Feedback provided on Students‟

progress
9 Willingness to offer help and advice

to students.
Total
Collection of data and its analysis by developing similar proformas to be filled by different stakeholders
can be of great help in analyzing institutional performance and further taking appropriate initiatives for
overcoming the performance drawbacks, if any.
Practice Task
1. Feedback control system is basically

A. High pass filter B. Low pass filter
C. Band pass filter D. Band stop filter
30
2. As a result of introduction of negative feedback which of the following will not decrease?
A. Instability B. Bandwidth
C. Overall gain D. Distortion
3. Open loop system is ___________ stable than closed loop system

A. More B. Less
C. Inclined D. Exponential
4. Basic purpose of using Feedback is :

A. To reduce the sensitivity of the system to parameter variations.
B. To increase the bandwidth of the system
C. To reduce the noise and distortion of the system
D. To increase stability of the system
5. Effect of feedback on sensitivity is minimum in:

A. Open loop control system
B. Closed loop control system
C. None of the mentioned
D. Both of the mentioned
Feedback
Answers:- 1-B, 2- B, 3-A, 4-A, 5-B
31
Conclusion
Performance appraisal is tool for systematic evaluation of employees‟ performance and their potential for
development. It provides strengths and weaknesses and the areas of potential improvement. Academic
institutions use different methods for assessing the performance of faculty and staff. This also helps them
in identifying potential employees who can be assigned higher responsibilities and thus, planning for
future. For enhancing the performance of employees, it is very important that the institutions provide
them appropriate information and feedback based on which they may plan necessary improvement
initiatives may be jointly planned by the concerned employee and his superiors. In addition to partnering
with the employees, it is equally important that the institutions also partner with other stakeholders like
alumni, parents, potential employers and students and give due weightage to their feedback. This shall
lead to their becoming responsive to needs of stakeholders and designing up-to-date systems leading
enhancement in efficiency, effectiveness and quality of services.
Bibliography
1. Bartram, T., Stanton, P., Leggat, S., Casimir, G., and Fraser, B., (2007), “Lost in
Translation: Exploring the Link between HRM and Performance in Healthcare,” Human
Resource Management Journal
2. Caruth, D.L., and Humphreys, J. H., (2008), “Performance Appraisal: Essential
Characteristics for Strategic Control,” Measuring Business Excellence
3. Fletcher, C., (2006), “Appraisal and Feedback - Making Performance Review Work,”
London, CIPD
4. Grund, C., and Przemeck, J., (2012), “Subjective Performance Appraisal and Inequality
Aversion,” Applied Economics
5. Jawahar, I.M., (2010), “The Mediating Role of Appraisal Feedback Reactions on the
Relationship between Rater Feedback-Related Behaviors and Rate Performance,” Group
Organization Management
6. Michelle, B., Douglas, H., and John, B., (2010), "Consequences of the Performance
Appraisal Experience," Personnel Review
7. Marsden, D., (1999), “Theory of Reemployment Systems,” Oxford University Press,
Oxford
8. Rao, V. S. P., (2005), “Human Resource Management –Text and Cases,” 3rd Edition,
Excel Books, New Delhi
9. Rao, T. V.,“Performance Appraisal Theory and Practice, (2004),” New Delhi: Vikas
Publishing House
10. Rezghi Ros tami. Alireza, “Performance Evaluation System, (2000),” Tadbir Publication
11. Robbins, Stephen P. “Organizational Behaviour,” 7th ed. (2010), PHI Pvt. Ltd
12. Zairi, M., “Measuring Performance of Business Results,” (1994), London: Chapman and
Hall
13. www.gceakola.org
32
14. www.shrm.org/foundation/1006employeeengagement
15. www.ugc.ac.in
16. https://www.aicte-india.org/bureaus/administration/rules-regulations, AICTE regulations
on pay scales, service conditions and minimum qualifications for appointment of teachers
and other academic staff in Technical Institutions and measures for the maintenance of
standards in Technical Education – (Degree) Regulation, 2019
Supporting learning resources: by Dr. Rakesh K Wats and Dr. RK Sharma

Videos on
17. Performance Appraisal (Rules & Regulations)

18. Feedback for Performance Management (Alumni, Prospective Employers, Students etc.)
19. Legal & Disciplinary Procedures for effective Institutional Control and Management
Web resources
1. HR Basics: Performance Management https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SyOZ_4rWWiY
2. Performance Appraisal | Methods of Appraisal | Part 1 (in Hindi)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2LDHoH4zycQ
3. what is performance appraisal?? .Explained in easiest method which will last in your mind forever
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pnoL4MOSK8Q
4. Performance Management https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m0xx09HHATo
5. Methods of Performance Appraisal https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RGjU7XJ8Jio
6. Performance Management https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tmPR585RTsU
*****************
33
UNIT-8.16
CONTROLLING: INSTITUTIONAL EVALUATION
Content Page no.
Broad Objective 3
Learning Outcomes 3
Introduction 3
8.16.1 Institutional Evaluation: Concept and Importance 4
➢ Various definitions of Evaluation

➢ Purposes of Evaluations (Plausibility, Probability, Adequacy)
➢ Substantial obstacles confronting these endeavours
➢ Criteria of evaluation
➢ Parameters of Institutional Evaluation
➢ Components of Institutional Assessment Mukhopadhyay (2005)
➢ Classification of MIAS (Mukhopadhyay Institutional Assessment Scale)
➢ Components to be included in Programme Evaluation
Practice Task 10
Feedback 11
8.16.2 Academic Audit: Concept 12
➢ Features of Academic Audit
1
➢ Scope of Academic Audit
➢ What an academic audit is not?
➢ Importance of Academic Audit
➢ Benefits of Academic Auditing
➢ Principles of the Academic Audit
Practice Task 16
Feedback 16
8.16.3 Academic Audit : Focal Areas 18
➢ First Approach
➢ Second Approach
Practice Task 21
Feedback 21
8.16.8.16.4 Academic Audit: Process 22
➢ Process of Academic Audit

➢ Responsibility of Institutional Management and Audit team
Practice Task 23
Feedback 23
Conclusion 25
Bibliography 25
UNIT-8.16
2
CONTROLLING: INSTITUTIONAL EVALUATION
NITTTR, Chandigarh
Broad Objective
learners appreciate the importance of institutional
evaluation for analysing the effectiveness of the
performance of an institute. The inputs in the unit
shall also make them aware about the application
of academic audit as a tool for institutional
evaluation.
Learning Outcomes
 Appreciate the need and importance of institutional evaluation for monitoring the
performance of an institution in today’s scenario.
 Understand the criteria of institutional evaluation.
 Identify the parameters of institutional evaluation and their criteria of measurement.
 Understand the role of Academic Audit as a tool for institutional evaluation.
 Identify focal areas of academic audit.
 Understand the process of academic audit and implement the same in his institution.
Introduction
Every educational institute makes concentrated efforts for the achievement of the goals and objectives
established by the institutional leaders. To keep themselves aware about the level of performance
attained by it at a particular juncture, it is important for the institutional players to formally analyze
and assess in whole or in part the accomplishment of the educational mission of their institution or
sector of activity so as to adapt continuously to the constantly changing environment. It provides the
institute a basis for decision making and to ensure accountability to society. For this, many a time
institutes use academic audit as a tool for the above purpose.
The present unit on institute evaluation has been designed to make the learners aware about the
concept, importance, components and the criteria for institutional evaluation. The inputs in the unit
shall also be very useful for them to know about an important tool of institutional evaluation, the
3
academic audit. This unit shall also provide them inputs about the focal areas and the process of an
academic audit.
8.16.1 Institutional Evaluation: Concept and Importance
Evaluation has a broad meaning which goes beyond measurement of any single aspect. Evaluation of
an institution is based on assessing, testing and measuring the levels of its qualitative improvement. It
is a process of making value judgements over a level of performance or achievement. Evaluation can
also imply a critical assessment of educative process and its outcome in the light of the objectives.
Evaluation is the process of determining the extent to which the objectives are achieved and is a
continuous and dynamic process leading to continuous improvement in an institution. It should be an
integral part of the teaching and learning process of any educational institution.
According to C.E. Beeby (1977), evaluation is "the systematic collection and interpretation of
evidence, leading, as part of the process, to a judgement of value with a view to action". Similarly
Patton (1987) defined, “Evaluation as a process that critically examines a program. It involves
collecting and analysing information about a program’s activities, characteristics, and outcomes. Its
purpose is to make judgments about a program, to improve its effectiveness, and/or to inform
programming decisions”. The definitions have four main components:
❖ Systematic collection of evidence-
● Value judgement should be evidence based
● Planned and conscious efforts should be invested purposefully to gather the evidences
● The information required must be defined with some degree of precision
● The information should be gathered from multiple sources by applying varied tools
like tests, observations, questionnaires, interviews etc.
❖ Interpretation of evidence-
● Gathered evidence should facilitate the judgement process
● Gathered evidence should be associated with indicators of evaluation
● Gathered evidence should be interpreted from all kinds of perspectives
● Interpretations must be carried out very carefully
❖ Judgement of value-
● Should not be treated as only describing the evidence to understand the status of a
phenomenon.
● It must help to judge how well a system or a process or a product matches with the
expected goals or outcomes.
❖ Action orientation-
4
● The evaluation for the sake of making judgement or giving grades or certification
does not serve the purpose.
● It must lead to decision making so that it can serve the purpose of framing better
policies and adopting efficient and effective practices in education.
Hence, it can be finalised that evaluation is an evidence based judgement, which is interpreted
systematically, leading to policy orientation, decision-making and actions related to
improvement of the system.
.
➢ Various other interpretations of the term Evaluation-
The term is used and understood in diverse ways, like-

 A way to measure and understand the data of an institute to formalised instruments
and standardised scales involved in getting the comparable and replicable results.
 It is a professional judgement where in visitation teams and peer review provides the
means of judgement
 It can also be taken as a comparison of actual and intended outcomes or objectives.
 Sometimes evaluation can be taken as a "goal-free" or responsive evaluation which
looks at all outcomes including the unintended effects
 Evaluation may also be treated as a political process aimed at resolving existing
conflict by using negotiation tools.
 It can be used as an ongoing process to reduce complacency or achieving changes.
 It can be treated as a process fabricated to produce useful information for decision-
making to improve the system or programme.
 Evaluation sometimes treated merely as a ritual to provide a picture of rationality and
accountability to promote a feeling of security.
➢ Purposes of Evaluations (Plausibility, Probability, Adequacy)
The motive behind the institutional evaluation is to assist endeavours to enhance the
institute’s performance from the current status. Generally for three reasons, evaluations are
conducted, those are: to determine adequacy, plausibility, and probability.
❖ Adequacy
● To check whether the goals or targets set by an institution were met or not
● Such an evaluation process does not require a control group, hence it is cost, time and
effort effective
● As the assessments indicate progress toward pre-determined targets, hence may
become basis for increased or continued funding.
5
❖ Plausibility
● It determines if an institution has attained expected goals
● It needs an experimental control group to compare the target indicators
❖ Probability
● It is the most robust designed study to determine the true effect of an intervention
on the indicators of interests
● It looks to determine the success of a program’s activities and outcomes.
● It involves more data collection and more emphasis is placed on compliance of
results
➢ Substantial obstacles confronting these endeavours-
The most common hindrances which come on the way to achieve the real objective of
evaluation are-
 Lack of understanding of the functioning of an institution

 Lack of understanding of the institute’s performance and management
 Lack of understanding of the purpose of evaluation
 Lack of understanding of the adequate techniques of measurement and procedures of
judgement
 Lack of clarity between desirable and achievable goal of the institute
 Lack of understanding between thought process of evaluation team policy makers of
institute
 Presentation of results and implementation strategies mismatch
➢ Criteria of evaluation -
The criteria of evaluation differs from one to another institute or programme, but mainly
revolves around following important parameters:
 The mission and objectives of the concerned institute will help the evaluators clear about,
what does the institution seek to achieve?
 Procedure and approach of evaluators is dependent upon the governance process and the
activities of the institute to attain its mission and objectives.
 Institutional processes of self evaluation and quality assurance to attain its mission and
objectives.
 Institutional activities for its continuous improvement to enhance its performance in times
to come to have competitive edge in the ever changing education system at the tertiary
level.
6
➢ Parameters of Institutional Evaluation-
According to Cheng and Tam's (1997) there are main seven goals/indicators/dimensions of an
educational institution which need to be gauged for quality evaluation in the context of its
different components viz., inputs, process, product and mechanism of evaluation
Indicators Areas Criteria
Goals/Objectives (time-bound School objectives- Clarity-

specific and observable)
standards and specialisations listed in whether resources are sufficient to
institute programmes and plans e.g. achieve the goals, whether goals are
academic rate, dropout rate etc achievable
Resources Quality of student intake, facilities, Clear relationship between input

financial Support etc. (resources) and output, whether
resources are of needed quality
Process Leadership (Teachers Principals) Clear relationship between process

participation social interactions, and output. Smooth internal process
classroom climate, learning activities leading to expected outcome.
and experiences.
Satisfaction of all Satisfaction of educational authorities, Satisfaction of all powerful

stakeholders management board administrators, institutional constituents or
teachers, parents students, employers stakeholders
etc
Institution's legitimacy and Public relations, marketing, public Accountability of institute to

reputation image, reputation, status in the community, social reputation,
community, evidence of accountability, meeting social needs, demands and
etc requirements etc.
Absence of problems and Absence of conflicts, dysfunctions, Strategies adopted for minimising
troubles in the institution difficulties, defects, weaknesses, problems and troubles
troubles etc.
Adaptation to environmental Awareness of essential needs and Openness and flexibility in internal
changes and internal barriers changes, internal process monitoring, organisation towards environmental
programme evaluation, development changes and its strategies continuous
planning, staff development etc. for planning and improvement.
7
Source: Cheng and Tam (1997)
➢ Components of Institutional Assessment Mukhopadhyay (2005) –
He developed a comprehensive institutional assessment system particularly in the Indian context

of institutional evaluation (Figure 16.1)
Figure 16.1- Institutional Assessment System
➢ Classification of MIAS (Mukhopadhyay Institutional Assessment Scale) –
The classification is based on the qualitative factors mentioned below and all the stakeholders like
teachers, principals, students, parents and supervisors rate the status of an institution accordingly.
 Leadership
 Teacher quality - preparation, competence and commitment
 Linkage and interface - communication with the environment
 Academic and non-academic quality of students
 Non-scholastic areas or co-curricular activities
 Quality of instruction incorporated in teaching
 Quality of support services or office management
 Relationship - corporate life in the institution
 Instructional support or material resources
 Methodology and purposefulness of examination
 Job satisfaction - staff morale
 Reputation of the institution.
8
 Enrolment of girls and boys, with break-up
 Inter-class transition rate
 Performance in academic and non-academic areas
 Physical infrastructure
Mukhopadhyay's Model incorporates both trend data and perception based data needed for an
institution.
PERCEPTION BASED DATA

TREND DATA
(cover satisfaction level/ appropriateness)
● Enrolment ● Principal's perception

● Retention ● Teacher's perception
● Academic performance (examination ● Parent's perception
results) ● Student's perception and
● Non-academic performance and ● Supervisor's perception
● Physical infrastructure
➢ Components to be included in Programme Evaluation
Programme Goals ● subject to scrutiny

● acts as evaluation criteria
● leads to evaluation of products
Resources (human and non-human) ● exploring requirements

● adequacy
● means to generate resources
● fulfilment of essential criteria
Process ● Efficiency
● Economy
(strategies, methods, procedures, technology,
● Stakeholders
processes)
● Satisfaction
Programme management
(decision making, developing strategies,

organisation, implementation, monitoring)
9
Ensuring effective use of inputs and processes in
the attainment of programme goals
Finally the evaluation, in general, or institutional evaluation in specific, is based on three main criteria
which fulfil all objectives, goals and attainment of the desired results for the judgement of current
status and scope along with possibilities of further improvement.
Practice Task
a) The motive behind __________ is to assist endeavours to enhance the institute’s performance
from the current status.
b) Evaluations are conducted to determine ________ , _______ & _______.
c) Mukhopadhyay's Model incorporates both_________ and _______needed for an institution.
Q2. Short questions
a) What is evaluation?
b) State the obstacles in evaluation
c) Name any five parameters of evaluation.
10
Feedback
1. a) Institutional evaluation
b) adequacy, plausibility, and probability trend data

c) trend data, perception based data
2. a) Evaluation is the way to measure and understand the data of an institute to formalised
instruments and standardised scales involved in getting the comparable and replicable results.
b) Obstacles in evaluation are:

● Lack of understanding of the functioning of an institution
● Lack of understanding of the institute’s performance and management
● Lack of understanding of the purpose of evaluation
● Lack of understanding of the adequate techniques of measurement and procedures of

judgement.
● Lack of clarity between desirable and achievable goal of the institute
c) Parameters of evaluation
● Goals/Objectives
● Resources
● Process
● Satisfaction of all stakeholders
● Institution's legitimacy and reputation
8.16.2 Academic Audit: Concept

Educational institutions require some framework for evaluating their performance in a manner which
may be seen as credible and valid from the stake-holders point of view. It will help them in refuting
11
an ill founded criticism from different quarters especially industry, users of their services, statutory
and regulatory authorities etc. Academic audit is an approach in that direction.
Academic audit or Educational Audit is a tool for institutional evaluation, where by adequacy of
academic inputs in an education institution are measured. It is a practical approach to professional
accountability within the educational service provided by the institution. It is a systematic
investigation, analysis and subsequent reporting of the performance, systems and resources of an
educational unit. It provides opportunity for the regular strategic overview of teaching learning
process in an institution. It is a means by which an institution’s authorities assure themselves of the
quality of student learning. It facilitates in indentifying and actively pursing areas of potential
improvement.
➢ Features of Academic Audit:
Any academic audit has a few essential features, which are as follows:
 It is institution based and carried out periodically

 It recognises the uniqueness of each authority, institute or unit
 It involves process of self evaluation
 It uses external evaluators to enhance objectivity
 It covers full range of institutional activities including design and delivery of services by
the institute
 It is built by negotiation and commitment on the active involvement of all those having
interest in education authority of institute.
 Audit encourages the identification, analysis, recording and reporting of qualitative
aspects of performance.
 It facilitates the ability of all covered staff/faculty/management to take charge of their
own self evaluation and self management.
 It is a forward looking process and seeks enhancement and improvement.
 It stimulates internally generated institutional development.
➢ Scope of Academic Audit
An academic audit broadly covers the following:

 Whether the programmes undertaken by the institute have been approved by appropriate
authorities like State Government, Universities, regulatory agencies like AICTE/UGC etc.
 Whether the activities and programmes are being undertaken in a manner leading to
fulfilment of intended objectives
12
 Whether the activities and the programmes are serving the intended purpose of authorities
efficiently and effectively
 Whether the resources especially funds being utilised for the conduct of programmes and
activities in compliance with applicable laws
 Whether operating rules, regulations, norms and practices adequate and transparent
 Are the needs of various stakeholders like students, parents, potential employers, society,
governing body and statutory authorities being satisfied
These questions broadly define the scope and boundaries of an academic audit. Thus, an academic
audit covers all aspects of the activities of the authority, institution or unit under its review. Due
consideration is given both to the effectiveness ( i.e. quality and the relationship between expectations
and outcomes) and efficiency (covering relevant consideration of economy and the relationship
between inputs and outcomes) of the education institution/system. The diverse purpose of the audit
may range from a subject or departmental monitoring to full educational institute, however, the
character and approach of conduct will vary in these cases because of the diversity of purpose. The
output of an educational audit provides the institute authorities a framework to take strategic decisions
regarding the future course of actions for the overall growth and development of an institution.
➢ What an academic audit is not?
 Framework for finding fault with a system or with individual faculty and staff;
 Externally directed surprise spot checks
 A device for constraining professional autonomy of the technical institute or an
individual;
 The application of a single, rigid, blue print to all situations in all institutions regardless
of their purpose, nature, location and size;
 An arid collection of awkward questions which lack a philosophy and coherence with the
context / propose of the institute.
➢ Importance of Academic Audit

In today’s scenario, rapid and far reaching changes are taking place in the purpose and range of
educational institutions. In addition government has increased scrutiny of an insistence on value in
and for money in all the activities performed by any educational institution, thus, the need for a
systematic and comprehensive approach to educational management is essential. An academic audit
provides a mechanism to educational administrators to systematically evaluate their own performance.
It provides them opportunities for making valid judgements about both the qualitative and quantitative
13
aspects of the services they provide through these institutions.
The importance of the academic audit from other stake-holders perspective is as follows:
 For students: An academic audit helps in eliminating unnecessary work load and mainly
emphasize on the essentially required inputs for their success
 For teachers: It helps in clearly outlining their roles and responsibilities and thus
avoiding unnecessary conflicts
 For society: It ensures the effective use of public resources especially public money.
 For employers: It ensures the availability of relevant and well rounded students who may
be able to contribute from the day one itself.
➢ Benefits of Academic Auditing

Academic audit of an education institution has manifold benefits, which are as follows:
 Academic audit leads to deeper acknowledgment to all internal processes, systems and
arrangements.
 It enhances involvement of individuals in identifying key performance indicators.
 Audit provides yardsticks for performance judgment
 It enhances personal involvement & professional development of participating staff.
 It allows for reconciliation of bottom up and top down planning.
 It helps in identifying the thrust areas for future growth and development of the
➢ Principles of the Academic Audit:
An academic audit works on the following principles which act as the foundations of good
practices in an educational institution:
❖ Define quality in terms of outcomes

 Learning should be outcome based and should pertain to what is essentially
needed ( knowledge, skills and attitude) by the students in their career and life.
 Learning, not teaching, is what matters for students in the long run
❖ Focus on process
 Institutions should analyse how teaching learning process is undertaken and how
learning should be assessed.
 Departments should study their programme’s literature and analyse approaches
which worked and which did not and accordingly plan for future
 Active learning approaches should be encouraged.
14
 Faculty should be motivated to adopt/adapt innovative teaching practices
❖ Work collaboratively
 Teamwork and collaborative working helps in enhancing the faculty ownership
towards common goals and their responsibility and accountability for the success
of students.
 Dialogue and collaboration rather than territory and “lone wolf” approach should be
encouraged.
❖ Base decisions on evidence

 Departments should collect data regarding the needs and interests, and performance
of students
 Data collected should be analysed and findings used for the betterment of curricula,
teaching learning process, assessment methods etc.
 Results should also be used to foster continuous improvement.
❖ Strive for coherence

 Programme courses should be built upon one another to provide necessary breadth
and depth in student learning.
 There should be alignment between learning outcomes and assessment
❖ Learn from best practices

 Faculty should bench mark effective practices (ones that optimise student
learning), both inside and outside, adapt and implement them to the best of their
circumstances
 For enhancing the effectiveness and quality of the programme faculty/staff should be
encouraged to share their best practices.
❖ Make continuous improvement a priority

 Faculty should consciously and continually make efforts to improve
teaching for enhancing the student learning outcomes.
 The departments should strive for the continuous improvement in teaching and
learning process including mechanisms to assess student’s learning. Ways and
means must also be used in identifying effective and ineffective teaching
pedagogies.
 Programs and the departments should demonstrate ways and means through which
results of effective teaching resulting in enhanced levels of student achievement are
facilitated and sustained.
15
Following these principles in letter and spirit can make the educational processes of any
academic institution highly efficient, effective and responsive to the needs and demands of
various stake holders.
Practice Task
Q1. Short questions
a) Define academic audit
b) What are the features of academic audit
c) What is the scope of academic audit
d) State any two benefits of academic audit.
Feedback
1. Short answers
a) Academic audit or Educational Audit is a tool for institutional evaluation, where by

adequacy of academic inputs in an education institution are measured. It is a practical
approach to professional accountability within the educational service provided by the
institution
b) Features of academic audit

● It is institution based and carried out periodically
● It recognises the uniqueness of each authority, institute or unit
● It involves process of self evaluation
c) Scope of academic audit covers the following
● Whether the programmes undertaken by the institute have been approved by

appropriate authorities like State Government, Universities, regulatory agencies like
AICTE/UGC etc.
● Whether the activities and programmes are being undertaken in a manner leading to
fulfilment of intended objectives
● Whether the activities and the programmes are serving the intended purpose of
authorities efficiently and effectively
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● Whether the resources especially funds being utilised for the conduct of programmes
and activities in compliance with applicable laws
● Whether operating rules, regulations, norms and practices adequate and transparent
● Are the needs of various stakeholders like students, parents, potential employers,
society, governing body and statutory authorities being satisfied
d) Benefits of academic audit are:
● Academic audit leads to deeper acknowledgment to all internal processes, systems

and arrangements.
● It enhances involvement of individuals in identifying key performance indicators.
● Audit provides yardsticks for performance judgment
● It enhances personal involvement & professional development of participating staff.
8.16.3 Academic Audit: Focal Areas
Any institution is established with a purpose and evaluated on the basis of its specific outcome. In
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order to achieve the outcome, resources are provided and required management system is
established.
Two approaches of assessing the performance of an educational institution are outlined in the
following text:
➢ First Approach
Under this approach, an institution is evaluated in terms of system’s approach of institutional
design, i.e. Input – Process – Output. The broad areas of evaluation and their essential
considerations are as follows:
 First Area: Purpose (What for the institution has been established ?)
Essential considerations
● Statement of purpose or
mission/statement/objective
● Institutional strategies
● Infrastructural Organisation
 Second Area: Management

Essential considerations :
 External relations
● Organisational structure
● Marketing of services
● Income generating activities
● Decision taking and information
system
● Management control
● Academic leadership
● Academic quality assurance
● Communication
● Administrative support
❖ Third Area: Resources
● Human resources
● Accommodation resources
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● Equipment and materials
● Financial resources(Maint. &
Development)
❖ Fourth Area: Outcomes
 General outcome
 Students outcome
 Staff outcome
 Course review & evaluation outcome
During evaluation quantitative and qualitative descriptive measurement of some considerations of

these four areas and their value judgement is done
➢ Second Approach
This approach of academic audit is based on the evaluation of institutional processes applied for
transmitting the raw input into effective outcome. The broad focal areas under this approach are
as follows:
❖ Focal Area 1: Learning Outcomes

● Has the institution explicitly defined what it wants its students to know and be able to
do after the completion their programme of study (e.g., as employees, as graduate
students, as citizens)? – i.e. Programme Outcomes
● Does every faculty member involved in defining program learning outcomes,
or only a few has been delegated this task?
● Does the institute consult sources beyond its own faculty while defining program
learning outcomes? (e.g., students, alumni, employers, professional associations ,
comparable programs in other institutions, etc.)
● Does program learning outcomes communicated by the institute to students,
employers or other stakeholders?
● Does the institute periodically review its program learning outcomes to
improve them as per the changing requirements?
❖ Focal Area 2: Curriculum and Co-curriculum

● Does the institute consciously design the curriculum and co-curriculum experiences to
achieve program learning outcomes?
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● Does the institute/departmental faculty work collaboratively to design the curricula
and co-curricula, or are based on individual experiences, preferences and decisions?
● Does the institute consider the integration of out-of-classroom activities
(co-curricular activities) to complement the curriculum?
● Does the institute consult sources beyond its own faculty while designing the
curriculum and co- curriculum? (e.g., students, alumni, employers, professional
associations, comparable programs in other institutions, etc.)
● Does the institute communicate clearly curricular and co-curricular requirements and the
reasoning behind these to its students?
● Does periodic review of the curriculum and co-curriculum undertaken by the institute
to see how these might be improved?
❖ Focal Area 3: Teaching and Learning Methods

● Does the institute consciously consider program and course outcomes while
deciding the teaching methods to be used in courses?
● Does the faculty collaborately discuss innovative teaching practices to improve
teaching and learning?
● Does the institute consult sources beyond its own faculty while selecting teaching
practices? (e.g., students, alumni, employers, professional associations,
comparable programs in other institutions, etc.)
● Does the institute faculty identify best practices in teaching and use the
information to improve teaching?
● Does the institute use e learning /instructional materials and ICT based teaching tools to
enrich student learning experiences and thus improve learning outcomes?
● Does periodic review of the teaching methods to improve them undertaken by the
institute faculty?
❖ Focal Area 4: Student Learning Assessment

 Does the institute measure the degree of alignment of student learning assessments
with program and course outcomes?
 Does the institute faculty collaboratively work to design and implement student
learning assessments, or these tasks have been delegated to a few individuals?
 Does the institute consult sources beyond its own faculty while designing student
learning assessments? (e.g., students, alumni, employers, professional
associations, comparable programs in other institutions, etc.)
 Does the faculty analyse the data and information collected based on learning
assessments and use the findings to improve the quality of curriculum, co-
curriculum and teaching practices?
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 Does the institute identify best practices in program and course assessments and use
them in future assessments of learning outcomes?
❖ Focal Area 5: Support of Quality Education

● Does the institute analyse the role of ancillary functions and student support facilities
like learning centres, libraries, laboratories etc. in supporting the achievement of
program outcomes and continuous quality improvement?
● Does the institute analyse the adequacy and utilisation of budget in promoting
or restricting its ability to implement improvement initiatives?
● How does the institute engage with student populations (past, present and prospective)
and other stakeholders to support a high-quality, sustainable program?
Practice Task
Q.1Fill ups the followings:
Under the first approach, an institution is evaluated in terms of system’s approach of
institutional------- i.e., ------, ----, ----
Q.2 How many approaches are there of assessing the performance of an educational institution?
Q.3 What is the basis of the second approach of assessing the performance of an educational
institution?
Q.4 What does SAR stands for?
Feedback
Ans. 1. design, Input , Process, Output
Ans.2 Two approaches (first and second)
Ans. 3 The second approach of academic audit is based on the evaluation of institutional processes
applied for transmitting the raw input into effective outcome
Ans.4 SAR- Self Appraisal Report
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8.16.4 Academic Audit: Process
The purpose, scope and approach of academic audit may vary from one educational institution to
other depending on the size of institution, nature of its services, diversity of education purpose and the
requirements and interests of the parties involved. Mass of the data utilized in the investigation is
historical and related to the inputs of the system, however, the orientation of the audit should be
forward looking to improve the nature and management of future educational & training provision.
Auditors need to focus on the policies, procedures, internal mechanisms and outputs of the system, as
well as its costs, facilities and resources. Both hard, quantifiable data and relevant, subjective
comments are acceptable evidence on which the audit team base its judgment.
Some of the major sources of data are:
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• Financial & numerical statistics
• Information from source records
• Internally & externally produced reports
• Published policies and procedures
• Curriculum documents
• Teacher diaries
• Assessment and evaluation records
• Physical inspection
• Questionnaires
• Decision meeting and in certain instances, the media
➢ Process of Academic Audit
The process of academic audit in an institution involves following main steps:
 Establishment of objectives and scope of educational audit

 Establishment of terms of reference and the terms in which the outcomes will be
announced.
 Finalisation of the self appraisal report (SAR) and its submission to the auditing team
 Finalisation of audit team ( i.e. the persons to involved in the audit process)
 Drawing up of the audit instrument to collect data
 Establishment of the mechanism for collecting data from different sources
 Determination of criteria/ indicators for using data to make evaluative judgements
 Confirmation of the availability of resources required
 Information dissemination about academic audit to all those who need to be involved
 Authorisation to the audit exercise to proceed
 Collection of data
 Recording of data on audit instruments
 Making essential judgements, by applying the agreed criteria/ indicators to data collected
 Drawing up of findings and action plan for improvement
 Making of essential management decisions
 Reviewing the format in which outcomes will be made public
 Announcing results and execution of action plan
➢ Responsibility of Institutional Management and Audit team

● Top Management (State ● Activity (i), (ii), (iv), (ix), (x)
Education Department/ Authority and (xv) to (xvii)
seeking evaluation
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● Institute internal audit team ● Activity (iii)
● External audit team ● Activity (v) to (viii) and (xi) to
(xiv)
Hence, effective academic auditing needs collaboration between auditing team selected to
represent a range of legitimate interests (DTE, BTE, Industry, Principal/Director etc.) and the
involvement of faculty and staff of the auditing institute. Dedicated leadership and commitment of the
top management is also a must for this type of exercise to succeed for the overall improvement of any
Practice Task
Q1.Short questions
a) What are the considerations of focus in curriculum and co curricular activities/
b) What are the steps of academic audit
Feedback
1. Answer
a) Considerations of focus in curriculum and co curricular activities are

● Does the institute consciously design the curriculum and co-curriculum experiences to
achieve program learning outcomes?
● Does the institute/departmental faculty work collaboratively to design the curricula
and co-curricula, or are based on individual experiences, preferences and decisions?
● Does the institute consider the integration of out-of-classroom activities (co-curricular
activities) to complement the curriculum?
● Does the institute consult sources beyond its own faculty while designing the
curriculum and co- curriculum
b) Steps of academic audit are

● Establishment of objectives and scope of educational audit
● Establishment of terms of reference and the terms in which the outcomes will be
announced.
● Finalisation of the self appraisal report (SAR) and its submission to the auditing team
● Finalisation of audit team( i.e. the persons to involved in the audit process)
● Drawing up of the audit instrument to collect data
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● Establishment of the mechanism for collecting data from different sources
● Determination of criteria/ indicators for using data to make evaluative judgements
● Confirmation of the availability of resources required
● Information dissemination about academic audit to all those who need to be involved
● Authorisation to the audit exercise to proceed
● Collection of data
● Recording of data on audit instruments
● Making essential judgements, by applying the agreed criteria/ indicators to data
collected
● Drawing up of findings and action plan for improvement
● Making of essential management decisions
● Reviewing the format in which outcomes will be made public
● Announcing results and execution of action plan
Conclusion
Institutional evaluation provides a means to know the degree of the achievement at a particular instant.
It helps an institution to plan appropriate actions and take necessary decisions for their implementation
keeping in view the ultimate goals of the institute. Academic audit as a tool for institutional evaluation
has a broad scope which varies from the assessment of a project, a department, a function or the
institute as a whole. The inputs from the results of the academic audit can provide a path to an institute
to move on in future.
Bibliography:
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1. Secolsky, C. and Denison, D.B. eds., 2012. Handbook on measurement, assessment, and
evaluation in higher education. Routledge.
2. Bresciani, M.J., 2006. Outcomes-based academic and co-curricular program review: A
compilation of institutional good practices. Stylus Publishing, LLC..
3. Green, A.S., 2008. Outcomes-Based Academic and Co-curricular Program Review. The Journal
of General Education, 57(1), pp.65-66.
4. Palomba, C.A. and Banta, T.W., 1999. Assessment Essentials: Planning, Implementing, and
Improving Assessment in Higher Education. Higher and Adult Education Series. Jossey-Bass,
Inc., Publishers, 350 Sansome Street, San Francisco, CA 94104.
5. Banta, T.W. and Palomba, C.A., 2014. Assessment essentials: Planning, implementing, and
improving assessment in higher education. John Wiley & Sons.
6. Arora, M., 2003. Credit Rating in India: Institutions, Methods And Evaluation. New Century
Publications.
7. Mishra, S., 2007. Quality assurance in higher education: An introduction. National Assessment
and Accreditation Council, India;.
8. Gandhi, M.M., 2013. International initiatives in assessment of quality and accreditation in
higher education. International Journal of Educational Planning & Administration, 3(2),
pp.121-138.
9. Sinha, V. and Subramanian, K.S., 2013. Accreditation in India: path of achieving educational
excellence. Business education & accreditation, 5(2), pp.107-116.
10. Schindler, L., Puls-Elvidge, S., Welzant, H. and Crawford, L., 2015. Definitions of quality in
higher education: A synthesis of the literature. Higher Learning Research
Communications, 5(3), pp.3-13.
11. Sinha, V. and Subramanian, K.S., 2013. Accreditation in India: path of achieving educational
excellence. Business education & accreditation, 5(2), pp.107-116.
12. https://www.thehindu.com/features/education/careers/academic-audit-the-need-of-the-
hour/article6969479.ece
13. https://www.tbr.edu/academics/academic-audit
14. https://www.roanestate.edu/webfolders/SMITHCC/academicAudit/AcademicAuditOverview2
005.pdf
Videos on:
● Institutional Evaluation- Concept and Importance

● Academic Auditing- Concept
● Academic Auditing- Focal Areas
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● Academic Auditing Process
Web resources:
● Institutional Effectiveness: Assessment and Evaluation

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xtXnli_e0GY
● Welcome Video for EDUC837 Institutional Assessment in Higher Education
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=camQJSDOYvQ
● Institutional Head (Evaluation) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PCL64PeCMfw
● What is Academic Audit? What does Academic Audit mean? Academic Audit meaning &
explanation https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jZmhUw8DVmo
● Audit of Educational Institutions ll Special Audits ll CA Kanika Khetan
● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZM-HkGbhd1s
*****
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Module 1: Orientation Towards Technical Education and

Unit 1: Orientation Towards Technical Education

L -1 STRUCTURE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION

1 STRUCTURE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION 1

1.0 Explain the role of higher education in the society.

2.0 Describe the structure of Technical Education.

3.0 Recognize the different types of Technical Institutes.

1.0 ROLE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN THE SOCIETY

• to create skilled manpower

• to enhance industrial productivity and

• to further improve the quality of life.

• Knowing subject matter deeply

• Learning to learn Skills

• A large knowledge of digital educational tools.

• How to be a facilitator and motivator of learning environment.

2.0 STRUCTURE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN INDIA

disciplines. In India, technical education is imparted at various levels such as craftsmanship,

Technical Education covers programs in engineering, technology, management, architecture,

Figure 1: Structure of Technical Education system in India

Technical Institutes, Engineering Colleges, Polytechnics, Industrial training centers, Vocational

3.0 TYPES OF TECHNICAL INSTITUTES

I. CRAFTSMEN TRAINING SCHEME

II. APPRENTICESHIP TRAINING SCHEME

I. CRAFTSMEN TRAINING SCHEME

Let us see the Salient Features of the Scheme

• Training is imparted in 70 engineering and 63 non-engineering trades.

APPRENTICESHIP TRAINING SCHEME

Apprenticeship training refers to a course of training in any industry or establishment.

Benefits of apprenticeship training

There are four categories of apprentices namely

A person undergoing apprenticeship training in any designated trade. Designated trade is

A person who holds a degree in engineering /non - engineering and undergoing

A person who holds a diploma in engineering / non - engineering and undergoing

d. Technician (vocational) apprentice

Figure 2: Types of Apprentice

Ministry of Skill Development & Entrepreneurship is responsible for monitoring the

The Diploma in Engineering or Diploma in Technology is a program focused on practical and

3-year course awarded in specific branch of engineering. It is usually offered in polytechnic

• Government Aided Polytechnics

• Un-aided Polytechnics / (Self-financing) Polytechnics

After completing, the graduates most of them go for

• Employment as Teachers of Technical Education Institutions

Engineering Colleges may be classified based on the nature of governance:

• Engineering Colleges affiliated to a Central / State University

• Engineering Education programs conducted by Deemed Universities

• Engineering Departments which are constituent parts of a general or Technical

• National Institutes of Technology (Formerly known as Regional Engineering Colleges)

• Institutes of National importance like Indian Institutes of Technology

Classification of Engineering Colleges based on the funding agency:

• Government Engineering Colleges

• Government Aided Engineering Colleges

• Un-aided (Self-financing) Engineering Colleges

A private university is an institution of higher learning established through a state or central

Open University (OU)

E. INSTITUTE OF NATIONAL IMPORTANCE (INI)

Institutes Under State Legislatures Acts

4.0 NATIONAL AGENCIES

As a result of education being brought under the Concurrent List,