Current and Resistance

Current and Current Density

The conventional current is defined as the rate of flow of (positive) charge

through any cross-sectional area is called electric current. If a net charge q
passes through any cross-section of the conductor in time t, then current i is
given by,

i=q/t

The MKS unit of charge is Ampere that is,

1 Ampere = 1 Coul / 1 Second

The current given by above equation is the constant for the time. If the rate of
flow of charge with time is not constant, then i varies with time and is given by,
i = dq / dt

Current Density

The current density at a point in a conductor carrying current is defined as the

current per unit area of cross-section of the conductor the area being taken in
a direction normal to the current.

Current density j is a macroscopic quantity. It is a vector and is characteristic of

a point inside a conductor rather than of the conductor as a whole. If the current
is distributed uniformly across a conductor of cross-sectional area A, the
magnitude of the current density for all points on that cross-section is
 J=i/A

Or i = j A

The MKS unit of current density is ampere per square meter

Electrical Resistance or Resistance:

The electrical resistance of an electrical conductor is the opposition to the

passage of an electric current through that conductor. Normally, it is denoted
by R. The SI unit of electrical resistance is the ohm (Ω), All materials show some
resistance, except for superconductors, which have a resistance of zero.

The resistance R of an object is defined as the ratio of voltage across it V to

𝑉
current through it I. Mathematically, R=
𝐼

Resistance can be expressed in ohms

1 ohm = 1 Volt / 1 ampere

The ohm is defined as the resistance of a conductor in which a potential

difference of 1 Volt is developed when a current of 1 ampere flows through it.

Resistivity/Specific Resistance/ Volume Resistivity:

Specific electrical resistance is a property of a material; it quantifies how

strongly the material opposes the flow of electric current. A low resistivity
indicates a material that readily allows the movement of electric charge.
The SI unit of electrical resistivity or specific resistance is
the ohm⋅metre (Ω⋅m). It is commonly represented by the ρ (rho).

Mathematically, electrical resistivity ρ is defined as,

The quantity  is called ‘Specific Resistance’ or resistivity. Thus, the specific
resistance is the resistance offered by a conductor of unit length and unit cross-
section that is A = 1 cm2, and l = 1 cm. Its unit is ohm-meter. Conductivity is the
reciprocal of resistivity. Its unit is mho.

Conductivity:

Electrical conductivity or specific conductance is the reciprocal of electrical

resistivity, measures a material's ability to conduct an electric current.

It is commonly represented by the Greek letter σ, but κ (kappa) (especially in

electrical engineering) or γ (gamma) are also occasionally used. Its SI unit is
Siemens per meter(S/m)
Mathematically, σ can be defined as

Conductivity is the inverse of resistivity.

Ohm’s Law:

Ohm’s law states that the potential difference between the ends of a conductor
varies directly as the current flowing in it, provided the temperature does not
change and the physical state of the conductor remains the same.
If V is the potential difference between two ends of a conductor AB and I is the
current flow in it, then

I∞V

I = GV (where, G is the proportionality constant called conductivity )

1
I= V
𝑅

IR = V
V = IR

Where, R is known as resistance and it is inverse of conductivity.

That means if the resistance of the conductor increases the conductivity

decreases. The flow of current decreases.

Series Combination of resistors:

Suppose the values of three resistors are respectively R1, R2 and R3. These are
connected in such a way as that same current flows through each. This
combination of resistors is series combination. The equivalent resistance of the
resistors is to be found out.

Let the potential of points A, B, C and D are respectively VA, VB, VC and VD.

Further let V › V.

Let the potential difference between the two ends of resistors are respectively
V1, V2 and V3.

So, from the ohm’s law, we get VA - VB = V1, VB - VC = V2, VC - VD = V3

If the potential difference between the two ends of the combination is V,

then V = V1 + V2 + V3 ………… (1)

But if the equivalent resistance of the combination is Rs , then from ohm’s law

We get, V = iRs from equation number (1)

we get, iRs = iR1 + iR2 + iR3

iRs = i (R1 + R2 + R3)

Rs = R1 + R2 + R3

If there are n number of resistors connected in series

Rs = R1 + R2 + R3 +……………..Rn
Parallel Combination of resistors:

Suppose, the values of three resistors are respectively R1, R2 and R3. One end of
each resistor is connected at point A and the other ends of the resistors are
connected at B so that same potential difference (VA – VB) exists between two
ends of each resistor; here the potential of points A and B are respectively VA
and VB.

Here, current i after reaching at point A, gets divided into i1, i2 and i3 flowing
through respective resistors R1, R2 and R3 reach at point B and after
combining becomes the main current i = i1 + i2 + i3 …………………… (1)

From the ohm’s law, we get

If the equivalent resistance of the circuit is Rp, then from ohm’s law

Now, inserting the values of i1, i2 and i3 in equation (1)

If the number of resistors is n,

Shunt:

Shunt is the practical application of parallel combination of resistances. In

many occasions sensitive and sophisticated equipment like galvanometer is
used in electric circuits. A low resistance is used parallel to the equipment in
order to protect the equipment from damage due to the flow of high current
through it that produces excessive heat. So, a low resistance which is used to
sensitive and sophisticated equipment so that high current does not flow
through it is called a shunt.

Derive the equation of current flowing through the shunt and the
galvanometer:

Suppose, a resistance S of small value is connected between two ends A and B,

parallel to galvanometer of resistance G. This S is the shunt. Let the principle
current in the circuit be i. While reaching at point A, this current will be divided
into two parts. A small portion of the principle current will flow through
galvanometer and large current will flow through the shunt. As a result, the
galvanometer will not be damaged due to heat produced for large flow of
current.

Two currents will meet at B and will form principle current again. Let this
current through the galvanometer and the shunt be respectively ig and is. Now,
if the potential difference between the points A and B be ( VA – VA) then
according to ohm’s law, we get
Drift Velocity

The drift velocity is the average velocity that a particle, such as an electron,
attains due to an electric field.

Let us consider a conductor AB the two ends of which are connected to a battery
(Figure below).
A steady electric field is thus established in the conductor in the direction A to
B. The free electrons at the end B experience a force (F = -Ee) from B to A in a
direction opposite to that of the field E. The electrons are, therefore, accelerated
in this direction. In the process, the electrons collide with each other and with
the positive ions in the conductor. At each collision the momentum gained in
the direction of the force acting on the charge carrier due to the electric field is
lost and the electron is accelerated afresh after each collision. Thus, due to
collision, a backward force acts on the electrons. The overall effect of these
collisions is that the electrons slowly drift with a constant average drift velocity
in the direction of –E.

The average velocity with which the charge carriers move under the effect of
the electric field is known as drift velocity, the average being macroscopic i.e.,
taken over a volume large as compared to molecular volume.

Let us consider a section of conductor as shown in Fig. The number of

conduction electrons in the wire is nAl.

Where, n = number of conduction electrons per unit volume

Al = volume of the wire

So, the magnitude of the charge q = ( nAl ) e

This charge passes out the wire, through it’s right end in a time t is given by

𝒍
t=
𝑽𝒅

Where, Vd = Drift speed of charge

l = Length of the wire

According to the definition of current

Again, we know current density

This is the relationship between Drift velocity and Current density

Kirchhoff’s Law:

Kirchhoff's current law (First Law)

This law is also called Kirchhoff's first law, Kirchhoff's point rule, or
Kirchhoff's junction rule (or nodal rule).
At any node (junction) in an electrical circuit, the sum of currents flowing into
that node is equal to the sum of currents flowing out of that node or
equivalently the algebraic sum of currents in a network of conductors meeting
at a point is zero.

Kirchhoff's voltage law (Second Law)

This law is also called Kirchhoff's second law, Kirchhoff's loop (or mesh) rule,
and Kirchhoff's second rule.
The directed sum of the electrical potential differences (voltage) around any
closed network is zero, or:

More simply, the sum of the emfs in any closed loop is equivalent to the sum of
the potential drops in that loop, or:

The algebraic sum of the products of the resistances of the conductors and the
currents in them in a closed loop is equal to the total emf available in that
loop.
Wheatstone bridge:

If four junctions are made due to the formation of a closed loop by connecting
four resistors in series and if an electric cell is connected between the two
opposite junctions and a galvanometer is connected between the other two
opposite junctions then the circuit thus formed is called Wheatstone bridge. Let
us consider that four resistors P, Q, R and S are arranged like tetrahedral ABCD.
Wheatstone bridge is formed by connecting a battery B or an electric source, a
plug key K and a variable resistor X between the junctions A and B and a
galvanometer G between the junctions C and D.
Let the resistance of the galvanometer be G and currents flowing through P, Q,
R, S and G are respectively i1, i2, i3, i4 and ig. Now, applying Kirchhoff’s first law
respectively at points C and F, we get

Again, applying Kirchhoff’s second law respectively at closed loops ACDA and
CDBC, we get
But, at balanced condition of the bridge, ig = 0

Under this condition, according to equations (1) and (2)

i1 = i3

i4 = i2

From equation 3 and 4

According to this equation of the Wheatstone bridge, if values of any three

resistors are known, then the resistance of the fourth resistor can be
determined. It is called the Wheatstone bridge principle for the measurement
of resistance.
Capacitor

A capacitor is a device for storing charge. In actual practice, the capacitor is an

electrical device consisting of two conductors separated by an insulating or
dielectric medium and carrying equal and opposite charges.

The conductors are called plates and may be of any shape. There are some
potential differences between the charge carrying conductor

Capacitance

When charge is given to a conductor, its potential rises. So there is a fixed

relationship between the two quantities which can be written as

Q∞V

Or, Q =CV

Or, C= Q/V

Where c is the constant and is known as the capacity or capacitance of the

conductor.

If V =1 then,

C=Q
Thus the capacity of a conductor is the amount of charge required to raise the
potential of the conductor.

In electromagnetism and electronics, capacitance is the ability of a body to

hold an electrical charge.

Unit of capacitance

The practical and S.I unit of capacitance is Farad

1 Farad = 1 coulomb/ 1 Volt

The sub multiples of the farad,

The microfarad (µF) = 10-6 Farad and micro-microfarad (µµF) =10-12 Farad

Types of capacitor

According to the shape there are three types of capacitor

1. Parallel plate capacitor

2. Cylindrical capacitor
3. Spherical capacitor

Parallel plate capacitor

A parallel plate capacitor is formed of two thin metallic plates arranged

parallel to one another separated by a small distance, contains insulating or
dielectric medium inside.

Capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor

The figure shows a parallel plate capacitor where x and y are the two similar
thin metallic flat conducting plates and separated by a small distance d. Let A
be the surface area of the plate of the capacitor.
Let each of the plates of the capacitor is charged with a charge which is
numerically equal to Q.

Let E is the field strength inside the capacitor, σ is the charge density of either
plate and V is the potential developed between the plates.
𝑄
Then the capacitance of the plate, c= ……………(1)
𝑉

𝑄
The surface charge density, σ= …………………….(2)
𝐴

Potential, V=Ed………………………….(3)

The lines of force passing out through unit area is σ/𝛜0. The numbers of lines
of force are numerically equal to the electrical field strength E.
𝜎
E=
Є0

𝑄
E=
Є0𝐴

From equation (3)

𝑄𝑑
V=Ed= …………………(4)
Є0𝐴

Putting equation (4) in equation (1),

𝑄 𝑄
C= = 𝑄𝑑
𝑉
Є0𝐴

Є0𝐴
C=
𝑑

This is the expression for capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor.

Capacitance of the cylindrical capacitor

A cylindrical capacitor consists of two coaxial cylinders of radius a and b and

length l. We have to find out the capacitance of the device.

Let us construct a Gaussian surface, shown in the figure, having radius r. By

using Gaussian Law
Capacitance of series connected capacitors

Capacitance of parallel connected capacitors