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Physics 107 Textbook

General Physics Laboratory I (Non-Calculus Treatment) (University of

Wisconsin-Milwaukee)

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1.1 Fundamental Physical Quantities

1.1a Distance
• Fundamental physical quantities--> distance, time, mass
• Distance--> measure of space in one dimension
• 1m= 3.28 ft; 1ft= 1/3.28m
• Area
○ The size of a surface
○ Can be applied to flat and "empty" objects
○ units²
• Volume
○ How much space an object takes up
○ Units³
1.1b Time
• Based on periodic phenomena--> process that repeats at a regular rate
• Period
○ The time for one complete cycle of a repeating process
○ Abbreviated--> T
• Frequency
○ Number of cycles of a periodic process that occur per unit of time
○ Abbreviated--> f
○ Units--> hertz; Hz; 1/s
• T=1/f; f=1/T
1.1c Mass
• Mass
○ How much matter an object contains
○ Measure of inertia

1.2 Speed and Velocity

1.2a Speed
• Speed
○ Rate of movement
○ Average speed= ∆d/∆t
○ Instantaneous speed= short distance/short time
○ Relative
○ Scalar
1.2b Velocity
• Velocity
○ Speed in a particular direction
○ Vector
1.2c Vector Addition
• A moving body can have 2 velocities at the same time
• Vectors can be added and subtracted

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○ Adding
§ Tip to tail
§ Same direction
○ Subtracting
§ Tip to tail
§ Opposite directions
○ When vectors are not parallel--> use Pythagorean theorem
• All vectors can be thought as an addition of two different vectors

1.3 Acceleration

• Physical world is filled w/ motion

• Acceleration
○ Rate of change of velocity
○ a=∆v/∆t
○ Vector
○ (-) sign means acceleration and velocity vectors are in opposite directions
(slowing down)
• Free falling bodies move w/ a constant downward acceleration of 9.8 m/s²
1.3a Centripetal Acceleration
• Centripetal acceleration
○ Acceleration of an object moving in a circular path
○ Points towards center of curve
○ Perpendicular to object's instantaneous velocity
○ a=v²/r

1.4 Simple Types of Motion

1.4a Constant Velocity

• Uniform motion
○ a body moving with a constant non-zero velocity
○ Constant speed in a fixed direction
○ Acceleration=zero
○ d=vt
• Slope
○ Measure of its steepness
○ Rise/run
○ When graph is distance vs time, slope is velocity
1.4b Constant Acceleration
• Constant acceleration in a straight line
○ Velocity is changing at a fixed rate
○ v=at
○ d=(1/2)at²
• Stationary object

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○ d=constant
○ v=0
○ a=0
• Uniform motion
○ d=vt
○ v=constant
○ a=0
• Uniform acceleration
○ d=(1/2)at²
○ v=at
○ a=constant
1.5 More on Kinematics Graphs
• Careful note of which quantities are plotted
○ Distance v time--> slope is velocity
○ Velocity v time--> slope is acceleration

Important Equations

T=1/f
f=1/T
v=∆d/∆t
a=∆v/∆t
d=vt
d=(1/2)at²
v=at
a=v²/r

2.1 Force

• Sir Isaac Newton

○ 1642-1727
○ Fundamental discoveries in physics and math
○ Father of modern physical science
○ Systematic rules that govern motion and changes in motion
• Force
○ A push or pull acting on a body
○ Causes some distortion of body and/or a change in velocity
○ Vector
○ Units--> N; newtons
2.1a Weight
• Weight
○ The force of gravity acting on a body
○ Symbol--> W

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○ Depends on mass of object and distribution of mass

2.1b Friction
• Friction
○ Force of resistance to relative motion between two bodies or substances in
physical contact
○ Static
§ when there is no relative motion between two objects
§ For an object to start moving, it must first overcome static friction
§ Can fluctuate between 0 and max
○ Kinetic
§ When there is a relative motion between two objects
§ Usually less than maximum static friction

2.2 Newton's First Law of Motion

• Newton's 1st law

○ Object will remain at rest or in uniform motion w/ a constant velocity unless
acted on by a net external force
• External force--> caused by some agent outside the object or system
• Net force--> vector sum of all the external forces acting on the body
2.2a Centripetal Force
• Centripetal force
○ Directed toward the center of the object's path

2.3 Mass

• Mass
○ A measure of an object's resistance to acceleration
○ A measure of the quantity of matter in an object
○ Inertia
○ Depends on volume and composition
○ Proportional to weight

2.4 Newton's Second Law of Motion

2.4a Force and Acceleration

• Newton's 2nd law
○ An object is accelerated whenever a net force acts on it
○ F=ma
○ One newton is force required to give a 1 kilogram mass an acceleration of 1
m/s²
○ 1 newton=1 kilogram-meter/second²
○ W=mg
○ Centripetal--> F=(mv²)/r

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2.4b The International System of Units (SI)

• International system
○ SI
○ Physical Quantity--> distance(d), area(A), volume (V), time(t), frequency(f),
speed/velocity(v), acceleration(a), force(F), weight(W), mass(m)
○ SI unit--> meter(m), second(s), hertz(Hz), newton(N), kilogram(kg)

2.5 Examples: Different Forces, Different Motions

• Equilibrium
○ When the net force on a body is zero
○ Can be stationary or moving at a constant velocity
2.5a Projectile Motion Revisited
• When an object is thrown upwards at an angle, it has both horizontal and vertical
motions
• Vertical and horizontal forces are separate
2.5b Simple Harmonic Motion
• Restoring force
○ Acts to restore the system to the original configuration
○ Net force is proportional to the displacement from the rest position
○ F=-kd
○K
§ spring constant
§ Stiffness of spring
§ Units--> newtons per meter; N/m
• Hooke's law--> like N's 2nd law, but only applies when elastic media are not stretched
to breaking points or beyond elastic limits
• Elastic limit--> where an elastic object becomes permanently disformed and loses
ability to return to original shape
• Simple harmonic motion
○ Sinusoidal graphs
○ Cyclical motion w/ a constant frequency
○ f=1/(2∏)×√k/m
2.5c Falling Bodies with Air Resistance
• Air resistance is a type of kinetic friction
• Terminal speed--> when air resistance is equal to the opposing force, and the net force
equals zero

2.6 Newton's Third Law of Motion

• Newton's 3rd law

○ Forces always come in pairs
○ When one object exerts a force on a second object, the second exerts an equal
and oppositely directed force on the first

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○ FBonA=FAonB

2.7 The Law of Universal Gravitation

• Universal gravitation
○ Every object exerts an attractive force on every other object
○ F=(Gm1m2)/d2
○ G=gravitational constant
2.7a Orbits
• Orbital motion around Earth is actually an extension of projectile motion
• Objects inside of Earth's atmosphere cannot orbit because of air resistance
2.7b Gravitational Field
• Gravitation
○ Action at a distance
○ Does not involve direct contact between things
• Gravitational field
○ The matter in an object causes a disturbance in the space around it
○ Becomes weaker at greater distances from the object
○ Present even when there is no other object in the field
○ Attractive

2.8 Tides

• Tides are the result of gravitational forces exerted on Earth by the Moon

Important Equations

F=ma
W=mg
F=(Gm1m2)/d2 universal gravitation
F= (mv2)/r centripetal force
F=-kd Hooke's law

3.1 Conservation Laws

• Conservation laws
○ Before and after look at systems
○ The total amount of a certain physical quantity present in a system stays
constant/conserved
○ Isolated system--> no matter enters or leaves the system
○ The total mass of all objects does not change

3.2 Linear Momentum

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• Linear momentum
○ Mass times velocity
○ A vector
○ Also called momentum
○ Unit--> kilogram-meter/second; kg-m/s
3.2a Newton's Second Laws, Revisited
• 2nd law alternate
○ Net external force acting on an object equals the rate of change of its linear
momentum
○ F=∆(mv)/∆t
○ If mass is constant, F=m(∆v/∆t) or F=ma
• Impulse
○ Change in momentum
○ ∆mv=F∆t
○ Useful for what happens during impacts that use balls or clubs
3.2b Conservation of Linear Momentum: Collisions
• Law of conservation of linear momentum
○ the total linear momentum of an isolated system is constant
○ Total mv before=total mv after
○ If a system starts with 0 momentum, the objects change one another's
momentum by the same amount in opposite directions

3.3 Work: The Key to Energy

• Law of conservation of energy

3.3a Work
• Work
○ Force that acts times the distance moved in the direction of the force
○ Work=Fd
○ Same amount of work on both sides of a fulcrum
○ 1 joule(J)=1 newton-meter
3.3b Different Forces, Different Work
• Work
○ Not a vector
○ Positive work--> when force and motion are in same direction
○ Negative work--> when force and motion in opposite direction
○ No work--> when there is no component of force along direction of motion
(circular motion)
○ Is done on an object when it is accelerated in a straight line
○ Work=Wd=mgd

3.4 Energy

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• Energy
○ Measure of a system's capacity to do work
○ Transferred when work is done
○ Abbreviated--> E
○ Scalar
○ More work done, more energy gained, more work it can do
○ Stored work
3.4a Mechanical Energy: Kinetic and Potential
• Mechanical energy--> anything that had energy because of its motion, position,
configuration
• Kinetic energy
○ Energy resulting from motion
○ Energy an object has because it is moving
○ Abbreviated--> KE
○ KE=(1/2)mv²
○ Always positive
○ Includes centripetal movement
• Potential Energy
○ Energy resulting from an object's position or orientation
○ Energy a system has because of its configuration
○ Abbreviated--> PE
• Gravitational potential energy
○ PE=work done=Wd=mgd
○ Relative
○ Most common, usually just called potential energy
3.4b Other Forms of Potential Energy
• Elastic potential energy
○ For flexible media
○ Springs that are stretch or compressed
○ Pespring=(1/2)kd²
○ k--> spring constant
• Internal energy
○ Total energy of all the atoms and molecules in a substance
○ Increases when heating, decreases when cooling
○ Involved whenever where is kinetic energy and some gravitational potential
energy
○ Usually cannot be recovered

3.5 The Conservation of Energy

• Law of conservation of energy

○ Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted from one form to
another
○ Total energy in an isolated system stays constant

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3.5a Applications of Energy Conservation

• In free falling object
○ total energy equals KE+PE
○ v=√2gd
○ Doesn’t depend on mass

3.6 Collisions: An Energy Perspective

3.6a Types of Collisions

• Elastic collision
○ Total kinetic energy of the colliding bodies after the collision equals the total
kinetic energy before the collision
• Inelastic collision
○ Total kinetic energy of the colliding bodies after the collision is not equal to the
total kinetic energy before
○ Greater or less
3.6b Noncontact Collisions
• For collisions with atoms and nuclei
• For collisions involving the force of gravity

3.7 Power

• Power
○ Rate of doing work
○ Rate at which energy is transferred or transformed
○ P=work/t=E/t
○ 1 watt=1 joule/1 second
○ 1 W=1 J/s
○ Limited

3.8 Rotation and Angular Momentum

• Law of conservation of angular momentum

○ Total angular momentum of an isolated system is constant
○ Only net external force must be towards or away from center of motion, or
centripetal force
• Torque
○ Net external torque acting on a system equals the rate of change of its angular
momentum
○ Force that acts in any direction other than towards or away from venter of
motion
○ Torque=∆angular momentum/∆t
○ Vector
○ Positive is counterclockwise, negative is clockwise

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• Angular momentum
○ Equals mass, orbital speed, radius of path
○ Angular momentum=mvr
○ Equal to linear momentum multiplied by radius
○ Vector

Important Equations

Linear momentum=mv
F=∆(mv)/∆t alternate form of 2nd law
∆(mv)=F∆t impulse-momentum relation
Work=Fd
KE=(1/2)mv²
PE=Wd=mgd gravitational potential energy
PE=(1/2)kd² elastic potential energy
P=work/t=E/t
v=√2gd speed after free falling
d=v²/(2g) height reached given initial speed v
Angular momentum=mvr
Torque=∆(mvr)/∆t

4.1 Matter: Phases, Forms, and Forces

4.1a Phases of Matter

• Solids
○ Rigid
○ Retain their shape unless distorted by force
• Liquids
○ Flow readily
○ Conform to the shape of their container
○ Have a well-defined boundary
○ Are not easily compressed
• Gases
○ Flow readily
○ Conform to the shape of a container
○ Do not have a well-defined surface
○ Cane be readily compressed
• Plasma
○ Have the properties of gases and also conduct electricity
○ Interact strongly with magnetic fields
○ Commonly exist at higher temperatures
4.1b Forms of Matter
• Chemical elements--> represent simplest and purest forms of everyday matter

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• Atoms--> incredible small particles

• Nucleus
○ very dense, compact core of atom
○ Made up of protons and neutrons
• Electrons--> particles that surround nucleus
• Atomic number--> number of protons that are in each atom of an element
• Chemical symbol--> brief identifier
• Compounds--> made up of molecules
• Molecules--> same unique combination of two or more atoms held together by
electrical forces
• Mixtures and solutions--> two or more different compounds of elements that are
physically mixed together
4.1c Behavior of Atoms and Molecules
• Solids
○ Attractive forces between particles are very strong
○ The atoms or molecules are rigidly bound to their neighbor and can only vibrate
• Liquids
○ Particles are bound together, but not rigidly
○ Each atom or molecule can move about relative to the others but is always in
contact with other atoms or molecules
• Gases
○ Attractive forces between particles are too weak to bind them together
○ Atoms or molecules move about freely with high speed and are widely
separated
○ Particles are in contact only briefly when they collide
• Liquid crystal phase--> intermediate phase between solid and liquid

4.2 Pressure

4.2a Defining Pressure

• Pressure
○ Force per unit area when the force acts perpendicular to a surface
○ Perpendicular component of a force acting on a surface divided by the area of
the surface
○ p=F/A
○ Scalar
○ Pascal--> 1 newton per square meter
○ F=pA
4.2b Gauge Pressure
• Pressure is a relative quantity
• Absolute pressure--> actual pressure
• Gauge pressure--> pressure relative to outside air
• Gas at fixed temp=pV
• Volume of a gas is inversely proportional to the pressure

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4.3 Density

4.3a Mass Density

• Mass density
○ Mass per unit volume of a substance
○ Mass of a quantity of a substance divided by the volume it occupies
○ D=m/V
○ Scalar
○ Fixed for any pure solid or liquid
○ m=VD
4.3b Weight Density and Specific Gravity
• Weight density
○ Weight per unit volume of a substance
○ Weight of a quantity of a substance divided by the volume it occupies
○ DW=W/V
○ W=mg--> DW=Dg
• Specific gravity
○ Used when comparing the density of different substances
○ Ratio of its density to the density of water

4.4 Fluid Pressure and Gravity

4.4a The Law of Fluid Pressure

• Law of fluid pressure
○ The gauge pressure at any depth on a fluid at rest equals the weight of the fluid
in a column extending from that depth to the "top" of the fluid divided by the cross-sectional area
of the column
○ p=F/A=W/A=weight of liquid/area of rectangle
○ F=W=DWV=DWlwh
○ In a liquid, the absolute pressure at a depth h is greater than the pressure at
the surface by an amount equal to the weight density of the liquid times the depth
○ p=DWh=Dgh
4.4b Fluid Pressure in the Atmosphere
• Barometer--> measures air pressure
• Altimeter--> aneroid barometer with a scale that registers altitude instead of pressure

4.5 Archimedes' Principle

4.5a Buoyancy
• Buoyant force
○ The upward force exerted by a fluid on a substance partly or completely
immersed in it
○ If buoyant force is less than weight of object--> it will sink

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○ If buoyant force is equal to the weight of object--> it will float

○ If buoyant force is greater than weight of object--> it will rise upwards
4.5b Archimedes' Principle
• Archimedes' principle
○ The buoyant force acting on a substance in a fluid at rest is equal to the weight
of the fluid displaced by the substance
○ Fb=weight of displaced fluid
○ Buoyant force depends only on how much fluid it displaces when immersed
○ Weight of object=weight density (of object) x volume
○ W=DW(object)V
○ Buoyant force=weight of displace fluid
○ Fb=weight density (of fluid) x volume
○ Fb=DW(fluid)V
4.5c Applications of Archimedes' Principle
• Used to measure the densities or specific gravities of solids that sink
• W of displaced water=scale reading out of water-scale reading in water
• Density of object/density of water=scale (out)/(scale (out)-scale(in))
• Specific gravity=scale (out)/(scale (out)/scale(in))

4.6 Pascal's Principle

• Pascal's principle
○ Pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to all parts of
the fluid and to the walls of the container
○ F1/A1=p=F2/A2
○ F1(A2/A1)=F2

4.7 Bernoulli's Principle

• Bernoulli's principle
○ For a fluid undergoing a steady flow, the pressure is lower where the flowing is
faster
○ Steady flow--> no random swirling of fluid and no outside forces impact flow
rate
○ Pressure potential energy--> increases as pressure increases
○ Volume flow rate
§ volume of a fluid passing through a given cross-sectional area
§ A1v1=A2v2
§ v2/v1=A2/A1
○ Pressure is smaller in the narrow section

Important Equations

p=F/A pressure

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D=m/V mass density

DW=W/V weight density
Fb=Wfluid displacement Archimedes' principle
p=DWh=Dgh pressure at a depth h in a liquid
p=0.4333 psi/ft x h pressure in psi underwater at a depth h in feet
A1v1=A2v2 equation of continuity-constant density
F1/A1=F2/A2 hydraulic equation-constant density

6.1 Waves-Types and Properties

• Wave
○ A traveling disturbance consisting of coordinated vibrations that transmit
energy w/ no net movement
○ All involve vibration or oscillation
○ Carry energy
○ Do not have mass
○ Medium--> substance through which waves travel
6.1a Wave Types and Speeds
• Transverse wave
○ A wave in which the oscillations are perpendicular to the direction the wave
travels
○ Can travel in any solid, cannot travel in liquid or gas
• Longitudinal wave
○ A wave in which the oscillations are along the direction the wave travels
○ Can travel in any solid, liquid, gas
• Speed of a wave
○ p=linear mass density
○ p=mass divided by length=m/l
○ v=√F/(m/l)=√F/p
6.1b Amplitude, Wavelength, and Frequency
• Amplitude--> the maximum displacement of point on a wave measured from the
equilibrium position
• Wavelength
○ The distance between two successive "like" points on a wave
○ Unit=λ
○ 1 wavelength=1 cycle
• Frequency
○ The number of cycles of a wave passing a point per unit time
○ The number of oscillations per second in the wave
• Compressions--> regions where coils are squeezed together
• Expansions--> regions where coils are spread apart
• Wave speed
○ Number of cycles per second x length of each cycle

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○ v=fλ

6.2 Aspects of Wave Propagation

6.2a Wave Fronts and Rays

• Wavefront model--> circle that shows the peak of the wave pulse
• Ray model--> straight arrow that shows the direction a given segment of the wave is
traveling
6.2b Reflection
• Reflected wave
6.2c Doppler Effect
• Doppler effect--> the apparent change in the frequency of wave fronts emitted by a
moving source
• Echolocation--> process of using sound waves reflected from an object to determine its
location
6.2d Bow Waves and Shock Waves
• Shock wave--> the waves "pile up" in the forward direction and form a large-amplitude
wave pulse
• Bow wave--> V-shaped wave produced by things moving along water
6.2e Diffraction
• Diffraction--> sound waves spread out when going through an opening
6.2f Interference
• Interference
○ When two continuous waves arrive at the same place
○ Constructive--> when two waves are "in phase," they reinforce each other and
increase the amplitude
○ Destructive--> when two waves are "out of phase," they cancel each other out

6.3 Sound

6.3a Pressure Waves

• Sound is produced by anything that is vibrating and causing the air molecules next to it
to vibrate
• Waveform--> the graph of the air-pressure fluctuations caused by the sound wave
• Pure tone--> sound with a sinusoidal waveform
• Complex tone--> complex sound wave
• Noise--> has a random waveform that does not repeat
• Infrasound--> inaudible sound with a frequency less than 20hz
• Ultrasound--> sound with frequencies higher than 20,000hz
6.3b Sound Applications
• Sonoluminescence--> ultrasound that is used to produce light

6.4 Production of Sound

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• Sound is produced when vibrations cause pressure variations in the air

6.5 Propagation of Sound

• Amplitude decreases as wave fronts expands

6.5a Reverberant Sound
• Reverberation--> the process of repeated reflections of sound in an enclosure
• Reverberant sound--> indirect sound that one hears after the initial direct pulse
6.5b Reverberation Time
• Reverberation time--> used to compare the amount of reverberation in different rooms

6.6 Perception of Sound

• Pitch
○ Perception of highness or lowness
○ Depends primarily on frequency
• Loudness
○ Self-descriptive
○ Depends primarily on the amplitude
• Tone quality
○ Used to distinguish two different sounds, even if they have the same pitch and
loudness
○ Depends primarily on the waveform
6.6a Pitch
• Pitch
○ Most accurately discriminated
○ Depends almost completely on the frequency
○ Essential to nearly all music
6.6b Loudness
• Loudness
○ Sound level-->relating amplitudes to perceived loudness
○ Unit--> decibel (dB)
○ Threshold of hearing--> 0dB
○ Threshold of pain--> 120dB
○ Minimum noticeable increase is 1dB
○ Sound is twice as loud if it is 10dB higher
6.6c Tone Quality
• Tone quality
○ Subjective
○ Full vs empty, harsh vs soft, rich vs dry
○ Can be used to identify objects and people
○ Harmonics--> any complex waveform is equivalent to a combination of two or
more sinusoidal waveforms with definite amplitudes

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Important Equations

p=m/l linear mass density

v=√F/p speed of waves on linear media
v=20.1 x √T speed of sound waves in air
v=fλ for continuous waves
v=H0d Hubble relation for expansion of the universe

7.1 Electrical Charge

• Electric charge
○ An inherent physical property of certain subatomic particles that is responsible
for electrical and magnetic phenomena
○ Represented by--> q
○ Unit---> coulomb; C
○ Basic property of matter
○ Positive and negative
• Atomic number--> number of protons in the nucleus of an element
• Ionized--> when an atom has gained or lost electrons

7.2 Electrical Force and Coulomb's Law

• Like charges repel, unlike charges attract

7.2a Coulomb's Law
• Coulomb's Law
○ The force acting on each of two charged objects is directly proportional to the
net charges on the objects and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them
○ F=((9x1090q1q2)/d2
○ Force on q1 is equal and opposite to the force on q2
• Polarization--> the process of inducing a small charge separation between the nucleus
of an atom and its electrons
• Polar molecules--> molecules that are naturally polarized
7.2b The Electrical Field
• Electric field
○ The space around any charged object
○ Strength=force on a charged object/charge on the object

7.3 Electrical Currents-Superconductivity

• Electric current--> a flow of charged particles

7.3a Electrical Current
• Current

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○ Rate of flow of electric charge

○ Amount of charge that flows by per second
○ Current=charge/time
○ I=q/t
○ Unit--> ampere; A; amp
○ Flow of positive charge
• Insulator--> any material that does not readily allow the flow of charges through it
• Conductor--> any substance that readily allows charges to flow through it
7.3b Resistance
• Resistance
○ Impacts the size of current flow
○ Conductors have low, insulators have high
○ Depends on composition, length, diameter, temp
○ Greater in longer wires, thinner wires, higher temps
7.3c Superconductivity
• Superconductivity
○ Materials become perfect conductors (zero resistance) below a critical temp
○ Critical temp--> Tc

7.4 Electrical Circuits and Ohm's Law

• Electric circuit--> any system consisting of a power supply, some electrical device, and
conductors
7.4a Voltage and Ohm's Law
• Voltage
○ The work that a charged particle can do divided by the size of the charge
○ Energy per unit charge that is provided to charged particles by a power supply
○ V=work/q=E/q
○ Unit--> volt; v=1 joule per coulomb
• Ohm's law
○ Current in a conductor is equal to the voltage applied to it divided by its
resistance
○ I=V/R or V=IR
○ I in amperes
○ R in ohms
○ V in volts
• Diodes--> semiconductors that have low resistance when current flows in one direction,
but high resistance when a voltage tries to produce a current in the other direction
7.4b Series and Parallel Circuits
• Series circuit
○ Only one path for charges to follow
○ Same current
○ Voltage is divided among devices
• Parallel circuit

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○ Current through power supply is shared among the devices

○ More than one path

7.5 Power and Energy in Electric Currents

• Power output
○ Rate at which energy is delivered to the circuit
○ Power=voltage x current
○ P=VI
○ P=E/t or E=Pt
• Ohmic heating--> ordinary metal wire converts electrical energy into internal energy
whenever there is a current flowing

7.6 AC and DC

• Direct current
○ DC
○ Causes a current to flow in a fixed direction in a circuit
• Alternating current
○ AC
○ The polarity of the two output terminals switches back and forth
○ Voltage alternates

Important Equations

F=((9x109)q1q20/d2 Coulomb's law

I=q/t definition of current
V=E/q=work/q definition of voltage
I=V/R Ohm's law
V=IR Ohm's law
P=VI electrical power consumption
E=Pt energy consumed during time t

8.1 Magnetism

8.1a Magnetism Materials and Fields

• Ferromagnetic--> metals that are strongly attracted by magnets
• Permanent magnets--> ferromagnetic metals that retain the magnetism induced in
them
• Magnetic field--> produced by a magnet and acts as the agent of the magnetic force
8.1b Earth's Magnetic Fields
• Magnetic declination--> the difference, in degrees, between the direction of a compass
and the direction of true north varies from place to place

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• Meisner effect--> in the superconducting state, the material will expel any magnetic
field from its interior

8.2 Interactions Between Electricity and Magnetism

8.2a Electromagnets
• Observation 1
○ A moving electric charge produces a magnetic field in the space around it
○ An electric current produces a magnetic field around it
• Solenoid--> a coil w/ a length that is much greater than its diameter
• Superconducting electromagnets--> can carry huge electric currents w/ no ohmic
heating because there is no resistance
8.2b Electric Motors
• Observation 2
○ A magnetic field exerts a force on a moving electric charge
○ A magnetic field exerts a force on a current-carrying wire
8.2c Electric Induction and Electric Generators
• Observation 3
○ A moving magnet produces an electric field in the space around it
○ A coil of wire moving through a magnetic field has a current induced in it
• Electromagnetic induction--> process of inducing an electric current w/ a magnetic field

8.3 Principles of Electromagnetism

• Principles of electromagnetism
○ An electric current or a changing electric field induces a magnetic field
○ A changing magnetic field induces an electric field
○ Changing field means strength and/or direction is changing
○ Voltage of output/voltage of input=number of turns in output coil/number of
turns in input coil
○ (VO/Vi)/(NO/Ni)

8.4 Applications to Sound Reproduction

8.4a Microphones and Magnetism Tape Devices

• Dynamic microphone
○ Magnet surrounded by a coil of wire attached to a diaphragm
○ Moving coil or moving magnet
• Transducers--> convert mechanical oscillation from sound to AC or vice versa
8.4b Digital Sound
• CDs and MP3s

8.5 Electromagnetic Waves

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8.5a Radio Waves

• Radio waves
○ 100-109 Hz
○ Good for communication
8.5b Microwaves
• Microwaves
○ 109-1012 Hz
○ Used for communication: Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, radar
○ To cook food
8.5c Infrared
• Infrared
○ 1012-4x1014 Hz
○ Heat radiation
○ Wireless remote controls
8.5d Visible Light
• Visible light
○ 4x1014-7.5x1014 Hz
○ Can be seen by humans
○ Heat radiation
8.5e Ultraviolet Radiation
• Ultraviolet radiation
○ 7.5x1014-1018
○ Heat radiation, tans and burns
○ Fluorescence
8.5f X-Rays
• X-rays
○ 1016-1020 Hz
○ Can be used to determine the arrangement of atoms
○ Can be harmful, ionizing radiation
8.5g Gamma Rays
• Gamma rays
○ 3x1019-1023 Hz
○ Nuclear

8.6 Blackbody Radiation

• Blackbody radiation--> heat radiation emitted by an object

8.6a BBR Laws
• The amount of each type of radiation emitted increases w/ temp
• P=(5.67x10-8)AT4
• Λmax=0.0029/T
8.6b Temperature Measurement
• Pyrometers--> measure the amount and types o radiation emitted
8.6c Detection of Warm Objects

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• Some animals use infrared radiation to see/hunt

8.7 EM Waves and Earth's Atmosphere

8.7a Ozone Layer

• Ozone layer
○ 20-40 km above earth
○ Absorbs most UV sunlight
○ Was deteriorated by CFCs
8.7b Greenhouse Effect
• Greenhouse effect
○ Traps IR
○ Caused by burning of fossil fuels
○ Can be fatal to Earth
8.7c The Ionosphere
• Ionosphere
○ 50-90 km above earth
○ High density of ions and free electrons
○ Reflects AM radio
8.7d Astronomy
• Astronomy
○ Study of starts/space
○ Uses EM radiation

Important Equations

Vo/Vi=No/Ni input and output voltage of a transformer

c=fλ relates speed, wavelength, frequency of EM waves
λmax=0.0029/T peak wavelength of BBR curve
P=(5.67x10-8)AT4 power radiated by a black body w/ emitting area A

9.1 Light Waves

9.1a Reflection
• Specular reflection
○ Occurs when the direction the light wave is traveling changes
○ Normal--> the perpendicular point where a light ray is reflected
○ Angle of incidence--> angle between the incident ray and normal
○ Angle of reflection--> angle between reflected ray and normal
○ Law of reflection--> angle of incidence=angle of reflection
• Diffuse reflection
○ Occurs when light strikes a surface that is uneven
○ Light bounces off at different angles

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9.1b Diffraction
• Diffraction of light must travel through a narrow slit
9.1c Interference
• Constructive interference--> when two waves are in phase, amplitude is doubled
• Destructive interference--> when two waves are out of phase, they cancel each other
• ∆x=(S/a)λ
9.1d Polarization
• Polarization
○ Light is a transverse wave
○ Is only possible w/ transverse waves

9.2 Mirrors: Plane and Not So Simple

9.2a "One-Way Mirror"

• One-way mirror
○ Half-silvered mirror
○ Partially coating glass so it reflects some light and lets rest pass through
9.2b Curved Mirrors
• Concave mirror
○ Curved inwards
○ Focal point
○ Used to enlarge images
• Convex mirror
○ Curved outward
○ Image formed is reduced
○ Wide field of view
9.2c Astronomical Telescope Mirrors
• Spherical aberration--> image formed by a spherical mirror will be somewhat blurred

9.3 Refraction

9.3a The Law of Refraction

• Refraction--> transmitted ray is bent into a different direction than the incident ray
• Angle of refraction--> smaller than angle of incidence
• Law of refraction--> light ray is bent towards the normal when it enters a transparent
medium in which light travels more slowly and bent away from the normal when it enters a
medium in which light travels faster
9.3b Total Internal Reflection
• Critical angle
○ Angle of refraction is 90 degrees
○ Transmitted ray travels out along the interface between the two media
• Total internal reflection--> when the formally transmitted ray is bent back into the
incident medium because the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle

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9.4 Lenses and Images

• Focal length--> distance from the lens to the focal point

9.4a Image Formation
• Principal rays
○ The ray that is initially parallel to the optical lens passes through the focal point
on the other side of the lens
○ The ray that passes through the focal point on the same side of the lens as the
object emerges parallel to the optical axis
○ The ray that goes exactly through the center of the lens is undeviated because
the two interfaces it encounters are parallel
• Object distance (s)--> distance between the object and the lens
• Image distance (p)--> the distance between the image and the lens
• Lens formula--> p= sf/s-f
9.4b Magnification
• Magnification (M)
○ M=image height/object height
○ M=-p/s
9.4c Aberrations
• Spherical, chromatic

9.5 The Human Eye

9.5a Defects of the Eye

• Nearsightedness(myopia)--> focal point is in front of retina
• Farsightedness(hyperopia)--> focal point is behind retina
• Astigmatism--> cornea is not symmetrical
9.5b Eye Surgery
• Eye surgery

9.6 Dispersion and Color

• White light is a mixture of all colors and can be dispersed to show the colors
• Shorter wavelengths of light travel slower

9.7 Atmospheric Optics: Rainbows, Halos, and Blue Skies

9.7a Rainbows
• Rainbows
○ Consist of arcs of colored light
○ Always seen against a background of water droplets
9.7b Halos
• Halos
○ Circular arcs of light

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○ Winter's rainbows
9.7c Blue Skies
• Air molecules scattering sunlight in all directions

Important Equations

∆x=(S/a)λ fringe spacing, double sit interference

p=(sf)/s-f lens formula
M=image height/object height magnification of a lens system
M=-p/s magnification using image distance and object distance

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