Physics Remedial DBU-Short Notes

Debre Birhan University
College of Natural and Computational Science
Department of Physics
Reference material for Remedial program
ial
er
mat
c e
e n
e f er
o rt r
Sh
April 2023
Remedial Physics
Chapter 1
Vectors
1.1 Vectors
Learning competencies
• Demonstrate an understanding of the difference between scalars and vectors and give
common examples. ial
te r
• Explain what a position vector is.
m a
ce
r e n
• Use vector notation and arrow representation of a vector.
e f e
• Specify the unit vector in the direction of a given vector.
rt r
o
• Determine the magnitude and direction of the resolution of two or more vectors using
Sh
Pythagoras’s theorem and trigonometry.
• Add vectors by graphical representation to determine a resultant.
• Add/subtract two or more vectors by the vector addition rule.
• Use the geometric definition of the scalar product to calculate the scalar product of
two given vectors.
• Use the scalar product to determine projection of a vector onto another vector.
• Use the vector product to test for collinear and orthogonality vectors.
• Explain the use of knowledge of vectors in understanding natural phenomena.
1.1.1 Vector and Scalar quantities
Scalars are the physical quantities that have the only magnitude. Examples of scalars
are electric charge, density, mass etc. Vectors are physical Quatities that must be
described by both magnitude and direction.
Example: Velocity, Force, Torque, Electric field etc.
1
Remedial Physics
2 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS
1.1.2 Vector Representation
Vectors are represented in two methods (Analytical/Algebric) and Graphical/Geometrical)
1. Analytical methods: Vectors are representated analytically by a letter with an

arrow over its head or with bold face letter.
→
− →
− →
−
Example: Force =⇒ F or F, Momentum =⇒ P or P, Vector A =⇒ A or A
2. Graphical/Geometrical methods: Graphically vectors are representated by a

straight line and arrow drown to the scale. The length of the line is the magnitude
ial
te r
of the vector and arrow tells us the direction.
m a
c e
r e n
1.1.3 f
Vector Addition andesubsection e
rt r
o
Sh
~ Note that subtraction
The sum of two or more vectos is called resultant vector (R).
is addition of the negative ie
~ =A
R ~−B
~ =A
~ + (−B)
~
Vector addition is not simple algebraic addition of numbers that is handled with the
normal rules of arithmetic. It Obeys the laws of vector addition as follows
• The resultant of two vectos having the same direction is algebraic sum of the two
vectors with the same direction as both.
~ = 8m East and B
Example A ~ = 6m East then R
~ =A
~+B
~ = 14m East
• The resultant of two vectors having opposite direction has magnitude equal to the
difference of magnitudes of the vectors and the resultant has the same direction
~ = 8m East and B
as the larger vector. Example: A ~ = 6m West then R
~ =
~ + (−B)
A ~ = 2m East
Remedial Physics
1.1. VECTORS 3
• The resultant of two vectors acting at right angle with each other is obtained
~ = 8m East and B
using Pythagorus theorem. Example: A ~ = 6m North then,
~ obtained using Pythagorus theorem as
And then the magnitude of R
r ial
te2ABcos900 = A2 + B 2
R2 = A2 + B 2 + 2ABcosθ = A2 + B 2a+
e m
n c
R = (8m) + (6m) = 10m er
p
2 2 e
r e f
ort trigonometery
~
Direction of R obtained by
S h
Opp. |B|
tanθ = =
adj. |A|
B 6
θ = tan−1 ( ) = tan−1 ( ) = 36.87o
A 8
• If the two vectors inclined at a certain anle θ to each other.

~ =A
The magnitude of the vector R ~+B
~ is given by
√
~ =
|R| A2 + B 2 + 2ABcosθ
~ =A
The magnitude of the vector R ~−B
~ is given by
√
~ =
|R| A2 + B 2 − 2ABcosθ
And its direction is given by α = tan−1 ( A+Bcosθ

Bsinθ
)
Remedial Physics
sin(1800 −θ) sinα sin(1800 −θ)

Or using sin law R
= B
or sinα = R
B
sin(1800 − θ)
α = sin−1 (B )
ia l
R
te r
m a
NB: c e
r e n
e f e
• If the vectors form a closed polygon when joined head to tail in a certain order,
rt r
o
their resultant is zero or null vector
Sh
• Two or more vectors are equal if and only if they are
– the same physical quantities
– have the same magnitude and
– have the direction
Class work
~ and B.
1.Given Vector A ~ Find the resultant vector R=
~ A+
~ B
~
~ = 4bunit East and B

a) If the A ~ = 3unit East

b) If the A ~ = 3unit West

c) If the A ~ = 3unit north

d) If the A ~ = 3unit at 60o north of east
Remedial Physics
1.1. VECTORS 5
2. A car travels 20.0km due north and then 35.0km in direction 600 west of north. Find
~ = 48.2km at
the magnitude and direction of the car’s resultant displacement. (ans S
39.0o west of north).
1.1.4 Vector Components
Components of vectors are projection of vectors along coordinate axis (x, y, z-axis).
This meanse splitting vector into its Components. Consider the following figures.
From the figures we can see that Ax and By forms two sides of right angle triangle
with hypotenuse of length A. Using simple trigonometery (definition of sin and cosin)
we see that
ial
te r
m
Figure 1.1: Vector Components
a
c e
Ax r e n
cosθ =
e f e
=⇒ Ax = Acosθ
rt r ~
|A|
o
Sh sinθ = A~y =⇒ Ay = Asinθ
|A|
~ = A~x + A~y for three dimension A
Thus A ~ = A~x + A~y + A~z
1.1.5 Unit Vector
Unit vector is dimensionless vector with unit magnitude.
~
A
Â =
~
|A|
Â read as A hat or caret is a unit vector that points in the direction of vector A. We
shall use the symbols î, ĵ and k̂ to representat a unit vector pointing in the positive x,
y and z direction respectively as we can see from the figure above.
• The unit vectors î, ĵ and k̂ in rectangular coordinate System. î, ĵ and k̂ are
mutually perpendiculr axes.
Remedial Physics
Figure 1.2: Unit Vector in Rectangular Coordinat Axis
• In general Vector A in rectangular coordinate system can be written as the sum

~ = Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂
of three vectors each which is parallel to a coordinate axes A
~ and B
Addition and Subtraction of two vectors A ~ can be written intermes of unit
vector as
~+B
A ~ = (Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂) + (Bx î + By ĵ + Bz k̂)
= (Ax î + Bx î) + (Ay ĵ + By ĵ) + (Az k̂ + Bz k̂) = (Ax + Bx )î + (Ay + By )ĵ + (Az + Bz )k̂
Class work
ial
~ = 4mî + 3mĵ, B
1. Given vectors A ~ = 2mî − 3mĵ, C e r
~ = 2mî + 3mĵ − 2mk̂ and
t
~ = 1mî − 2mĵ + 2mk̂. Find m a
D
c e
r e n
~
a) |A| ~+B
b) 2A ~ −C
~
e f e
rt r ~ +B
~ −R
~ =0
o
c) Unit vector in the direction of vector R such that 2C
Sh
2. A particle undergoes three consecutive displacements d~1 = (15î + 30ĵ + 12k̂)cm,
d~2 = (23î − 14ĵ − 5.0k̂)cm, d~3 = (−13î + 15ĵ)cm. Find
a) The components of the resultant displacement and its magnitude
b) Unit vector in the direction of resultant displacement
1.2 Multiplication of vectors

Vector multiplication refer to several operations between two (or more) vectors. It may
concern any of the following articles:
• Scalar-vector multiplication
• Dot product
• Cross product
Remedial Physics
1.2. MULTIPLICATION OF VECTORS 7
1.2.1 Scalar-vector multiplication
Multiplication of a vector by a scalar changes the magnitude of the vector, but leaves
its direction unchanged. The scalar changes the size of the vector. The scalar ”scales”
the vector.
For example, If
~ = ax î + ay ĵ + az k̂
A
~ by the scalar b is
Multiplied A
~ = b(ax î + ay ĵ + az k̂) = bax î + bay ĵ + baz k̂

bA
Scalar multiplication obeys the following rules:
• Additivity in the scalar: (c + d)~v = c~v + d~v ;
• Additivity in the vector: c(~v + w)

~ = c~v + cw;
~ ia l
te r
m a
• Compatibility of product of scalars with scalar multiplication: (cd)~v = c(d~v );
e
nc
e r e
r e f
• Multiplying by 1 does not change a vector: 1~v = ~v ;
o rt
Sh
• Multiplying by 0 gives the zero vector: 0~v = 0;
• Multiplying by -1 gives the additive inverse: (−1)~v = −~v .
1.2.2 Dot product
The dot product of two vectors is the magnitude of one times the projection of the
second onto the first. The symbol used to represent this operation is a small dot at
middle height (·), which is where the name ”dot product” comes from. Since this
product has magnitude only, it is also known as the scalar product. Mathematically
defined as
~·B
A ~ = ABcos(θ)
~ and B
where θ the angle btween A ~
Let
~ = ax î + ay ĵ + az k̂
A
Remedial Physics
and
~ = bx î + by ĵ + bz k̂
B
Figure 1.3: Dot Product
~·B
A ~ = (ax î + ay ĵ + az k̂) · (bx î + by ĵ + bz k̂)
= ax bx î · î + ay by ĵ · ĵ + az bz k̂ · k̂
ia l
te r
= ax bx + ay by + az bz
m a
c e
r e n
since î · î = (1)(1)cos(0) = 1, ĵ · ĵ = (1)(1)cos(0) = 1 , k̂ · k̂ = (1)(1)cos(0) = 1 but
e f e
î · ĵ = ĵ · î = (1)(1)cos(900 ) = 0, ĵ · k̂ = k̂ · ĵ = (1)(1)cos(900 ) = 0 , k̂ · î = î · k̂ =
rt r
(1)(1)cos(900 ) = 0
S ho
Dot Product Properties of Vector:
~·B
• Dot product of two vectors is commutative i.e. A ~ =B
~ ·A
~
~·B
• If A ~ = 0 then it can be clearly seen that either A
~ or B
~ is zero or cos(θ) = 0.
~ · (q B)
• Also we know that using scalar product of vectors (pA) ~ = (pB)
~ · (q A)
~ =
~ · B)
pq(A ~
• The dot product of a vector to itself is the magnitude squared of the vector i.e.
~ · A)
A ~ = AAcos(0) = A2
~ · (B
• Distributive Property: A ~ + C)
~ =A
~·B
~ +A
~·C
~
~ · (B
• Non-Associative Property: A ~ · C)
~ 6= (A
~ · B)
~ · (A
~ · C),
~ because the dot product
between a scalar and a vector is not allowed.

Remedial Physics
1.2.3 Cross Product
The cross product of two vectors ~a and ~b is vector ~c which is perpendicular to both
~a and ~b and equal magnitude to the area of the parallelogram between ~a and ~b. The
symbol used to represent this operation is a large diagonal cross (×), which is where
the name ”cross product” comes from. Since this product has magnitude and direction,
it is also known as the vector product.
~a × ~b = absin(θ)n̂
ial
te r
m a
c e
Figure 1.4: Cross Product
r e n
e f e
rt r
ho
The vector n̂ (n hat) is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane formed by the two
S
vectors and θ is the angle between ~a and ~b. The direction of n̂ is determined by the
right hand rule.
Cross Product Properties :
• the cross product is distributive: ~a × (~b + ~c) = (~a × ~b) + (~a × ~c)
• the cross product is not commutative: ~a × ~b 6= ~b × ~a
but ~a × ~b = −~b × ~a
• the cross product of any vector with itself is zero: ~a × ~a = ~b × ~b = 0
• cross product of any unit vector with itself is zero: î × î = (1)(1)sin(0) = 0,

ĵ × j = (1)(1)cos(0) = 0 , k̂ × k̂ = (1)(1)cos(0) = 0
• any cyclic product of the three coordinate axes is positive and any anticyclic
product is negative as shown bellow.
Remedial Physics
Let
~a = ax î + ay ĵ + az k̂
and
~b = bx î + by ĵ + bz k̂
~a × ~b = (ax î + ay ĵ + az k̂) × (bx î + by ĵ + bz k̂)
~a×~b = ax î×bx î+ax î×by ĵ+ax î×bz k̂+ay ĵ×bx î+ay ĵ×by ĵ+ay ĵ×bz k̂+az k̂×bx î+az k̂×by ĵ+az k̂×bz k̂
ial
te r
~a × ~b = 0 + (ax by )k̂ − (ax bz )ĵ − (ay bx )k̂ + 0 + (ay bz )î + (az bx )ĵ − (az by )î + 0
m a
e
~a × ~b = (ay bz − az by ) î + (az bx − ax bz )ĵ + (ax by − ay bx )k̂
c
r e n
e f e
Or using determinat form
rt r
î ĵ k̂ o
~a × ~b = ax ay az = Sh î +
ay az az ax
ĵ +
ax ay
k̂ = (ay bz − az by ) î + (az bx −
by bz bz bx bx b y
bx by b z
ax bz )ĵ + (ax by − ay bx )k̂
Class work
1. Which of the following statements is true about the relation-ship between the
dot product of two vectors and the product of the magnitudes of the vectors? (a)
~·B
A ~ is larger than AB; (b) A
~·B
~ is smaller than AB; (c) A
~·B
~ could be larger
~ ·B
or smaller than AB, depending on the angle between the vectors; (d) A ~ could
be equal to AB.
~ × B)
2. Which of the following is equivalent to the following scalar product: (A ~ ·
~ × A)?
(B ~ ~·B
(a) A ~ +B ~ ·A~ (b) (A~ × A)
~ · (B
~ × B)
~ (c) (A ~ × B) ~ × B)
~ · (A ~ (d)
~ × B)
−(A ~ · (A
~ × B)
~
Remedial Physics
3. Which of the following statements is true about the relationship between the
magnitude of the cross product of two vectors and the product of the magnitudes
~ × B|
of the vectors? (a) |A ~ is larger than AB; (b) |A
~ × B|
~ is smaller than AB;
~ × B|
(c) |A ~ could be larger or smaller than AB, depending on the angle between
~ × B|
the vectors; (d) |A ~ could be equal to AB.
4. Is the triple product defined by A · (B × C) a scalar or a vector quantity? Explain

why the operation A · (B × C) has no meaning.
5. Vector A is in the negative y direction, and vector B is in the negative x direction.

What are the directions of (a) A × B (b)B × A?
6. Given M = 6î + 2ĵ − k̂ and N = 2î − ĵ − 3k̂ calculate the M · N, M × N and

the angle between M&N and.
ial
te r
m a
c e
r e n
e f e
rt r
o
Sh
Remedial Physics
ial
te r
m a
c e
r e n
e f e
rt r
o
Sh
Remedial Physics
Chapter 2
Kinematics
• Describe Kinematical terms such as distance, Displacement, average speed (velocities)

and instantaneous speed (velocity).
ial
• Solve numerical problems involving average velocity and instantaneous velocity.
te r
m a
• Derive equations of motion for uniformly accelerated motion.
c e
r e n
• Apply equations of uniformly accelerated motion in solving problems.
e e
f
r
ortissues in everyday life.
• Relate scientific concepts to
h
S
• Explain the science of kinematics underlying familiar facts, observations and related
phenomena.
• Describe the conditions at which freely falling bodies attain their terminal velocity.
• Define, Analyse and predict, terms in 2D motion
• Apply equations to solve problems related 2D motion.
• Distinguish between uniform and non-uniform circular motion.
• Analyse and predict, in quantitative terms, and explain uniform circular motion in the
horizontal and vertical planes with reference to the forces involved.
2.1 Kinematics of the particle

The word Kinematics comes from Greek word ”kinesis” meaning motion, thus
Kinematics: is a branch of mechanics that describes the motion of an object without refer-
13
Remedial Physics
14 CHAPTER 2. KINEMATICS
ence to couse of motion (force). It does not give any information about force that couses it
to move.
2.1.1 One or two dimensional (2D) motion

What is motion?
Motion is continuous change of position with time. Position is location of an object with
respect to a choosen reference frame or point. Reference frame, also called frame of
reference, in dynamics, system of graduated lines symbolically attached to a body that serve
to describe the position of points relative to the body.
In physics we are considered three type of motion
1. Translational motion: is type motion in which all points (parts) of an object move
the same distance in a given a given time. Example: A car moving in a straight line,
a bullet which gets fired moves in rectilinear motion, child going down, a bird flying in
the sky. In the above example, all the points of the body/object in motion are in the
ial
te r
same direction. Translational motion can be of two types, rectilinear and curvilinear.
m a
Rectilinear motion is when an object in translational motion moves in a straight line
c e
r e n
motion. When an object in translational motion moves along a curved path, it is said
to be in curvilinear motion
e f e
rt r
ho
2 Rotational motion: is when an object moves about an axis and different parts of it
S
move by different distances in a given interval of time. Examples: blades of a rotat-
ing fan, merry-go-round, blades of a windmill. When an object undergoes rotational
motion, all its parts do not move the same distance in a given interval of time. For
example, the outer portion of the blades of a windmill moves much more than the
portion closer to the centre.
3 Vibrational motion: is when a body moves to and fro about its mean position
is called vibratory motion. Vibratory motion can be described as any object mov-
ing/swinging back and forth, moving up and down, pulsating, etc. Examples Pen-
dulums, swings, tuning forks, etc are of vibratory motion. Vibrational motion can be
periodic or non-priodic
2.1.2 Motion in 1D
This is motion of a particle along straight line in fixed direction (or motion along one coor-
dinate axis). Example: a car moving along a flat straight narrow road.
Remedial Physics
2.1. KINEMATICS OF THE PARTICLE 15
p p x
xi xf ∆x = xf − xi
Definition of Kinematical terms
Distance and Displacement
Distance: is the total path length covered by the moving object.

Displacement: is change of position i.e the shortest distance between start and end of
motion. For example: a particle moving from point A to B as shown in figure below.
ial
Figure 2.1: Comparison of Distance and Displacement
te r
m a
c e
r e n
Speed and Velocity
e f e
rt r
o
Sh
Speed (v): is the rate of change of distance in a unit time.
Average Speed (vav ): is total distance traveled by the total time required to cover the
distance.
total..distance
vav =
total..time
Velocity(~v ): the rate of change of displacement as a function of time.

Average Velocity (~vav ): is change of displacement ∆x divided by the time interval ∆t
during which the displacement occure.
~xf − ~xi ∆~x

~vav = =
tf − ti ∆t
Instantaneous Velocity and Speed
Instantaneous Velocity v(t): is the Velocity of the particle at a given instant of time. It
is the limit of average velocity as ∆t approaches to zero.
∆x ~x(t + ∆t) − ~x(t)

v(t) = lim = lim
∆t→0 ∆t ∆t→0 ∆t
Remedial Physics
This can be rewritten as frist derivatives of displacement with respect time.
dx
v(t) =
dt
The magnitude of Instantaneous velocity is instantaneous speed
Class work
1. Which of the following is true for displacement?
(a) It cannot be zero.
(b) Its magnitude is greater than the distance travelled by the object.
(c) displacement may or may not be equal to distance
2. If the displacement of the body is zero, the distance covered by it may not be zero.
3. In which of the following cases of motions, the distance moved and the magnitude of
displacement are equal ?
ial
te r
(a) If the object is moving along straight road
m a
c e
(b) If the object is moving along staight path
r e n
e f e
r
(c) The pendulum is moving back and fro
rt
o
Sh
(d) The earth revolving around the sun
4. A particle moves along the x-axis according to the equation given below.
~x(t) = (4 + 2t − t2 )mî
where t is in Second.
a) Determine the displacement of this particle between the time interval t = 0 and
t = 1s
b) Determine the average velocity during those two time intervals
c) Dirive a general expression for the instantaneous velocity as a function of time.
d) calculate instantaneous velocity at t = 2s.
5. A boy walk from his home to school at constant speed of 5m/s along straight line and
then back along the same line (road) from school to his home at constant speed of
6m/s.
Remedial Physics
a) What is his average speed?
b) What is his average velocity?
Acceleration (~a): is the rate of change of velocity.

Average acceleration (~aav ): is the change in velocity divided by time interval during which
it occure.
xf − xi ∆x
~aav = =
tf − ti ∆t
Instantaneous acceleration ~a(t): is the acceleration of the particle at a given instant of

time. It is the limit of average acceleration as ∆t approaches to zero.
∆v ~v (t + ∆t) − ~v (t)
~a(t) = lim = lim
∆t→0 ∆t ∆t→0 ∆t
This can be rewritten as Second derivatives of displacement or first derivatives of velocity

with respect time.
d2 x ial
~a(t) =
dv
= 2
te r
dt dt
m a
c
Class worke
r e n
e f e
r
1. A particle moves along the x-axis component varies with time according to equation
rt
o
Sh
given below.
~x(t) = (20 − 2t + t3 )mî
where t is in Second.
a) Determine initial position of the particle.
b) Determine the displacement of this particle between the time interval t = 0 and
t = 1s; t = 1 and t = 4s
c) Determine the average velocity during those two time intervals
d) Dirive a general expression for the instantaneous velocity as a function of time.
e) calculate instantaneous velocity at t = 3s.
f) average acceleration between t = 2s to t = 3s.
g) Dirive a general expression for the instantaneous acceleration as a function of

time.
h) calculate instantaneous acceleration at t = 2s.

Remedial Physics
Uniform Motion in 1D
Uniform Motion: A body is said to be in a state of uniform motion if it travels equal distances
in equal intervals of time. If the time distance graph is a straight line the motion is said to
be uniform motion. This meanse that the velocity of the body remain constant as it cover
equal distance in equal interval of time, in case of uniform rectilinear motion acceleration of
the body will be zero. Here, the avrage speed and instantaneous speed will be equal to the
actual speed; avrage velocity and instantaneous velocity will be equal to the actual velocity
and the magintude of velocity is equal speed.
~vav = ~v = ~v (t)
|~v | = v
∆x = ~v (t)t
ial
te r
Uniformely accelerated Motion in 1D m a
c e
r e n
This is motion with constant acceleration ieevelocity change with uniform rate.
r e f
rt
ho= dv
S~a(t) dt
=
v − vi
t
= constant
v(t) = vi + at (2.1)
Average velocity for uniformely accelerated motion is given by
~v + v~i
~vav =
2
Thus
~v + v~i
~x − x~i = ∆~xt = ~vav t = ( )t (2.2)
2
Using equation (2.1) into (2.2)

v~i + at + v~i
∆~x = ( )t
2
1
∆~x = vi t + at2 (2.3)
2
From equation (2.1)

v − vi
t= (2.4)
a
Remedial Physics
Using equation (2.4) into (2.2)
v + vi v − vi v 2 − vi2
∆x = ( )( )=
2 a 2a
v 2 = vi2 + 2a∆x (2.5)
Class work
1. An electron in a cathod ray tube accelerate uniformely from 2.0 × 104 m/s to 6.0 ×
106 m/s over 1.5cm.
a) How long does the electron take the to travel this 1.5cm?
b) What is its acceleration?
2. A track covers 40m in 8.5s while smoothely slowing down to a final speed of 2.8m/s.
Find
ia l
te r
a) its original velocity
m a
c e
b) its acceleration
r e n
e e
f
r
o t 140mi/hr and stops in 2s due to an arresting cable that
3. A jet lands on an air craft rat
h
snags the air plane. S
a) What is its acceleration?
b) If the plane touches down at position xi = 0 what is the final position of the
plane?
4. A car traveling at constant speed of 45m/s passes a tropper hidden behind a billboard.
One second after the speeding car passes the billboard, the tropper sets out from the
billboard to catch it, accelerating at constant rate of 3.0m/s2 . How long does it take
her to over take the car?
5. A jet plane lands with a speed of 100m/s and slow down at rate of 5m/s2 as it comes
to rest.
a) What is the time interval needed by the jet to come to rest?
b) Can this jet land on an airport where the runway is 0.8km long?
Remedial Physics
Free falling bodies
A freely falling object is any object moving freely under the influence of gravity alone, re-
gardless of its initial motion.
Example: object thrown upward or down ward and object released from rest.
Free fall is motion with constant gravitational acceleration g = 9.81m/s2 toward the center
of the earth. So we can use equation of uniformely accelerated as in table below
When released from rest When thrown up When thrown down

vy = gt vy = voy − gt vy = voy + gt
∆y = 12 gt2 ∆y = voy − 12 gt2 ∆y = voy + 12 gt2
vy2 = 2g∆y vy2 = voy
2
− 2g∆y vy2 = voy
2
+ 2g∆y
Class work
1. A girl thows a ball upwards, moving it an initial speed u = 15m/s. Neglect air resistance
a) How long does the ball take to return to the girl’s hand?
ial
te r
b) What will be its velocity then?
m a
c e
r e n
2. A ball is thrown upward. While the ball is in free fall, does its acceleration (a) increase
e f e
(b) decrease (c) increase and then decrease (d) decrease and then increase (e) remain
rt r
constant? o
Sh
3. After a ball is thrown upward and is in the air, its speed (a) increases (b) decreases (c)
increases and then decreases (d) decreases and then increases (e) remains the same.
Remedial Physics
2.1.3 Two dimension (2D) motion
2D motion is motion in a plane (This meanse object moving along two coordinate axis simul-
taneously, and its position can be described by two coordinate). Example: Projectile motion,
Circular motion
Figure 2.2: Motion in a plane
ial
te r
m a
If a particle move from point A to point B in figure 2.2 its displacement is given by
c e
e n
e
∆~
f err= ~rB − ~rA
rt r
o
Sh
∆~r = (xB î + yB ĵ) − (xA î + yA ĵ) = ∆xî + ∆y ĵ
For infintesmal change

d~r = dxî + dy ĵ
Average velocity (vav ) is given by
∆~r ∆x ∆y
~vav = = î + ĵ = ~vx î + ~vy ĵ
∆t ∆t ∆t
Instantaneous velocity is given by
∆r ~r(t + ∆t) − ~r(t)

v(t) = lim = lim
∆t→0 ∆t ∆t→0 ∆t
v(t) = ~vx (t)î + ~vy (t)ĵ
Average acceleration is given by
∆v ∆vx ∆vy
aav = = î + ĵ
∆t ∆t ∆t
Remedial Physics
Instantaneous acceleration
∆v ~v (t + ∆t) − ~v (t)
a(t) = lim = lim
∆t→0 ∆t ∆t→0 ∆t
a(t) = ~ax (t)î + ~ay (t)ĵ
Class work
1. A bird flies in xy plane with velocity vector given by
~v = (α − βt2 )î + γtĵ
where α = 2.1m/s and γ = 2.8m/s2 and the positive y direction is vertically upward
at t = 0, the bird is at the origin.
a) Determine average acceleration between time interval t = 0 to 1s
b) calculate the general expression for instantaneous acceleration at any time t
ial
te r
c) What is the birds altitude (y cordinate) as it flies over x = 0 for the first time
after t = 0.
m a
c e
2.1.3.1 Projectile Motion r e n
e f e
r
ort in a plan under the infuelence of gravity alone,
Projectile motion is motion of an object
h
S
regardless of its initial motion(neglacting air resistance). Examples: A ball kicked from
the horizontal ground. The path followed by projectile motion is trajectory and downward
Figure 2.3: Projectil Motion
parabola due to gravitational acceleration and combination of horizontal and vertical velocity
as we can see in figure 2.3. As projectile motion is 2D motion we can regard it as two separate
and independent horizontal (x-component) and vertical (y-component) motion.
Remedial Physics
Horizontal motion of projectile
Horizontal motion of projectile motion is uniform motion (velocity constant, ax = 0). Because
no net force act on horizontal motion of projectile motion. ie
v0x = v0 cosθ
this is horizontal component of initial velocity.
vx = v0x = v0 cosθ = constant
and
x(t) = v0x t = vx t = v0 cosθt
Vertical motion of projectile
Vertical motion of projectile motion is uniformely accelerated motion. It is motion with
l
constant gravitational acceleration of g = 9.8m/s2 to ward the center of the earth. At the
ia
origin te r
m a
e
v0y = v0 sinθ
c
e n
f er
this is vertical component of initial velocity.
e
Now we can use equation uniformelyr t r accelerated motion as
o
Sh
vy = v0y − gt
(v0y + vy )
∆y = t
2
1
∆y = v0y t − at2
2
vy2 = v0y
2
− 2g∆y
But at the maximum height vy = 0 so
2
0 = v0y − 2gymax
2
v0y v 2 sin2 θ
ymax = = 0
2g 2g
Total time (t) is time of flight is given by
vy = v0y − gt
Remedial Physics
but at ymax , vy = 0
0 = v0y − gta
v0y v0 sinθ
ta = =
g g
But total time is t = ta + td and ta = td thus
2v0y 2v0 sinθ

t= =
g g
Range (R) is maximum horizontal displacement (xmax )
2v0 sinθ
R = vox t = v0 cosθ( )
g
v02 2cosθsinθ
R=
g
v02 sin2θ
R=
g
ia l
The maximum range is reached at an angle of projection θ = 450
te r
m a
v02 sin(2 × 450 ) e
v02 sin(900 ) v02
R=
g
re nc
=
g
=
g
e f e
rt r
o
Sh
Figure 2.4: A projectile launched from the origin with an initial speed of 50 m/s at various
angles of projection. Note that complementary values of θi result in the same value of R
(range of the projectile).
Class work
1. A ball is kicked with an initial velocity if 40m/s from the ground at an angle of 300 to
the horizontal. (Use g = 10m/s2 ) Calculate
a) Horizontal and vertical component of initial velocity
b) The vertical velocity after t = 1s, 2s, 3s, and 4s

Remedial Physics
c) Position (~r = xî + y ĵ) after t = 1s, 2s, 3s, and 4s
d) Time of flight (total time)
e) maximum height
f) Range of projectile
2. An air plane moving horizontally with velocity of 500km/hr at a height of 2km above
the ground dropped a bomb when it directly above the target. By how much distance
will the bomb miss the target?
3. An astronaut on a strange planet finds that she can jump a maximum horizontal
distance of 15.0m if her initial speed is 3.00m/s. What is the free-fall acceleration on
the planet?
ial
te r
m a
c e
r e n
e f e
rt r
o
Sh
Remedial Physics
2.1.3.2 Circular Motion
Uniform Circular Motion
Uniform circular motion: is a type of motion in which an object moves in a circular path at
a constant speed. The direction of motion is constantly changing as the object moves around
the circle. For example, imagine a car moving around a circular racetrack at a constant speed
of 100 km/h. The car is always moving in a circle, and the direction of the car is constantly
changing as it goes around the track. However, the car’s speed is always the same, so the
car is said to be in uniform circular motion. Another example of uniform circular motion is
a planet orbiting around a star. The planet is constantly moving in a circular path around
the star, and its speed is constant as it moves around the orbit.
ial
te r
m a
c e
r e n
e f e
r
Figure 2.5: Uniform Circular Motion.
rt
S ho
In uniform circular motion velocity is not constant because continuous variation of direction.
So the two triangle are similar by SÂS. For similar triangle the ratio of their side is equal
|∆~r| |~r| |∆~v | |~v |

= ..or.. =
|∆~v | |~v | |∆~r| |~r|
v
∆v = × ∆r
r
Remedial Physics
Dividing bothside by ∆t
∆v v ∆r
= ×
∆t r ∆t
v
ac = × v
r
v2
ac =
r
Thus ac is radial or centerpital accelaration and it is always toward the center of the
circle perpendiculr to velocity. Its magnitude is constant but its direction change continuous
perpendiculr to velocity. This accelaration is due to a centripetal force. A centripetal force
is a net force that acts on an object to keep it moving along a circular path and its direction is
toward the center the circle. Example: The tension force in the string of a swinging tethered
ball and the gravitational force keeping a satellite in orbit are both examples of centripetal
forces. Multiple individual forces can even be involved as long as they add up (by vector
addition) to give a net force towards the center of the circular path.
Period (T): it is time taken for one complete rotation.
ial
2πr te r
T =
v m a
c e
Non-uniform Circular Motion r e n
e f e
r
Non-uniform circular motionris
h o t a type of circular motion in which the speed of an object
moving in a circular path S
changes at different points along the path. In other words, the
magnitude of the velocity vector of the object is not constant, meaning that the object is
accelerating even though it is moving in a circle.
An example of non-uniform circular motion is a car driving around a curved road. The
car’s speed may change as it navigates the curve, depending on factors such as the car’s
position on the curve and the road conditions. The car’s direction is constantly changing as
it moves around the curve, but the speed is not constant. As a result, the car is undergoing
non-uniform circular motion. Another example of non-uniform circular motion is a planet
orbiting a star, as the planet speeds up and slows down in its elliptical orbit. In this case
there are two type of acceleration:-
1. Radial or centerpital accelaration:- due to change of direction of motion
v2
~ac =
r
2. Tangential accelaration:- due to change magnitude of velocity. Its magintude is

Remedial Physics
change of velocity over change of time.
~vf − ~vi ∆v
~aT = =
tf − ti ∆t
Its direction is in the direction of Velocity which is perpendicular to centerpital acce-

laration. Thus total accelaration
~a = ~ac + ~aT
Its magintude
p
~a = (~ac )2 + (~aT )2
Its direction
−1 aT
θ = tan
ac
Class work
ia l
r
te in a vertical circle under the
1. A ball tied to the end of a string 1m in length swings
infuelence of gravity. When the string makesan
a
mangle of 200 its speed was 2m/s.
c e
Calculate e n
e f er
t r
a) magintude of centerpitalraccelaration
h o
S
b magintude of centerpital Tangential accelaration
c) magintude and direction of of total accelaration

Remedial Physics
Chapter 3
Angular Motion
• Describe the rotational kinematical quantities.
• Give the angular speed and angular velocity of a rotating body.
al
• Determine the velocity of a point in a rotating body.
e r i
• Derive equations of motion with constant angular tacceleration.
a
macceleration to solve related problems.
• Use equations of motion with constant angular
c e
e n
e f er momentum.
• State the law of conservation of angular
r
• Apply the law of conservationt rof angular momentum in Understanding various natural
oproblems.
Sh
phenomena, and solving
• Express angular momentum as a cross product of r and p.
• Derive an expression for angular momentum in terms of I and ω.
• Use the relationship between torque and angular momentum, according to Newton’s
second law.
• Apply the relationship between torque and angular momentum to solve problems in-
volving rigid bodies.
3.1 Angular Motion

Angular motion is a type of motion that occurs when an object moves along a circular path
or rotates around a fixed axis. Angular motion is characterized by two main quantities:
angular displacement and angular velocity. Angular motion is important in many areas of
physics, including mechanics, electromagnetism, and quantum mechanics. It is also used in
many practical applications, such as in the design of engines, turbines, and other rotating
machinery.
29
Remedial Physics
30 CHAPTER 3. ANGULAR MOTION
3.1.1 Rotational Kinematics
Angular displacement: is the change in the angle (θ) of rotation of an object with respect
to a fixed axis as we can see in figurebellow. Radian (rad) is SI unit of angular displacement,
one radian is angle sutended by an arc length equal to radius of the arc. The relation between
revolutio(rev), degree(deg or 0 ) and radian (rad) l
e r ia
a t
2πrad = 3600 = 1rev
e m (3.1)
n c
e
r of the angular displacement of an object
echange
Average Angular velocity: is the rate of
r e f
with respect to time. Its representedrtby Greek letter ω. It is measured in radians per second
o
Sh per second) and is equal to the ratio of the change in
or (degrees per second or revolation
the angular displacement of the object to the time interval over which the change occurred.
θ − θ0 ∆θ
ω
~ = =
t − t0 ∆t
Instantaneous Angular Velocity: It is average angular velocity as ∆t o. This meanse

angular velocity at instant of time (for infintesmal change)
dθ(t)
ω(t) =
dt
Angular acceleration: the rate of change of the angular velocity of an object with respect
to time. It is denoted by Greek letter α.
Average angular acceleration (ωav ): is the ratio of andgular velocity to time interval ∆t
during which the change occure.
~ −ω
ω ~0 ∆~
ω
α
~= =
t − t0 ∆t
Remedial Physics
3.1. ANGULAR MOTION 31
Instantaneous Angular acceleration: It is average angular acceleration as ∆t o. This

meanse angular acceleration at instant of time (for infintesmal change). Its SI unit is rad/s2
dω(t) d2 θ(t)
α(t) = =
dt dt2
Uniformley Accelarated Rotational Motion
Uniformly accelerated angular motion refers to the motion of an object rotating around an
axis at a constant rate of acceleration (α). This means that the angular velocity of the object
is changing at a constant rate over time. In this type of motion, the angular acceleration of
the object is constant, which means that the rate of change of the angular velocity is also
constant. The equation that describes this relationship is:
ω = ωo + αt (3.2)
For uniformly accelerated angular motion the average angular velocity is given by
ial
ω + ω0 te r
ωav =
2 m a
c e
Therefore r e n
fe
θe− θ0 = (
ω + ω0
rt r 2
)t (3.3)
o
Using all those together Sh
1
θ = ω0 t + α 2 t 2 (3.4)
2
and
ω 2 = ω02 + 2αθ (3.5)
Class work
1. The angular position of a fly wheel of car engines is given by
θ = (2rad/s3 )t3
the diametre of the flywheel is 0.36m.
a) Find the angle θ in radian, degree and revolution at time t1 2secandt2 = 5sec.
b) Find the distance that the particle of the rim moves during that time intervaly .
c) Find the average angular velocity in rad/s, and rev./m

Remedial Physics
d) Find the general expression for the angular velocity at any time t.
e) Find the general expression for the angular accelaration at any time t.
2. A wheel rotates with angular acceleration of 3.5 rad/s2 . If the angular speed of the
wheel is 2.0m/s at t=0.
a) through what angle doese the wheel rotate in 2.0s
b) what is the angular speed at t = 2.0s
Angular Momentum
~ of a moving particle with respect to a given axis is given by

The angular momentum (L)
~ = ~r × p~
L
Where ~r is didtance from axis of rotation and p~ = m~v is linear momentum.

ial
te r
L
m a
~ = ~r × p~ = ~r × m~v = m~r × ~v
c e
r e n
and we know that v = rω
e f e
L
rt r
~ = m~r × r~
ω = mr2 ω
~
o
And we know that I = mr2
Sh
~ = I~
L ω (3.6)
Eqn. 3.6 is angular momentum. Taking time derivatives of equation 3.6
~
dL d~v
= m~r × = m~r × ~a = ~r × F~net = ~τnet
dt dt
Law of Conservation of Angular Momentum
This states that if the net external torque acting on the system is zero (the system is isolated
) then the angular momentum of the system is conserved (remain unchenged)
~i = L
L ~f
Ii ωi = If ωf (3.7)
Class work
Remedial Physics
3.1. ANGULAR MOTION 33
1. The position vector of a particle of mass 2kg is given as a function of time by ~r =

(6î + 5tĵ. Determine the angular momentum of the particle about the origin as a
function of time.
2. A large circular disk of mass 2kg and radius 0.2m initially rotating at 50rad/s is coupled
a smaller circular disk of mass 4kg and radius 0.1m initially rotating at 20rad/s in the
same direction as large disk.
a) Find the commen angular velocity after the disk are coupled.
b) Calculate the loss of kinetic energy during this collision.
ial
te r
m a
c e
r e n
e f e
rt r
o
Sh
Remedial Physics
ial
te r
m a
c e
r e n
e f e
rt r
o
Sh
Remedial Physics
Chapter 4
Dynamics
• Identify the four basic forces in nature.
• Define and describe the concepts and units related to force.
• Define the term dynamics.

ial
te r
• Define and describe the concepts and units related to coefficients of friction.
• Use the laws of dynamics in solving problems. m a

c e
e n
• Interpret Newton’s laws and apply these to moving objects.
r
e f e
r
• Explain the conditions associated with the movement of objects at constant velocity.
rt
o
Sh
• Solve dynamics problems involving friction.
• Analyse, in qualitative and quantitative terms, the various forces acting on an object
in a variety of situations, and describe the resulting motion of the object.
• Describe the terms momentum and impulse.
• State the law of conservation of linear momentum.

• Discover the relationship between impulse and momentum, according to Newton’s sec-
ond law.
• Apply quantitatively the law of conservation of linear momentum.
• Distinguish between elastic and inelastic collisions.
• Describe head-on collisions.

• Describe glancing collisions.
• Define and describe the concepts and units related to torque.
• Describe centre of mass of a body.
• Determine the position of centre of mass of a body.
• Interpret Newton’s laws and apply these to objects undergoing uniform circular motion.
• Solve dynamics problems involving friction.
35
Remedial Physics
36 CHAPTER 4. DYNAMICS
4.1 Dynamics
Dynamics: In physics, dynamics is the branch of mechanics that deals with the study of
motion and the forces that cause or affect that motion. It involves the analysis of how an
object moves and the forces that cause it to move, including the study of the forces that
cause changes in the motion of an object, such as acceleration, deceleration, and changes
in direction. The fundamental concepts in dynamics are force, mass, and acceleration, as
described by Newton’s laws of motion. Dynamics is used to describe a wide range of physical
phenomena, from the motion of particles at the subatomic level to the motion of planets
in the solar system. It is used in many fields, including engineering, physics, and applied
mathematics, to understand and predict the behavior of physical systems.
Force is a physical quantity that describes an interaction between two objects that can
cause a change in motion of one or both objects. It is defined as the product of mass and
acceleration, or more formally as the rate of change of momentum with respect to time. It
is a push or a pull of an object (Intraction that change state of motion). We can’t see force
ial
te r
with our necked-eye but, in everyday life, we experience the following effects of force all the
time.
m a
c e
r e
• Force set or tends to set an object to motion n
e f e
r
ort
• Force stop or tends to stop motion
h
S
• Force change direction of motion
• Force accelerate or decelerate motion
• Force change shape and size of materials
Type of force
Force usually catagorized into two
1. Contact Force: This is a force that requires physical contact between two objects in
order for the force to be applied. Examples: Frictional force, Tension force, Normal
force, Air resistance force, and Applied force.
2. Non-contact Force: This is a force that can act over a distance without any phys-
ical contact between the objects. Examples: Gravitational force, Magnetic force,
Electrostatic force, Electromagnetic force, Nuclear force.
Remedial Physics
4.1. DYNAMICS 37
Newton’s Law of Motion
Newton’s laws of motion are three fundamental principles that describe the behavior of objects
in motion. They were first introduced by Sir Isaac Newton in his 1687 work ”Philosophiæ
Naturalis Principia Mathematica”. The laws are:, 1. Newton’s frist Law of motion (Law of
inertia), 2. Newton’s second law (Law of acceleration) and 3. Newton’s third law (action and
reaction force)
Newton’s first law: This states that ”Unless an external force exerted on the body the
state of motion the body remain as it is”. This is called law of inertia. Inertia: is the
tedencey of the body to resist its change of state of motion.
Newton’s second law: This states that ”accelaration of an object is directely proportional
to the net force acting on it and inversely proportional to is mass”.
X
F~ = m~a
X X X X
F~ = F~x + F~y + F~z = m(~ax + ~ay + ~az )
ial
te r
a
Newton’s third law: This states that ”if object A exert force on object B, then object B
m
exert a force on object A that is equal in magnitude
n ce and opposite in direction”. Thus force
e
always occure in pair. This pair of force are
f recalled action and reaction force. For every action
t r e
or
force there is reaction force. Action and reaction force are always:
S h
• the same in magnitude
• opposite in direction
• act on different bodies
• the same type
Class work
1. Object of mass 10kg is exerted on by a force of F~1 = (2î + 3ĵ)N , F~2 = (4î − 3ĵ)N and
F~3 = (−î + 3ĵ)N , calculate
a) net force on this object
b) its accelaration
2. A 2kg object undergoes an accelaration of given by ~a = (3î + 4ĵ)m/s2 . Find the

magnitude resultant of force.
Remedial Physics
3. A particle of mass 2unit moves along space curve defined by ~r(t) = (4t2 − t3 )î − 5tĵ +
(t4 − 2)k̂. Find the force acting on it at any time t.
4. Find the force needed to accelarate a mass of 400kg from velocity ~v0 = (4î−5ĵ +3k̂)m/s
to ~vf = (8î + 3ĵ − 5k̂)m/s in 10s.
Friction Force
Friction force: is a force generated in opposite direction to the motion when solid object
slide or attempt to slid over each other. Its magnitude is given by
f = FN µ
Where µ is coefficient of friction (constant that depend on the nature of the surface in contact),
FN is normal force. There are two type of frictional force
• Static friction:- friction occure when object attempt to slid over each other but not
ial
yet slid over each other. Its magnitude given
te r
m a
fs = FNceµ
r e n s
e f e
rt
µs is coefficient of static friction r
o
Sh
Kinetic friction:- friction force occure when object sliding over eachother
fs = FN µk
µk is coefficient of kinetic friction
NB µs > µk thus fs > fk

Normal Force (FN ):- Is a force or component of force that is perpendicular to the surface
in contact and equal in magnitude to the force that holds the surface press together. Normal
force equal to mg when the sliding object is on horizontal surface and acted on by horizontal
force as shown in figure below. But if the force acted on the object is at a certain angle to
the horizontal the normal force is different as shown in figure below
Remedial Physics
4.1. DYNAMICS 39
Class work
1. A 20kg block is initially at rest on a horizontal surface. A horizontal force of 75N is a

required to set the block in motion. After it is in motion a horizontal force of 60N is
required to keep the block moving with constant speed. Find the coefficient of static
and kinetic friction.
Applied Force:Applied force is a physical force that is applied to an object by a person or
r ial
another object. It is a force that causes an object to move, accelerate, or change direction.
Applied force is an important concept in physics and tise used to describe many physical
m a
phenomena, including the motion of objects, the
n ce behavior of fluids, and the behavior of
electromagnetic fields.
f e re
Gravitational force is the force byre which a planet or other body draws objects toward its
rt
o and acts along the line connecting the two bodies. The
Sh
center. The force is always attractive
force is proportional to the product of the two masses and inversely proportional to the square
of the distance between them. The proportionality constant is known as the gravitational
constant. The gravitational force is responsible for keeping the planets in orbit around the
sun and for keeping the moon in orbit around the Earth. The mathematical formula for the
gravitational force between two objects can be expressed using Newton’s law of gravitation:
m1 m2
F =G
r2
where:
- F is the gravitational force between the two objects, measured in Newtons (N), - G is the
gravitational constant, which has a value of approximately 6.674 × 10−11 N m2 /kg 2 , - m1 and
m2 are the masses of the two objects in kilograms (kg), - r is the distance between the centers
of mass of the two objects, measured in meters (m)
A restoring force is a force that acts to bring an object back to its original position after
it has been displaced. In other words, it is a force that opposes displacement. For example,
Remedial Physics
the force exerted by a spring when it is stretched or compressed is a restoring force. In a

simple harmonic motion, restoring force is directly proportional to the displacement and acts
in the direction opposite to the displacement.The mathematical expression of the restoring
force for a spring is:
F = −kx
where F is the restoring force, x is the displacement from the equilibrium position, and k is
the spring constant, which is a measure of the stiffness of the spring.
Another example of a restoring force is the force of gravity acting on a pendulum. The
restoring force of a pendulum is given by:
F = −mgsin(θ)
where F is the restoring force, m is the mass of the pendulum, g is the acceleration due to
gravity, and θ is the angle between the pendulum and the vertical. In general, the mathemat-
r ial
ical expression of the restoring force depends on the specific physical system being considered,
e
and can be derived from the laws of physics governing that tsystem.
a
e m
Application and Newton’s law of motion n c
er e
e f
In this case we apply Newton’s law to robjects either in equilibrium (~a = 0) or accelarating
rt
ofoconstant force. The following procedure is recommanded
along straight line under action h
S
when dealing problems with involving Newton’s law.
1. Identify the object or particle on which force are exerted.
2. Identify the force exerted on the object (Draw free body diagram)
3. Decompose each force into their x,y and z-components.
4. Calculate net force, accelaration, velocity and so’on.

Remedial Physics
4.1. DYNAMICS 41
Class work
1. A block of mass 10kg hungs from three cords as shown below
Figure 4.1: 10kg hungs from three cords
2. A block of mass m slids down an inclined plane as shown in the figure below.
ial
te r
m a
c e
r e n
e f e
rt r
o
Sh
Figure 4.2: mass m slids down an inclined plane
3. The block of mass m sliding horizontally as shown in figure below.
Figure 4.3: block of mass m sliding horizontally
4. Two object of unequal mass are hung vertically over a frictionless pully of negligible
mass as in figure below
Remedial Physics
Figure 4.4: unequal mass are hung vertically over a frictionless pully
4.2 linear momentum
Linear momentum (~
p) is defined as quality of an object to exert a force on any thing that
tries to change its state of motion. Linear momentum is an important concept in physics
because it is a measure of an object’s ability to cause change through its motion. For example,
a moving car has a lot of linear momentum and is able to do a lot of damage in a collision
ial
te r
because it is difficult to stop. On the other hand, a stationary car has no linear momentum
m a
and is not able to cause much change through its motion. Its magnitude is the product of
c e
mass of the system with its velocity.
r e n
e f e
p~ = m~v (4.1)
rt r
o
Sh
For an objet’s in three dimension
p~ = m(vx î + vy ĵ + vz k̂) (4.2)
Linear momentum is a vector quantity, meaning it has both magnitude and direction. The
direction of an object’s linear momentum is the same as the direction of its velocity. Its SI
unit is kgm/s.
~ Impulse is defined as the product of the force acting on an object and the
Impulse (J):
time for which the force acts. Mathematically, impulse can be expressed as: From Newton’s
second law
∆v ∆ ∆~
p
F~net = m = (m~v ) = (4.3)
∆t ∆t ∆t
This can be rewritten as

p = F~net ∆t = J~
∆~ (4.4)
Or
∆~
p
F~net = (4.5)
∆t
Remedial Physics
4.2. LINEAR MOMENTUM 43
This is the relation between p~ and resultant force acting on it.
4.2.1 Conservation of Momentum

When ever two or more particles in an isolated system (in which net external force acting on
the system is zero) intract, the total momentum of the system remain constant (conserved)
ie
X X
p~i = p~f (4.6)
m1 u~1 + m2 u~2 = m1 v~1 + m2 v~2 (4.7)
Where u1 & u2 are initial velocity of m1 and m2 respectively, and v1 & v2 are final velocity
of m1 and m2 respectively Thus
p~xi = p~xf , p~yi = p~yf , p~zi = p~zf
Class work
ia l
te r
m a
1. A 60 kg archer stands at rest on a frictionless ice and fires a 0.5 kg arrow horizontally
ce
e n
at 50m/s. With what velocity doese archer move across the ice after firing the arrow?
r
e f e
rt r
o
4.2.2 Collision
Sh
Collision: is the event of two particles comming together for short time and thereby pro-
ducing impulsive force on each other. Collisions are an important topic in physics because
they can be used to understand a wide range of phenomena, from the behavior of subatomic
particles to the motion of celestial bodies in the universe. Depending on kinetic energy, the
Q-value and coefficient of restitution Collision grouped in two (1) Elastic Collision, and (2)
Inelastic Collision.
Elastic Collision
It is type of collision in which both kinetic energy and momentum are conserved.
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2 (4.8)
1 1 1 1
m1 u21 + m2 u22 = m1 v12 + m2 v22 (4.9)
2 2 2 2
Remedial Physics
The collision in which kinetic energy is fully conserved is called perfectely elastic collision.
Figure 4.5: perfectely elastic collision
Inelastic Collision
It is a type of collision in which only momentum is conserved but kinetic energy is not
conserved.
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2 (4.10)
r ial
1 1 1 1 te
m1 u21 + m2 u22 6= m1 v12 + am2 v22 (4.11)
2 2 2 m 2
n ceafter collision is called perfectely in-
f e re
A collision in which a colliding object stick together
r
elastic collision In this collision kinetic
t e energy lost as a form of heat and sound during
h or
S
Figure 4.6: perfectely inelastic collision
collision. This lost of kinetic enegy represented by Q-value. The Q-value is equal zero for
elastic collision and less than zero (Q < 0) for inelastic collision. Coefficient of restitution (e)
u2 −u1
= v2 −v1 is equal 1 for elastic collision and zero for inelastic collision.
Head-on Collisions: Collision, when objects rebound on straight line paths that
co-incide with original direction of motion. These collisions can be treated one dimen-
sionally.
Glancing Collisions: When Object do not collide on the same path line they make
glancing collision. To solve this problem, break it into components as shown in figure
Remedial Physics
4.3. CENTER OF MASS AND MOMENT OF INERTIA 45
bellow.
Figure 4.7: Glancing Collision
Class work
1. A ball of mass 2 kg is moving with a velocity of 12m/s collides with a stationary ball
of mass 6 kg and comes to rest. Calculate velocity of ball of mass 6kg after collision.
ial
te r
2. A 10.0g bullet is fired into a stationary block of wood (m = 5.00kg). The bullet sticks
m a
into the block, and the speed of the bullet-plus combination immedately after collision
c e
e n
is 0.600m/s. What was the original speed of the bullet?
r
e f e
rt r
3. A block of mass m1 = 1.6kg initially moving to the right with a speed of 4m/s on a
o
Sh
horizontal frictionless track collides with a block of mass m2 = 2.1kg initially moving
to the left with speed of 2.5m/s. If the collision is elastic, find the velocities of the two
block after collision?
4. A partcle of mass 4.0kg initially moving with velocity of 2.0m/s collides with a partcle
of mass 6.0kg, initially moving velocity of -4m/s. What are the velocity of the two
particle after collision?
5. A 4kg block moving right at 6m/s collides elastically with a 2kg moving at 3m/s left,
find final velocities the blocks.
4.3 Center of Mass and Moment of Inertia
4.3.1 Center of Mass

The center of mass of an object or system is the unique point at which the entire mass of the
object or system can be considered to be concentrated.It is the point about which the object
Remedial Physics
or system will balance if it is supported at that point, and it is the point around which the
object or system will rotate if it is free to do so. In a system of particles, the center of mass
is the average position of all the particles in the system, weighted according to their masses.
It is a useful concept in mechanics because it allows the analysis of the motion of an object
or system as if all of its mass were concentrated at a single point. It is located somwher on
the line joining the partcle and closser to the larger mass. The center of mass of an object
or system can be found by taking the sum of the positions of all the particles in the system
multiplied by their masses, and then dividing by the total mass of the system. Center of mass
of several partcle with mass m1 , m2 , · · · , mn at a distance ~r1 , ~r2 , · · · , ~rn from each other is
given by Pn Pn
i=1 mi~ri mi~ri m1~r1 + m2~r2 + · · · + mn~rn
~rcm = Pn = i=1 = (4.12)
i=1 mi M m1 + m2 + · · · + mn
Where
n
X
M= mi = total.mass
i=1
al
For coordinate x, y and z, center of mass given by
r i
Pn
i=1 mi xi
Pn
i=1 mi yi a te Pn i=1 mi zi
~xcm =
M
î, ..~ycm =
M e mĵ..and..~zcm =
M
k̂ (4.13)
n c
e
er concept of center of mass is closely related
e f
This is known as the center of mass formula.The
r such as the center of gravity, which is the point
r t
to other important concepts in mechanics,
o
Sh acting on an object or system can be considered to be
at which the gravitational force
concentrated. In many cases, the center of mass and the center of gravity of an object or
system are at the same location, but this is not always the case, especially for objects or
systems that are not symmetrical.
4.3.2 Moment of Inertia
Moment of Inertia: is the a measure of body’s resistance to rotational motion about about
a particular axis. It is typically denoted by the symbol I and is measured in kg ∗ m2 . Its
magnitude is affected by distribution of mass of the body in relation to its axis of rotation.
Thus there is no single value of moment of inertia of an object. But for a point mass moment
of inertia is given by
I = mr2
Remedial Physics
4.3. CENTER OF MASS AND MOMENT OF INERTIA 47
Moment of inertia of a rigid object, made up of a particles of mass m1 , m1 , ... at respective

distance r1 , r2 , ... from its axis of rotation, its moment of inertial about that axis is given by
X
I = m1 r12 + m2 r2 + ...mi ri2 = mi ri2
i
For continuous mass distribution
ˆ m
I= r2 dm
m0
In general moment of inertia of a body depend on
• size of the body
• Shape of the body
For example consider disk and sphare of the same mass and the same radius.
I = 12 mr2 for uniform disk
ia l
I = 25 mr2 for uniform sphare
te r
m a
ce
• It also depend on a point of axis of rotation
n
f e rethrough its center
t r e
Example: For uniform rod axis of rotation
h or 1
S I = M L2
12
For uniform rod axis of rotation through its one end
2
I = M L2
3
Class work
1. A system consists three partcles of m1 = 1kg, m2 = 1kg and m3 = 2kg located as in

figure below. Find the center of mass of the system.
Remedial Physics
2. A partcles are connected by a light rod as shown bellow
3. Calculate moment of inertia of 4 equal masses be each having a mass of 50g and situated
at the corner of the square of side 30cm. when axis of rotation passes through
a) the center of the square perpendicular to the plane of the square
b) the center of the square perpendicular to sides of the square.
c) along the side of the square.

ial
te r
m a
4.4 Torque and angular momentum ce
n
f ereie (it is measure of force that couse an object
Torque: is defined as rotational effect ofeforce
rt r
to rotate around an axis. Torque isorepresented by symbol (greek letter) 0 τ 0 . Torque is vector
h
quality with both magintudeS and direction. It is calculated by the product of force and
perpendicular distance from its axis of rotation.
~τ = F rsin(θ)n̂ = F~ × ~r
Where θ is the direction of line of action of force n̂ is unit vector in the direction of torque
(clockwise or anticlockwise), r is moment arm of force (point of application of force from axis
of rotation) F is applied.
Magintude of torque is depend on
– Size of force
– moment arm of force (radius or point of application of force)
– line of action of force (direction of line of action of force or θ)
Torque has maximum value when θ = 900 and zero when θ = 00 or1800
Remedial Physics
4.5. CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM (FIRST AND SECOND) 49
Torque intermes of angular accelarate From definition of Torue we have
τ = Fr ⊥
From Newton’s 2nd law F = aT m for a particle moving in circle of radius but aT = αr where
α is angular accelaration Using those all together
τ = αrmr = α(mr2 )
The term in the bracket is moment of inertia (I) so
τ = Iα
Class work
1. A force of F~ = (2î + 3ĵ is applied to an object that is pivoted about a fixed axis that
l
is aligned along the z-axis. If the force is applied at a point located at ~r = (3î − 2ĵ)
ia
te r
m a
4.5 Conditions of Equilibrium
c (First and second) e
r e n
r e fe
Condition of Equilibrium in physics refers to state to the state where an object or system is
t
or is constant or zero (static equilibrium:-system is stable
h
not accelarating that is, its velocity
S
and at rest, the net torque must also be zero ). There are two main conditions of equilibrium.
1 First condition of equilibrium: This states that, the net force acting object must
be zero. This meanse that the vector sum of all force acting on the object must be
equal to zero. Mathematically this can be expressed as
X X X X
Fnet = F = Fx + Fy + Fz = 0
2 Second condition of equilibrium: This states that, the net torque acting on the
object must be zero. This meanse that the vector sum of all the torque acting on the
object must be equal to zero. Mathematically this can be expressed as
X X X
τnet = τ= τclockwise + τanticlockwise = 0
Practical Example
Two kids balancing a seesaw satisfy both conditions for equilibrium. In the figure 4.8, we see
Remedial Physics
the lighter child sitting farther away from the pivot to create a torque equal in magnitude to
that of the heavier child.
Figure 4.8: seesaw satisfy both conditions for equilibrium
ial
te r
m a
c e
r e n
e f e
rt r
o
Sh
Remedial Physics
Chapter 5
Work, Energy and Power
• Define work, kinetic energy and potential energy
• Calculate the work done by a constant force
• Derive work-kinetic energy theorem and apply in solving related problems

ial
te r
a
• State the principle of conservation of mechanical energy
m
c e
r e n
• Solve problems related to the topics discussed in this section
e f e
rt r
o
5.1 Shby constant and variable forces
Work done
Activity 5.1
What is work done?
Work done is defined as the magnitude of the force exerted in the direction of the displacement
(or distance moved) multiplied by the displacement. Therefore for work to be done on an
object, three essential conditions should be satisfied:
• Force must be exerted on the object
• The force must cause a motion or displacement
• The force should have a component along the line of displacement
Both force and displacement moved are vectors. Work done is the scalar product of force and
displacement:
W = F~ · d~ = F dcosθ
51
Remedial Physics
52 CHAPTER 5. WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
Figure 5.1: Forces on a free body diagram
where F and d are the magnitudes of the vectors. Work done is a scalar - it does not have
directional properties. We can show the forces on a free body diagram (Figure 5.1). The
force in the direction of the displacement is F cos450 , so work done is W = F dcosθ which is
the equation for the scalar product of the force and displacement vectors. The work done by
a force on a moving object is zero when the force applied is perpendicular to the displacement
of its point of application. That is, if θ = 900 , then W = 0 because cos900 = 0. The sign
of the work also depends on the direction of F relative to d. The work done by the applied
ial
force is positive when the projection of F onto d is in the same direction as the displacement.
te r
a
When the projection of F onto d is in the direction opposite the displacement, W is negative.
m
Remember that the unit of energy is the joule.
c e
r e n
e f e
r
1joule = 1N ewton × 1meter
rt
S ho
So 1 joule is the work done when a force of 1 Newton moves through a distance of 1 meter.
This is the definition of the joule.
Example:
A man cleaning a floor pulls a vacuum cleaner with a force of magnitude F = 50.0 N at an
angle of 30.00 with the horizontal (Fig. 5.2). Calculate the work done by the force on the
vacuum cleaner as the vacuum cleaner is displaced 3.0m to the right
Figure 5.2: A vacuum cleaner
Solution
Remedial Physics
5.1. WORK DONE BY CONSTANT AND VARIABLE FORCES 53
A free body diagram as shown in Figure 5.2b. Using the definition of work.
Figure 5.3: Free-body diagram
F = 50.0N , d = 3.0m θ = 30.00 cos30.00 = 0.866
W = F dcosθ = (50.0N )(3.00m)(cos30.00 ) = (50.0N )(3.00m)(0.866) = 130J
To finalize this problem, notice in this situation that the normal force n and the gravitational
Fg = mg do no work on the vacuum cleaner because these forces are perpendicular to its
displacement.
ial
te r
Activity 5.2 m a
c e
r e n
What are the differences between work done by constant and variable forces?
e f e
rt r
5.1.1 Work doneSby
o
h a variable force
A force is said to perform work on a system if there is displacement in the system upon ap-
plication of the force in the direction of the force. In the case of a variable force, integration
is necessary to calculate the work done. The work done by a constant force of magnitude F,
as we know, that displaces an object by ∆x can be given as :
W = F · ∆x
In the case of a variable force, work is calculated with the help of integration. For example,
in the case of a spring, the force acting upon any object attached to a horizontal spring can
be given as:
Fs = −kx
Where, k is the spring constant, x is the displacement of the object attached. We can see
that this force is proportional to the displacement of the object from the equilibrium position,
hence the force acting at each instant during the compression and extension of the spring will
Remedial Physics
be different. Thus, the infinitesimally small contributions of work done during each instant
are to be counted in order to calculate the total work done.
Therefore,
ˆ x
Ws = Fs (x) · dx
x0
ˆ x x
1
Ws = − kxdx) = −k x2
x0 2 x0
1 1 1
Ws = −( kx2 − kx20 ) = − k∆x2
2 2 2
When a force varies, we cannot use the equation work done = force × distance moved.
But the relationship for the area under the graph is still true. If we are able to record the
force used and the displacement and plot a graph, we could find the work done by finding the
area under the graph, as shown in Figure 5.3 You can estimate the average force by putting
ia l
te r
m a
c e
r e n
e f e
rt r
o
Figure 5.4: Graph of variable force against displacement.
Sh
a ruler on top of the graph as though you were going to draw a horizontal line. Adjust
the position of the ruler so that the area between the graph line and the ruler is about the
same above the ruler as it is below the ruler – this will give you an estimate of the average force
Example
A force F = 2x + 5 acts on a particle along the displacement. Find the work done by the
force during the displacement of the particle from x0 = 0m to x = 2m. Given that the force
is in Newton’s.
Solution
Work done
ˆ x ˆ x ˆ x
W = F (x) · dx = F (x)dxcos(0) = F (x)dx
x0 x0 x0
ˆ 2 2
2x2

W = (2x + 5)dx = + 5x = (2 × 2 + 5 × 2)N m = 14J
0 2 0
Remedial Physics
5.2. CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 55
5.2 Conservation of energy

In physics the term work (or often work done) is another way of saying energy is being
transferred from one object to another or transformed from one type to another.
Work done = energy transferred
The more energy transferred the more work has been done. We define the sum of kinetic and
potential energies as mechanical energy:
E = U + KE
Where E is the total mechanical energy, KE is the kinetic energy and U is the all types of
potential energy. So we can write the general form of the definition for mechanical energy
without a subscript on U In a system the mechanical energy of the system stays constant
unless there is a force such as friction acting on the system.
r ial
The potential energy can be gravitational potential energy or energy stored in a spring,
te a force has been used to move

for example. When a spring is stretched, work is done because
a
e m is also done against gravity when you
one end of the spring by a certain displacement. Work
n c energy. When you walk down stairs, work
e
er potential energy.
walk up stairs and you gain gravitational potential
r e f
is done by gravity and you lose gravitational
r t
We can show this as:
S ho
Work done against gravity, W = ∆U = U − U f i
Work done by gravity, W = –∆U = −(Uf − Ui )

Where Uf Final potential energy and Ui initial potential energy
One of the possible outcomes of doing work on a system is that the system changes its
speed. In this section, we investigate this situation and introduce our first type of energy
that a system can possess, called kinetic energy.
W = ∆K = Kf − Ki
The Conservation of mechanical energy is
E = ∆U + ∆KE
E = (Uf − Ui ) + (Kf − Ki ) = 0
(Kf + Uf = Ki + Ui (Conservation of mechanical energy)

Remedial Physics
Example
A bullet weighing 20g is moving at a velocity of 500m/s. This bullet strikes a windowpane
and passes through it. Now, its velocity is 400m/s. Calculate work done by a bullet when
passing through this obstacle.
Solution
m = 20g = 0.02kg, v1 = 500m/s, v2 = 400m/s
We need to determine the change in kinetic energy in this equation. You know that kinetic
energy change
1 1
W = mv22 − mv12
2 2
1
W = m(v22 − v12 )
2
1
W = × 0.2kg(4002 − 5002 )m2 /s2 = 0.01(160000 − 250000)kgm2 /s2
2
W = −900J
r ial
This shows that the bullet lost enegy of 900J ie work done by
a te the bullet.
e m
Activityn5.4c
er e
r e f
o t
1. (a) A boy walks up a hill. His rdisplacement from his starting point is (800, 150) m.How
Sh energy has he gained?

much gravitational potential
(b) The boy then walks to a village. The displacement from his starting point is (400,
–50) m. How much gravitational potential energy did he lose going from the top of the
hill to the village?
(c) What was the boy’s net change in gravitational potential energy from his starting
point to the village?
2. A spring has a spring constant of 75 N/m. It is stretched by 20 cm. How much energy
is stored in the spring?
3. A force of 40 N is used to stretch a spring which has a spring constant of 350 N/m.
How much energy is stored in the spring?
4. A spring has a spring constant of 150 N/m and a mass is 100 g is attached to it. The
spring sits on a horizontal frictionless surface and the other end of the spring is attached
to a solid block. The mass is pulled by 10 cm to stretch the spring and then let go.
What is the highest velocity of the mass?
Remedial Physics
5.3. WORK ENERGY THEOREM 57
5.3 Work energy theorem
According to Newton‘s second law of motion, the sum of all the forces acting on a particle,
F = ma
Let a force F is applied on an object initially moving with velocity u. If it is displaced to

a displacement s and changes its velocity into v, then its motion will be expressed by the
equation of motion. We can use the equation of motion
v 2 − v02 = 2as
Multiplying this equation by mass m and dividing throughout by 2, we get:
1 1
mv 2 − mv02 = mas = F s = W
2 2
ial
∴ W = ∆kE
te r
m a
Example
c e
r e n
A car with a mass of 1,000 kg brakes to a stop from a velocity of 20 m/s (45 mi/hr) over a
e f e
rt r
length of 50 meters. What is the force applied to the car? Solution
S ho
∆KE = 0 − [(1/2)(1, 000 kg)(20 m/s)2] = −200, 000 J
W = −200, 000 N m = (F )(50 m) ⇒ F = −4, 000 N
Activity 5.5
1. A football of mass 550 g is at rest on the ground. The football is kicked with a force
of 108 N. The footballer’s boot is in contact with the ball for 0.3 m.
a) What is the kinetic energy of the ball?
b) What is the ball’s velocity at the moment it loses contact with the footballer’s boot?
2. A car of mass 1200 kg accelerates from 5 m/s to 15 m/s. The force of the engine acting
on the car is 6000 N. Over what distance did the force act?
Remedial Physics
5.4 Conservative forces

Conservative forces a force that does not work when a body moves on a closed path. Con-
servative forces have these two equivalent properties:
1 The work done by a conservative force on a particle moving between any two points is
independent of the path taken by the particle.
2 The work done by a conservative force on a particle moving through any closed path is
zero. (A closed path is one in which the beginning and end points are identical.) The
gravitational force is one example of a conservative force, and the force that a spring
exerts on any object attached to the spring is another.
Activity 5.5
1. What are the differences between conservative and dissipative forces?
ial
5.5 Power te r
m a
c e
Power is the rate at which work is done, or the work done per second. It is measured in the
e n
r watts (W).
f
units joules per second (j/s), which are also
e ecalled
rt r
o
ShP ower = total..time..taken
total..work..done
Example:
A garage hoist lifts a truck up 2 meters above the ground in 15 seconds. Find the
power delivered to the truck. [Given: 1000 kg as the mass of the truck] Solution
First we need to calculate the work done, which requires the force necessary to lift the
truck against gravity:
F = mg = 1000 x 9.81 = 9810 N.
W = Fd = 9810N x 2m = 19620 Nm = 19620 J.
The power is P = W/t = 19620J / 15s = 1308 J/s = 1308 W.
Activity 5.6
1. A weightlifter lifts 200 kg through 1.8 m in 2 s.

a) What is the weightlifter’s power?
b) Why is his actual power likely to be higher than this?
Remedial Physics
5.5. POWER 59
2. A petrol engine raises 200 liters of water in a well from a depth of 7 m in 6 seconds.
Show that the power of the engine is about 2330 W.
3. Look at question 1 on page 101. It takes 4 seconds to drag the container up the slope.
What is the power?
4. Look at question 2 on page 101. The man takes 12 seconds to drag the box. What is
his power?
5. A spring with a spring constant of 275 N/m is stretched 20 cm in 2 seconds.What is

the power applied to stretch the spring?
Review questions
1. A football of mass 550 g is at rest on the ground. The football is kicked with a force
of 108 N. The footballer’s boot is in contact with the ball for 0.3 m.
a. What is the kinetic energy of the ball?
ial
b. What is the ball’s velocity at the moment it loses contact with the footballer’s boot?
te r
m a
2. A car of mass 1200 kg accelerates from 5 m/s to 15 m/s. The force of the engine acting
c e
e n
on the car is 6000 N. Over what distance did the force act?
r
e f e
rt r
3. a) A boy walks up a hill. His displacement from his starting point is (800, 150) m.How
o
Sh
much gravitational potential energy has he gained?
b) The boy then walks to a village. The displacement from his starting point is (400,
-50) m. How much gravitational potential energy did he lose going from the top of the
hill to the village?
c) What was the boy’s net change in gravitational potential energy from his starting
point to the village?
4. A spring has a spring constant of 75 N/m. It is stretched by 20 cm. How much energy
is stored in the spring?
5. A force of 40 N is used to stretch a spring which has a spring constant of 350 N/m.
How much energy is stored in the spring?
6. A spring has a spring constant of 150 N/m and a mass is 100 g is attached to it. The
spring sits on a horizontal frictionless surface and the other end of the spring is attached
to a solid block. The mass is pulled by 10 cm to stretch the spring and then let go.
What is the highest velocity of the mass?
Remedial Physics
7. A ball of mass 500 g is kicked into the air at an angle of 450 . It reaches a height of 12
m. What was its initial velocity?
8. A pendulum bob has a mass of 1 kg. The length of the pendulum is 2 m. The bob is
pulled to one side to an angle of 100 from the vertical.
a) What is the velocity of the pendulum bob as it swings through its lowest point?
b) What is the angular velocity of the pendulum bob?
9. A weightlifter lifts 200 kg through 1.8 m in 2 s. a) What is the weightlifter’s power?

b) Why is his actual power likely to be higher than this?
10. A petrol engine raises 200 liters of water in a well from a depth of 7 m in 6 seconds.
Show that the power of the engine is about 2330 W.
11. . Look at question 1 on page 101. It takes 4 seconds to drag the container up the slope.
What is the power?
r ial
te to drag the box. What is
12. Look at question 2 on page 101. The man takes 12 seconds
a
his power? e m
n c
13. . A spring with a spring constant offe 275
e
r N/m is stretched 20 cm in 2 seconds. What
r e
is the power applied to stretchrtthe spring?
S ho
14. . How can you derive the work–energy theorem form Newton’s second law of motion?
Remedial Physics
Chapter 6
Oscillation and Waves
Objective: - At the end of this unit students should be able to:
• Describe the periodic motion of a vibrating object in qualitative terms, and analyse
it in quantitative terms (e.g. the motion of a pendulum, a vibrating spring, a tuning
fork).
ia l
te r
a
• Define simple harmonic motion (SHM) and describe the relationship between SHM and
m
circular motion.
c e
r e n
e
f
• Derive and use expressions for the frequency, periodic time, displacement, velocity and
e
r
ort SHM.
acceleration of objects performing
h
S
• Describe the effects: free oscillations, damping, forced oscillations and resonance.
• Explain the energy changes that occur when a body performs SHM.
• Relate the energy of an oscillator to its amplitude.
• Solve problems on SHM involving period of vibration and energy transfer.
• Describe the characteristics of a mechanical wave and identify that the speed of the
wave depends on the nature of the medium.
• Calculate the frequency of the harmonics along a string, an open pipe and a pipe closed
at one end.
6.1 Oscillatory motion

Simple harmonic motion the periodic oscillation of an object about an equilibrium position,
such that its acceleration is always directly proportional in size but opposite in direction
61
Remedial Physics
62 CHAPTER 6. OSCILLATION AND WAVES
to its displacement oscillating (vibrating) about a central position equilibrium position the
position of an oscillating object when at rest restoring force the force on a displaced object
that acts towards its original position.
When a body repeats its path of motion back and forth about the equilibrium or mean
position, the motion is said to be periodic. All periodic motions need not be back and forth
like the motion of the earth about the sun, which is periodic but not vibratory in nature. The
periodic motion in which there is existence of a restoring force and the body moves along the
same path to and fro about a definite point, equilibrium position, is called oscillatory motion
6.1.1 Harmonic Motion

Any motion that repeats at regular intervals is called periodic motion or harmonic motion.
However, here we are interested in a particular type of periodic motion called simple harmonic
motion (SHM).
ia l
Periodic oscillations
te r
m a
ce it is moving backwards and forwards,
If something is oscillating (vibrating) this means that
n
f e re some central position. This central position
up and down, side to side, in and out, etc, around
is called the equilibrium position and itre
o rt is the position of the object when it is at rest.
Sh
Whenever an object is displaced from its equilibrium position there is a force that acts
towards its original position. This force is often referred to as a restoring force, as it tries to
restore the system to its equilibrium position. This is much easier to understand if we look
at some simple examples.
How does a pendulum work?
A simple pendulum is made by hanging a mass, known as the bob, on a string from a fixed
support, as shown in Figure 6.1. If we let the mass hang without swinging, it will hang
directly below the support with all forces on it balanced. This position, where the resultant
force acting on the bob is zero, is known as the equilibrium position.
If we give the bob a small initial displacement by pulling it to one side and then release it,
there will be a resultant force, due to the weight of the bob and the tension acting in the string.
This force pulls it back towards the equilibrium position. This causes accelerationtowards
the equilibrium position (opposite to the direction of displacement).
Remedial Physics
6.1. OSCILLATORY MOTION 63
Figure 6.1: Oscillation of a pendulum when the bob is pulled to one side and released
ial
When the bob reaches the equilibrium position, the resultant force is now zero, but the
te r
a
bob is moving and can’t stop instantly. Its inertia keeps it moving through the equilibrium
m
ce
position, and if there is no significant friction of air resistance, it will keep moving, slowing
e n
r when it started.
down all the time until it is as high as itewas
r e f
o rt
It now has a displacement Shequal and opposite to its starting displacement. However, as
displacement is a vector quantity it is now a negative value. If the initial displacement was
3 cm, the displacement after one swing (half an oscillation) will be –3 cm.
In exactly the same way, it will swing back to where it started to complete one complete
cycle of the oscillation. It will now repeat this process again and again. It is important to
notice the force causing the oscillation always acts towards the equilibrium position.
How does a mass on a spring oscillate?
If a mass is hung from a support by a spring and allowed to settle until it is stationary, it
will hang with the spring stretched so that the restoring force (in this case the tension in the
spring) is equal and opposite to the weight of the mass. This is the equilibrium position.
If we now pull the mass down, the tension in the spring will be greater than the weight
of the mass. The resultant force on the mass is upwards and so, if we let go, it accelerates
Remedial Physics
Figure 6.2: Oscillation of a mass–spring system when the mass is displaced downwards and
released
r ial
upwards. When the mass gets back to the equilibrium position
a te it is moving and, although
e m
there is no resultant force here, its inertia keeps it moving.
n c
er e
e f
r all the time, until it is as far above the equilibrium
The mass keeps moving, slowing down rt
ho in the spring is now less than the weight of the mass,
point as it started below. TheStension
the resultant force is now downwards and the mass accelerates downwards. The mass passes
through the equilibrium position again, and carries on until it arrives back at where it started.
It has completed one cycle, and will now do the same again, and again.
What does SHM look like?
If we plot how the displacement of an object performing simple harmonic motion varies
with time, we find that the variation is sinusoidal, as shown in Figure 6.3. Note that the
displacement goes positive and negative as the mass oscillates either side of the equilibrium
position.
The size of the maximum displacement in either direction is called the amplitude A. The
time to perform one complete cycle of the oscillation is called the time period T. When we
say the oscillation is sinusoidal, we mean that the displacement is described mathematically
Remedial Physics
Figure 6.3: Variation of displacement with time for simple harmonic motion
using sine or cosine functions:

t t
x = Asin 2π orx = Acos 2π (6.1)
T T
r ial
where A is the amplitude of the oscillation and T the time
a teperiod. Either could be used, but
throughout the rest of this chapter we will use,
e m
n c
e r e
x f= Asin 2π
t
r e (6.2)
ort
T
h
S gives a better description if the SHM is started by displacing
although the cosine function
the oscillator and then releasing it.
t
If x = Asin(2π · T ), with ( 2π
T · t) in the expresion relation.
When t = 0,
2π
x = Asin ·0 = Asin(0) = 0
T
T
for t= 4
2π T π
x = Asin · = Asin =A
T 4 2
T
for t = 2
2π T
x = Asin · = Asin (π) = 0
T 2
3T
for t = 4
2π 3T 3π
x = Asin · = Asin = −A
T 4 2
for t = T
2π
x = Asin ·T = Asin (2π) = 0
T
Remedial Physics
Looking carefully at the information above you can see how in one oscillation the displacement
starts at 0 rises to a positive amplitude, falls back to zero, falls to a negative amplitude and
then rises back to zero.
6.1.2 Damped and Forced Oscillation
Damped Oscillation
The oscillatory motions we have considered so far have been for ideal systems—that is,systems
that oscillate indefinitely under the action of only one force a linear restoring force. In many
real systems, non conservative forces, such as friction, retard the motion.
Consequently, the mechanical energy of the system diminishes in time, and the motion is
said to be damped. Figure 6.4 depicts one such system: an object attached to a spring and
submersed in a viscous liquid. One common type of retarding force is proportional to the
ial
te r
m a
c e
r e n
e f e
rt r
o
Sh
Figure 6.4: One example of a damped oscillator is an object attached to a spring and sub-
mersed in a viscous liquid
speed of the moving object and acts in the direction opposite the motion. This retarding
force is often observed when an object moves through air, for instance.
Air resistance and friction are typical examples of damping forces and are the reason why
pendulums naturally stop swinging and masses on springs stop oscillating. The damping
force is given by:
FD = −bv (6.3)
b = the damping coefficient and is dependent on the medium providing the damping, v =
the velocity of the object through the medium.
Remedial Physics
This equations shows how the resistive force is directly proportional, but opposite, to the
velocity. As a result the amplitude of the oscillation will decay exponentially, as shown
overleaf in Figure 6.5 (a). Note that the period of the oscillation does not change as the
amplitude gets smaller. Heavier damping causes a more rapid decay of amplitude as shown
in Figure 6.5(b). Damping in a car suspension is not normally so heavy, as this would produce
ial
te r
m a
c e
r e n
e f e
rt r
o
Sh
Figure 6.5: Plots of displacement against time for an oscillator that is displaced and then
released, for different amounts of damping.
a very ‘hard’ and uncomfortable ride for the passengers. The damping shown in Figure 6.5(b),
on the other hand, would provide a very bouncy ride; this would be called underdamping.
The damping in a car suspension is always a compromise somewhere near to the critical
damping shown in Figure 6.5(c). Critical damping is the amount of damping that leads to
the oscillator settling back to a stationary state at the equilibrium position in the shortest
possible time.
Remedial Physics
Damping reduces the effects of resonance. As the periodic driving force transfers energy
into the oscillator the damping mechanism dissipates the energy. The resonance peak in the
graph of driven amplitude against driving frequency becomes lower and relatively wider, as
shown in Figure 6.6. It can also be seen that damping also causes a very small reduction in
the natural frequency of the oscillator.
ial
te r
m a
c e
r e n
e f e
rt r
o
Sh
Figure 6.6: Driven amplitude against driving frequency for forced oscillations of an oscillator
with different amounts of damping
Forced Oscillation
A common example of a forced oscillator is a damped oscillator driven by an external force

that varies periodically, such as F (t) = F0 sinωt, where ω is the angular frequency of the
driving force and F0 is a constant. In general, the frequency of the driving force is variable
while the natural frequency ω of the oscillator is fixed by the values of k and m. Newton’s
second law in this situation gives
X dx d2 x
F = ma ↔ F0 sinωt − b − kx = m 2 (6.4)
dt dt
Remedial Physics
6.2. PROPERTIES OF WAVE (FREQUENCY, WAVE LENGTH, PERIOD) 69
After a sufficiently long period of time, when the energy input per cycle from the driving
force equals the amount of mechanical energy transformed to internal energy for each cycle, a
steady-state condition is reached in which the oscillations proceed with constant amplitude.
Asin(ωt + φ)
Where
F0 /m
A= q
bω 2
(ω 2 − ω02 )2 +

m
q
k
and where ω0 = m is the natural frequency of the undamped oscillator (b = 0).
For small damping, the amplitude is large when the frequency of the driving force is near
the natural frequency of oscillation, or when 0. The dramatic increase in amplitude near the
natural frequency is called resonance, and the natural frequency 0 is also called the resonance
frequency of the system.
ial
te r
6.2 ma
Properties of wave (frequency, wave length, pe-
e
n c
riod) er e
r e f
o rt
Sh
Terminologies in Wave
Crests/Troughs: are positions in a wave with maximum displacements above/below

the equilibrium position.
Amplitude (A): is the maximum displacement from the equilibrium position.
Displacement (y): is position of a wave from equilibrium position at any time.
Wave length (λ): distance between any two consecutive points which are in phase.
Period (T): is the time taken by a wave to move one wave length.
Frequency (f ): number of oscillations performed per unit time.
Speed (v): is constant in a medium provided the medium is homogeneous.
What is a travelling wave?
Electromagnetic and sound waves are particularly important to us, but waves on water are a
little easier to observe. A travelling wave transfers energy, and sometimes information, from
Remedial Physics
one place to another, in what is called the direction of propagation. An oscillation at the
source of energy causes an oscillation to travel through space. For electromagnetic waves this
oscillation is of electric and magnetic fields and does not need a medium. In a mechanical
wave that involves the oscillations of particles of a physical medium, as the particles pass
on energy, they undergo temporary displacements but no permanent change in the position.
For example, when ripples travel across a pond the water molecules oscillate vertically but
do not move in the direction of the wave.
Frequency and time period
The frequency, f, of an oscillation is the number of cycles it completes per second. The unit
is the hertz, symbol Hz. A frequency of 50 Hz would correspond to 50 complete oscillations
per second. Frequency is related to time period by:
1
f=
T
ial
te r
and so our mathematical expression for displacement can be written as
m a
c
x = Asin(2πf t)e
r e n
e fe
rt r Activities
h o
S
1. An object moving with simple harmonic motion has an amplitude of 3 cm and a
frequency of 30 Hz. Calculate:
2. the time period of the oscillation,
3. the acceleration in the centre and at the maximum displacement of an oscillation, and
4. the velocity in the centre and at the maximum displacement of an oscillation
5. Describe the key features of the different forms of damping the general effect of damping
on resonance.
6.3 Types of Waves
6.3.1 Transverse and longitudinal

Waves can also be categorized as transverse and longitudinal waves based on the way they
are propagating.
Remedial Physics
6.4. WAVE BEHAVIOR (REFLECTION, REFRACTION, INTERFERENCE, DIFFRACTION)71
1. Transverse Wave- is a wave where particles of the disturbed medium oscillate per-
pendicular to the direction of wave motion. Examples are: water waves, waves on
strings, and all EM waves. Sinusoidal graphs can represent this motion.
2. Longitudinal Wave- is a wave where particles of the disturbed medium oscillate

parallel to the direction of wave motion. Example: sound wave
6.3.2 Mechanical and Electromagnetic wave
Waves can be categorized as Mechanical and Electromagnetic waves based on the need of
material medium for its propagation.
1. Mechanical Waves- are waves produced by the oscillation of particles of a mechanical

medium and need a medium for propagation. Examples are water waves, sound wave,
waves in strings etc.
All mechanical waves require: ial

te r
m a
• some source of disturbance
c e
e n
e f er and
• a medium that can be disturbed
rt r which elements of the medium can influence each other.

o
• physical medium through
Sh
2. Electromagnetic (EM) waves:-are produced by accelerated charged particles and
can propagate through both material medium and vacuum. Examples are: Light, radio
and television waves, micro waves, x-rays, etc. All EM waves in vacuum propagate with
speed c = 3.0 × 108m/s.
Waves can either move in space (e.g water waves), the so called traveling waves, or be sta-
tionary in an enclosure, the so called standing waves.
6.4 Wave behavior (reflection, refraction, interfer-

ence, diffraction)
The characteristics of waves are important in determining the size of waves, the speed at
which they travel, how they break on shore, and much more. Following are some of the
characteristics of waves.
Remedial Physics
Reflection of Waves
Whenever a traveling wave reaches a boundary, part or all of the wave bounces back. This
phenomenon (rebounding of wave from a surface) is called reflection. For example, consider
a pulse traveling on a string that is fixed at one end. When the pulse reaches the wall, it is
reflected.
Refraction of wave
It is the change in direction of a wave passing from one medium to another caused by its
change in speed. For example, waves in deep water travel faster than in shallow. If an ocean
wave approaches a beach obliquely, the part of the wave farther from the beach will move
faster than that closer in, and so the wave will swing around until it moves in a direction
perpendicular to the shoreline. The speed of sound waves is greater in warm air than in cold.
At night, air is cooled at the surface of a lake, and any sound that travels upward is refracted
down by the higher layers of air that still remain warm. Thus, sounds, such as voices and
ial
e r
music, can be heard much farther across water at night than in the daytime.
t
m a
c e
Diffraction of wave
r e n
e f e
rt r
It is the spreading of waves around obstacles. Diffraction takes place with sound; with elec-
o
Sh
tromagnetic radiation, such as light, X-rays, and gamma rays; and with very small moving
particles such as atoms, neutrons, and electrons, which show wavelike properties. One conse-
quence of diffraction is that sharp shadows are not produced. The phenomenon is the result
of interference (i.e., when waves are superimposed, they may reinforce or cancel each other
out) and is most pronounced when the wavelength of the radiation is comparable to the linear
dimensions of the obstacle.
Interference of wave
It is the net effect of the combination of two or more wave trains moving on intersecting or
coincident paths. The effect is that of the addition of the amplitudes of the individual waves
at each point affected by more than one wave.
Interference also occurs between two wave trains moving in the same direction but having
different wavelengths or frequencies. The resultant effect is a complex wave. A pulsating
frequency, called a beat, results when the wavelengths are slightly different.
Remedial Physics
6.5. WAVE EQUATION 73
6.5 Wave equation

The frequency of a wave can be defined in two equivalent ways. It is the frequency of the
individual oscillators that pass the energy along, the number of times particles go up and
down or backwards and forwards per second. It is also the number of complete waves, the
number of wavelengths that pass any given point per second. If the wavelength is λ, and f
wavelength pass a point per second, then the speed of the wave must be given by the wave
equation:
v = λf (6.5)
The speed of any travelling wave depends on the media it is travelling. For a mechanical
wave travelling along a string the speed of the wave depends on the tension of the string and
the mass per unit length(sometimes called linear density).
s
T
v=
µ
ial
e r
where µ= mass per unit length given by µ = m/l in kg/m T = tension in the string in N.
t
m a
c e
n
The formula given above shows us that the ‘tighter’ the string the faster the waves will
e
travel down its length. Additionally the
e f er‘lighter’ the string, (the smaller its mass/length
r t r down its length. The phase speed of a wave is the
ratio), the faster the waves will travel
ho
rate at which the phase ofSthe wave travels through space. Any given phase of the wave
(for example, the crest or the trough) will appear to travel at the phase velocity. The phase
velocity is given in terms of the wavelength λ (lambda) and period T as
λ
vphase = (6.6)
T
Review questions
1. A simple pendulum is made from a bob of mass 0.040 kg suspended on a light string
of length 1.4 m. Keeping the string taut, the pendulum is pulled to one side until it
has gained a height of 0.10 m. Calculate
a) the total energy of the oscillation
b) the amplitude of the resulting oscillations
c) the period of the resulting oscillations
d) the maximum velocity of the bob

Remedial Physics
e) the maximum kinetic energy of the bob.
2. A piston in a car engine has a mass of 0.75 kg and moves with motion which is approxi-
mately simple harmonic. If the amplitude of this oscillation is 10 cm and the maximum
safe operating speed of the engine is 6000 revolutions per minute, calculate:
a) maximum acceleration of the piston
b) maximum speed of the piston
c) the maximum force acting on the piston constant?
3. A car of mass 820 kg has an under damped suspension system. When it is driven by a
driver of mass 80 kg over a long series of speed bumps 10 m apart at a speed of 3 m/s
the car bounces up and down with surprisingly large amplitude.
a) Explain why this effect occurs.
b) Calculate the net spring constant of the car suspension system.
ial
te r
4. If you are given a metal rod and a hammer, how must you hit the rod to produce:
m a
a) a transverse wave, and c e
r e n
b) a longitudinal wave?
e f e
rt r
ho
5. A whistle producing a sound at 1 KHz is whirled in a horizontal circle at a speed of 18
S
m/s. What are the highest and lowest frequencies heard by a listener standing a few
metres away, if the speed of sound in air is 340 m/s? 6. If the speed of sound in air is
340 m/s, what is the wavelength of a sound wave at 512 Hz?
6. A travelling wave on a string, of amplitude 2 mm, frequency 500 Hz and speed 300
m/s, can be described by the function
7. Y = Asin(2π − 2πf t
a) Sketch graphs of displacement Y against distance x for this wave, for the first 1.2
m:
i) for time t= 0, and
ii) for time t= 0.5 ms
b) Sketch graphs of displacement Y against time t for the oscillation produced by

this wave for the first 4 ms
Remedial Physics
6.5. WAVE EQUATION 75
i) at the source where x= 0, and
ii) at a distance x= 30 cm from the source.
ial
te r
m a
c e
r e n
e f e
rt r
o
Sh
Remedial Physics
ial
te r
m a
c e
r e n
e f e
rt r
o
Sh
Remedial Physics
Chapter 7
Heat and thermodynamics
Objective: - By the end of this unit students should be able to:
• Define the zeroth law of thermodynamics.
ial
• Determine the relationship between temperature and energy transfer and thermal equi-
te r
librium.
m a
c e
e n
• Give the definitions of isothermal, isobaric, isochoric and adiabatic processes.
r
e fe
r
ort
• State the first law of thermodynamics.
h
S
• Describe ways of changing the internal energy of a gas.
• Solve problems involving calculations of pressure, temperature or volume for a gas

undergoing adiabatic changes.
• State the assumptions made to define an ideal gas.
• Describe the kinetic theory of gases, including the importance of Brownian motion and
diffusion.
7.1 Temperature and Heat

Thermodynamics is a science of the relationship between heat, work, temperature, and energy.
Temperature is more difficult to define and we will encounter a number of different ways to
approach of temperature.
77
Remedial Physics
78 CHAPTER 7. HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS
Temperature is something that we all have experience of. If we place two bodies of different
temperatures in contact, then the particles at the boundary will collide and the kinetic energy
of particles is transferred backwards and forwards between the objects. A ‘body’ is another
word for an object. On average, the particles in the hotter body have more kinetic energy
than those in the colder body, so there is a net transfer of thermal energy from the hotter
body to the colder body.
This process is referred to as heating. This is the only way that the word heat can be used.
A body does not contain or possess heat. This is just the same as an electrical component,
which does not contain or possess electrical current. Instead we will use the term internal
energy to describe the total energy that is internal to bodies.
Temperature is a measure of the average random kinetic energy of particles in a body, and
is used to determine in which direction there will be a net energy flow when two bodies are
close to one another.
ial
te r
m a
Temperature Scales
c e
e n
Thermometers measure temperature according
e f er to well-defined scales of measurement. The
three most common temperature scalesrt r are Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin. Temperature
o
Shtwo reproducible temperatures. The freezing and boiling
scales are created by identifying
temperatures of water at standard atmospheric pressure are commonly used. On the Celsius
Absolute Temperature Celsius Temperature

Absolute zero 0.00 -273.15
Triple point of water 273.16 0.01
Ice point 273.15 0.00
Stean point 373.15 100.00
Room Temperature 293 20
scale, the freezing point of water is 00 C and the boiling point is 1000 C. The unit of temper-
ature on this scale is the degree Celsius (0 C). The Fahrenheit scale has the freezing point of
water at 320 F and the boiling point at 2120 F . Its unit is the degree Fahrenheit (0 F ).
Example
”Room temperature” is generally defined in physics to be 250 C. (a) What is room tempera-
ture in 0 F ? (b) What is it in K?
Remedial Physics
7.1. TEMPERATURE AND HEAT 79
To convert from Use this Equetion

Celsius to Fahrenheit TF = 95 Tc + 32
Fahrenheit to Celsius Tc = 59 (TF − 32)
Celsius to kelvin Tk = Tc + 273.15
kelvin to Celsius Tc = Tk − 273.15
Kelvin to Fahrenheit TF = 95 (Tk − 273.15) + 32
Solution
To convert from 0 C to 0 F , use the equation
TF = 9/5TC + 32
Substitute the known value into the equation and solve:
TF = 9/5(250 C) + 32 = 770 F
. Similarly, we find that ial

te r
m a
TK = TC + 273.15 =e298K = 298K
n c
er e
. r e f
o rt
Sh
Activity
1 Convert the following to degrees Celsius:
a) the boiling point of helium, 4.25 K
b) the freezing point of gold, 1340 K.
2 Convert the following to kelvin:
a) the freezing point of mercury, -39 0 C
b) the average temperature of the universe, -270.42 0 C.

Remedial Physics
7.2 The effect of heat on materials (change of Tem-

perature, expansion, change of phase, heat ca-
pacity
Thermal Expansion
The expansion of alcohol in a thermometer is one of many commonly encountered examples of

thermal expansion, which is the change in size or volume of a given system as its temperature
changes. The most visible example is the expansion of hot air. When air is heated, it expands
and becomes less dense than the surrounding air, which then exerts an (upward) force on the
hot air and makes steam and smoke rise, hot air balloons float, and so forth.
Linear Thermal Expansion
al
The increase in length ∆L of a solid is proportional to its initial length L0 and the change in
r i
tecoefficient of linear expansion,
its temperature ∆T .The proportionality constant is called the
a
α.
e m
n c
∆L = αL
e r e 0 ∆T (7.1)
f
re∆L
L=r Lt0 + = L0 (1 + α∆T ) (7.2)
o
Sh α=
∆L
L0 ∆T
And has unit of k −1 or 0 c−1
Table 7.1: Some typical coefficients of thermal expansion.

Substance Coefficient of Linear
expansion, α(K −1 )
Lead 29 × 10−6
Aluminium 24 × 10−6
Brass 19 × 10−6
Copper 17 × 10−6
Iron (steel) 12 × 10−6
Concret 12 × 10−6
Window glass 11 × 10−6
Pyrex glass 3.3 × 10−6
Quartiz 0.50 × 10−6
Remedial Physics
7.2. THE EFFECT OF HEAT ON MATERIALS (CHANGE OF TEMPERATURE, EXPANSION, C
Areal Expansion
The change in area ∆A of a solid is proportional to its initial area A0 and thechange in its
temperature ∆T That is,
∆A = βA0 ∆T (7.3)
A = A0 + ∆A = A0 (1 + β∆T ) (7.4)
Where β = 2α is coefficient of arial expansion
Volume Expansion
The change in volume ∆V of a solid is proportional to its initial volume V0 and the change
in its temperature ∆T . That is:
∆V = βV0 ∆T (7.5)
V = V0 + ∆V = V0 (1 + β∆T ) (7.6)
Where γ = 3α is coefficient of volume expansion ial

te r
m a
Table 7.2: Some typical coefficients of thermal expansion.
c e
Substance
r e n
Coefficient of Volume
expansion, γ(K −1 )
e f e
Ether
rt r 1.51 × 10−3
o
Carbon Tetrachloride 1.18 × 10−3
Alcohol Sh 1.01 × 10−3
Gasolin 17 × 10−3
Olive Oil 0.95 × 10−3
Water 0.21 × 10−3
Mercury 0.18 × 10−3
Example
1. A steel rod has a length of exactly 20 cm at 300 C. How much longer is it at 500 C?
[Use αSteel = 11 × 10−6 /C.]
Solution The change in temperature of the steel rod is
∆T = 500 C − 200 C = 300 C
and the length is 20.0 cm. Using the given value for the linear expansion coefficient α,
Remedial Physics
we find the change in length from Equation of expansion,
∆L = L0 α∆T = (20.0cm)(11 × 10−6 /0 C)(20.00 ) = 4.4 × 10−3 cm
The length of the bar increases by 4.4 × 10−3 cm.
2. By how much does the volume of an aluminum cube 5.00 cm on an edge increase when
the cube is heated from 10.00 Cto60.00 C? [Use αAl = 23 × 10−6 /C]
Solution
From the given value of α (the linear expansion coefficient) and Equation of areal
expansion, we can get β, the volume expansion coefficient:
β = 3α = 3(23 × 10−6 /C) = 69 × 10−6 /C
Now, the volume of the cube is V = (5.00cm)3 = 125cm3 ; this is really the initial
r ial
volume, and as usual we don’t expect it to change much. The change in temperature
te in volume:
of the cube is ∆T = 50.00 C. the corresponding increase
a
e m
∆V = V βδT = (125cm3 )(69 × 10−6e n c 0C) = 4.3 × 10−1cm3 = 0.43cm3
er
/C)(50.0
r e f
rt
o by 0.43cm3
The volume of the cube increases
S h
7.2.1 Specific Heat and Latent Heat
Specific Heats:
Heat flowing into or out of a body (or system) changes the temperature of the body (or
system) except during phase changes the temperature remains constant. The quantity of
heat, Q, required to change the temperature of a body of mass m by is proportional to both
the mass and the change in temperature. Mathematically,
Q ∼ m∆T ⇒ Q = mc∆T
c is a proportionality constant called specific heat capacity(or in short specific heat) of the
substance defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of
any substance through a unit degree. Its SI unit is J/kg.KorJ/kg.0C . The amount of heat
Remedial Physics
7.2. THE EFFECT OF HEAT ON MATERIALS (CHANGE OF TEMPERATURE, EXPANSION, C
required to change the temperature of n moles of a substance, usually for gases, by ∆T is :
Q = nC∆T
where C is heat capacity.

The heat capacity(C) is defined as the amount of heat energy required to raise the tem-
perature of a substance by 10 C.
Example
A 0.500 kg aluminum pan on a stove is used to heat 0.250 liters of water from 20.00 C to
80.00 C.
(a) How much heat is required? What percentage of the heat is used to raise the temperature
of
(b) the pan and (c) the water?
Solution
Because water is in thermal contact with the aluminum, the pan and the water are at the
ial
same temperature. Calculate the temperature difference:
te r
m a
∆T = Tf − c Tie= 60.00 C
re n
f e
e the density of water is 1000 kg/m3, one liter of water
r
. Calculate the mass of water. Because
t
has a mass of 1 kg, and the h or of 0.250 liters of water is mw = 0.250kg. Calculate the
mass
S
heat transferred to the water. Use the specific heat of water 4186J/kg 0 C:
Qw = mwcw ∆T = (0.250kg)(4186J/kg 0 C)(60.00 C) = 62.8kJ
. Calculate the heat transferred to the aluminum. Use the specific heat for aluminum in
Table 1:
QAl = mAl cAl ∆T = (0.500kg)(900J/kg 0 C)(60.00 C) = 27.0 × 104 J = 27.0kJ.
Compare the percentage of heat going into the pan versus that going into the water. First,
find the total transferred heat:
QT otal = Qw + QAl = 62.8kJ + 27.0kJ = 89.8kJ

Remedial Physics
. Thus, the amount of heat going into heating the pan is
27.0 kJ/89.8 kJ × 100% = 30.1%27.0 kJ89.8 kJ × 100% = 30.1%
and the amount going into heating the water is
62.8 kJ/89.8 kJ × 100% = 69.9%62.8 kJ89.8 kJ × 100% = 69.9%.
Latent Heats
Latent Heat the heat required per unit mass of a substance to produce a phase change at
constant temperature. The latent heat, QL required to change the phase of m mass of a body
at constant temperature is calculated as,
QL = ±mL
ial
Where L is the specific latent heat required to change the phase of 1 kg of a substance at
te r
constant temperature.
m a
Types of Latent Heat Transfer
c e
r e n
There are two types of latent heat transfers between an object and its environment.
e f e
rt r
Latent Heat of Fusion (Lf ): is the heat absorbed or released when matter melts, changing
o
Sh
phase from solid to liquid form at constant temperature. For example, 333.7 kJ of heat is
required to change 1 kg of ice to water at 00 C, so for water Lf = 333.7kJ/kg.
Latent Heat of Vaporization (LV ): is the heat absorbed or released when matter vapor-
izes, changing phase from liquid to gas phase at constant temperature. To change 1 kg of
water to steam at 1000C, 2256 kJ of heat is required and so LV = 2256kJ/kg.
Example
1. If the amount of heat needed for a phase change is 300 kcal, calculate the latent heat
of a 5 kg material.
Solution:
Given parameters are, Q = 300 k.cal M = 5 kg The formula for latent heat is given by,
L = Q/M L = 300/5L = 60k.cal/kg
Hence latent heat value is 60 k.cal/kg
2. At 20C , a piece of metal has a density of 60g. When immersed in a steam current at
Remedial Physics
7.3. LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS (ZEROS, FIRST AND SECOND LAWS) 85
1000 C, 0.5g of the steam condenses on it. Provided that the latent heat of steam is
540 cal/g, calculate the specific heat of the metal.
Solution:
Let c be the specific heat of the metal.
Heat gained by the metal
Q = mc∆t ⇒ Q = 60 × c × (100 − 20) ⇒ Q = 60 × c × 80cal
The heat released by the steam
Q = m × LQ = 0.5 × 540cal
By the principle of mixtures, Heat given is equal to Heat taken
0.5 × 540 = 60 × c × 80c = 0.056cal/g 0 C
ial
Hence specific heat value is
te r
m a
0.056cal/g 0 C
c e
r e n
Hence, we can conclude that the specific latent heat (L) of a material:
e f e
rt r
o
Sh
7.3 Laws of thermodynamics (zeros, first and sec-

ond Laws)
7.3.1 Zeros Laws of thermodynamics
The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that: “Two bodies that are separately in
thermal equilibrium with a third body must be in thermal equilibrium with each other.”
When two bodies are in thermal equilibrium then there is no net transfer of energy between
them.F rom our everyday experience, the zeroth law may seem obvious, but it provides us
with a way of defining temperature: it is the property of a body that determines whether it
is in thermal equilibrium with other bodies. This also enables accurate calibration between
thermometers of different kinds.
Remedial Physics
Figure 7.1: If A is in thermal equilibrium with B, and C is in thermal equilibrium with B,

then A is also in thermal equilibrium with C.
7.3.2 First Laws of thermodynamics
The work of Joule mentioned at the start of this section led to the idea that energy as
ial
e r
a quantity is conserved whenever any process takes place. This notion is expressed most
t
m a
often as the ‘law of conservation of energy’, which is a simplification of the first law of
c e
e n
thermodynamics. The first law states that: “The increase in internal energy of a system is
r
e f e
equal to the sum of the energy entering the system through heating, and the work done on
rt r
ho
the system.” When defining the three quantities, particular attention must be paid to the
S
sign of each quantity. These have the following definitions:
∆U = increase in internal energy of the system
∆Q = the amount of energy transferred to the system by heating it (that is, by means of a
temperature gradient)
∆W = the amount of work done on the system
The first law of thermodynamics is therefore written as:
∆U = ∆Q + ∆W (7.7)
Isochoric process
In a constant volume process, the volume of the system stays constant. Consequently, W = 0.
From the first law we see that, All the heat entering the system goes into increasing the
internal energy.
Remedial Physics
7.3. LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS (ZEROS, FIRST AND SECOND LAWS) 87
Adiabatic Process
In an adiabatic process, the system does not exchange heat with its surroundings; that is, Q
= 0. The first law for an adiabatic process takes the form
∆U = W
Isothermal Process
It is a process which involves no change in the temperature of the system. If the process
occurs at constant temperature then there is no change in the internal energy of the system
so . The first law for an isothermal process takes the form
∆U = Q + W
0=Q+W
ial
Q = −W
te r
m a
c e
Isobaric process
r e n
e f e
r
In an isobaric process the expansion or compression occurs at constant pressure. Any work
rt
o
Sh
done by the system will result in an increase in volume. The work done in Pressure- Volume
graph is equal to the area under the PV graph. For an isobaric process the work done W is
calculated as
W = P ∆V = P (Vf − Vi )
The first law for an isobaric process can be written as
∆U = Q + W ..or..Q − P ∆V = Q − P (Vf − Vi )
Entropy and the second law of thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics states that: ”No process is possible in which there is an
overall decrease in the entropy of the universe.”
Review of unit questions
Remedial Physics
Table 7.3: Summary of some thermodynamic processes

Process Meaning
Adiabatic No heat transfer (heating or cooling result
from pressure change - Work is either done
on or by the gas
Isobaric Constant volume (also called isometric)
Isothermal Constant Temperature
Isobaric Constant Pressure
1. Explain what is meant by internal energy. Hence suggest how the internal energy of a
real gas differs from that of an ideal gas.
2. A heat engine operating between 100C and 7000 C has efficiency equal to 40% of the
maximum theoretical efficiency. How much energy does this engine extract from the
hot reservoir in order to do 5000 J of mechanical work?
ial
te r
m a
c e
r e n
e f e
rt r
o
Sh
Remedial Physics
Chapter 8
Electrostatics
Learning objectives
At the end of the unit, students will be able to
• State Coulomb’s law and solve problems based on it

ial
te r
a
• Define an electric field and calculate it due to point charges,
m
c e
r e n
• Distinguish between the direction of the Electric Field of positive and negative charges
e f e
rt r
• Draw Electric Field Lines o
Sh
• Discuss the Electrostatics field of the conductor
• Define electric potential and electric potential energy
• Derive an expression for the potential at appoint p at a distance r from the charge
• Find the potential difference between the two points
• calculate capacitance
8.1 Coulomb’s law

Coulombs law gives a relation between two charges Q1 and Q2 which are at a separation r
apart. Experiments show that the forces between two bodies obey an inverse square law and
that the Force is proportional to the product of the charges. Simply, Coulomb’s law states
89
Remedial Physics
90 CHAPTER 8. ELECTROSTATICS
The Force between two charges at a distance, r apart, is directly proportional to the product
of the two charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them
Mathematically this is written as
Q1 Q2 1 Q1 Q2
F =K =
r2 4π0 r2
1
Where K= 4π0 = 9.0 × 109 N m2 /C 2 = a constant and is the permittivity of free space. 0
is a constant called the permittivity of free space (or vacuum permittivity). It has a value
of 8.85 × 10−12 F/m. This constant is fundamental to the study of electric fields. It links
electrical concepts such as electric charge to mechanical quantities such as length.
Along with the permittivity of free space, there is a similar constant relating to magnetic
fields. This is called the permeability of free space (µ0 ).
The Force between similar charges is repulsive, and the Force between unlike charges is
ial
attractive. In the case of gravitational Force, we can have only attractive Force due to masses.
te r
When two charges exert forces simultaneously
m a
c e
r e n
on a third charge, the total Force acting on that charge is the vector sum of the forces that
e f e
r
the two charges would exert individually. This important property, called the principle of
rt
o
Sh
superposing, holds for any number of charges.
F = F1 + F2 + F3 + − − − − − − − − Fn
Example
A test charge of q = +1 × 10−6 c is placed halfway between a charge of q1 = +5 × 10−6 c and
a charge of q2 = +3 × 10−6 c that are 20cm apart in the figure below. Find the magnitude
and direction of the Force on the test charge Solution
Remedial Physics
8.2. ELECTRIC FIELD (E) 91
The Force exerted on the test charge
qq1 (−1 × 10−6 c)(+5 × 10−6 c)

F1 = K 2 = (9 × 109 N m2 /c2 ) = +4.5N
r1 (0.1)2
This Force is to the right and taken as positive. The Force exerted by the charge q2 on q is
−6 −6
qq2 9 2 2 (1 × 10 c)(+3 × 10 c)
F2 = K = (9 × 10 N m /c ) = +2.7N
r22 (0.1)2
This Force is to the left. If the right is taken as positive, F2 is taken as negative
F~net = F~1 + F~2 = 4.5N − 2.7N = 1.8N
and it acts to the right, that is, towards the +3 × 10−6 c charge
Exercise
1. Two charges, one of +5 × 10−7 c and the other −2 × 10−7 c attract each other with a
force of 100N. How far apart are they?
ial
te r
m a
2. 3c and 5c charges are separated by 2m. Where between these charges is a third charge
c e
r e n
placed, in order for the net Force on it to be zero?
e f e
r
3. Three identical charges of 2µc are placed at (-3, 0) m, (3, 0) m, and (0, 4) m in
rt
o
Sh
a rectangular coordinate system. What is the resultant Force on the charge that is
placed at (0, 4) m
8.2 Electric Field (E)

The concept of an electric field is used to visualize how a charge, or a collection of charges,
influences the region around it. The electric field E is analogous to g, which we call the
acceleration due to gravity, but which is the gravitational field. Everything we learned about
gravity, and how masses respond to gravitational forces can help us understand how electric
charges respond to electric forces.
The electric field concept arose to explain action-at-a-distance forces. All charged objects
create an electric field that extends outward into the surrounding space. The charge alters
that space, causing any other charged thing that enters the space to be affected by this field.
The strength of the electric field is dependent upon how charged the object creating the field
and upon the distance of separation from the charged objects
Remedial Physics
8.2.1 Electric Field Intensity

Electric field strength is a vector quantity; it has both magnitude and direction. The magni-
tude of the electric field strength is defined in terms of how it is measured. Let’s suppose that
an electric charge can be denoted by the symbol Q. This electric charge creates an electric
field; since Q is the source of the electric field, we will refer to it as the source charge. The
strength of the source charge’s electric field could be measured by any other charge placed
somewhere in its surroundings. The charge used to measure the electric field strength is
referred to as a test charge since it is used to test the field strength. The test charge has a
quantity of charge denoted by the symbol q. When placed within the electric field, the test
charge will experience an electric force that is either attractive or repulsive. As is usually the
case, this Force will be denoted by the symbol F. The electric field’s magnitude is defined as
the Force per charge on the test charge.
F orce
Electric..F ield =
Charge
ial
te r
If the symbol E denotes the electric field strength, then the equation can be rewritten in
symbolic form as m a
~ c e
~ = F r̂
E
q r e n
e f e
Where r̂ is a unit vector
rt r
o
Sh
~ at a point in space is defined as the electric force F~
The Electric field E
acting on a positive test charge q placed at the point divided by the test charge
The standard metric units of electric field strength arise from its definition. Since the
electric field is defined as a force per charge, its units would be force units divided by charge
units. In this case, the standard metric unit is Newton/Coulomb (N/C)
The electric field strength is not dependent upon the quantity of the test charge. Now we
will investigate a new equation that defines electric field strength in terms of the variables
which affect the electric field strength. To do so, we will have to revisit the Coulomb’s Law
equation When applied to our two charges - the source charge (Q) and the test charge (q).
qQ
F~ = K 2 r̂
r
The formula for electric Force can be written as A new equation can be derived if the expres-
sion for electric Force given by Coulomb’s law is substituted for Force in the above E = F/q
Remedial Physics
8.2. ELECTRIC FIELD (E) 93
equation.
~ = K Q r̂ = 1 Q r̂ = Q r̂
E
r2 4π0 r2 4π0 r2
The electric field strength depends upon the quantity of charge on the source charge Q and
the distance of separation r from the source charge.
The strength of an electric field created by source charge Q is inversely related to the square
of the distance from the source. This is known as an inverse square law.
Electric field strength is location dependent, and its magnitude decreases as the distance
from a location to the source increases. By whatever factor the distance changes, the electric
field strength will change inversely by the square of that factor
If a number of point charges Q1 , Q2 , Q3 , . . . .Qn are at a distance r1 , r2 , r3 , . . . rn from a

given point P. each exerts a force on a test charge q placed, and the resultant Force on the
test charge is the vector of some of these forces.
ia l
e
t ~r
n
a
X
~ = E1 + E2 + E3 + ...En =
E Ei
e m i=1
nc
r e
Because each term to be summed is a vector, the sum is a vector sum. The fact that the
e
r e f
rt
fields that would be caused by the individuals charge is a direct result of the principle of
o
super position.
Sh
Activity 8 .1
Explain what happens to the magnitude of the electric field created by a point charge
as r approaches zero
Activity 8 .2
Consider two equal positive or negative point charges separated by the distance d. At
what point (other than) would a third test charge experience no net force?
Example
1 What are the magnitude and direction of the electric field 1.5cm from a fixed point
charge of +1.2 × 10−10 C? Solution The magnitude of the electric field is computed
from
~ = Q Q +1.2 × 10−10 C
E 2
r̂ = K 2 r̂ = 9 × 109 N m2 /c2 ×
4π0 r r (0.015m)2
~ = 4.8 × 103 N/c
E
Remedial Physics
• Notice that r was expressed in the SI unit of meters
• The direction of the field is outward from the point charge because the charge is positive
1 Point charge Q1 and Q2 of 12 × 10−9 C and −12 × 10−9 C respectively, are placed 0.1m
apart as shown Compute the electric fields due to the charge at point a, b, and c
ial
e r
Solution: At point a, the vector due to the positive charge Q, is directed toward the
t
right, And the magnitude is m a
c e
e n
~ 1 = Q r̂ = 9 × 109 N m2 /cf2e×r 12 × 10 C = 3 × 104 N/c..to..the..right
−9
E
4π0 r2
t r e (0.06m)2
h or
S charge Q2 is toward the right, And the magnitude is
The vector due to the negative
−9
~2 = Q 9 2 2 12 × 10 C
E r̂ = 9×10 N m /c × = 6.75×104 N/c..to..the..right..to..the..right
4π0 r2 (0.04m)2
Hence at point a
~ = (3 + 6.75) × 104 N/c = 9.75 × 104 N/c
E
At point b
The vector due to q1 , is directed toward the left, with magnitude
~1 = Q 9 2 2 12 × 10−9 C
E r̂ = 9 × 10 N m /c × = 6.75 × 104 N/c..to..the..right
4π0 r2 (0.04m)2
The vector due to the negative charge Q2 is toward the right, And the magnitude is
−9
~2 = Q 9 2 2 12 × 10 C
E r̂ = 9×10 N m /c × = 0.55×104 N/c..to..the..right..to..the..lef t
4π0 r2 (0.14m)2
Remedial Physics
8.3. ELECTRIC FIELD LINES 95
Hence at point b
~ = (6.75 − 0.55) × 104 N/c = 9.75 × 104 N/c..to..the..lef t

E
At point C, the magnitude of each vector is
~ = Q 9 2 2 12 × 10−9 C
E r̂ = 9 × 10 N m /c × = 1.08 × 104 N/c
4π0 r2 (0.10m)2

~x = Q1 0 Q2 0
E K 2 cos(60 ) − K 2 cos(60 )
r r
2KQ
= cos(600
r2
2 × 9 × 109 × 12 × 10−9
= × 0.5N/c = 1.08 × 104 N/c..to..the..right
(0.1)2
E~y = (E1 )y + (E2 )y = 0
ial
~ = Ea + Eb + Ec = 9.75 × 104 N/c − 6.20 × 104 N/c + 1.08N/c = 4.63 × 104 N/c..to..the..right
E
te r
m a
8.3 Electric Field Linesenc
e
e f er
t r
A more useful means of visually representing
r the vector nature of an electric field is through
o
the use of electric field lines ofhForce. These patterns of lines, sometimes referred to as electric
S
field lines, point in the direction which a positive test charge would accelerate if placed upon
the line. As such, the lines are directed away from positively charged source charges, and
toward negatively charged source charges.
The electric field can be represented graphically by field lines. These lines are drawn in
such a way that, at a given point, the tangent of the line has the direction of the electric
field at that point. The density of lines is proportional to the magnitude of the electric field.
Each field line starts on a positive point charge and ends on a negative point charge. Since
the density of field lines is proportional to the strength of the electric field, the number of
lines emerging from a positive charge must also be proportional to the charge.
Electric field lines provide a means to visualize the electric field. Since the electric field
is a vector, electric field lines have arrows showing the direction of the electric field. Lines
of Force are also called field lines. The direction of the field line at a point tells you what
direction the Force experienced by a charge will be if the charge is placed at that point. If the
Remedial Physics
charge is positive, it will experience a force in the same direction as the field; if it is negative
the Force will be opposite to the field. The density of lines surrounding any given source
(a) (b)
Figure 8.1: Electric field from an isolated, (a) Posative Charge (b) Negative Charge
charge is proportional to the quantity of a charge on that source charge. If the quantity of
charge on a source charge is not identical, the pattern will take on an asymmetric nature
as one of the source charges will have a greater ability to alter the electrical nature of the
ial
surrounding space.
te r
m a
ce
There are a number of principles which will assist in such predictions .These principles are
r e n
e f e
• Electric field lines always extend from a positively charged object to a negatively
rt r
o
charged object, from a positively charged object to infinity, or from infinity to a nega-
tively charged object
Sh
• Electric field lines never cross each other
• Electric field lines are most dense around objects with the greatest amount of charge.
• At locations where electric field lines meet the surface of an object, the lines are per-
pendicular to the surface.
Activity 8.3
A charge 4q is at a distance r from a charge -q. Compare the number of electric

field Lines leaving the charge 4q with the number entering the charge -q
where do the extra lines beginning on 4q end.
Activity 8.4
A test charge is released in the field due to two point charges. Do the
field lines indicate the possible path traveled by the test charge?
Remedial Physics
8.4. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL OF A POINT CHARGE 97
Conductors in Electrostatic Fields
In general a conductor can be defined as a region in space where charges are free to move
(e.g. a metal). In a static situation the charges don’t move. This implies that there is no
field within then conductor. Thus, inside a conductor:
E(r) = 0
A conductor is in electrostatic equilibrium when the charge distribution (the way the charge
is distributed over the conductor) is fixed. Basically, when you charge a conductor the charge
spreads itself out. At equilibrium, the charge and electric field follow these guidelines:
• the excess charge lies only at the surface of the conductor
• the electric field is zero within the solid part of the conductor
• the electric field at the surface of the conductor is perpendicular to the surface
r ial
te parts of the conductor
• charge accumulates, and the field is strongest, on pointy
a
e m
n c
e
r a point charge
eof
8.4 Electric potential
r e f
o rt
Sh charge is
The electric potential of a point
V = kQ/r
. where k is a constant equal to 9.0 × 109 N m2 /C 2 . Electric field is a vector while electric
potential is a scalar. The voltage resulting from a combination of point charges is obtained by
adding voltages as integers, whereas the overall electric field is obtained by adding individual
fields as vectors.
Point charges, such as electrons, are among the fundamental building blocks of matter.
Furthermore, spherical charge distributions (like on a metal sphere) create external electric
fields exactly like a point charge. The electric potential due to a point charge is, thus, a case
we need to consider. Using calculus to find the work needed to move a test charge q from
a large distance away to a distance of r from a point charge Q , and noting the connection
between work and potential
W = −q∆V
Remedial Physics
, we can define the electric potential V of a point charge:
Electric potential
Consider a charge q placed in an electric field E. Let us chose some arbitrary reference point
A in the field at this point the electric potential energy of the Charge is defined be zero.
This defines the electric potential energy of the charge at every other point in the field.
For instance, the electric potential energy UB at some point B is simply the work W done in
moving the charge from A to B along any path: It is clear that depends on both the particular
charge q which we place in the field and the magnitude and direction of the electric field along
some arbitrary route between points A and B. We can exploit this fact to define a quantity
known as the electric potential. The difference in electric potential between two points B and
A in an electric field is simply the work done in moving some charge between the two points
divided by the magnitude of the charge. Thus,
∆W ∆U
VB − VA =
q
=
q
ial
te r
m a
The general expression for the electrical potential of a point charge Q can be obtained by
c e
r e n
referencing to a zero of potential at infinity. The expression for the potential difference then.
e f e
rt r
o
Sh
rB goese to infinity is gives simply
KQ Q
V = =
r 4π0 r
The zero of electric potential (voltage) is set for convenience, but there is usually some
physical or geometric logic to the choice of the zero point. For a single point charge or
localized collection of charges, it is logical to set the zero point at infinity. If there are n
number of charges in space , the potential at apoint is found by superposition principles that
is the electric potential due to a number of charges is the algebraic sum of the individuals
Remedial Physics
8.4. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL OF A POINT CHARGE 99
potentials. The total electric potential point p is the sum of the potential due to charges
Q1 , Q2 , Q3 , ..., Qn
n
KQ1 KQ2 KQn X Qi
V = + + ... + =
r1 r2 rn ri
i=1
Note; potential a scalar quantity

Activity 8.5
In a certain region of space the electric field is zero From this we can conclude that the
electric potential in this region is A) zero B) constant C) positive D) negative
The dimensions of electric potential are work (or energy) per unit charge. The units of electric
potential are, therefore, joules per Coulomb (J/c). A joule per Coulomb is usually referred
to as a volt (V)
1J/c = 1V
ia l
te r
Consider a charge q which is slowly moved a small distance +x along the x-axis. Suppose that
a
the difference between the electric potential at the final and initial positions of the charge is
m
c e
+V. By definition, the change +U in the charge’s electric potential energy is given by
r e n
eef
rt r +U =q+V =W
o
Sh
q∆V = qE∆r
∆V = E∆r
∆V
E=
∆r
Where E is the electric field strength According to equation electric field strength has the
dimension of potential difference over the length. It follows that the unit of electric field is
volt per mete (Vm).
8.4.1 Motion of charged particles in an electric field

When a particle of charge of and mass m is placed in an electric field E, the electric Force
exerted on the charge is qE. If this is the only Force exerted on the particle it must be the
net Force and cause the particle to accelerated according to Newton’s second law
Fe = qE = am
Remedial Physics
qE
a=
m
If E is uniform the acceleration is constant. If the particle has a positive charge, its ac-
celeration is in the directing of the electric field. If the particle has a negative charge, its
acceleration is in the direction of opposite the electric field.
Example
1. As shown in the figure below, a positive point charge q of mass m is released from rest
in a uniform electric field E directed along the x-axis. Describe its motion
ial
te r
m a
c e
r e n
e f e
rt r
o
Solution Sh
The acceleration a is constant and is given by q E/m. The motion is simple linear motion
along the x axis. Therefore we can apply the equation of kinematics in one dimension
1
xf = xi + vi t + at2
2
vf = vi + at
vf2 = vi2 + 2a(xf − xi )
Choosing the initial position of the charge as xi = 0 and assigning Vi = 0 because the particle
starts from rest, the position of the particle as a function of time is
1 qE 2
xf = at2 = t
2 m
The speed of the particle is given by

qE
vf = t
m
Remedial Physics
8.5. CAPACITANCE AND CAPACITOR NETWORKS 101
The third kinematics equation gives us

2qE
vf2 = 2axf = xf
m
from which we can find the kinetic energy of the charge after it has moved a distance

1 1 2qE
KE = mvf2 = m (xf − xi ) = qE∆x
2 2 m
2 An electron entrees the region of a uniform electric field as shown with Vi = 3 × 106
m/s and E = 200N/C. The horizontal length of the plare, L = 0.100 m
i) Find the acceleration of the electron while it is in the electric field
ii) If the electron enters the field at t = 0 find the time at which it leaves the field
iii) If the vertical position of filed the electron as enters field is yi = 0. What the
vertical position when it leaves the fields
ia l
Solution
te r
a
i) The charge on the electron has 1.6 × 10−19 C and mc = 9.11 × 10−31 kg
m
e
c1.6 × 10−19c
a=−
qE
j=− r e n
me
r e fe 9.11 × 10 −31 kg
orta = −3.51 × 1013m/s2

Sh
ii) The horizontal distance across the field is L = 0.1m. We find that the time at which the
electron exists the electric field is
L = 0.1m
L 0.1m
t= = = 3.33 × 10−8 s
vi 3 × 106 m/s
iii) Using the results from part A and B we find that
1 1
yf = ay t2 = − 3.51 × 1013 m/s2 (3.33 × 10−8 s)2 = −0.0195m = −1.95cm

2 2
8.5 Capacitance and Capacitor networks

A capacitor is a devise that is used to store electric charge. It is usually made up of two plates
separated by a thin insulating material known as the dielectric. The capacitance of a system
depends only on its shape and on the insulators it contains. One plate of the capacitor
is positively charged, while the other has a negative charge. The charge in a capacitor is
Remedial Physics
proportional to the potential difference between the plates. For a capacitor with charge Q
on the positive plate and -Q on the negative plate, the capacitance measures the amount of
charge a capacitor can store. A convenient measure of the ability of a device to store electric
charge is its capacitance C.
A battery will transport charge from one plate to another until the voltage produced by
the charge buildup is equal to the battery voltage. The capacitance of an object is defined
as being equal to the charge required to raise the potential of that object by one V
Q
C=
V
Or
Q = CV
Where C is the capacitance in Farad Q is the charge in Coulomb stored in each plate V is
the potential in Volts applied to the plate
ial
te r
m a
e
The capacitor’s capacitance (C) is a measure of the amount of charge (Q) stored
c
r e n
on each plate for a given potential difference or voltage (V) which appears between
e f e
the plates.
rt r
o
Sh
The SI unit of capacitance is the farad F The circuit symbol for a capacitor is 1farad=1Coulomb/1Volt
Figure 8.2: The circuit symbol for a capacitor
Activity
A 25µF capacitor is charged to a potential of 18V. How much charge stored

on capacitor?
Remedial Physics
8.6. THE PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR 103
8.6 The Parallel Plate Capacitor
Consider two large flat plates placed near one another. The plates are parallel, and have equal
and opposite charges uniformly distributed. This configuration is known as a parallel-plate
capacitor. A parallel-plate capacitor is a great way to create a uniform field.
Consider a capacitance C in vacuum consisting of two parallel plates, each with area A
separated by a distance d as shown in figure 1. One plate carries acharge Q, and the other
carries a charge-Q. The amount of a charge that can be stored on a plate for a given potential
increases as a plate area increased. Thus ,we expect the capacitance to be proportional to
the plate area A.
ial
te r
m a
c e
r e n
e f e
rt r
o
Sh
Figure 8.3: The Parallel Plate Capacitor
Now consider the region that separates the plate. The electric field between the plates must
increase as d decreased. Moving the plates together causes the charge on the capacitor to
increases. If d is increased, the charge deceases. As a result, we expect the capacitance of the
pair of the plates to be inversely proportional to d. We can verify these physical arguments
with the following derivation. The surface charge density on either plate is
Q
δ=
A
The magnitude of the Electric field has a very simple relation to the voltage between the
plates and their separation d.
V
E=
d
Remedial Physics
Using the definition of capacitance we can determine the capacitance C of an ideal capacitor
as a function of its structure.
Q Q Q
C= = = δ
V Ed 0 d
Q
= 0 Q
Ad
A
C = 0
d
This equation for the capacitance of a parallel capacitor shows that C is a constant indepen-
dent of the charge stored in on the plates or the voltage across the capacitor.The capacitance
of a system depends on its shapes, dimensions and separation of the conductors that make
up the capacitor
ia l
te r
m a
c e
e n
r Plate Capacitor
Figure 8.4: TThefeParallel
t r e
o r
Example
Sh
1) The plates of a parallel-plate capacitor are 5mm apart and 2m 2 in area. The plates
are in vacuum. A potential difference 10, 000v is applied across the capacitor compute
A) The capacitance
B) The charge on the plate
C) The electric intensity in the space b/n them
Solution A)
8.85 × 10−12 c2 /N m2

A
C = 0 = (2m2 )
d 5 × 10−3 m
C = 3.54 × 10−9 C 2 /N m = 3.54 × 10−9 F
B) The charge on the plate
Q = CVab = (3.54 × 10−9 C/V )(102 V ) = 3.54 × 105 c

Remedial Physics
8.6. THE PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR 105
C) The electric intensity in the space b/n them
δ Q 3.54 × 105 C
E= = =
d 0 A 8.85 × 10−12 c2 /N m(2m2 )
= 20 × 105 N/c
Since the electric field equals the potential gradient
Vab 104 V
E= = = 20 × 105 v/m
d 5 × 10−3 m
N V
=
C m
2 Parallel-plate capacitor is designed to have a capacitance of 1.00F when the plates

are separated by 1.00mm in vacuum what must be the arch of the plates. (Ans A =
1.13 × 108 m2 )
8.6.1 Energy Stored in a Capacitor ial

te r
m a
The energy stored in a capacitor is the same as the work needed to build up the charge on
c e
e n
the plates. As the charge increases, the harder it is to add more. Potential energy is the
r
e f e
charge multiplied by the potential, and as the charge builds up the potential does too. If the
rt r
ho
potential difference between the two plates is V at the end of the process, and 0 (zero) at the
S
start, the average potential is V/2. Multiplying this average potential by the charge gives
the potential energy.
P E = 1/2QV
. Substituting in for Q, Q = CV, gives: The energy stored in a capacitor is: intermes of C
and V.
1
W = U = CV 2
2
Q
Substituting Q = CV and V = C
1
U = QV
2
This is U intermes of Q and V

Q2
U=
2C
intermes of Q and C Where U=Electric potential energy in joule Q=Charge in Coulomb.

V=Potential in volt C = Capacitance in farad These formulae are valid for any type of
capacitor, since the arguments we used to derive them do not depend on any special property
Remedial Physics
of parallel plate capacitors. The potential difference between the plates is V = Ed and
0 A
C= d Thus, the energy stored in the capacitor can be written as
CV 2
U =W =
2
0 A
V = Ed, C = d
0 AE 2 d2
U=
2d
0 AE 2 d
U=
2
Now, Ad is the volume of the field filled region between the plates, so if the energy is stored
in the electric field then the energy per unit volume, or energy density, of the field must be
U 1 CV 2
u= =
V 2 Ad
Substituting
C = 0
A
ial
D
te r
V2 m a
= E2
d2 c e
e n
1
f eVr 1
2
u = 0 2 = 0 E 2
e
rt r
2 d 2
o
Sh
1) Air filled parallel plate capacitor has a capacitance of 5.0 pF. Apotential of 100V is
applied across the plates, which are 1.0 cm apart, using astorage battery.
a) What is the energy stored in the capacitor? Suppose that the battery is discon-
nected and the plates are moved until they are 2.0 cm apart.
b) What is the energy stored in the capacitor now?
c) Suppose, instead, that the battery is left connected and the plates are again moved
until they are 2.0 cm apart. What is the energy stored in the capacitor in this
case?
Solution
The initial energy stored in the capacitor is
CV 2 5 × 10−12
U= = (1000)2 J = 2.58 × 10−8 J
2 2
Remedial Physics
8.7. CAPACITANCE NET WORK 107
When the spacing between the plates is doubled, the capacitance of the cpacitor is halved
to 2.5 pF. If the battery is disconnected then this process takes Place at constant charge Q.
Thus, it is obvious from the formula
Q2
U=
2C
That in this case the energy stored in the capacitor doubles. So, the new energy is
U = 2(2.58 × 10−8 )J
= 5.16 × 10−8 J
8.7 Capacitance net work
Parallel Combination
r ial
Capacitors are one of the standard components of electronic
a te circuits. Complicated combi-
e m It is, therefore, useful to have a set
nations of capacitors often occur in practical circuits.
n cof some general arrangement of capacitors.
e
erequivalent capacitance by repeated application of
of rules for finding the equivalent capacitance
It turns out that we can always findr e f
the
rt
o to capacitors connected in series and in parallel. In a
two simple rules. These ruleshrelated
S
parallel combination, the capacitors are usually drawn side by side. If we imagine them as
parallel-plate capacitors with the same gap, snuggling them right up next to each other, the
combination seems to become a single capacitor with an area equal to the sum of the areas.
Then from the equation for capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor, we have.
0 Aeq 0 (A1 + A2 )
Ceq = =
d d
0 A1 0 A2
= +
d d
Ceq = C1 + C2
Or consider two capacitors connected in parallel; i.e. with the positively charged Plates
connected to a common ”input” wire and the negatively charged plates attached to a common
”output” wire. What is the equivalent capacitance between the input and output wires? In
this case, the potential difference V across the two Capacitors is the same, and is equal to
the potential difference between the input and output wires.
Remedial Physics
The total charge Q, however, stored in the two capacitors is di-vided between the capacitors,
since it must distribute itself such that the voltage across the two is the same. Since the
capacitors may have different ,C 1 and C 2 , the charges Q 1 and Q 2 may also be different.
The equivalent capacitance Ceq of the pair of capacitors is simply the ratio Q/V
Q Q1 Q2
Ceq = = +
V V V
Ceq = C1 + C2
When a number of capacitors are connected in parallel, the total or effective capacitance
ial
te r
m a
ce in Parallel
Figure 8.5: Capacitors connected
n
f e re
t r e
r individual capacitances The equation for calculating
of the group is equal to the sum ofothe
S h
the total capacitance C obtained by capacitances C1 , C2 , C3 etc..The formula for parallel
capacitor is same as the resistance in series. The working voltage of parallel capacitors is
equal to the lowest working voltage rating in the combination. Parallel connected Capacitors
Figure 8.6: Capacitors connected in Parallel
always have the same voltage drop across each of them. They do not have the same charge
unless they have the same capacitance C. The charge on the equivalent capacitor C eq is the
Remedial Physics
sum of the charges on both capacitors. The Voltage on the equivalent capacitor C eq is the
same as the voltage across either capacitor.
The equivalent capacitance of capacitors connected in parallel is the sum of

the individual capacitances
Series Combination
In a series combination, the capacitors are connected head-to-tail. We want to replace the
pair or more by a single equivalent capacitor. To do this, we must understand how the charge
is distributed on the plates.
Consider the inner pair of plates, one from each capacitor, connected by a conductor.
These three objects are electrically isolated from the remainder of the circuit; they form a
single isolated conductor. Since the net charge on the capacitors is zero before the battery
is connected, the net charge on the inner pair of plates must also be zero. After the battery
ial
te r
is connected, the plates of the capacitors will hold some charge, but the inner pair of plates
a
will still have zero net charge. Therefore, the charges on the inner pair of plates are equal
m
ce
e n
and opposite, and we see that both capacitors will hold the same charge. We don’t add these
r quantity that adds is the voltage across each
f
charges together, as in the parallel case.
e eThe
rt r so that the potential across the combination is equal
capacitor. consider capacitors arranged
ho
to the sum of the potentialSdifference across each as shown in fig
Figure 8.7: Capacitors connected in Series
∆V = ∆V1 + ∆V2
The voltege acrossacrs sthecapacitor is releated totheir ch arg es
Q
∆V1 =
C1
Remedial Physics
and
Q
∆V2 =
C2
The definetion of equvalent capacitor is
Q
Ceq =
∆V
Or
Q
∆V =
Ceq
Therfore
Q Q Q
= +
Ceq C1 C2
1 1 1
= +
Ceq C1 C2
For more than two Capacitor
1 1 1 1 1 X 1 n
ial
Ceq
= + +
C1 C2 C3
+ ... +
Cn
=
Ci e r
t i=1
m a
c e
Series connected Capacitors always have the same charge. They do not the same voltage
r e n
e f e
rt r
o
Sh
unless the capacitors have the same Capacitance C. The charge on the equivalent capacitor
Ce is the same as the charge on either capacitor. The Voltage across the equivalent capacitor
Ce q is the sum of the voltage across both capacitors. If two or more capacitors are connected
in series as shown above, the total capacitance is less than that of the smallest capacitor in
the group
Remedial Physics
Example
1) Let C1 = 6µF and C2 = 3µF , Vab = 18V
A. What is the equivalent capacitance of the series combination
B. What is the charge on each capacitor
C. Find the potation difference across the capacitor.
ial
te r
m a
ce
Solution
r e n
a) for series combination
e fe
r
rt 1 1 1
ho
= +
Ceq C1 C2
S
1 1 1
= + =
6µF 3µF 2µF
Ceq = 2µF
b) The charge Q is
Q1 = Q2 = Ceq Vab = (2µF )(18V ) = 36µC
c) The potential difference across the capacitor are
Q 36µF
Vac = V1 = = 6V
C1 6µF
Q 36µF
Vcb = V2 = = = 12V
C2 3µF
1) A 1µF and a 2µF capacitor are connected in parallel and this pair of capacitors is then
connected in series with a 4µF capacitor.
i) What is the equivalent capacitance of the whole combination?

Remedial Physics
ii) What is the charge on the 4µ F capacitor if the whole combination is connected
across the terminals of a 6V battery?
iii) What are the charges on the 1µF and 2µF capacitors?
Answer:
The equivalent capacitance of the 1µF and a 2µF capacitors connected in parallel
is 1µF + 2µF = 3µF . When a 3µF capacitor is combined in series with 4µF
capacitor the equivalent capacitance of the whole combination is given by
r ial
teSeries
Figure 8.10: Capacitors connected in
a
e m
n c
e
r1 + 1
=fe
1
Ceqr
t e 3µF 4µF
o r
Sh = 12 ×710−6 F −1
12 × 10−6
Ceq = F = 1.71µC
7
The charge delivered by the 6 V battery is Q = Ceq , V = (1.71 × 10−6 )(6) = 10.3µc. This
is the charge on the 4µF capacitor, since one of the terminals of the battery is connected
directly to one of the plates of this capacitor. The voltage drop across the 4µF capacitor is
Q 10 × 10−6 C
VA = = = 2.57V
C4 4 × 10−6 F
Thus, the voltage drop across the 1µF and 2µF combination must be
V12 = 6V − 2.57V = 3.43
The charge stored on the 1µF is given by
Q1 = C1 V12 = (1µF )(3.43) = 3.42µF

Remedial Physics
Likewise, the charge stored on the 2µF capacitor is
Q2 = C2 V12 = (2µF )(3.43) = 6.84µF
Note that the total charge stored on the 1µF and 2µF combination is
Q12 = Q1 + Q2 = 10.3µC
ia l
te r
m a
In fig C1 = 6µF and C 2 = 3µF and V ab
n ce18V find
a Equivalent capacitance f e re
t r e
h or
b The charge on each capacitor
S
c The potential difference on each capacitor
Solution
A) The equivalent capacitance of the parallel combination is Ceq = C1 + C2 = 6µF + 3µF =
9µF B) The charge Q1 andQ2 are
Q1 = C1 V = (6µF )(18V ) = 108µC
Q2 = C2 V = (3µF )(18V ) = 54µC
C) The potential is the same for each capacitor. Because they are connected unparallel
Solution
A
8.85 × 10−12 C 2 /N m2

C 0 = 0
d
= 17.7 × 10−11 F = 177P F
Unit Exercise
Remedial Physics
1) What is the magnitude and direction of the electric field that will balances the weight
of?
a) an electron and
b) a proton
2) In figure determine the point (other than infinity) at which the electric field is zero
3) Two point charges are located on the X axis.The first is a charge to Q at X = - a. The
second is an unknown charge located at X = 3a. The net electric field these charges
2KQ
produce at the origin has a magnitude of a2
. What are the two possible values of
the known charge?
ial
4) Determine the point at which the electric field zero.
te r
m a
c e
r e n
e f e
rt r
o
Sh
5 Three equal positive charges are at the corners of an equilateral triangle of side a as
shown.
A Three Charges together create an electric field. Sketch the field lines in the plane of
the charge
B Find the location of the point (other than infinity) where the electric field is zero
Remedial Physics
6 Find the potential at a distance 1cm from a proton (B) What is the potential difference
between two points that are 1cm and 2cm from a proton? (c) What if ? Repeat part
(a) and (b) for an electron
7 At a certain distance from point charge, the magnitude of the electric field is 500v/m
and the electric potential is -3.00kv
a) What is the distance to the charge?
b) What is the magnitude of the charge?8)
8) A proton accelerates from rest in a uniform electric field 640N/C its speed is 1.2x10 6
m/s
a) Find the acceleration of the proton
b) How long does it take the proton to reach the speed?
c) How far has it moved in this time?

ial
te r
m a
c e
r e n
e f e
rt r
o
Sh
Remedial Physics
9.1 Electric Current, Resistance, Ohm’s Law and Power
In this section, we study the basic behavior of a flow of electric charges through a
region of space. The flow of charges between two points in space is driven by a potential
difference between the points. Whenever there is a net flow of charge through some region,
an electric current is said to exist. The amount of current depends both on the potential
difference and any material that may fill the space through which the charges flow.
Fig.1 Charges in motion through an area A.

The time rate at which charge flows through
the area is defined as the current I.
• The electric current is defined as:
dQ
I=
dt
ial
• The average current in a conductor is a ter
e m
n c
I avg = nqvd A
e r e
rt ref
where n is the number density of the charge carriers, q is the charge each carrier
o
Sh
has, vd is the drift speed, and A is the cross-sectional area.
• The current density J through the cross sectional area of the wire is
G G
J = nqv d
• Microscopic Ohm’s law: the current density is proportional to the electric field,
and the constant of proportionality is called conductivity σ :
G G
J =σE
• The reciprocal of conductivity σ is called resistivity ρ :
1
ρ=
σ
• Macroscopic Ohm’s law: The resistance R of a conductor is the ratio of the

potential difference ∆V between the two ends of the conductor and the current I:
1
Remedial Physics
∆V
R=
I
• Resistance is related to resistivity by
ρl
R=
A
where l is the length and A is the cross-sectional area of the conductor.
• The drift velocity of an electron in the conductor is

G
G eE
vd = − τ
me
where me is the mass of an electron, and τ is the average time between

successive collisions.
ial
• The resistivity of a metal is related to τ by
a ter
e m
ρ=
1
n cm
= e
fe rσe ne τ 2
r e
• The temperature variation
o roft resistivity of a conductor is
Sh
ρ = ρ 0 ⎡⎣1 + α (T − T0 ) ⎤⎦
where α is the temperature coefficient of resistivity.
• Power, or rate at which energy is delivered to the resistor is
( ∆V )
2
P = I ∆V = I 2
R=
R
9.1.1 Solved Problems
1) Resistivity of a Cable: - A 3000-km long cable consists of seven copper wires, each
of diameter 0.73 mm, bundled together and surrounded by an insulating sheath. Calculate
the resistance of the cable. Use 3 × 10 −6 Ω ⋅ cm for the resistivity of the copper.
8
Remedial Physics
Solution:
The resistance R of a conductor is related to the resistivity ρ by R = ρ l / A , where l and A

are the length of the conductor and the cross-sectional area, respectively. Since the cable
consists of N = 7 copper wires, the total cross sectional area is
πd2 π (0.073cm) 2
A = Nπ r 2 = N =7
4 4
The resistance then becomes
R=
ρl
=
( 3 ×10 −6
Ω ⋅ cm )( 3 ×108 cm )
= 3.1× 104 Ω
7π ( 0.073cm ) / 4
2
A
6.5.2 Charge at a Junction
Show that the total amount of charge at the junction of the two materials in Figure 6.5.1
is ε 0 I (σ 2−1 − σ 1−1 ) , where I is the current flowing through the junction, and σ 1 and σ 2 are
l
ia
the conductivities for the two materials.
a ter
e m
n c
e r e
rt ref
o
Sh
Figure 6.5.1 Charge at a junction.
Solution:
G
In a steady state of current flow, the normal component of the current density J must be
the same on both sides of the junction. Since J = σ E , we have σ 1 E1 = σ 2 E2
or
⎛σ ⎞
E2 = ⎜ 1 ⎟ E1
⎝σ2 ⎠
Let the charge on the interface be qin , we have, from the Gauss’s law:
G G qin
∫∫ E ⋅ dA = ( E
wS
2 − E1 ) A =
ε0
or
9
Remedial Physics
qin
E2 − E1 =
Aε 0
Substituting the expression for E2 from above then yields
⎛σ ⎞ ⎛ 1 1⎞
qin = ε 0 AE1 ⎜ 1 − 1⎟ = ε 0 Aσ 1 E1 ⎜ − ⎟
⎝σ2 ⎠ ⎝ σ 2 σ1 ⎠
Since the current is I = JA = (σ 1 E1 ) A , the amount of charge on the interface becomes
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
qin = ε 0 I ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ σ 2 σ1 ⎠
6.5.3 Drift Velocity
The resistivity of seawater is about 25 Ω⋅ cm . The charge carriers are chiefly Na + and
l
ia
a ter
Cl− ions, and of each there are about 3 × 10 20 / cm 3 . If we fill a plastic tube 2 meters long
with seawater and connect a 12-volt battery to the electrodes at each end, what is the
resulting average drift velocity of the ions, in cm/s? e m
n c
e r e
ref
Solution:
o rt
The current in a conductor of cross sectional area A is related to the drift speed vd of the
charge carriers by Sh
I = enAvd
where n is the number of charges per unit volume. We can then rewrite the Ohm’s law as
⎛ ρl ⎞
V = IR = ( neAvd ) ⎜ ⎟ = nevd ρ l
⎝ A⎠
which yields
V
vd =
ne ρ l
Substituting the values, we have
12V V ⋅ cm cm
vd = = 2.5 × 10−5 = 2.5 × 10−5
( 6 ×10 /cm )(1.6 ×10 C ) ( 25Ω ⋅ cm )( 200cm )
20 3 −19
C⋅Ω s
10
Remedial Physics
In converting the units we have used
V ⎛V⎞1 A
= ⎜ ⎟ = = s −1
Ω⋅C ⎝ Ω ⎠ C C
6.5.4 Resistance of a Truncated Cone
Consider a material of resistivity ρ in a shape of a truncated cone of altitude h, and radii a

and b, for the right and the left ends, respectively, as shown in the Figure 6.5.2.
ia l
a ter
m
ce Cone.
Figure 6.5.2 A truncated
n
e e
runiformly
Assuming that the current is distributed
r e f throughout the cross-section of the
cone, what is the resistance between the two ends?
o rt
Solution: Sh
Consider a thin disk of radius r at a distance
x from the left end. From the figure shown
on the right, we have
b−r b−a
=
x h
or
x
r = ( a − b) + b
h
Since resistance R is related to resistivity ρ by R = ρ l / A , where l is the length of the

conductor and A is the cross section, the contribution to the resistance from the disk
having a thickness dy is
ρ dx ρ dx
dR = =
πr 2
π [b + (a − b) x / h]2
11
Remedial Physics
Straightforward integration then yields
h ρ dx ρh
R=∫ =
0 π [b + (a − b) x / h] 2
π ab
where we have used

du 1
∫ (α u + β ) 2
=−
α (α u + β )
Note that if b = a , Eq. (6.2.9) is reproduced.
6.5.5 Resistance of a Hollow Cylinder
Consider a hollow cylinder of length L and inner radius a and outer radius b , as shown in
Figure 6.5.3. The material has resistivity ρ.
ia l
a ter
e m
n c
e r e
rt ref
o Figure 6.5.3 A hollow cylinder.
Sh
(a) Suppose a potential difference is applied between the ends of the cylinder and
produces a current flowing parallel to the axis. What is the resistance measured?
(b) If instead the potential difference is applied between the inner and outer surfaces so
that current flows radially outward, what is the resistance measured?
Solution:
(a) When a potential difference is applied between the ends of the cylinder, current flows
parallel to the axis. In this case, the cross-sectional area is A = π (b 2 − a 2 ) , and the
resistance is given by
ρL ρL
R= =
A π (b 2 − a 2 )
12
Remedial Physics
(b) Consider a differential element which is made up of a thin cylinder of inner radius r
and outer radius r + dr and length L. Its contribution to the resistance of the system is
given by
ρ dl ρ dr
dR = =
A 2π rL
where A = 2π rL is the area normal to the direction of current flow. The total resistance
of the system becomes
b ρ dr ρ ⎛b⎞
R=∫ = ln ⎜ ⎟
a 2π rL 2π L ⎝ a ⎠
6.6 Conceptual Questions
1. Two wires A and B of circular cross-section are made of the same metal and have
equal lengths, but the resistance of wire A is four times greater than that of wire B.
Find the ratio of their cross-sectional areas.
r i al
2. From the point of view of atomic theory, explainawhy te the resistance of a material
increases as its temperature increases.
e m
n c
3. Two conductors A and B of the same e
er of conductor
length and radius are connected across the
r f
same potential difference. Theeresistance A is twice that of B. To
rt delivered?
which conductor is more power
o
Sh
6.7 Additional Problems
6.7.1 Current and Current Density
A sphere of radius 10 mm that carries a charge of 8 nC = 8 ×10−9 C is whirled in a circle

at the end of an insulated string. The rotation frequency is 100π rad/s.
(a) What is the basic definition of current in terms of charge?
(b) What average current does this rotating charge represent?
(c) What is the average current density over the area traversed by the sphere?
6.7.2 Power Loss and Ohm’s Law
A 1500 W radiant heater is constructed to operate at 115 V.
13
Remedial Physics
(a) What will be the current in the heater? [Ans. ~10 A]
(b) What is the resistance of the heating coil? [Ans. ~10 Ω]
(c) How many kilocalories are generated in one hour by the heater? (1 Calorie = 4.18 J)
6.7.3 Resistance of a Cone
A copper resistor of resistivity ρ is in the shape of a cylinder of radius b and length L1

appended to a truncated right circular cone of length L2 and end radii b and a as shown in
Figure 6.7.1.
ia l
Figure 6.7.1
a ter
e m
(a) What is the resistance of the cylindrical portion of the resistor?
n c
(b) What is the resistance of the entire
e
erresistor? (Hint: For the tapered portion, it is
e f
rt rto sum the slices by integration. If the taper is small,
necessary to write down the incremental resistance dR of a small slice, dx, of the resistor
at an arbitrary position, x, and o
then
Sh density is uniform across any cross section.)
one may assume that the current
(c) Show that your answer reduces to the expected expression if a = b.
(d) If L1 = 100 mm, L2 = 50 mm, a = 0.5 mm, b = 1.0 mm, what is the resistance?
6.7.4 Current Density and Drift Speed

G
(a) A group of charges, each with charge q, moves with velocity v . The number of
G
particles per unit volume is n. What is the current density J of these charges, in
magnitude and direction? Make sure that your answer has units of A/m2.
(b) We want to calculate how long it takes an electron to get from a car battery to the
starter motor after the ignition switch is turned. Assume that the current flowing is 115 A ,
and that the electrons travel through copper wire with cross-sectional area 31.2 mm 2 and
length 85.5 cm . What is the current density in the wire? The number density of the
conduction electrons in copper is 8.49 × 10 28 /m 3 . Given this number density and the
current density, what is the drift speed of the electrons? How long does it take for an
14
Remedial Physics
electron starting at the battery to reach the starter motor? [Ans: 3.69 × 106 A/m 2 ,
2.71× 10 −4 m/s , 52.5 min .]
6.7.5 Current Sheet
A current sheet, as the name implies, is a plane containing currents flowing in one
direction in that plane. One way to construct a sheet of current is by running many
parallel wires in a plane, say the yz -plane, as shown in Figure 6.7.2(a). Each of these
wires carries current I out of the page, in the −jˆ direction, with n wires per unit length in
the z-direction, as shown in Figure 6.7.2(b). Then the current per unit length in the z
direction is nI . We will use the symbol K to signify current per unit length, so that
K = nl here.
ia l
a ter
e m
n c
Figure 6.7.2 A current sheet.
e r e
ref
Another way to construct a current sheet is to take a non-conducting sheet of charge with
rt
o
fixed charge per unit area σ and move it with some speed in the direction you want
Sh
current to flow. For example, in the sketch to the left, we have a sheet of charge moving
out of the page with speed v . The direction of current flow is out of the page.
(a) Show that the magnitude of the current per unit length in the z direction, K , is given
by σ v . Check that this quantity has the proper dimensions of current per length. This is
G G
in fact a vector relation, K (t) = σ v (t ) , since the sense of the current flow is in the same
direction as the velocity of the positive charges.
(b) A belt transferring charge to the high-potential inner shell of a Van de Graaff
accelerator at the rate of 2.83 mC/s. If the width of the belt carrying the charge is
50 cm and the belt travels at a speed of 30 m/s , what is the surface charge density on the
belt? [Ans: 189 µC/m2]
6.7.6 Resistance and Resistivity
A wire with a resistance of 6.0 Ω is drawn out through a die so that its new length is three
times its original length. Find the resistance of the longer wire, assuming that the
15
Remedial Physics
resistivity and density of the material are not changed during the drawing process. [Ans:
54 Ω].
6.7.7 Power, Current, and Voltage
A 100-W light bulb is plugged into a standard 120-V outlet. (a) How much does it cost
per month (31 days) to leave the light turned on? Assume electricity costs 6 cents per
kW ⋅ h. (b) What is the resistance of the bulb? (c) What is the current in the bulb? [Ans:
(a) $4.46; (b) 144 Ω; (c) 0.833 A].
6.7.8 Charge Accumulation at the Interface
Figure 6.7.3 shows a three-layer sandwich made of two resistive materials with
resistivities ρ1 and ρ 2 . From left to right, we have a layer of material with resistivity ρ1
of width d / 3 , followed by a layer of material with resistivity ρ 2 , also of width d / 3 ,
followed by another layer of the first material with resistivity ρ1 , again of width d / 3 .
ia l
a ter
e m
n c
e r e
rt ref
o
Sh
Figure 6.7.3 Charge accumulation at interface.
The cross-sectional area of all of these materials is A. The resistive sandwich is bounded
on either side by metallic conductors (black regions). Using a battery (not shown), we
maintain a potential difference V across the entire sandwich, between the metallic
conductors. The left side of the sandwich is at the higher potential (i.e., the electric fields
point from left to right).
There are four interfaces between the various materials and the conductors, which we
label a through d, as indicated on the sketch. A steady current I flows through this
sandwich from left to right, corresponding to a current density J = I / A .
G G
(a) What are the electric fields E1 and E2 in the two different dielectric materials? To
obtain these fields, assume that the current density is the same in every layer. Why must
this be true? [Ans: All fields point to the right, E1 = ρ1 I / A , E2 = ρ 2 I / A ; the current
densities must be the same in a steady state, otherwise there would be a continuous
buildup of charge at the interfaces to unlimited values.]
16
Remedial Physics
(b) What is the total resistance R of this sandwich? Show that your expression reduces to
the expected result if ρ1 = ρ 2 = ρ . [Ans: R = d ( 2 ρ1 + ρ2 ) / 3 A ; if ρ1 = ρ 2 = ρ , then
R = d ρ / A , as expected.]
(c) As we move from right to left, what are the changes in potential across the three
layers, in terms of V and the resistivities? [Ans: V ρ1 / ( 2 ρ1 + ρ 2 ) , V ρ2 / ( 2 ρ1 + ρ 2 ) ,
V ρ1 / ( 2 ρ1 + ρ2 ) , summing to a total potential drop of V, as required].
(d) What are the charges per unit area, σ a through σ d , at the interfaces? Use Gauss's
Law and assume that the electric field in the conducting caps is zero.
[Ans: σ a = −σ d = 3ε 0V ρ1 / d ( 2 ρ1 + ρ 2 ) , σ b = −σ c = 3ε 0V ( ρ2 − ρ1 ) / d ( 2 ρ1 + ρ 2 ) .]
(e) Consider the limit ρ 2 ρ1 . What do your answers above reduce to in this limit?
ia l
a ter
e m
n c
e r e
rt ref
o
Sh
17
Remedial Physics
7.7 Summary
• The equivalent resistance of a set of resistors connected in series:
N
Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + " = ∑ Ri
i =1
• The equivalent resistance of a set of resistors connected in parallel:
1 1 1 1 N
1
= + + +" = ∑
Req R1 R2 R3 i =1 Ri
• Kirchhoff’s rules:
(1) The sum of the currents flowing into a junction is equal to the sum of the
currents flowing out of the junction:
ia l
∑I in = ∑ I out
a ter
e m
c
(2) The algebraic sum of the changes in electric potential in a closed-circuit loop
n
is zero.
e r e
rt ref
o ∑ ∆V = 0
Sh closed loop
• In a charging capacitor, the charges and the current as a function of time are
⎛ −
t
⎞ ⎛ε ⎞
q (t ) = Q ⎜1 − e RC ⎟ , I (t ) = ⎜ ⎟ e − t / RC
⎝ ⎠ ⎝R⎠
• In a discharging capacitor, the charges and the current as a function of time are
⎛ Q ⎞ − t / RC
q (t ) = Q e − t / RC , I (t ) = ⎜ ⎟e
⎝ RC ⎠
7.8 Problem-Solving Strategy: Applying Kirchhoff’s Rules
In this chapter we have seen how Kirchhoff’s rules can be used to analyze multiloop
circuits. The steps are summarized below:
15
Remedial Physics
(1) Draw a circuit diagram, and label all the quantities, both known and unknown. The
number of unknown quantities is equal to the number of linearly independent
equations we must look for.
(2) Assign a direction to the current in each branch of the circuit. (If the actual direction
is opposite to what you have assumed, your result at the end will be a negative
number.)
(3) Apply the junction rule to all but one of the junctions. (Applying the junction rule to
the last junction will not yield any independent relationship among the currents.)
(4) Apply the loop rule to the loops until the number of independent equations obtained is
the same as the number of unknowns. For example, if there are three unknowns, then
we must write down three linearly independent equations in order to have a unique
solution.
Traverse the loops using the convention below for ∆V :
ia l
resistor
a ter
e m
n c
e r e
rt ref
emf o
source Sh
capacitor
The same equation is obtained whether the closed loop is traversed clockwise or
counterclockwise. (The expressions actually differ by an overall negative sign.
However, using the loop rule, we are led to 0 = −0 , and hence the same equation.)
(5) Solve the simultaneous equations to obtain the solutions for the unknowns.
As an example of illustrating how the above procedures are executed, let’s analyze the
circuit shown in Figure 7.8.1.
16
Remedial Physics
Figure 7.8.1 A multiloop circuit.
Suppose the emf sources ε1 and ε 2 , and the resistances R1 , R2 and R3 are all given, and
we would like to find the currents through each resistor, using the methodology outlined
above.
(1) The unknown quantities are the three currents I1 , I 2 and I 3 , associated with the three
resistors. Therefore, to solve the system, we must look for three independent equations.
(2) The directions for the three currents are arbitrarily assigned, as indicated in Figure
7.8.2. ial
a ter
e m
n c
e r e
rt ref
o
Sh
Figure 7.8.2
(3) Applying Kirchhoff’s current rule to junction b yields
I1 + I 2 = I 3
since I1 and I 2 are leaving the junction while I 3 is entering the junction. The same
equation is obtained if we consider junction c.
(4) The other two equations can be obtained by using the loop (voltage) rule, which states
that the net potential difference across all elements in a closed circuit loop is zero.
Traversing the first loop befcb in the clockwise direction yields
− I 2 R2 − ε1 + I1 R1 − ε 2 = 0
17
Remedial Physics
Similarly, traversing the second loop abcda clockwise gives
ε 2 − I1 R1 − I 3 R3 = 0
Note however, that one may also consider the big loop abefcda. This leads to
− I 2 R2 − ε1 − I 3 R3 = 0
However, the equation is not linearly independent of the other two loop equations since it
is simply the sum of those equations.
(5) The solutions to the above three equations are given by, after tedious but
straightforward algebra,
ε1 R3 + ε 2 R3 + ε 2 R2
I1 =
R1 R2 + R1 R3 + R2 R3
ε R +ε R +ε R ia l
I 2 = − 1 1 1 3 2 3 er
R1 R2 + R1 R3 + R2 R
a3 t
e m
c
ε 2rRe2 n
− ε1 R1
I3 = e
t r e1fR2 + R1R3 + R2 R3
R
r
Note that I2 ho This simply indicates that the direction of I
is a negativeSquantity. 2 is
opposite of what we have initially assumed.
7.9 Solved Problems
7.9.1 Equivalent Resistance
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 7.9.1. For a given resistance R0 , what must be the
value of R1 so that the equivalent resistance between the terminals is equal to R0 ?
Figure 7.9.1
18
Remedial Physics
Solution:
The equivalent resistance, R ' , due to the three resistors on the right is
1 1 1 R0 + 2 R1
= + =
R ' R1 R0 + R1 R1 ( R0 + R1 )
or
R1 ( R0 + R1 )
R' =
R0 + 2 R1
Since R ' is in series with the fourth resistor R1, the equivalent resistance of the entire
configuration becomes
R1 ( R0 + R1 ) 3R12 + 2 R1 R0
Req = R1 + =
R0 + 2 R1 R0 + 2 R1
If Req = R0 , then
i a l
R0 ( R0 + 2 R1 ) = 3R + 2 R1 R0
2 r
⇒ Rte = 3R
2 2
ma
1 0 1
or c e
r e n
R
eR = 0
ref
1
3
o rt
7.9.2 Variable ResistanceSh
Show that, if a battery of fixed emf ε and internal resistance r is connected to a variable
external resistance R , the maximum power is delivered to the external resistor when
R=r.
Solution:
Using Kirchhoff’s rule,
ε = I (R + r)
which implies
ε
I=
R+r
The power dissipated is equal to
ε2
P = I 2R = R
(R + r)
2
19
Remedial Physics
To find the value of R which gives out the maximum power, we differentiate P with
respect to R and set the derivative equal to 0:
dP ⎡ 1 2R ⎤ r−R
=ε2 ⎢ − 2⎥
=ε2 =0
⎢⎣ ( R + r ) ( R + r ) ⎥⎦ (R + r)
2 3
dR
which implies
R=r
This is an example of “impedance matching,” in which the variable resistance R is

adjusted so that the power delivered to it is maximized. The behavior of P as a function
of R is depicted in Figure 7.9.2 below.
ial
a ter
e m
n c
e r e Figure 7.9.2
7.9.3 RC Circuit rt ref

o
Sh
In the circuit in figure 7.9.3, suppose the switch has been open for a very long time. At
time t = 0 , it is suddenly closed.
Figure 7.9.3
(a) What is the time constant before the switch is closed?
(b) What is the time constant after the switch is closed?
(c) Find the current through the switch as a function of time after the switch is closed.
20
Remedial Physics
Solutions:
(a) Before the switch is closed, the two resistors R1 and R2 are in series with the capacitor.
Since the equivalent resistance is Req = R1 + R2 , the time constant is given by
τ = Req C = ( R1 + R2 )C
The amount of charge stored in the capacitor is
q (t ) = Cε (1 − e − t /τ )
(b) After the switch is closed, the closed loop on the right becomes a decaying RC circuit
with time constant τ ′ = R2C . Charge begins to decay according to
q′(t ) = Cε e− t /τ ′
(c) The current passing through the switch consists of two sources: the steady current I1
from the left circuit, and the decaying current I 2 from the RC circuit. The currents are
l
ia
given by
a ter
ε e m
I1 = c
R1
r e n
dq′ e
⎛f Cε ⎞ ⎛ ε ⎞
I ′(t ) = t =re
−⎜ ⎟e
− t /τ ′
= − ⎜ ⎟ e − t / R2C
o r
dt ⎝ τ ' ⎠ ⎝ R2 ⎠
S h
The negative sign in I ′(t ) indicates that the direction of flow is opposite of the charging
process. Thus, since both I1 and I ′ move downward across the switch, the total current is
ε ⎛ ε ⎞
I (t ) = I1 + I ′(t ) = + ⎜ ⎟ e −t / R2C
R1 ⎝ R2 ⎠
7.9.4 Parallel vs. Series Connections
Figure 7.9.4 show two resistors with resistances R1 and R2 connected in parallel and in
series. The battery has a terminal voltage of ε .
21
Remedial Physics
Figure 7.9.4
Suppose R1 and R2 are connected in parallel.
(a) Find the power delivered to each resistor.
(b) Show that the sum of the power used by each resistor is equal to the power supplied
by the battery.
Suppose R1 and R2 are now connected in series.
(c) Find the power delivered to each resistor. ia l

a ter
(d) Show that the sum of the power used by each resistor is equal to the power supplied
m
by the battery. c e
e n
feruses more power?
(e) Which configuration, parallel or series,
e
r t r
o
Sh
Solutions:
(a) When two resistors are connected in parallel, the current through each resistor is
ε ε
I1 = , I2 =
R1 R2
and the power delivered to each resistor is given by
ε2 ε2
P1 = I12 R1 = , P2 = I 22 R2 =
R1 R2
The results indicate that the smaller the resistance, the greater the amount of power
delivered. If the loads are the light bulbs, then the one with smaller resistance will be
brighter since more power is delivered to it.
(b) The total power delivered to the two resistors is
22
Remedial Physics
ε2 ε2 ε2
PR = P1 + P2 = + =
R1 R2 Req
where
1 1 1 R1 R2
= + ⇒ Req =
Req R1 R2 R1 + R2
is the equivalent resistance of the circuit. On the other hand, the total power supplied by
the battery is Pε = I ε , where I = I1 + I 2 , as seen from the figure. Thus,
⎛ε ⎞ ⎛ ε ⎞ ε2 ε2 ε2
Pε = I1ε + I 2ε = ⎜ ⎟ ε + ⎜ ⎟ ε = + = = PR
⎝ R1 ⎠ ⎝ R2 ⎠ R1 R2 Req
as required by energy conservation.
(c) When the two resistors are connected in series, the equivalent resistance becomes
ial
Req′ = R1 + R2
a ter
e m
and the currents through the resistors are
n c
er e
r=e f = =
ε
o rtI 1 I 2I
R +R1 2
S h
Therefore, the power delivered to each resistor is
2 2
⎛ ε ⎞ ⎛ ε ⎞
P1 = I R1 = ⎜
1
2
⎟ R1 , P2 = I R2 = ⎜
2
2 ⎟ R2
⎝ R1 + R2 ⎠ ⎝ R1 + R2 ⎠
Contrary to what we have seen in the parallel case, when connected in series, the greater
the resistance, the greater the fraction of the power delivered. Once again, if the loads are
light bulbs, the one with greater resistance will be brighter.
(d) The total power delivered to the resistors is

2 2
⎛ ε ⎞ ⎛ ε ⎞ ε2 ε2
PR′ = P1 + P2 = ⎜ +
⎟ 1 ⎜
R ⎟ 2
R = =
⎝ R1 + R2 ⎠ ⎝ R1 + R2 ⎠ R1 + R2 Re′q
On the other hand, the power supplied by the battery is
23
Remedial Physics
⎛ ε ⎞ ε2 ε2
Pε ′ = I ε = ⎜ ⎟ ε = =
⎝ R1 + R2 ⎠ R1 + R2 Re′q
Again, we see that Pε ' = PR ' , as required by energy conservation.
(e) Comparing the results obtained in (b) and (d), we see that
ε2 ε2 ε2
Pε = + > = Pε ′
R1 R2 R1 + R2
which means that the parallel connection uses more power. The equivalent resistance of
two resistors connected in parallel is always smaller than that connected in series.
7.9.5 Resistor Network
Consider a cube which has identical resistors with resistance R along each edge, as shown
in Figure 7.9.5.
ia l
a ter
e m
n c
e r e
rt ref
o
Sh
Figure 7.9.5 Resistor network
Show that the equivalent resistance between points a and b is Req = 5 R / 6 .
Solution:
From symmetry arguments, the current which enters a must split evenly, with I / 3 going
to each branch. At the next junction, say c, I / 3 must further split evenly with I / 6 going
through the two paths ce and cd. The current going through the resistor in db is the sum
of the currents from fd and cd : I / 6 + I / 6 = I / 3 .
Thus, the potential difference between a and b can be obtained as
I I I 5
Vab = Vac + Vcd + Vdb = R + R + R = IR
3 6 3 6
24
Remedial Physics
which shows that the equivalent resistance is
5
Req = R
6
1. Given three resistors of resistances R1 , R2 and R3 , how should they be connected to (a)
maximize (b) minimize the equivalent resistance?
2. Why do the headlights on the car become dim when the car is starting?
3. Does the resistor in an RC circuit affect the maximum amount of charge that can be
stored in a capacitor? Explain.
4. Can one construct a circuit such that the potential difference across the terminals of the
battery is zero? Explain.
ia l
a ter
e m
n c
7.11.1 Resistive Circuits
e r e
ref
Consider two identical batteries of emf ε and internal resistance r. They may be
rt
o
Sh
connected in series or in parallel and are used to establish a current in resistance R as
shown in Figure 7.11.1.
Figure 7.11.1 Two batteries connected in (a) series, and (b) parallel.
(a) Derive an expression for the current in R for the series connection shown in Figure
7.11.1(a). Be sure to indicate the current on the sketch (to establish a sign convention for
the direction) and apply Kirchhoff's loop rule.
(b) Find the current for the parallel connection shown in Figure 7.11.1(b).
25
Remedial Physics
(c) For what relative values of r and R would the currents in the two configurations be the
same?; be larger in Figure 7.11.1(a)?; be larger in 7.11.1(b)?
7.11.2 Multiloop Circuit
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 7.11.2. Neglecting the internal resistance of the
batteries, calculate the currents through each of the three resistors.
Figure 7.11.2
ial
7.11.3 Power Delivered to the Resistors
a ter
m
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 7.11.3. Find the power delivered to each resistor.
e
n c
e r e
rt ref
o
Sh
Figure 7.11.3
7.11.4 Resistor Network
Consider an infinite network of resistors of resistances R0 and R1 shown in Figure 7.11.4.

Show that the equivalent resistance of this network is
Req = R1 + R12 + 2 R1R0
Figure 7.11.4
26
Remedial Physics
7.11.5 RC Circuit
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 7.11.5. Let ε = 40 V , R1 = 8.0 Ω , R2 = 6.0 Ω ,

R3 = 4.0 Ω and C = 4.0 µF . The capacitor is initially uncharged.
Figure 7.11.5
At t = 0 , the switch is closed.
(a) Find the current through each resistor immediately after the switch is closed.
ia l
(b) Find the final charge on the capacitor.
a ter
e m
n c
7.11.6 Resistors in Series and Parallelfer
e
t r e
h or and a 12 V battery is shown in Figure 7.11.6.
A circuit containing five resistors Find the
potential drop across the 5SΩ resistor. [Ans: 7.5 V].
Figure 7.11.6
27
Remedial Physics
8.7 Summary
G
• The magnetic force acting on a charge q traveling at a velocity v in a magnetic
G
field B is given by
G G G
FB = qv × B
G
• The magnetic force acting on a wire of length A carrying a steady current I in a
G
magnetic field B is
G G G
FB = I A × B
G G
• The magnetic force dFB generated by a small portion of current I of length ds in
G
a magnetic field B is
G G G
dFB = I d s × B
ia l
•
G ter
The torque τ acting on a close loop of wire of area A carrying a current I in a
G a
uniform magnetic field B is e m
n c
eGr e G G
τ = IA × B
G rt ref
o
where A is a vector which has a magnitude of A and a direction perpendicular to
the loop. Sh
• The magnetic dipole moment of a closed loop of wire of area A carrying a
current I is given by
G G
µ = IA
G
• The torque exerted on a magnetic dipole µ placed in an external magnetic field
G
B is
G G G
τ = µ×B
• The potential energy of a magnetic dipole placed in a magnetic field is

G G
U = −µ ⋅ B
17
Remedial Physics
• If a particle of charge q and mass m enters a magnetic field of magnitude B with a

G
velocity v perpendicular to the magnetic field lines, the radius of the circular path
that the particle follows is given by
mv
r=
|q|B
and the angular speed of the particle is
|q|B
ω=
m
8.8 Problem-Solving Tips

G
In this Chapter, we have shown that in the presence of both magnetic field B and the
G
electric field E , the total force acting on a moving particle with charge q
G G G G G G G
is F = Fe + FB = q(E + v × B) , where v is the velocity of the particle. The direction of
G G G
FB involves the cross product of v and B , based on the right-hand rule. In Cartesian
l
coordinates, the unit vectors are î , ĵ and k̂ which satisfyte r i a
the following properties:
m a
î × ˆj = kˆ , ˆj × kˆ = î , ckê× î = ˆj
r e n
fe
ˆj × î = −rkê, kˆ × ˆj = −î , î × kˆ = − ˆj
o rt
Shˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
i × i = j× j = k × k = 0
G G
For v = vx î + v y ˆj + vz kˆ and B = Bx î + By ˆj + Bz kˆ , the cross product may be obtained as
î ˆj kˆ
G G
v × B = vx vy vz = (v y Bz − vz By )î + (vz Bx − vx Bz )ˆj + (vx By − v y Bx )kˆ
Bx By Bz
G G
If only the magnetic field is present, and v is perpendicular to B , then the trajectory is a
circle with a radius r = mv / | q | B , and an angular speed ω =| q | B / m .
When dealing with a more complicated case, it is useful to work with individual force
components. For example,
Fx = max = qE x + q (v y Bz − vz By )
18
Remedial Physics
8.9 Solved Problems
8.9.1 Rolling Rod
A rod with a mass m and a radius R is mounted on two parallel rails of length a separated
by a distance A , as shown in the Figure 8.9.1. The rod carries a current I and rolls without
G
slipping along the rails which are placed in a uniform magnetic field B directed into the
page. If the rod is initially at rest, what is its speed as it leaves the rails?
Figure 8.9.1 Rolling rod in uniform magnetic field

ial
Solution: a ter
e m
n
Using the coordinate system shown on the right, the c
e r e
ref
magnetic force acting on the rod is given by
G G G
o rt
FB = I A × B = I (A î ) × (− B kˆ ) = I AB ˆj
Sh
(8.9.1)
The total work done by the magnetic force on the rod as it moves through the region is
G G
W = ∫ FB ⋅ d s = FB a = ( I AB )a (8.9.2)
By the work-energy theorem, W must be equal to the change in kinetic energy:
1 2 1 2
∆K = mv + I ω (8.9.3)
2 2
where both translation and rolling are involved. Since the moment of inertia of the rod is
given by I = mR 2 / 2 , and the condition of rolling with slipping implies ω = v / R , we
have
1 2 1 ⎛ mR 2 ⎞ ⎛ v ⎞ 1 2 1 2 3 2
2
I ABa = mv + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = mv + mv = mv (8.9.4)
2 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ R ⎠ 2 4 4
19
Remedial Physics
Thus, the speed of the rod as it leaves the rails is
4 I ABa
v= (8.9.5)
3m
8.9.2 Suspended Conducting Rod
A conducting rod having a mass density λ kg/m is suspended by two flexible wires in a
G
uniform magnetic field B which points out of the page, as shown in Figure 8.9.2.
ia l
a ter
m
Figure 8.9.2 Suspended conducting rod
n ce in uniform magnetic field
e rethe magnitude and the direction of the current
If the tension on the wires is zero, whatfare
in the rod? t r e
h or
Solution: S
In order that the tension in the wires be zero, the magnetic

G G G
force FB = I A × B acting on the conductor must exactly
G
cancel the downward gravitational force Fg = −mgkˆ .
G G
For FB to point in the +z-direction, we must have A = −A ˆj , i.e., the current flows to the
left, so that
G G G
FB = I A × B = I (−A ˆj) × ( B î ) = − I AB(ˆj × î ) = + I AB kˆ (8.9.6)
The magnitude of the current can be obtain from
I AB = mg (8.9.7)
20
Remedial Physics
or
mg λ g
I= = (8.9.8)
BA B
8.9.3 Charged Particles in Magnetic Field
Particle A with charge q and mass m A and particle B with charge 2q and mass mB , are
accelerated from rest by a potential difference ∆V , and subsequently deflected by a
uniform magnetic field into semicircular paths. The radii of the trajectories by particle A
and B are R and 2R, respectively. The direction of the magnetic field is perpendicular to
the velocity of the particle. What is their mass ratio?
Solution:
The kinetic energy gained by the charges is equal to
1 2
mv = q∆V (8.9.9)
ial
2
which yields
t e r
v=
2q∆V
m a (8.9.10)
mc e
r e n
The charges move in semicircles, since
r e fethe magnetic force points radially inward and
rt force:
provides the source of the centripetal
o
Sh mv 2
= qvB (8.9.11)
r
The radius of the circle can be readily obtained as:
mv m 2q∆V 1 2m∆V
r= = = (8.9.12)
qB qB m B q
which shows that r is proportional to ( m / q )1/ 2 . The mass ratio can then be obtained from
rA (mA / q A )1/ 2 R (mA / q )1/ 2

= ⇒ = (8.9.13)
rB (mB / qB )1/ 2 2 R (mB / 2q )1/ 2
which gives
mA 1
= (8.9.14)
mB 8
21
Remedial Physics
8.9.4 Bar Magnet in Non-Uniform Magnetic Field
A bar magnet with its north pole up is placed along the symmetric axis below a horizontal
conducting ring carrying current I, as shown in the Figure 8.9.3. At the location of the
ring, the magnetic field makes an angle θ with the vertical. What is the force on the ring?
Figure 8.9.3 A bar magnet approaching a conducting ring
Solution:
r i al G
The magnetic force acting on a small differential current-carrying
G t e element Id s on the
a field due to the bar magnet.
G G G
ring is given by dF = Id s × B , where B is the magnetic m
cineFigure 8.9.4, we have
B
n
Using cylindrical coordinates (rˆ , φˆ , zˆ ) as shown
re
G e fe
dF = I (−ds φˆ ) × ( B sinrθt rˆr+ B cos θ zˆ ) = ( IBds )sin θ zˆ − ( IBds ) cos θ rˆ (8.9.15)
ho
B
S
Due to the axial symmetry, the radial component of the force will exactly cancel, and we
are left with the z-component.
Figure 8.9.4 Magnetic force acting on the conducting ring
The total force acting on the ring then becomes

G
FB = ( IB sin θ )zˆ v∫ ds = (2π rIB sin θ ) zˆ (8.9.16)
The force points in the +z direction and therefore is repulsive.
22
Remedial Physics
1. Can a charged particle move through a uniform magnetic field without experiencing
any force? Explain.
2. If no work can be done on a charged particle by the magnetic field, how can the motion
of the particle be influenced by the presence of a field?
3. Suppose a charged particle is moving under the influence of both electric and magnetic
fields. How can the effect of the two fields on the motion of the particle be distinguished?
4. What type of magnetic field can exert a force on a magnetic dipole? Is the force
repulsive or attractive?
5. If a compass needle is placed in a uniform magnetic field, is there a net magnetic force
acting on the needle? Is there a net torque?
ia l
a ter
8.11.1 Force Exerted by a Magnetic Field e m
n c
The electrons in the beam of television er e tube have an energy of 12 keV
−19
r e f
( 1 eV = 1.6 × 10 J ). The tube is oriented so that the electrons move horizontally from
o r
south to north. At MIT, the Earth's
t magnetic field points roughly vertically down (i.e.
neglect the component that h
Sis directed toward magnetic north) and has magnitude B ~
5 × 10−5 T.
(a) In what direction will the beam deflect?
(b) What is the acceleration of a given electron associated with this deflection? [Ans.
~ 10 −15 m/s2.]
(c) How far will the beam deflect in moving 0.20 m through the television tube?
8.11.2 Magnetic Force on a Current Carrying Wire
A square loop of wire, of length A = 0.1 m on each side, has a mass of 50 g and pivots
about an axis AA' that corresponds to a horizontal side of the square, as shown in Figure
8.11.1. A magnetic field of 500 G, directed vertically downward, uniformly fills the
region in the vicinity of the loop. The loop carries a current I so that it is in equilibrium at
θ = 20° .
23
Remedial Physics
Figure 8.11.1 Magnetic force on a current-carrying square loop.
(a) Consider the force on each segment separately and find the direction of the current
that flows in the loop to maintain the 20° angle.
(b) Calculate the torque about the axis due to these forces.
(c) Find the current in the loop by requiring the sum of all torques (about the axis) to be
zero. (Hint: Consider the effect of gravity on each of the 4 segments of the wire
separately.) [Ans. I ~ 20 A.]
ial
ter
(d) Determine the magnitude and direction of the force exerted on the axis by the pivots.
m a
(e) Repeat part (b) by now using the definition of a magnetic dipole to calculate the
ce
r e n
torque exerted on such a loop due to the presence of a magnetic field.
e
8.11.3 Sliding Bar rt ref
o
Sh
A conducting bar of length is placed on a frictionless inclined plane which is tilted at
an angle θ from the horizontal, as shown in Figure 8.11.2.
Figure 8.11.2 Magnetic force on a conducting bar
A uniform magnetic field is applied in the vertical direction. To prevent the bar from
sliding down, a voltage source is connected to the ends of the bar with current flowing
through. Determine the magnitude and the direction of the current such that the bar will
remain stationary.
24
Remedial Physics
8.11.4 Particle Trajectory

G
A particle of charge − q is moving with a velocity v . It then enters midway between two
plates where there exists a uniform magnetic field pointing into the page, as shown in
Figure 8.11.3.
Figure 8.11.3 Charged particle moving under the influence of a magnetic field
(a) Is the trajectory of the particle deflected upward or downward?
(b) Compute the distance between the left end of the plate and where the particle strikes.
ia l
8.11.5 Particle Orbits in a Magnetic Field a ter
e m
n c
Suppose the entire x-y plane to the right of the origin O is filled with a uniform magnetic
G
r e
field B pointing out of the page, as shown in Figure 8.11.4.
e
rt ref
o
Sh
Figure 8.11.4
Two charged particles travel along the negative x axis in the positive x direction, each
with speed v, and enter the magnetic field at the origin O. The two particles have the
same charge q, but have different masses, m1 and m2 . When in the magnetic field, their
trajectories both curve in the same direction, but describe semi-circles with different radii.
The radius of the semi-circle traced out by particle 2 is exactly twice as big as the radius
of the semi-circle traced out by particle 1.
(a) Is the charge q of these particles such that q > 0 , or is q < 0 ?
25
Remedial Physics
(b) Derive (do not simply state) an expression for the radius R1 of the semi-circle traced
out by particle 1, in terms of q, v, B, and m1 .
(c) What is the ratio m2 / m1 ?

G
(d) Is it possible to apply an electric field E in the region x > 0 only which will cause
both particles to continue to move in a straight line after they enter the region x > 0 ? If
so, indicate the magnitude and direction of that electric field, in terms of the quantities
given. If not, why not?
8.11.6 Force and Torque on a Current Loop
A current loop consists of a semicircle of radius R and two straight segments of length
A with an angle θ between them. The loop is then placed in a uniform magnetic field
pointing to the right, as shown in Figure 8.11.5.
ia l
a ter
e m
n c
e r e
rt ref
o
Sh
Figure 8.11.5 Current loop placed in a uniform magnetic field
(a) Find the net force on the current loop.
(b) Find the net torque on the current loop.
8.11.7 Force on a Wire
A straight wire of length 0.2 m carries a 7.0 A current. It is immersed in a uniform

magnetic field of 0.1 T whose direction lies 20 degrees from the direction of the current.
(a) What is the direction of the force on the wire? Make a sketch to show your answer.
(b) What is the magnitude of the force? [Ans. ~0.05 N]
(c) How could you maximize the force without changing the field or current?
26
Remedial Physics
8.11.8 Levitating Wire

G
A copper wire of diameter d carries a current density J at the Earth’s equator where the
Earth’s magnetic field is horizontal, points north, and has magnitude B = 0.5 × 10−4 T .
The wire lies in a plane that is parallel to the surface of the Earth and is oriented in the
east-west direction. The density and resistivity of copper are ρm = 8.9 ×103 kg/m3 and
ρ = 1.7 ×10−8 Ω⋅ m , respectively.
G
(a) How large must J be, and which direction must it flow in order to levitate the wire?
Use g = 9.8 m/s2
(b) When the wire is floating how much power will be dissipated per cubic centimeter?
ia l
a ter
e m
n c
e r e
rt ref
o
Sh
27
Remedial Physics
phenomenon is known as hysteresis. The variation of M as a function of the externally

applied field B0 is shown in Figure 9.6.4. The loop abcdef is a hysteresis curve.
Figure 9.6.4 A hysteresis curve.
Moreover, in ferromagnets, the strong interaction between neighboring atomic dipole

moments can keep those dipole moments aligned, even when the external magnet field is
reduced to zero. And these aligned dipoles can thus produce a strong magnetic field, all
ial
by themselves, without the necessity of an external magnetic field. This is the origin of
ter
permanent magnets. To see how strong such magnets can be, consider the fact that
a
magnetic dipole moments of atoms typically have magnitudes of the order of 10−23 A ⋅ m 2 .
m
c e
Typical atomic densities are 1029 atoms/m3. If all these dipole moments are aligned, then
we would get a magnetization of order r e n
e
rt ref
M ∼ (10−23 A ⋅ m 2 )(1029 atoms/m3 ) ∼ 106 A/m (9.6.12)
o
Sh
The magnetization corresponds to values of B M = µ0M of order 1 tesla, or 10,000 Gauss,
just due to the atomic currents alone. This is how we get permanent magnets with fields
of order 2200 Gauss.
9.7 Summary
• Biot-Savart law states that the magnetic field dB at a point due to a length
element ds carrying a steady current I and located at r away is given by
µ 0 I d s × rˆ
dB =
4π r 2
where r = r and µ 0 = 4π × 10 −7 T ⋅ m/A is the permeability of free space.
• The magnitude of the magnetic field at a distance r away from an infinitely long
straight wire carrying a current I is
32
Remedial Physics
µ0 I
B=
2π r
• The magnitude of the magnetic force FB between two straight wires of length
carrying steady current of I1 and I 2 and separated by a distance r is
µ0 I1 I 2
FB =
2π r
• Ampere’s law states that the line integral of B ⋅ d s around any closed loop is
proportional to the total steady current passing through any surface that is
bounded by the close loop:
G G
v∫ ⋅ d s = µ0 I enc
B
• The magnetic field inside a toroid which has N closely spaced of wire carrying a
current I is given by
ia l
µ0 NI a ter
B= m
2π r e
n c
e
er of the toroid.
where r is the distance from the fcenter
t r e
r
•
ho a solenoid which has N closely spaced of wire carrying
The magnetic field inside
current I in a lengthSof l is given by
N
B = µ0 I = µ 0 nI
l
where n is the number of number of turns per unit length.
• The properties of magnetic materials are as follows:
Magnetic susceptibility Relative permeability Magnetic permeability

Materials
χm κm = 1 + χm µ m = κ m µ0
Diamagnetic −10−5 ∼ −10−9 κm < 1 µ m < µ0
Paramagnetic 10 −5 ∼ 10 −3 κm > 1 µm > µ0
Ferromagnetic χm 1 κm 1 µm µ0
33
Remedial Physics
9.8 Appendix 1: Magnetic Field off the Symmetry Axis of a Current Loop
In Example 9.2 we calculated the magnetic field due to a circular loop of radius R lying
in the xy plane and carrying a steady current I, at a point P along the axis of symmetry.
Let’s see how the same technique can be extended to calculating the field at a point off
the axis of symmetry in the yz plane.
Figure 9.8.1 Calculating the magnetic field off the symmetry axis of a current loop.
Again, as shown in Example 9.1, the differential current element is

ia l
a ter
Id s = R dφ '( − sin φ ' î + cos φ ' ˆj )
e m
n c
e r e
and its position is described by r ' = R (cos φ ' î + sin φ ' ˆj) . On the other hand, the field point
rt is ref
P now lies in the yz plane with r = y ĵ + z kˆ , as shown in Figure 9.8.1. The
P
corresponding relative positionovector
Sh
r = rP − r ' = − R cos φ ' î + ( y − R sin φ ') ˆj + zkˆ (9.8.1)
with a magnitude
r = r = (− R cos φ ')2 + ( y − R sin φ ') + z 2 = R 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2 yR sin φ

2
(9.8.2)
and the unit vector

r r −r'
rˆ = = P
r | rP − r ' |
pointing from Id s to P. The cross product d s × rˆ can be simplified as
( )
d s × rˆ = R dφ ' − sin φ ' î + cos φ ' ˆj × [− R cos φ ' î + ( y − R sin φ ')ˆj + z kˆ ]
(9.8.3)
= R dφ '[ z cos φ ' î + z sin φ ' ˆj + ( R − y sin φ ') kˆ ]
34
Remedial Physics
Using the Biot-Savart law, the contribution of the current element to the magnetic field at
P is
µ0 I d s × rˆ µ0 I d s × r µ0 IR z cos φ ' î + z sin φ ' ˆj + ( R − y sin φ ') kˆ

dB = = = dφ ' (9.8.4)
4π r 2 4π r 3 4π ( R 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2 yR sin φ ')
3/ 2
Thus, magnetic field at P is
µ0 IR 2π z cos φ ' î + z sin φ ' ˆj + ( R − y sin φ ') kˆ

B ( 0, y, z ) =
4π ∫0
dφ ' (9.8.5)
( )
3/ 2
R 2
+ y 2
+ z 2
− 2 yR sin φ '
The x-component of B can be readily shown to be zero
µ0 IRz 2π cos φ ' dφ '

Bx = ∫
4π 0 ( R 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2 yR sin φ ')3/ 2
=0 (9.8.6)
by making a change of variable w = R 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2 yR sin φ ' , followed by a ia l

a
straightforward integration. One may also invoke symmetry arguments to verify that ter
m
Bx must vanish; namely, the contribution at φ ' is cancelled by the contribution at π − φ ' .
e
On the other hand, the y and the z components of B , n c
e r e
µ0 IRz 2π
rt ref
sin φ ' dφ '
By =
o ∫
4π 0 ( R 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2 yR sin φ ' )3/ 2
(9.8.7)
Sh
and
µ0 IR 2π ( R − y sin φ ') dφ '

Bz = ∫ (9.8.8)
4π ( R 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2 yR sin φ ')
0 3/ 2
involve elliptic integrals which can be evaluated numerically.
In the limit y = 0 , the field point P is located along the z-axis, and we recover the results
obtained in Example 9.2:
µ0 IRz 2π µ0 IRz 2π
By =
4π ( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2 ∫
0
sin φ ' dφ ' = −
4π ( R 2 + z 2 ) 3/ 2
cos φ '
0
=0 (9.8.9)
and
35
Remedial Physics
µ IR 2 2π µ0 2π IR 2 µ0 IR 2
Bz = 0 2 2 3/ 2
4π ( R + z ) ∫ 0
dφ ' = =
4π ( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2 2( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2
(9.8.10)
Now, let’s consider the “point-dipole” limit where R ( y 2 + z 2 )1/ 2 = r , i.e., the
characteristic dimension of the current source is much smaller compared to the distance
where the magnetic field is to be measured. In this limit, the denominator in the integrand
can be expanded as
−3/ 2
⎡ R 2 − 2 yR sin φ ' ⎤
(R + y + z − 2 yR sin φ ')
1
−3/ 2
2 2 2
= 3 ⎢1 + ⎥
r ⎣ r2 ⎦
(9.8.11)
1 ⎡ 3 ⎛ R 2 − 2 yR sin φ ' ⎞ ⎤
= 3 ⎢1 − ⎜ 2 ⎟ + …⎥
r ⎣ 2⎝ r ⎠ ⎦
This leads to
µ0 I Rz 2π ⎡ 3 ⎛ R 2 − 2 yR sin φ ' ⎞ ⎤
4π r 3 ∫0 ⎣ 2 ⎝
By ≈ ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ sin φl ' dφ '
r2 ⎠⎦ a
e r i (9.8.12)
µ I 3R yz 2
2π t
µ Ia3π R yz 2
= ∫ sin φ ' dφ ' =
0 2 0
4π r 5 0
e m
4π r 5
n c
r e
and
r e fe
µI R
t
⎡ or3 ⎛ R − 2 yR sin φ ' ⎞ ⎤
2π
2
⎢h
4π r ∫ S
≈ − ⎟ ⎥ ( R − y sin φ ')dφ '
0
Bz 3
1 ⎜ 2
⎣ 2
0
⎝ r ⎠⎦
µ 0 I R 2π ⎡ ⎛ 3R ⎞ ⎛ 9 R ⎞
3 2
3Ry 2 ⎤
4π r 3 ∫0 ⎣⎝
= ⎢ ⎜ R − ⎟ − ⎜ 1 − ⎟ sin φ '− sin 2
φ ' ⎥ dφ '
2r 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 r 2 ⎠ r2 ⎦
(9.8.13)
µ0 I R ⎡ ⎛ 3R 3 ⎞ 3π Ry 2 ⎤
= ⎢ 2π ⎜ R − 2 ⎟ − ⎥
4π r 3 ⎣ ⎝ 2r ⎠ r2 ⎦
µ0 I π R 2 ⎡ 3 y2 ⎤
= ⎢ 2 − r 2 + higher order terms ⎥
4π r 3 ⎣ ⎦
The quantity I (π R 2 ) may be identified as the magnetic dipole moment µ = IA , where

A = π R 2 is the area of the loop. Using spherical coordinates where y = r sin θ and
z = r cos θ , the above expressions may be rewritten as
µ0 ( I π R 2 ) 3(r sin θ )(r cos θ ) µ0 3µ sin θ cos θ

By = = (9.8.14)
4π r5 4π r3
36
Remedial Physics
and
µ0 ( I π R 2 ) ⎛ 3r 2 sin 2 θ ⎞ µ0 µ µ µ
Bz = ⎜2− ⎟= (2 − 3sin 2 θ ) = 0 3 (3 cos 2 θ − 1) (9.8.15)
4π r 3
⎝ r 2
⎠ 4π r
3
4π r
Thus, we see that the magnetic field at a point r R due to a current ring of radius R
may be approximated by a small magnetic dipole moment placed at the origin (Figure
9.8.2).
Figure 9.8.2 Magnetic dipole moment µ = µ kˆ
The magnetic field lines due to a current loop and a dipole moment (small bar magnet)
are depicted in Figure 9.8.3.
ia l
a ter
e m
n c
e r e
rt ref
o
Sh
Figure 9.8.3 Magnetic field lines due to (a) a current loop, and (b) a small bar magnet.
The magnetic field at P can also be written in spherical coordinates
B = Br rˆ + Bθ θˆ (9.8.16)
The spherical components Br and Bθ are related to the Cartesian components B y and Bz
by
Br = By sin θ + Bz cos θ , Bθ = By cos θ − Bz sin θ (9.8.17)
In addition, we have, for the unit vectors,
rˆ = sin θ ˆj + cos θ kˆ , θˆ = cos θ ˆj − sin θ kˆ (9.8.18)
Using the above relations, the spherical components may be written as
37
Remedial Physics
µ0 IR 2 cos θ 2π dφ '
Br = ∫ (9.8.19)
4π (R + r 2 − 2rR sin θ sin φ ' )
0 2 3/ 2
and
Bθ ( r , θ ) =
µ0 IR 2π ( r sin φ '− R sin θ ) dφ '
∫
4π 0 ( R 2 + r 2 − 2rR sin θ sin φ ' )3/ 2
(9.8.20)
In the limit where R r , we obtain
µ0 IR 2 cos θ 2π µ0 2π IR 2 cos θ µ0 2µ cos θ

Br ≈
4π r 3 ∫
0
dφ ' =
4π r3
=
4π r3
(9.8.21)
and
µ0 IR 2π ( r sin φ '− R sin θ ) dφ '

Bθ = ∫
4π 0 ( R 2 + r 2 − 2rR sin θ sin φ ' )3/ 2
µ0 IR 2π ⎡ ⎛ 3R 2 ⎞ ⎛ 3R 2 3R 2 sin 2 θ ⎞ l ⎤
3 ∫0 ⎢
≈ − R sin θ ⎜ 1 − 2 ⎟
+ ⎜ r − − i a
⎟rsin φ '+ 3R sin θ sin 2 φ '⎥dφ '
4π r ⎣ ⎝ 2r ⎠ ⎝ 2r 2r e⎠ ⎦
a t
µ IR µ ( I π R ) sinm
θ 2
≈ 0
( −2π R sin θ + 3π R sin θ ) = e 0
4π r 3
4nπcr 3
µ µ sin θ er e
= 0
4π r 3
r e f
o r t (9.8.22)
Sh
9.9 Appendix 2: Helmholtz Coils
Consider two N-turn circular coils of radius R, each perpendicular to the axis of
symmetry, with their centers located at z = ± l / 2 . There is a steady current I flowing in
the same direction around each coil, as shown in Figure 9.9.1. Let’s find the magnetic
field B on the axis at a distance z from the center of one coil.
Figure 9.9.1 Helmholtz coils
38
Remedial Physics
Using the result shown in Example 9.2 for a single coil and applying the superposition
principle, the magnetic field at P ( z , 0) (a point at a distance z − l / 2 away from one
center and z + l / 2 from the other) due to the two coils can be obtained as:
µ0 NIR 2 ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
Bz = Btop + Bbottom = ⎢ [( z − l / 2) 2 + R 2 ]3/ 2 + [( z + l / 2) 2 + R 2 ]3/ 2 ⎥ (9.9.1)
2 ⎣ ⎦
µ0 NI
A plot of Bz / B0 with B0 = being the field strength at z = 0 and l = R is
(5 / 4)3/ 2 R
depicted in Figure 9.9.2.
ia l
a ter
e m
n c
Figure 9.9.2 Magnetic field as a function of z / R .
e r e
rt ref
Let’s analyze the properties of Bz in more detail. Differentiating Bz with respect to z, we
o
Sh
obtain
dBz µ0 NIR 2 ⎧ 3( z − l / 2) 3( z + l / 2) ⎫
Bz′ ( z ) = = ⎨− − 2 5/ 2 ⎬
(9.9.2)
⎩ [( z − l / 2) + R ] [( z + l / 2) + R ] ⎭
2 2 5/ 2 2
dz 2
One may readily show that at the midpoint, z = 0 , the derivative vanishes:
dB
=0 (9.9.3)
dz z =0
Straightforward differentiation yields
d 2 B N µ0 IR 2 ⎧ 3 15( z − l / 2) 2
Bz′′( z ) = = ⎨ − +
dz 2 ⎩ [( z − l / 2) + R ] [( z − l / 2) 2 + R 2 ]7 / 2
2 2 5/ 2
2
3 15( z + l / 2) 2 ⎫
− + 2 7/2 ⎬
[( z + l / 2) + R ]
2 2 5/ 2
[( z + l / 2) + R ] ⎭
2
(9.9.4)
39
Remedial Physics
At the midpoint z = 0 , the above expression simplifies to
d 2B µ0 NI 2 ⎧ 6 15l 2 ⎫
Bz′′(0) = = ⎨ − + 2 7/2 ⎬
dz 2 ⎩ [(l / 2) + R ] 2[(l / 2) + R ] ⎭
2 2 5/ 2 2
z =0
2
(9.9.5)
µ0 NI 2 6( R 2 − l 2 )
=−
2 [(l / 2) 2 + R 2 ]7 / 2
Thus, the condition that the second derivative of Bz vanishes at z = 0 is l = R . That is,
the distance of separation between the two coils is equal to the radius of the coil. A
configuration with l = R is known as Helmholtz coils.
For small z, we may make a Taylor-series expansion of Bz ( z ) about z = 0 :
1
Bz ( z ) = Bz (0) + Bz′ (0) z + Bz′′(0) z 2 + ... (9.9.6)
2!
l
The fact that the first two derivatives vanish at z = 0 indicates that the magnetic field is
ia
ter
fairly uniform in the small z region. One may even show that the third derivative
a
Bz′′′(0) vanishes at z = 0 as well. m
c e
e n
e f er in a magnetic field is F = ∇(µ ⋅ B) . If we
Recall that the force experienced by a dipole B
place a magnetic dipole µ = µ kˆ att zr = 0 , the magnetic force acting on the dipole is
or
z
S h
⎛ dB ⎞ ˆ
FB = ∇( µ z Bz ) = µ z ⎜ z ⎟ k (9.9.7)
⎝ dz ⎠
which is expected to be very small since the magnetic field is nearly uniform there.
Animation 9.5: Magnetic Field of the Helmholtz Coils
The animation in Figure 9.9.3(a) shows the magnetic field of the Helmholtz coils. In this
configuration the currents in the top and bottom coils flow in the same direction, with
their dipole moments aligned. The magnetic fields from the two coils add up to create a
net field that is nearly uniform at the center of the coils. Since the distance between the
coils is equal to the radius of the coils and remains unchanged, the force of attraction
between them creates a tension, and is illustrated by field lines stretching out to enclose
both coils. When the distance between the coils is not fixed, as in the animation depicted
in Figure 9.9.3(b), the two coils move toward each other due to their force of attraction.
In this animation, the top loop has only half the current as the bottom loop. The field
configuration is shown using the “iron filings” representation.
40
Remedial Physics
(a) (b)
Figure 9.9.3 (a) Magnetic field of the Helmholtz coils where the distance between the
coils is equal to the radius of the coil. (b) Two co-axial wire loops carrying current in the
same sense are attracted to each other.
Next, let’s consider the case where the currents in the loop flow in the opposite directions,
as shown in Figure 9.9.4.
ia l
a ter
e m
n c
e r e
rt ref
o
Figure 9.9.4 Two circular loops carrying currents in the opposite directions.
Sh
Again, by superposition principle, the magnetic field at a point P (0, 0, z ) with z > 0 is
µ0 NIR 2 ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
Bz = B1z + B2 z = ⎢ [( z − l / 2) 2 + R 2 ]3/ 2 − [( z + l / 2) 2 + R 2 ]3/ 2 ⎥ (9.9.8)
2 ⎣ ⎦
A plot of Bz / B0 with B0 = µ0 NI / 2 R and l = R is depicted in Figure 9.9.5.
Figure 9.9.5 Magnetic field as a function of z / R . 41

Remedial Physics
Differentiating Bz with respect to z, we obtain
dBz µ0 NIR 2 ⎧ 3( z − l / 2) 3( z + l / 2) ⎫
Bz′ ( z ) = = ⎨− + 2 5/ 2 ⎬
(9.9.9)
dz 2 ⎩ [( z − l / 2) + R ]
2 2 5/ 2
[( z + l / 2) + R ] ⎭
2
At the midpoint, z = 0 , we have
dBz µ NIR 2 3l
Bz′ (0) = = 0 ≠0 (9.9.10)
dz z = 0 2 [(l / 2) + R 2 ]5/ 2
2
Thus, a magnetic dipole µ = µ z kˆ placed at z = 0 will experience a net force:
⎛ dB (0) ⎞ µ µ NIR 2 3l
FB = ∇(µ ⋅ B) = ∇( µ z Bz ) = µ z ⎜ z ⎟ kˆ = z 0 kˆ (9.9.11)
⎝ dz ⎠ 2 [(l / 2) + R ]
2 2 5/ 2
For l = R , the above expression simplifies to ia l

a ter
FB =
3µ z µ0 NI ˆ
e m k (9.9.12)
n c
2(5 / 4)5 / 2 R 2
r e
r e fe
rt
Animation 9.6: Magnetic Field of Two Coils Carrying Opposite Currents
o
Sh
The animation depicted in Figure 9.9.6 shows the magnetic field of two coils like the
Helmholtz coils but with currents in the top and bottom coils flowing in the opposite
directions. In this configuration, the magnetic dipole moments associated with each coil
are anti-parallel.
(a) (b)
Figure 9.9.6 (a) Magnetic field due to coils carrying currents in the opposite directions.
(b) Two co-axial wire loops carrying current in the opposite sense repel each other. The
field configurations here are shown using the “iron filings” representation. The bottom
wire loop carries twice the amount of current as the top wire loop.
42
Remedial Physics
At the center of the coils along the axis of symmetry, the magnetic field is zero. With the
distance between the two coils fixed, the repulsive force results in a pressure between
them. This is illustrated by field lines that are compressed along the central horizontal
axis between the coils.
Animation 9.7: Forces Between Coaxial Current-Carrying Wires
l
Figure 9.9.7 A magnet in the TeachSpin ™ Magnetic Force apparatus when the current
ia
in the top coil is counterclockwise as seen from the top.
ater
m
Figure 9.9.7 shows the force of repulsion between
magnet and the field of a current-carrying n cein the
ring
the magnetic field of a permanent
TeachSpin ™ Magnetic Force
r e
apparatus. The magnet is forced to have
r e feits Force
the current in the top coil of the Magnetic
North magnetic pole pointing downward, and
apparatus is moving clockwise as seen
rt
from above. The net result is aorepulsion of the magnet when the current in this direction
Sh shows the stresses transmitted by the fields to the magnet
is increased. The visualization
when the current in the upper coil is increased.
Animation 9.8: Magnet Oscillating Between Two Coils
Figure 9.9.8 illustrates an animation in which the magnetic field of a permanent magnet
suspended by a spring in the TeachSpinTM apparatus (see TeachSpin visualization), plus
the magnetic field due to current in the two coils (here we see a "cutaway" cross-section
of the apparatus).
Figure 9.9.8 Magnet oscillating between two coils

43
Remedial Physics
The magnet is fixed so that its north pole points upward, and the current in the two coils
is sinusoidal and 180 degrees out of phase. When the effective dipole moment of the top
coil points upwards, the dipole moment of the bottom coil points downwards. Thus, the
magnet is attracted to the upper coil and repelled by the lower coil, causing it to move
upwards. When the conditions are reversed during the second half of the cycle, the
magnet moves downwards.
This process can also be described in terms of tension along, and pressure perpendicular
to, the field lines of the resulting field. When the dipole moment of one of the coils is
aligned with that of the magnet, there is a tension along the field lines as they attempt to
"connect" the coil and magnet. Conversely, when their moments are anti-aligned, there is
a pressure perpendicular to the field lines as they try to keep the coil and magnet apart.
Animation 9.9: Magnet Suspended Between Two Coils
l
Figure 9.9.9 illustrates an animation in which the magnetic field of a permanent magnet
ia
a ter
suspended by a spring in the TeachSpinTM apparatus (see TeachSpin visualization), plus
the magnetic field due to current in the two coils (here we see a "cutaway" cross-section
e m
of the apparatus). The magnet is fixed so that its north pole points upward, and the
n c
current in the two coils is sinusoidal and in phase. When the effective dipole moment of
e r e
the top coil points upwards, the dipole moment of the bottom coil points upwards as well.
ref
Thus, the magnet the magnet is attracted to both coils, and as a result feels no net force
rt
o
(although it does feel a torque, not shown here since the direction of the magnet is fixed
Sh
to point upwards). When the dipole moments are reversed during the second half of the
cycle, the magnet is repelled by both coils, again resulting in no net force.
This process can also be described in terms of tension along, and pressure perpendicular
to, the field lines of the resulting field. When the dipole moment of the coils is aligned
with that of the magnet, there is a tension along the field lines as they are "pulled" from
both sides. Conversely, when their moments are anti-aligned, there is a pressure
perpendicular to the field lines as they are "squeezed" from both sides.
Figure 9.9.9 Magnet suspended between two coils

44
Remedial Physics
9.10 Problem-Solving Strategies
In this Chapter, we have seen how Biot-Savart and Ampere’s laws can be used to
calculate magnetic field due to a current source.
9.10.1 Biot-Savart Law:
The law states that the magnetic field at a point P due to a length element ds carrying a
steady current I located at r away is given by
µ 0 I d s × rˆ µ 0 I d s × r
dB = =
4π r 2 4π r 3
The calculation of the magnetic field may be carried out as follows:
ia l
(1) Source point: Choose an appropriate coordinate system and write down an expression
ter
for the differential current element I ds , and the vector r ' describing the position of I ds .
a
The magnitude r ' =| r '| is the distance between I ds and the origin. Variables with a
m
“prime” are used for the source point. c e
e n
e
(2) Field point: The field point P is the fer in space where the magnetic field due to the
point
r t r Using the same coordinate system, write down the
current distribution is to be calculated.
position vector r for the field
P
S hopoint P. The quantity r =| r | is the distance between the
P P
origin and P.
(3) Relative position vector: The relative position between the source point and the field
point is characterized by the relative position vector r = rP − r ' . The corresponding unit
vector is
r r −r '
rˆ = = P
r | rP − r ' |
where r =| r |=| rP − r '| is the distance between the source and the field point P.
(4) Calculate the cross product d s × rˆ or d s × r . The resultant vector gives the direction of
the magnetic field B , according to the Biot-Savart law.
(5) Substitute the expressions obtained to dB and simplify as much as possible.

(6) Complete the integration to obtain Bif possible. The size or the geometry of the
system is reflected in the integration limits. Change of variables sometimes may help to
complete the integration.
45
Remedial Physics
Below we illustrate how these steps are executed for a current-carrying wire of length L
and a loop of radius R.
Current distribution Finite wire of length L Circular loop of radius R
Figure
(1) Source point

r ' = x ' î
r i al
r ' = R(cos φ ' î + sin φ ' ˆj)
d s = (dr '/ dx ') dx ' = dx ' î d s = (tde
r '/ dφ ')dφ ' = Rdφ '(− sin φ ' î + cos φ ' ˆj)
m a
(2) Field point P rP = yˆj ce rP = zkˆ
r e n
r e fe
r = yˆj − x ' î r = − R cos φ ' î − R sin φ ' ˆj + z kˆ
r =| rt|= x ' + y r =| r |= R 2 + z 2
or yˆj − x ' î
2 2
(3) Relative position vector
r = rP − r ' h
S rˆ = − R cos φ ' î − R sin φ ' ˆj + z kˆ
rˆ =
x '2 + y 2 R2 + z2
(4) The cross product y dx′kˆ R dφ '( z cos φ ' î + z sin φ ' ˆj + R kˆ )
d s × rˆ = d s × rˆ =
d s × rˆ y 2 + x′2 R2 + z 2
µ0 I y dx′ kˆ µ0 I R dφ '( z cos φ ' î + z sin φ ' ˆj + R kˆ )

(5) Rewrite dB dB = dB =
4π ( y 2 + x′2 )3/ 2 4π ( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2
Bx = 0
µ0 IRz 2π
By = 0 Bx =
4π ( R + z )
2 2 3/ 2 ∫
0
cos φ ' dφ ' = 0
µ0 Iy L / 2 dx ' µ0 IRz 2π
(6) Integrate to get B Bz =

4π ∫− L / 2 ( y + x '2 )3/ 2
2
By =
4π ( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2 ∫ 0
sin φ ' dφ ' = 0
µI L µ0 IR 2 2π µ0 IR 2
= 0 Bz =
4π ( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2 ∫ dφ ' =
2( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2
4π y y + ( L / 2) 2
0
2
46
Remedial Physics
9.10.2 Ampere’s law:
Ampere’s law states that the line integral of B ⋅ d s around any closed loop is proportional
to the total current passing through any surface that is bounded by the closed loop:
G G
v∫ B ⋅ d s = µ I
0 enc
To apply Ampere’s law to calculate the magnetic field, we use the following procedure:
(1) Draw an Amperian loop using symmetry arguments.
(2) Find the current enclosed by the Amperian loop.

G G
(3) Calculate the line integral v∫ ⋅ d s around the closed loop.
B
G G l
v∫ B ⋅ d s with µ 0 I enc and solve for B . ia
ter
(4) Equate
m a
Below we summarize how the methodology can be applied to calculate the magnetic field
ce
for an infinite wire, an ideal solenoid and a toroid.
r e n
r e fe
System
o rt
Infinite wire Ideal solenoid Toroid
Sh
Figure
(1) Draw the Amperian

loop
(2) Find the current

enclosed by the I enc = I I enc = NI I enc = NI
Amperian loop
G G G G G
(3) Calculate v∫ B ⋅ d s G
v∫ B ⋅ d s = B(2π r )
G
v∫ B ⋅ d s = Bl
G
v∫ B ⋅ d s = B(2π r )
along the loop
47
Remedial Physics
(4) Equate µ 0 I enc with µ0 I µ0 NI µ0 NI

G G B= B= = µ0 nI B=
v∫ ⋅ d s to obtain B
B 2π r l 2π r
9.11 Solved Problems
9.11.1 Magnetic Field of a Straight Wire
Consider a straight wire of length L carrying a current I along the +x-direction, as

shown in Figure 9.11.1 (ignore the return path of the current or the source for the current.)
What is the magnetic field at an arbitrary point P on the xy-plane?
ia l
a ter
e m
n c
Figure 9.11.1 A finite straight wire carrying a current I.
e r e
Solution:
rt ref
o
Stoh Example 9.1. However, now the field point is an arbitrary
The problem is very similar
point in the xy-plane. Once again we solve the problem using the methodology outlined
in Section 9.10.
(1) Source point
From Figure 9.10.1, we see that the infinitesimal length dx′ described by the position
vector r ' = x ' î constitutes a current source I d s = ( Idx′)î .
(2) Field point
As can be seen from Figure 9.10.1, the position vector for the field point P is r = x î + y ˆj .
(3) Relative position vector
The relative position vector from the source to P is r = rP − r ' = ( x − x ') î + y ˆj , with
r =| rP |=| r − r ' |= [( x − x′) 2 + y 2 ]1 2 being the distance. The corresponding unit vector is
48
Remedial Physics
r r −r' ( x − x′) î + y ˆj
rˆ = = P =
r | rP − r ' | [( x − x′) 2 + y 2 ]1 2
(4) Simplifying the cross product
The cross product d s × r can be simplified as
( dx ' î ) × [( x − x ') î + y ˆj] = y dx ' kˆ
where we have used î × î = 0 and î × ˆj = kˆ .
(5) Writing down dB
Using the Biot-Savart law, the infinitesimal contribution due to Id s is
µ0 I d s × rˆ µ0 I d s × r µ0 I y dx′l
dB =
4π r
=
4π r
=
4π [( x − r′
i a+ y 2 ]3 2 kˆ (9.11.1)
te
2 3 2
x )
m a
c e
Thus, we see that the direction of the magnetic field is in the +kˆ direction.
e n
e feBr
r t r
(6) Carrying out the integration to obtain
The total magnetic field at P h

o
the wire:
S can then be obtained by integrating over the entire length of
L/2
L/2 µ0 Iy dx′ µI ( x − x′)
B = ∫ dB = ∫ kˆ = − 0 kˆ
− L / 2 4π [( x − x′) + y ]
2 2 3 2
4π y ( x − x′) 2 + y 2
wire
−L/2
(9.11.2)
µ0 I ⎡ ( x − L / 2) ( x + L / 2) ⎤
=− ⎢ − ⎥ kˆ
4π y ⎢⎣ ( x − L / 2) 2 + y 2 ( x + L / 2) 2 + y 2 ⎥⎦
Let’s consider the following limits:
(i) x = 0
In this case, the field point P is at ( x, y ) = (0, y ) on the y axis. The magnetic field
becomes
49
Remedial Physics
µ0 I ⎡ −L / 2 +L / 2 ⎤ µI L/2 µI
B=− ⎢ − ⎥ kˆ = 0 kˆ = 0 cos θ kˆ
4π y ⎢⎣ (− L / 2) + y
2 2
(+ L / 2) + y ⎥⎦
2 2 2π y ( L / 2) + y
2 2 2π y
(9.11.3)
in agreement with Eq. (9.1.6).
(ii) Infinite length limit
Consider the limit where L x, y . This gives back the expected infinite-length result:
µ0 I ⎡ − L / 2 + L / 2 ⎤ ˆ µ0 I ˆ
B=− − k= k (9.11.4)
4π y ⎢⎣ L / 2 L / 2 ⎦⎥ 2π y
If we use cylindrical coordinates with the wire pointing along the +z-axis then the
magnetic field is given by the expression
µ0 I l
B= φˆ ia (9.11.5)
2π r
a ter
m
e point P is a distance r away from the
where φ̂ is the tangential unit vector and the field
n c
wire.
fe re
t r e
9.11.2 Current-Carrying Arcor
Sh
Consider the current-carrying loop formed of radial lines and segments of circles whose
centers are at point P as shown below. Find the magnetic field B at P.
Figure 9.11.2 Current-carrying arc
Solution:
According to the Biot-Savart law, the magnitude of the magnetic field due to a
differential current-carrying element I d s is given by
50
Remedial Physics
µ0 I d s × rˆ µ0 I r dθ ' µ0 I
dB = = = dθ ' (9.11.6)
4π r2 4π r 2 4π r
For the outer arc, we have
µ0 I θ µ Iθ
Bouter =
4π b ∫0
dθ ' = 0
4π b
(9.11.7)
The direction of B outer is determined by the cross product d s × rˆ which points out of the
page. Similarly, for the inner arc, we have
µ0 I θ µ Iθ
Binner = ∫
4π a 0
dθ ' = 0
4π a
(9.11.8)
For Binner , d s × rˆ points into the page. Thus, the total magnitude of magnetic field is
µ 0 Iθ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
B = Binner + B outer = ⎜ − ⎟ (into page) (9.11.9)
4π ⎝ a b ⎠
e rial
a t
9.11.3 Rectangular Current Loop e m
n c
r e
loop shown in Figure 9.11.3 r e fe
Determine the magnetic field (in terms of I, a and b) at the origin O due to the current
or t
S h
Figure 9.11.3 Rectangular current loop
51
Remedial Physics
Solution:
For a finite wire carrying a current I, the contribution to the

magnetic field at a point P is given by Eq. (9.1.5):
µ0 I
B= ( cos θ1 + cos θ 2 )
4π r
where θ1 and θ 2 are the angles which parameterize the

length of the wire.
To obtain the magnetic field at O, we make use of the above formula. The contributions
can be divided into three parts:
(i) Consider the left segment of the wire which extends from ( x, y ) = ( − a, +∞ ) to
( − a, + d ) . The angles which parameterize this segment give cos θ1 = 1 ( θ1 = 0 ) and
cos θ 2 = −b / b 2 + a 2 . Therefore,
µ0 I µI⎛ b ⎞
B1 = ( cos θ1 + cos θ 2 ) = 0 ⎜1 − 2 2 ⎟ (9.11.10)
4π a 4π a ⎝ b +la ⎠
e ria
The direction of B1 is out of page, or +kˆ . a t
e m
n c
(ii) Next, we consider the segment which extends from ( x, y ) = ( − a, +b) to (+ a, +b) .
r e
e fe
Again, the (cosine of the) angles are given by
r
or t
S h cos θ 1 =
a
(9.11.11)
a + b2
2
a
cos θ 2 = cos θ1 = (9.11.12)
a + b2
2
This leads to
µ0 I ⎛ a a ⎞ µ0 Ia
B2 = ⎜ 2 2 + 2 2 ⎟= (9.11.13)
4π b ⎝ a + b a + b ⎠ 2π b a 2 + b 2
The direction of B2 is into the page, or −kˆ .
(iii) The third segment of the wire runs from ( x, y ) = ( + a, +b) to ( + a, +∞ ) . One may
readily show that it gives the same contribution as the first one:
B3 = B1 (9.11.14)
52
Remedial Physics
The direction of B3 is again out of page, or +kˆ .
The magnetic field is
µ0 I ⎛ b ⎞ˆ µ0 Ia
B = B1 + B 2 + B3 = 2B1 + B 2 = ⎜1 − 2 ⎟k − kˆ
2π a ⎝ a + b2 ⎠ 2π b a 2
+ b 2
(9.11.15)
=
µ0 I
2π ab a + b
2 2 (b )
a 2 + b 2 − b 2 − a 2 kˆ
Note that in the limit a → 0 , the horizontal segment is absent, and the two semi-infinite
wires carrying currents in the opposite direction overlap each other and their
contributions completely cancel. Thus, the magnetic field vanishes in this limit.
9.11.4 Hairpin-Shaped Current-Carrying Wire
An infinitely long current-carrying wire is bent into a hairpin-like shape shown in Figure
l
9.11.4. Find the magnetic field at the point P which lies at the center of the half-circle.
ia
a ter
e m
n c
e r e
rt ref
o
Sh
Figure 9.11.4 Hairpin-shaped current-carrying wire
Solution:
Again we break the wire into three parts: two semi-infinite plus a semi-circular segments.
(i) Let P be located at the origin in the xy plane. The first semi-infinite segment then
extends from ( x, y ) = ( −∞, − r ) to (0, − r ) . The two angles which parameterize this
segment are characterized by cosθ1 = 1 ( θ1 = 0 ) and cos θ 2 = 0 (θ 2 = π / 2) . Therefore, its
contribution to the magnetic field at P is
µ0 I µI µI
B1 = ( cos θ1 + cos θ 2 ) = 0 (1 + 0) = 0 (9.11.16)
4π r 4π r 4π r
The direction of B1 is out of page, or +kˆ .
53
Remedial Physics
(ii) For the semi-circular arc of radius r, we make use of the Biot-Savart law:
µ0 I d s × rˆ
4π ∫ r 2
B= (9.11.17)
and obtain
µ0 I π rdθ µ0 I
B2 =
4π ∫
0 r2
=
4r
(9.11.18)
The direction of B2 is out of page, or +kˆ .
(iii) The third segment of the wire runs from ( x, y ) = (0, + r ) to ( −∞, + r) . One may readily
show that it gives the same contribution as the first one:
µ0 I
B3 = B1 = (9.11.19)
4π r
The direction of B3 is again out of page, or +kˆ . ial

a ter
The total magnitude of the magnetic field is
e m
n c
e e
r= I kˆ + µ I kˆ = µ I (2 + π )kˆ (9.11.20)
µ
B = B + B + B = 2B +fB 0 0 0
1 2 3
t r e 2π r 4r 4π r
1 2
h or the two semi-infinite wires is equal to that due to an

S
Notice that the contribution from
infinite wire:
µ0 I ˆ
B1 + B 3 = 2B1 = k (9.11.21)
2π r
9.11.5 Two Infinitely Long Wires
Consider two infinitely long wires carrying currents are in the −x-direction.
Figure 9.11.5 Two infinitely long wires 54

Remedial Physics
(a) Plot the magnetic field pattern in the yz-plane.
(b) Find the distance d along the z-axis where the magnetic field is a maximum.
Solutions:
(a) The magnetic field lines are shown in Figure 9.11.6. Notice that the directions of both
currents are into the page.
ia l
a ter
m
Figure 9.11.6 Magnetic field lines of two wires carrying current in the same direction.
e
n c
r e
(b) The magnetic field at (0, 0, z) duee tofe
wire 1 on the left is, using Ampere’s law:
r t r
o
Sh B = µ I = µ I
1
2π r
0 0
(9.11.22)
2π a 2 + z 2
Since the current is flowing in the –x-direction, the magnetic field points in the direction
of the cross product
(−î ) × rˆ1 = (−î ) × (cos θ ˆj + sin θ kˆ ) = sin θ ˆj − cos θ kˆ (9.11.23)
Thus, we have
µ0 I
B1 =
2π a + z2 2
(sin θ ˆj − cosθ kˆ ) (9.11.24)
For wire 2 on the right, the magnetic field strength is the same as the left one: B1 = B2 .
However, its direction is given by
(−î ) × rˆ2 = (−î ) × (− cos θ ˆj + sin θ kˆ ) = sin θ ˆj + cos θ kˆ (9.11.25)
55
Remedial Physics
Adding up the contributions from both wires, the z-components cancel (as required by
symmetry), and we arrive at
µ0 I sin θ ˆ µ0 Iz ˆ
B = B1 + B 2 = j= j (9.11.26)
π a +z2 2 π (a 2 + z 2 )
Figure 9.11.7 Superposition of magnetic fields due to two current sources

r i al
To locate the maximum of B, we set dB / dz = 0 and find te
m a
dB µ I ⎛ 1
e
2 z nc ⎞ µ I a − z
2 2 2
= 0
⎜ − e ⎟= 0
=0 (9.11.27)
dz π ⎝ a + z f(e
2 2
a r+ z ) ⎠ π ( a + z )
2 2 2 2 2 2
t r e
which gives h or
S z=a (9.11.28)
Thus, at z=a, the magnetic field strength is a maximum, with a magnitude
µ0 I
Bmax = (9.11.29)
2π a
9.11.6 Non-Uniform Current Density
Consider an infinitely long, cylindrical conductor of radius R carrying a current I with a

non-uniform current density
J = αr (9.11.30)
where α is a constant. Find the magnetic field everywhere.
56
Remedial Physics
Figure 9.11.8 Non-uniform current density
Solution:
The problem can be solved by using the Ampere’s law:

G G
v∫ ⋅ d s = µ0 I enc
B (9.11.31)
where the enclosed current Ienc is given by
I enc = ∫ J ⋅ dA = ∫ (α r ')( 2π r ' dr ') ial

ter
(9.11.32)
m a
(a) For r < R , the enclosed current is
c e
e n
er
I =r∫e2fπα r ' dr ' =
r 2πα r 2
3
(9.11.33)
rt
enc 0 3
o
Sh
Applying Ampere’s law, the magnetic field at P1 is given by
2 µ 0πα r 3
B1 ( 2π r ) = (9.11.34)
3
or
αµ 0
B1 = r2 (9.11.35)
3
The direction of the magnetic field B1 is tangential to the Amperian loop which encloses
the current.
(b) For r > R , the enclosed current is
R 2πα R 3
I enc = ∫ 2πα r '2 dr ' = (9.11.36)
0 3
which yields
57
Remedial Physics
2 µ 0πα R 3
B2 ( 2π r ) = (9.11.37)
3
Thus, the magnetic field at a point P2 outside the conductor is
αµ0 R3
B2 = (9.11.38)
3r
A plot of B as a function of r is shown in Figure 9.11.9:
ial
a ter
m
Figure 9.11.9 The magnetic field as a function
n ceof distance away from the conductor
fe re
9.11.7 Thin Strip of Metal t r e
h or
Consider an infinitely long,Sthin strip of metal of width w lying in the xy plane. The strip
carries a current I along the +x-direction, as shown in Figure 9.11.10. Find the magnetic
field at a point P which is in the plane of the strip and at a distance s away from it.
Figure 9.11.10 Thin strip of metal
58
Remedial Physics
Solution:
Consider a thin strip of width dr parallel to the direction of the current and at a distance r
away from P, as shown in Figure 9.11.11. The amount of current carried by this
differential element is
⎛ dr ⎞
dI = I ⎜ ⎟ (9.11.39)
⎝w⎠
Using Ampere’s law, we see that the strip’s contribution to the magnetic field at P is
given by
dB(2π r ) = µ 0 I enc = µ 0 (dI ) (9.11.40)
or
µ 0 dI µ 0 ⎛ I dr ⎞
dB = = ⎜ ⎟ (9.11.41)
2π r 2π r ⎝ w ⎠
ial
a ter
e m
n c
e r e
rt ref
Figure 9.11.11 A thin strip with thickness dr carrying a steady current I .
o
Sh
Integrating this expression, we obtain
s+w µ 0 I ⎛ dr ⎞ µ 0 I ⎛ s + w ⎞
B=∫ ⎜ ⎟= ln ⎜ ⎟ (9.11.42)
s 2π w ⎝ r ⎠ 2π w ⎝ s ⎠
Using the right-hand rule, the direction of the magnetic field can be shown to point in the
+z-direction, or
µ I ⎛ w⎞
B = 0 ln ⎜ 1 + ⎟ kˆ (9.11.43)
2π w ⎝ s⎠
Notice that in the limit of vanishing width, w s , ln(1 + w / s ) ≈ w / s , and the above
expression becomes
µ0 I ˆ
B= k (9.11.44)
2π s
which is the magnetic field due to an infinitely long thin straight wire.
59
Remedial Physics
9.11.8 Two Semi-Infinite Wires
A wire carrying current I runs down the y axis to the origin, thence out to infinity along
the positive x axis. Show that the magnetic field in the quadrant with x, y > 0 of the xy
plane is given by
µ0 I ⎛ 1 1 x y ⎞
Bz = ⎜ + + + ⎟ (9.11.45)
4π ⎜⎝ x y y x 2 + y 2 x x 2 + y 2 ⎟
⎠
Solution:
Let P ( x, y ) be a point in the first quadrant at a distance r1 from a point (0, y ') on the y-
axis and distance r2 from ( x ', 0) on the x-axis.
ia l
a ter
e m
n c
e r e
rt ref
o
Sh
Figure 9.11.12 Two semi-infinite wires
Using the Biot-Savart law, the magnetic field at P is given by
µ0 I d s × rˆ µ0 I d s1 × rˆ1 µ0 I d s2 × rˆ2
B = ∫ dB =
4π ∫ r 2 ∫ ∫
= + (9.11.46)
4π wire y
r12 4π wire x
r22
Let’s analyze each segment separately.
(i) Along the y axis, consider a differential element d s1 = −dy ' ˆj which is located at a
distance r = xî + ( y − y ')ˆj from P. This yields
1
d s1 × r1 = (−dy ' ˆj) × [ xî + ( y − y ')ˆj] = x dy ' kˆ (9.11.47)
60
Remedial Physics
(ii) Similarly, along the x-axis, we have d s2 = dx ' î and r2 = ( x − x ')î + yˆj which gives
d s2 × r2 = y dx ' kˆ (9.11.48)
Thus, we see that the magnetic field at P points in the +z-direction. Using the above
results and r1 = x 2 + ( y − y ') 2 and r2 = ( x − x′ ) + y 2 , we obtain
2
µ0 I ∞ x dy ' µI ∞ y dx '
Bz =
4π ∫
0 [ x + ( y − y ') ]
2 2 3/ 2
+ 0
4π ∫0 [ y + ( x − x ') 2 ]3/ 2
2
(9.11.49)
The integrals can be readily evaluated using
∞ b ds 1 a
∫ 0 [b + (a − s ) ]
2 2 3/ 2
= +
b b a + b2
2
(9.11.50)
The final expression for the magnetic field is given by

ia l
µ0 I ⎡1 y 1 x a ⎤ ter
B=
4π
⎢ + + +
e m ⎥ kˆ (9.11.51)
⎢⎣ x x x 2 + y 2 y y x 2 + y 2 ⎥⎦
c
r e n
e fewith
t r
We may show that the result is consistent Eq. (9.1.5)
h or
S
1. Compare and contrast Biot-Savart law in magnetostatics with Coulomb’s law in
electrostatics.
2. If a current is passed through a spring, does the spring stretch or compress? Explain.
G G
3. How is the path of the integration of v∫ B ⋅ d s chosen when applying Ampere’s law?
4. Two concentric, coplanar circular loops of different diameters carry steady currents in
the same direction. Do the loops attract or repel each other? Explain.
5. Suppose three infinitely long parallel wires are arranged in such a way that when
looking at the cross section, they are at the corners of an equilateral triangle. Can currents
be arranged (combination of flowing in or out of the page) so that all three wires (a)
attract, and (b) repel each other? Explain.
61
Remedial Physics
9.13.1 Application of Ampere's Law
The simplest possible application of Ampere's law allows us to calculate the magnetic
field in the vicinity of a single infinitely long wire. Adding more wires with differing
currents will check your understanding of Ampere's law.
(a) Calculate with Ampere's law the magnetic field, | B |= B (r ) , as a function of distance r
from the wire, in the vicinity of an infinitely long straight wire that carries current I.
Show with a sketch the integration path you choose and state explicitly how you use
symmetry. What is the field at a distance of 10 mm from the wire if the current is 10 A?
(b) Eight parallel wires cut the page perpendicularly at the points shown. A wire labeled
with the integer k (k = 1, 2, ... , 8) bears the current 2k times I 0 (i.e., I k = 2k I 0 ). For
those with k = 1 to 4, the current flows up out of the page; for the rest, the current flows
G G
down into the page. Evaluate v∫ B ⋅ d s along the closed path (see figure) in the direction
indicated by the arrowhead. (Watch your signs!)
ia l
a ter
e m
n c
e r e
rt ref
o
Sh
Figure 9.13.1 Amperian loop
(c) Can you use a single application of Ampere's Law to find the field at a point in the
vicinity of the 8 wires? Why? How would you proceed to find the field at an arbitrary
point P?
9.13.2 Magnetic Field of a Current Distribution from Ampere's Law
Consider the cylindrical conductor with a hollow center and copper walls of thickness
b − a as shown in Figure 9.13.2. The radii of the inner and outer walls are a and b
respectively, and the current I is uniformly spread over the cross section of the copper.
62
Remedial Physics
(a) Calculate the magnitude of the magnetic field in the region outside the conductor,
r > b . (Hint: consider the entire conductor to be a single thin wire, construct an
Amperian loop, and apply Ampere's Law.) What is the direction of B ?
Figure 9.13.2 Hollow cylinder carrying a steady current I.
(b) Calculate the magnetic field inside the inner radius, r < a. What is the direction of B ?
(c) Calculate the magnetic field within the inner conductor, a < r < b. What is the
direction of B ?
ia l
a ter
(d) Plot the behavior of the magnitude of the magnetic field B(r) from r = 0 to r = 4b . Is
e m
B(r) continuous at r = a and r = b? What about its slope?
n c
e
er down the center of the conductor carries
(e) Now suppose that a very thin wire frunning
r e
the same current I in the oppositetdirection. Can you plot, roughly, the variation of B(r)
r
o (Hint: remember that the vectors dB from different
S h
without another detailed calculation?
current elements can be added to obtain the total vector magnetic field.)
9.13.3 Cylinder with a Hole
A long copper rod of radius a has an off-center cylindrical hole through its entire length,
as shown in Figure 9.13.3. The conductor carries a current I which is directed out of the
page and is uniformly distributed throughout the cross section. Find the magnitude and
direction of the magnetic field at the point P.
Figure 9.13.3 A cylindrical conductor with a hole.

63
Remedial Physics
9.13.4 The Magnetic Field Through a Solenoid
A solenoid has 200 closely spaced turns so that, for most of its length, it may be
considered to be an ideal solenoid. It has a length of 0.25 m, a diameter of 0.1 m, and
carries a current of 0.30 A.
(a) Sketch the solenoid, showing clearly the rotation direction of the windings, the current
direction, and the magnetic field lines (inside and outside) with arrows to show their
direction. What is the dominant direction of the magnetic field inside the solenoid?
(b) Find the magnitude of the magnetic field inside the solenoid by constructing an
Amperian loop and applying Ampere's law.
(c) Does the magnetic field have a component in the direction of the wire in the loops
making up the solenoid? If so, calculate its magnitude both inside and outside the
solenoid, at radii 30 mm and 60 mm respectively, and show the directions on your sketch.
ia l
9.13.5 Rotating Disk a ter
e m
c
A circular disk of radius R with uniform charge density σ rotates with an angular speed
n
r e
ω . Show that the magnetic field at the center of the disk is
e
rt ref
o 1
µ0σω R
Sh B=
2
Hint: Consider a circular ring of radius r and thickness dr. Show that the current in this
element is dI = (ω / 2π ) dq = ωσ r dr .
9.13.6 Four Long Conducting Wires
Four infinitely long parallel wires carrying equal current I are arranged in such a way
that when looking at the cross section, they are at the corners of a square, as shown in
Figure 9.13.5. Currents in A and D point out of the page, and into the page at B and C.
What is the magnetic field at the center of the square?
64
Remedial Physics
Figure 9.13.5 Four parallel conducting wires
9.13.7 Magnetic Force on a Current Loop
A rectangular loop of length l and width w carries a steady current I1 . The loop is then
placed near an finitely long wire carrying a current I 2 , as shown in Figure 9.13.6. What
is the magnetic force experienced by the loop due to the magnetic field of the wire?
ia l
a ter
e m
n c
e r e
rt ref
o
Sh
Figure 9.13.6 Magnetic force on a current loop.
9.13.8 Magnetic Moment of an Orbital Electron
We want to estimate the magnetic dipole moment associated with the motion of an
electron as it orbits a proton. We use a “semi-classical” model to do this. Assume that
the electron has speed v and orbits a proton (assumed to be very massive) located at the
origin. The electron is moving in a right-handed sense with respect to the z-axis in a
circle of radius r = 0.53 Å, as shown in Figure 9.13.7. Note that 1 Å = 10−10 m .
Figure 9.13.7
65
Remedial Physics
(a) The inward force me v 2 / r required to make the electron move in this circle is
provided by the Coulomb attractive force between the electron and proton (me is the mass
of the electron). Using this fact, and the value of r we give above, find the speed of the
electron in our “semi-classical” model. [Ans: 2.18 × 106 m/s .]
(b) Given this speed, what is the orbital period T of the electron? [Ans: 1.52 × 10−16 s .]
(c) What current is associated with this motion? Think of the electron as stretched out
uniformly around the circumference of the circle. In a time T, the total amount of charge
q that passes an observer at a point on the circle is just e [Ans: 1.05 mA. Big!]
(d) What is the magnetic dipole moment associated with this orbital motion? Give the
magnitude and direction. The magnitude of this dipole moment is one Bohr
magneton, µ B . [Ans: 9.27 × 10 −24 A ⋅ m 2 along the −z axis.]
(e) One of the reasons this model is “semi-classical” is because classically there is no
reason for the radius of the orbit above to assume the specific value we have given. The
ia l
value of r is determined from quantum mechanical considerations, to wit that the orbital
a ter
angular momentum of the electron can only assume integral multiples of h/2π, where
h = 6.63 × 10−34 J/s is the Planck constant. What is the orbital angular momentum of the
electron here, in units of h / 2π ? e m
n c
e r e
ref
9.13.9 Ferromagnetism and Permanent Magnets
rt
o
Shh = 1.00 mm and a radius r = 1.00 cm . The magnetic dipole
A disk of iron has a height
moment of an atom of iron is µ = 1.8 ×10−23 A ⋅ m 2 . The molar mass of iron is 55.85 g,
and its density is 7.9 g/cm3. Assume that all the iron atoms in the disk have their dipole
moments aligned with the axis of the disk.
(a) What is the number density of the iron atoms? How many atoms are in this disk?
[Ans: 8.5 × 10 28 atoms/m 3 ; 2.7 × 10 22 atoms .]
(b) What is the magnetization M in this disk? [Ans: 1.53 × 106 A/m , parallel to axis.]
(c) What is the magnetic dipole moment of the disk? [Ans: 0.48 A ⋅ m 2 .]
(d) If we were to wrap one loop of wire around a circle of the same radius r, how much
current would the wire have to carry to get the dipole moment in (c)? This is the
“equivalent” surface current due to the atomic currents in the interior of the magnet.
[Ans: 1525 A.]
66
Remedial Physics
9.13.10 Charge in a Magnetic Field
A coil of radius R with its symmetric axis along the +x-direction carries a steady current I.
G
A positive charge q moves with a velocity v = v ˆj when it crosses the axis at a distance x
from the center of the coil, as shown in Figure 9.13.8.
Figure 9.13.8
Describe the subsequent motion of the charge. What is the instantaneous radius of
curvature?
9.13.11 Permanent Magnets l

ia
a ter
A magnet in the shape of a cylindrical rod has a length of 4.8 cm and a diameter of 1.1
m
cm. It has a uniform magnetization M of 5300 A/m, directed parallel to its axis.
e
n c
r e
(a) Calculate the magnetic dipole moment of this magnet.
e
rt ref
(b) What is the axial field a distance of 1 meter from the center of this magnet, along its
o
Sh
axis? [Ans: (a) 2.42 × 10−2 A ⋅ m 2 , (b) 4.8 × 10−9 T , or 4.8 ×10−5 gauss .]
9.13.12 Magnetic Field of a Solenoid
(a) A 3000-turn solenoid has a length of 60 cm and a diameter of 8 cm. If this solenoid
carries a current of 5.0 A, find the magnitude of the magnetic field inside the solenoid by
constructing an Amperian loop and applying Ampere's Law. How does this compare to
the magnetic field of the earth (0.5 gauss). [Ans: 0.0314 T, or 314 gauss, or about 600
times the magnetic field of the earth].
We make a magnetic field in the following way: We have a long cylindrical shell of non-
conducting material which carries a surface charge fixed in place (glued down) of
σ C/m 2 , as shown in Figure 9.13.9 The cylinder is suspended in a manner such that it is
free to revolve about its axis, without friction. Initially it is at rest. We come along and
spin it up until the speed of the surface of the cylinder is v0 .
67
Remedial Physics
Figure 9.13.9
(b) What is the surface current K on the walls of the cylinder, in A/m? [Ans: K = σ v0 .]
(c) What is magnetic field inside the cylinder? [Ans. B = µ0 K = µ0σ v0 , oriented along
axis right-handed with respect to spin.]
(d) What is the magnetic field outside of the cylinder? Assume that the cylinder is
infinitely long. [Ans: 0].
ia l
9.13.13 Effect of Paramagnetism a ter
e m
c
A solenoid with 16 turns/cm carries a current of 1.3 A.
n
r e
einside
e
(a) By how much does the magnetic field
r f the solenoid increase when a close-fitting
chromium rod is inserted? [Note:
o rt Chromium is a paramagnetic material with magnetic
susceptibility χ = 2.7 ×10 .]h
−4
S
(b) Find the magnitude of the magnetization M of the rod. [Ans: (a) 0.86 µT; (b) 0.68
A/m.]
68
Remedial Physics
Magnetic flux and Gauss law
Magnetic Flux
Magnetic flux is a measure of the amount of magnetic field passing through a given area. It is
represented by the symbol Φ and has units of webers (Wb) in the International System of
Units (SI). Magnetic flux is defined mathematically as the integral of the magnetic field B
over an area A:
Φ𝐵 = 𝑩 ∙ 𝑨 = 𝐵𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Φ = ∫B⋅dA
where the dot (·) represents the dot product between the magnetic field vector B and the area
vector dA. ial
er
m at
c e
e n
e f er
o rt r
Sh
Figure: Area of flux
Magnetic flux is represented by magnetic field lines in diagrams that show magnetic fields.
Magnetic flux is an important concept in electromagnetism and is used to describe
phenomena such as electromagnetic induction and the behavior of magnetic materials. It is
also related to other important quantities, such as magnetic flux density (B), magnetic field
strength (H), and magnetic permeability (μ).
Example 1: The dimensions of a square loop is 0.40m x 0.40m. B and θ are 0.05T and 60°
respectively. Determine the magnetic flux.
Solution:
B = 0.05 T,
Remedial Physics
A = 0.4 x 0.4 = 0.16 m2,
Θ = 60°
ΦB =?
By applying the formula,
ΦB = BAcos θ = 0.05 x 0.16 x cos 60°
= 0.004 Wb.
Example 2: A magnetic field of 8.9 T passes perpendicular to a disc with a radius of 5 cm.
Find the magnetic flux of the disc.
Solution:
ia l
Magnetic field is given by, B = 8.9 T,
er
m at
Radius is given by, r = 5 cm = 5 × 10-5 m,c e
e n
e f er to the disc, θ = 0,
rt r
As the magnetic field is perpendicular
S ho -2 2
Area is given by = π(5 x 10 )
ΦB =?
By applying the formula,
ΦB = BAcos θ = 8.9 x π(5 x 10-2)2 x cos 0
= 139.7 x 10-4 Wb.
Magnetic Flux Linkage
Magnetic flux linkage is a measure of the total amount of magnetic flux that passes through a
given coil or circuit. It is represented by the symbol Λ and is measured in units of webers
(Wb). Magnetic flux linkage is defined mathematically as the product of the number of turns
N in a coil and the magnetic flux Φ that passes through each turn of the coil:
Remedial Physics
Λ = NΦ
The concept of magnetic flux linkage is important in the study of electromagnetism and is
used to describe phenomena such as electromagnetic induction and the behavior of
transformers. In electromagnetic induction, a changing magnetic flux linkage induces an
electromotive force (EMF) in a circuit, which in turn can lead to the production of an electric
current. In transformers, the ratio of the magnetic flux linkage in the primary and secondary
coils determines the voltage and current ratio of the transformer.
Example 1: A coil of wire has 500 turns and is placed in a magnetic field of 0.5 T. If the area
of the coil is 0.02 m^2, what is the magnetic flux linkage?
Solution:
The magnetic flux through each turn is given by:
Φ = B×A = 0.5 T × 0.02 𝑚2 = 0.01 Wb ia l

er
m at
The magnetic flux linkage is given by: c e
e n
Λ = NΦ = 500 turns × 0.01 Wb = 5 Wb e f er
rt r
S ho
Therefore, the magnetic flux linkage is 5 Wb.
Example 2: A transformer has a primary coil with 100 turns and a secondary coil with 200
turns. If the magnetic flux through the primary coil is 0.02 Wb, what is the magnetic flux
linkage in the secondary coil?
Solution:
The magnetic flux linkage in the primary coil is given by:
Λp = NpΦp = 100 turns × 0.02 Wb = 2 Wb
The transformer is designed such that the magnetic flux is conserved, which means that the
magnetic flux linkage in the primary coil is equal to the magnetic flux linkage in the
secondary coil:
Remedial Physics
Λp = Λs
Therefore, the magnetic flux linkage in the secondary coil is:
Λs = Λp / Ns = 2 Wb / 200 turns = 0.01 Wb/turn
Therefore, the magnetic flux linkage in the secondary coil is 0.01 Wb/turn.
Note that in a transformer, the ratio of the number of turns in the primary and secondary coils
is equal to the ratio of the voltages in the two coils, as per Faraday's law of electromagnetic
induction.
Gauss law in Magnetism
Gauss's law in magnetism, also known as the Gauss's flux law for magnetism, states that the
magnetic flux through any closed surface is always zero. Mathematically, it is expressed as:
ial
∮ B · dA = 0 er
m at
where ∮ denotes a closed surface integral, B isnthe
e
c magnetic field, and dA is the vector area
er e
element of the surface.
re f
o rt
thehfact that there are no magnetic monopoles, which means that
This law is a consequence of S
magnetic field lines always form closed loops. The magnetic field lines that enter a closed
surface must also leave the surface, resulting in zero net flux.
Here are some examples of how Gauss's law in magnetism can be applied:
Example 1: A long straight wire carries a current of 5 A. What is the magnetic field at a
distance of 2 cm from the wire?
Solution:
The magnetic field due to a long straight wire can be calculated using Ampere's law.
However, we can also use Gauss's law in magnetism to solve this problem.
Remedial Physics
Consider a cylindrical surface of radius 2 cm and length L that is centered on the wire. The
wire passes through the center of the cylinder, and the ends of the cylinder lie on planes
perpendicular to the wire.
According to Gauss's law in magnetism, the magnetic flux through the closed surface of the
cylinder is zero. The magnetic field is perpendicular to the end faces of the cylinder, so the
magnetic flux through the end faces is zero. The magnetic field is parallel to the cylindrical
surface, so the magnetic flux through the curved surface is also zero.
Therefore, we can conclude that the magnetic field at a distance of 2 cm from the wire is
zero.
Example 2: A long solenoid has 500 turns per meter and carries a current of 3 A. What is the
magnetic field inside the solenoid?
Solution:
ial
er
The magnetic field inside a long solenoid is given by:
m at
c e
e n
B = μ0nI
e f er
o rt r
where μ0 is the permeability of free space, n is the number of turns per unit length, and I is
the current.
Sh
However, we can also use Gauss's law in magnetism to derive this expression.
Consider a cylindrical surface that is coaxial with the solenoid and of radius R. The surface
encloses a length L of the solenoid, and it has a top and bottom surface of area A.
According to Gauss's law in magnetism, the magnetic flux through the closed surface is zero.
The magnetic field is parallel to the curved surface of the cylinder, so the magnetic flux
through the curved surface is zero. The magnetic field is perpendicular to the top and bottom
surfaces, so the magnetic flux through these surfaces is B*A.
Therefore, we can conclude that the magnetic field inside the solenoid is:
B = (BA)/A = nI×μ0
Remedial Physics
where n is the number of turns per unit length, I is the current, and μ0 is the permeability of
free space.
Using the values given in the problem, we can calculate the magnetic field inside the
solenoid:
B = 500 turns/m × 3 A × 4π × 10−7 T×m/A = 6.28× 10−4 T
Therefore, the magnetic field inside the solenoid is 6.28× 10−4 T.
Faraday’s Law of Induction
Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction states that a changing magnetic field induces an
electromotive force (EMF) in a conductor. The magnitude of the induced EMF is
proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux through the conductor. Mathematically, it
can be expressed as:
ia l
er
EMF = -dΦ/dt
m at
c e
e
where EMF is the electromotive force, Φ is the n
magnetic flux through the conductor, and t is
e f er
time.
rt r
o
Sh
Lenz's law is a consequence of Faraday's law and states that the direction of the induced
EMF and the induced current will be such that it opposes the change that produced it. Lenz's
law can be summarized as "nature abhors a change in flux."
Let's take a look at some examples to better understand Faraday's law and Lenz's law:
Example 1: A wire loop with an area of 0.1 m^2 is placed in a uniform magnetic field of 0.5
T. If the loop is rotated from a position where its plane is perpendicular to the magnetic field
to a position where it makes an angle of 30 degrees with the field in 0.1 seconds, what is the
induced EMF in the loop?
Solution:
The magnetic flux through the wire loop is given by:
Φ = BAcos(θ)
Remedial Physics
where B is the magnetic field, A is the area of the loop, and θ is the angle between the loop
and the magnetic field.
The rate of change of magnetic flux is given by:
dΦ/dt = -BAsin(θ) × (dθ/dt)
Using the values given in the problem, we can calculate the induced EMF in the loop:
dΦ/dt = -0.5 T × 0.1 m^2 × sin(30 degrees) × (1/0.1 s) = -0.25 V
Therefore, the induced EMF in the loop is 0.25 V. Note that the negative sign indicates that
the induced EMF opposes the change in flux, which is consistent with Lenz's law.
Example 2: A long solenoid with 200 turns per meter and a radius of 0.02 m is connected to a
battery with a voltage of 12 V. If the battery is suddenly disconnected from the solenoid,
what is the induced EMF and current in the solenoid?
ia l
er
m at
Solution:
c e
e n
f er
When the battery is connected to the solenoid,
e a magnetic field is produced inside the
r
ort disconnected, the magnetic field inside the solenoid
solenoid. When the battery is suddenly
h
S an EMF in the solenoid. We can use Faraday's law to
begins to decrease, which induces
calculate the induced EMF:
EMF = -dΦ/dt
The magnetic flux through the solenoid is proportional to the current in the solenoid:
Φ = μ0nI×A
where μ0 is the permeability of free space, n is the number of turns per unit length, I is the
current in the solenoid, and A is the cross-sectional area of the solenoid.
Differentiating this expression with respect to time, we get:
dΦ/dt = μ0nA× (dI/dt)

Remedial Physics
Using Faraday's law, we can equate the induced EMF to the rate of change of magnetic flux:
EMF = -μ0nA× (dI/dt)
Using the values given in the problem, we can calculate the induced EMF in the solenoid:
EMF = -μ0nA× (dI/dt) = -4π× 10−7 Tm/A×200 turns/m ×π× (0.02 m).
Example 3: A coil of wire has an area of 0.2 𝑚2 and is placed in a magnetic field of 0.5 T.
The coil is rotated at a frequency of 50 Hz. If the coil has 100 turns, what is the maximum
induced emf in the coil?
Solution: The maximum induced emf in the coil is given by the formula:
ε = NBAω sin(ωt)
where N is the number of turns in the coil, B is the magnetic field, A is the area of the coil, ω
r ial
e given N = 100, B = 0.5 T, A =
is the angular frequency of rotation, and t is the time. We tare
a
0.2 𝑚2 , ω = 2πf = 2π × 50 Hz = 314.16 rad/s. We need e mto find the maximum value of ε.
nc
e
ecanr simplify the formula to:
The maximum value of sin(ωt) is 1, so we
re f
o rt
ε = NBAω Sh
Substituting the given values, we get:
ε = (100)(0.5 T)(0.2 𝑚2 )(314.16 rad/s) = 31.4 V
Therefore, the maximum induced emf in the coil is 31.4 V.
Example 4: A 200-turn coil of wire is placed in a magnetic field that is changing at a rate of 2
T/s. If the area of the coil is 0.1 𝑚2 , what is the magnitude of the induced emf in the coil?
Solution: The magnitude of the induced emf in the coil is given by the formula:
ε = -N(dΦ/dt)
where N is the number of turns in the coil and dΦ/dt is the rate of change of magnetic flux.
We are given N = 200, dΦ/dt = 2 T/s, and A = 0.1 𝑚2 . We need to find the magnitude of ε.
Remedial Physics
The magnetic flux through the coil is given by:
Φ = BA
where B is the magnetic field. Since the magnetic field is changing, we need to use the
formula for the derivative of the magnetic flux:
dΦ/dt = A(dB/dt)
Substituting the given values, we get:
dΦ/dt = (0.1 𝑚2 )(2 T/s) = 0.2 Wb/s
Now we can use the formula for the induced emf:
ε = -N(dΦ/dt) = -(200)(0.2 Wb/s) = -40 V
ia l
r
Since the induced emf is negative, the direction of the current in the coil will be such that it
e
opposes the change in the magnetic field. m at
c e
e n
Mutual Inductance
e f er and Eddy current
rt r
oof one circuit to induce an electromotive force (EMF) in
Sh
Mutual inductance is the ability
another circuit through a changing magnetic field. It occurs when two coils of wire are placed
near each other so that the magnetic field from one coil passes through the other coil. The
amount of mutual inductance between the two coils depends on the number of turns in each
coil, the distance between them, and the relative orientation of the coils.
The mutual inductance between two coils can be calculated using the following formula:
M = k√𝐿1 𝐿2
Remedial Physics
where M is the mutual inductance, L1 and L2 are the self-inductances of the two coils, and k
is a constant that depends on the relative orientation of the coils.
One application of mutual inductance is in transformers, which are used to change the voltage
and current in an electrical circuit. A transformer consists of two coils of wire wrapped
around a common core. When an alternating current flows through one coil, it produces a
changing magnetic field that induces an EMF in the other coil, which can be used to power
another circuit.
Eddy currents are induced currents that flow in conductive materials when they are exposed
to a changing magnetic field. They are a form of parasitic current that can cause energy losses
and heating in electrical machines, such as motors and transformers. Eddy currents are caused
by the interaction between the changing magnetic field and the conductive material, which
creates a circular current flow that opposes the original magnetic field.
r ial
One way to reduce eddy currents is to use laminated or layered cores made of thin sheets of
a
conductive material, such as iron or steel. The layers are teinsulated from each other, which
e
reduces the circulation of eddy currents and improves
mthe efficiency of the machine. Another
nc
r e
way to reduce eddy currents is to use non-conductive
e materials, such as ceramics or plastics,
re f
in the design of the machine.
or t
S h
Let's take a look at an example of mutual inductance and eddy currents:
Example: Two coils of wire are placed near each other, with 100 turns in each coil and a
mutual inductance of 0.5 H. If the current in one coil changes at a rate of 2 A/s, what is the
induced EMF in the other coil?
Solution:
The induced EMF in the second coil can be calculated using Faraday's law:
EMF = -M×(dI/dt)
where EMF is the induced EMF, M is the mutual inductance, and dI/dt is the rate of change
of current in the first coil.
Using the values given in the problem, we can calculate the induced EMF in the second coil:
Remedial Physics
EMF = -0.5 H× (2 A/s) × 100 turns = -100 V
Therefore, the induced EMF in the second coil is -100 V.
Now let's consider the example of eddy currents. Suppose a metal plate is placed in a
magnetic field that is changing at a rate of 1 T/s. If the plate has a thickness of 1 cm and a
resistivity of 2.8× 10−8 Ωm, what is the magnitude of the eddy currents induced in the plate?
Solution:
The magnitude of the eddy currents can be calculated using the formula:
I = σA(dB/dt)
where I is the current, σ is the electrical conductivity of the material, A is the area of the
plate, and dB/dt is the rate of change of magnetic field.
r ial
Using the values given in the problem, we can calculate thetemagnitude of the eddy currents:
m a
−8 2 c e
I = 2.8× 10 Ωm × (0.01 𝑚 ) × (1 T/s) = 2.8 A
e n
e f er
r
Therefore, the magnitude of the eddyt r
currents induced in the plate is 2.8 A.
o
Sh
To reduce the effect of eddy currents, one can use laminated or layered cores made of thin
sheets of conductive material, as mentioned earlier. This is because the thin layers are
insulated from each other and therefore the eddy currents will be confined to each layer and
not circulate throughout the entire core.
In addition, in electrical machines like motors and transformers, the design of the machine
can be modified to reduce eddy currents. For example, using a core made of a non-conductive
material, or introducing slots or holes in the core to break up the circulation of eddy currents,
can reduce energy losses due to eddy currents.
In conclusion, mutual inductance and eddy currents are important concepts in the study of
magnetic fields and their applications in electrical machines. Understanding these concepts
and their effects can help in designing more efficient and effective machines.
Remedial Physics
Self-Inductance
Self-inductance is the ability of a circuit to generate an electromotive force (EMF) in itself

due to a changing magnetic field. This occurs when a changing current in a circuit creates a
changing magnetic field that induces an EMF in the same circuit. The amount of self -
inductance in a circuit is measured in henrys (H) and depends on the geometry of the circuit
and the properties of the material.
The self-inductance of a circuit can be calculated using the following formula:
L = (𝑁 2 × μ × A) / l
where L is the self-inductance, N is the number of turns in the coil, μ is the permeability of
the core material, A is the cross-sectional area of the core, and l is the length of the core.
Back EMF (electromotive force) is a phenomenon that occurs in electric motors and
ia l
r
generators, where the motor or generator produces a voltage that opposes the applied voltage.
e
m at
It is caused by the interaction between the changing magnetic field and the conductors in the
e
c the applied voltage.
motor or generator, which creates a voltage thatnopposes
er e
r e f
The magnitude of the back EMF is tproportional to the rate of change of the magnetic field
o r
Shcoil. The back EMF can be calculated using the following
and the number of turns in the
formula:
EMF = -L× (dI/dt)
where EMF is the back EMF, L is the self-inductance of the circuit, and dI/dt is the rate of
change of current in the circuit.
Let's take a look at an example of self-inductance and back EMF:
Example: A coil with 100 turns and a self-inductance of 0.1 H is connected to a battery with a
voltage of 10 V. If the current in the coil changes at a rate of 2 A/s, what is the back EMF
generated in the coil?
Solution:
Remedial Physics
Using the formula for back EMF, we can calculate the back EMF generated in the coil:
EMF = -L× (dI/dt) = -0.1 H × (2 A/s) × 100 turns = -20 V
Therefore, the back EMF generated in the coil is -20 V.
The effect of back EMF is important in electric motors, as it opposes the applied voltage and
reduces the net voltage across the motor. This reduction in voltage causes the motor to draw
less current, which reduces the power consumed by the motor and increases its efficiency. In
addition, the back EMF can be used to measure the speed of the motor, as the magnitude of
the back EMF is proportional to the speed of the motor.
In conclusion, self-inductance and back EMF are important concepts in the study of electrical
circuits and motors.
Factors which determines the magnitude of self-inductance and Mutual inductance
r ial
The magnitude of self-inductance and mutual inductance ate depends on several factors,
e mthe materials, and the number of turns
nc
including the geometry of the circuit, the properties of
in the coil. er e
re f
rt
o of self-inductance:
Sh
Factors that determine the magnitude
1. Number of turns: The self-inductance of a coil is directly proportional to the number

of turns in the coil. Increasing the number of turns in the coil increases the self-
inductance.
2. Area of the coil: The self-inductance of a coil is directly proportional to the cross-
sectional area of the coil. Increasing the area of the coil increases the self-inductance.
3. Length of the coil: The self-inductance of a coil is inversely proportional to the length
of the coil. Increasing the length of the coil decreases the self-inductance.
4. Permeability of the core material: The self-inductance of a coil is directly proportional
to the permeability of the core material. Increasing the permeability of the core
material increases the self-inductance.
Factors that determine the magnitude of mutual inductance:

Remedial Physics
1. Number of turns: The mutual inductance between two coils is directly proportional to
the number of turns in each coil. Increasing the number of turns in either or both coils
increases the mutual inductance.
2. Distance between the coils: The mutual inductance between two coils is inversely
proportional to the distance between the coils. Decreasing the distance between the
coils increases the mutual inductance.
3. Orientation of the coils: The mutual inductance between two coils is dependent on the
orientation of the coils with respect to each other. The maximum mutual inductance
occurs when the coils are aligned with their axes parallel to each other.
4. Permeability of the core material: The mutual inductance between two coils is directly
proportional to the permeability of the core material. Increasing the permeability of
the core material increases the mutual inductance.
In conclusion, the magnitude of self-inductance and mutual inductance depends on various

factors that can be controlled and manipulated in the design of electrical circuits and devices.
ia l
er
Understanding these factors is crucial in optimizing the performance of these systems.
m at
c e
Inductance and Induced EMF
e n
e f er
t r circuit that describes the ability of a circuit to resist
Inductance is a property of an electrical
r
hoelectrical components that are designed to have a specific
changes in current. InductorsSare
amount of inductance, which is measured in henries (H). Inductors are made up of coils of
wire, and the amount of inductance is determined by the number of turns in the coil, the
cross-sectional area of the coil, and the type of core material used.
Induced EMF is the electromotive force that is generated in a circuit as a result of a change in
magnetic flux. This phenomenon is described by Faraday's law of induction, which states that
the EMF induced in a circuit is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux through
the circuit.
Example of Inductance and Induced EMF:
Consider a circuit that consists of a coil of wire with an inductance of 10 mH and a resistance
of 100 ohms. If a current of 1 ampere is flowing through the coil and the current is suddenly
switched off, what is the magnitude of the induced EMF?
Remedial Physics
The rate of change of current in the coil is given by dI/dt, where I is the current and t is time.
When the current is switched off, the rate of change of current is equal to -1 A/s. The
inductance of the coil is L = 10 mH = 0.01 H. According to Faraday's law, the induced EMF
is given by:
EMF = -L(dI/dt)
Substituting the values, we get:
EMF = -0.01 × (-1) = 0.01 volts
Therefore, the magnitude of the induced EMF is 0.01 volts.
In conclusion, inductance and induced EMF are important concepts in the study of electrical
circuits. Inductance determines the ability of a circuit to resist changes in current, while
induced EMF is the electromotive force that is generated in a circuit as a result of a change in
ia l
r
magnetic flux. Understanding these concepts is crucial in designing and analyzing electrical
e
circuits and devices.
m at
c e
e n
e f er of Solenoid
Inductance
rt r
o
The inductance of a solenoid ishdetermined by the number of turns in the solenoid, the length
S
of the solenoid, the cross-sectional area of the solenoid, and the permeability of the core
material. The inductance of a solenoid is given by the equation:
L = (μ × 𝑁 2 × A) / l
Where L is the inductance in henries (H), μ is the permeability of the core material, N is the
number of turns in the solenoid, A is the cross-sectional area of the solenoid, and l is the
length of the solenoid.
Remedial Physics
Example: Suppose we have a solenoid with 2000 turns, a length of 10 cm, a radius of 2 cm,
and is wound on a ferromagnetic core material with a permeability of 2000 μ. What is the
inductance of the solenoid?
The cross-sectional area of the solenoid can be calculated using the formula for the area of a
circle:
A = π × 𝑟2
Where A is the cross-sectional area of the solenoid, and r is the radius of the solenoid.
A = π × (0.02𝑚)2 = 0.0012566 𝑚2 .
Now, we can calculate the inductance of the solenoid using the formula:
L = (μ × 𝑁 2 × A) / l
ia l
er
m at
c e
r e n
L = (2000 × 2000 × 0.0012566) / 0.1 fe
t re
o r
L = 100.53 H Sh
Therefore, the inductance of the solenoid is 100.53 H.
In conclusion, the inductance of a solenoid is determined by various factors such as the

number of turns, length, cross-sectional area, and permeability of the core material. The
inductance of a solenoid is an important parameter in electrical circuits that use solenoids,
such as inductors, transformers, and electromagnets.
Magnetic Energy Density
Magnetic energy density is the amount of magnetic energy stored in a given volume of space.
It is calculated using the magnetic field strength (B) and the permeability of free space (μ0).
The magnetic energy density (u) is given by:
u = (1/2) × μ0 × 𝐵 2
Remedial Physics
Where μ0 is the permeability of free space, and B is the magnetic field strength.
Example 1:
Suppose we have a solenoid with a radius of 3 cm, 10 turns per cm, and a current of 2 A
flowing through it. What is the magnetic energy density inside the solenoid?
To find the magnetic energy density, we need to first find the magnetic field strength inside
the solenoid. The magnetic field strength can be calculated using the formula:
B = μ0 × N × I / L
Where N is the number of turns per unit length, I is the current, L is the length of the
solenoid, and μ0 is the permeability of free space. Substituting the values, we get:
B = (4π × 10−7) × 10 × 2 / 0.03
ia l
−3
er
at
B = 8.38 × 10 T
e m
nc using the formula:
Now, we can calculate the magnetic energy density
er e
re f
u = (1/2) × μ0 × 𝐵2
o r t
Sh
u = (1/2) × (4π × 10−7) × (8.38 × 10−3 )2
u = 1.12 × 10−10J/𝑚3
Therefore, the magnetic energy density inside the solenoid is 1.12 × 10−10 J/𝑚3 .
Example 2: A magnetic field has a flux density of 0.5 T and is present in a medium with a
permeability of 4π × 10−7 H/m. What is the magnetic energy density of the field?
Solution: We are given the flux density B = 0.5 T and the permeability μ = 4π × 10−7H/m.
Substituting these values in the formula for magnetic energy density, we get:
u = (𝐵 2)/(2μ) = (0.5𝑇)2 / (2 × 4π × 10−7H/m) = 1.25 × 10−3 J/𝑚3

Remedial Physics
Therefore, the magnetic energy density of the field is 1.25 × 10−3 J/𝑚3 .
We can also calculate the energy stored in the magnetic field by multiplying the magnetic
energy density with the volume of the region in which the field is present. For example, if the
magnetic field is present in a volume of 1 m^3, then the total energy stored in the field would
be:
E = u × V = (1.25 × 10−3J/𝑚3 ) × (1 m^3) = 1.25 × 10−3J
This means that 1.25 × 10−3 J of energy is stored in the magnetic field per cubic meter of
volume.
In conclusion, magnetic energy density is a useful parameter for calculating the amount of
magnetic energy stored in a given volume of space. It is determined by the magnetic field
strength and the permeability of free space.
ia l
r
Alternating current, generator and transformer
e
m at
c e
Direct current and alternating current
e n
e f er flows in one direction only. The voltage and
rt r
Direct current is an electrical current that
o direction over time. DC is commonly used in battery-
Sh
current in a DC circuit do not change
powered devices, such as flashlights, smartphones, and portable radios.
Alternating current, on the other hand, is an electrical current that changes direction
periodically. The voltage and current in an AC circuit alternate direction many times per
second, typically at a frequency of 50 or 60 Hz. AC is commonly used for power
transmission and distribution in electrical grids, as well as in household appliances and
electronic devices.
The main difference between DC and AC is the direction and frequency of the current. DC
flows in one direction, while AC changes direction periodically. Another key difference is
that DC voltage can be constant, while AC voltage varies over time.
In terms of advantages and disadvantages, DC has the advantage of being able to provide a
constant voltage, which makes it suitable for powering devices that require a steady voltage
Remedial Physics
source. However, DC power is difficult to transmit over long distances, and it requires the use
of expensive high-voltage DC transmission lines.
AC, on the other hand, can be easily transmitted over long distances using transformers,
which makes it the preferred choice for power transmission and distribution. AC power is
also easier and cheaper to generate, and it can be used to power a wide variety of devices and
appliances. DC and AC are two types of electrical current that have different properties and
applications.
Solved examples
Direct Current (DC):
1. A battery with an emf of 12 V is connected to a circuit with a total resistance of 4

ohms. What is the current flowing through the circuit?
ia l
Solution:
er
m at
e
Using Ohm's Law, we know that the current flowing through a circuit is equal to the voltage
c
e n
divided by the resistance:
e f er
o rt r
Sh
I = V/R
Plugging in the given values, we get:
I = 12/4
I = 3 amperes
Therefore, the current flowing through the circuit is 3 amperes.
2. An electric motor draws a current of 10 A from a DC source with an emf of 120 V.

What is the power consumed by the motor?
Solution:
The power consumed by an electric device can be calculated using the formula:
Remedial Physics
Power = Current x Voltage
Power = 10 x 120
Power = 1200 watts
Therefore, the power consumed by the motor is 1200 watts.
Example 3 An AC circuit has a voltage of 220 V and a frequency of 50 Hz. If the circuit has
an inductance of 0.1 H and a resistance of 10 ohms, what is the impedance of the circuit?
Solution:
The impedance of the circuit can be calculated using the formula:
ia l
Z =√𝑅 2 + 𝑋 2
er
m at
c e
where R is the resistance of the circuit, and X is the reactance of the circuit. Reactance is the
e n
e f er or capacitance.
opposition to the flow of AC caused by inductance
rt r
The reactance of the circuit canh o
S be calculated using the formula:
X = 2 × pi × f × L
where f is the frequency of the AC, and L is the inductance of the circuit.
X = 2 × 3.14 × 50 × 0.1
X = 31.4 ohms
Now we can calculate the impedance of the circuit:
Z =√102 + 31.42
Z = 33.1 ohms
Therefore, the impedance of the circuit is 33.1 ohms.

Remedial Physics
Example 4: An AC circuit has a voltage of 110 V and a frequency of 60 Hz. The circuit is
connected to a 50 ohm resistor and a 0.1 microfarad capacitor. What is the current flowing
through the circuit?
Solution:
The reactance of the capacitor can be calculated using the formula:
Xc = 1 / (2 × pi × f × C)
where C is the capacitance of the capacitor.
Xc = 1 / (2×3.14×60 × 0.1 × 10−6)
Xc = 265.2 ohms
Now we can calculate the total impedance of the circuit:

ial
er
Z = √𝑅 2 + 𝑋 2 m at
c e
e n
Z =√502 + 265.22
e f er
o rt r
Z = 289.4 ohms Sh
Using Ohm's law, we can find the current flowing through the circuit:
I = V/Z
I = 110/289.4
I = 0.38 A
Therefore, the current flowing through the circuit is 0.38 A.
Electric Generator
An electric generator is a device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. It
works on the principle of electromagnetic induction, where a conductor is moved through a
Remedial Physics
magnetic field to produce an electric current. The basic components of an electric generator
are a rotor, a stator, and a source of mechanical energy.
Example:
Suppose we have an electric generator with a rotor of 0.5 m radius that rotates at a speed of
1200 rpm. The magnetic field strength is 0.3 T, and the generator has 200 turns of wire in the
ial
stator coil. What is the voltage generated by the generator?
er
m at
e
To find the voltage generated by the generator, we need to use the formula:
c
e n
EMF = N × ΔΦ / Δt e f er
o rt r
S h
Where EMF is the electromotive force or voltage, N is the number of turns in the coil, ΔΦ is
the change in magnetic flux, and Δt is the time it takes for the change to occur.
The change in magnetic flux can be calculated using the formula:
ΔΦ = B ×A × Δθ
Where B is the magnetic field strength, A is the area of the coil, and Δθ is the change in angle
between the magnetic field and the coil.
A = π × 𝑟 2 = π × 0.52 = 0.785 𝑚2 Δθ = (2π / 60) × 1200 = 40π rad/s ΔΦ = 0.3×0.785 × 40π

= 37.7 Wb
Now we can calculate the EMF using the formula:

Remedial Physics
EMF = N × ΔΦ / Δt
Δt is the time it takes for one revolution, which can be calculated as:
Δt = 1 / (1200 / 60) = 0.05 s
EMF = 200 × 37.7 / 0.05 = 15080 V
Therefore, the voltage generated by the generator is 15080 V.
In conclusion, an electric generator is a device that converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy using the principle of electromagnetic induction. The voltage generated by the
generator can be calculated using the formula
EMF = N × ΔΦ / Δt, l
er ia
at
where N is the number of turns in the coil, ΔΦ is the change in magnetic flux, and Δt is the
m
c e
time it takes for the change to occur.
e n
e f er
Solved examples rt r
o
Sh
1. A generator produces an AC voltage of 120 V with a frequency of 60 Hz. If the
number of poles in the generator is 4, what is the rotational speed of the generator?
Solution:
The frequency of the AC voltage produced by the generator is related to the rotational speed
and the number of poles by the formula:
f = (P x N) / 120
where f is the frequency in Hz, P is the number of poles, and N is the rotational speed in
revolutions per minute (rpm).
60 = (4 x N) / 120
Remedial Physics
N = (60 x 120) / 4
N = 1800 rpm
Therefore, the rotational speed of the generator is 1800 rpm.
2. An electric generator produces a voltage of 240 V with a current of 10 A. If the

resistance of the load connected to the generator is 20 ohms, what is the power output
of the generator?
Solution:
The power output of the generator is given by the formula:
Power = Voltage x Current

ia l
er
Power = 240 x 10 m at
c e
e n
Power = 2400 W
e f er
o rt r
Sh
Since the load connected to the generator has a resistance of 20 ohms, we can also use the
formula:
Power = 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 2 x Resistance
Power =102 x 20
Power = 2000 W
The two answers are not the same because the voltage and current output of the generator
may vary depending on the load connected to it. However, both formulas can be used to
calculate the power output of the generator under different conditions.
Transformer
Remedial Physics
A transformer is an electrical device that is used to transfer electrical energy from one circuit
to another through electromagnetic induction. It consists of two coils, known as the primary
coil and the secondary coil, which are wrapped around a common magnetic core. The
primary coil is connected to an alternating current source, and the secondary coil is connected
to a load. When the alternating current flows through the primary coil, it generates a magnetic
field that induces a voltage in the secondary coil, which is then used to power the load.
ia l
er
m at
c e
The principle of operation of a transformer e n
r can be explained by Faraday's law of
e f e
electromagnetic induction. When an ralternating current flows through the primary coil, it
o rt
Sh that links with the secondary coil. This changing magnetic
creates a changing magnetic field
field induces a voltage in the secondary coil, which is proportional to the rate of change of the
magnetic field. The magnitude of the voltage induced in the secondary coil is determined by
the number of turns in the secondary coil, the rate of change of the magnetic field, and the
frequency of the alternating current.
The basic components of a transformer are the core, the primary winding, and the secondary
winding. The core is made of a ferromagnetic material, such as iron or steel, which enhances
the magnetic coupling between the primary and secondary coils. The primary winding is
connected to an alternating current source, which produces the alternating magnetic field. The
secondary winding is connected to the load, which uses the voltage induced in the secondary
coil to power electrical devices.
Example:
Remedial Physics
Suppose we have a transformer with 1000 turns in the primary coil and 2000 turns in the
secondary coil. The voltage in the primary coil is 240 V, and the load connected to the
secondary coil requires a voltage of 120 V. What is the current in the secondary coil?
To solve this problem, we can use the formula:
Vp / Vs = Np / Ns
Where Vp is the voltage in the primary coil, Vs is the voltage in the secondary coil, Np is the
number of turns in the primary coil, and Ns is the number of turns in the secondary coil.
240 / 120 = 1000 / 2000
Simplifying the equation, we get:
ia l
Ns = 2 × Np er
m at
e
c coil is twice the number of turns in the
n
Therefore, the number of turns in the secondary
e
primary coil.
e f er
rt r
Now, we can use the formulaS hopower in a transformer:
for
Pp = Ps
Where Pp is the power in the primary coil and Ps is the power in the secondary coil.
Pp = Vp × Ip Ps = Vs × Is
Since the power is the same in both coils, we can equate the two equations:
Vp × Ip = Vs×Is
240 × Ip = 120 × Is
Remedial Physics
Simplifying the equation, we get:
Ip = Is / 2
Therefore, the current in the secondary coil is twice the current in the primary coil.
In conclusion, a transformer is an electrical device that is used to transfer electrical energy

from one circuit to another through electromagnetic induction. The voltage induced in the
secondary coil is proportional to the number of turns in the secondary coil, the rate of change
of the magnetic field, and the frequency of the alternating current. The basic components of a
transformer are the core, the primary winding, and the secondary winding. Transformers are
widely used in power distribution systems to step up or step down the voltage of the electrical
power transmitted over long distances.
Here are some more examples of how transformers are used in various applications:
ia l
r
1. Power transmission: Transformers are used to step up the voltage of the electrical
e
at
power generated at power plants to high voltages for transmission over long distances.
m
e
cduring transmission and enables efficient
This reduces the amount of power loss
r e n
delivery of electricity to homes and
e f ebusinesses.
2. rt
Voltage regulation: Transformers
r are used in voltage regulators to maintain a constant
h o
S
voltage output, despite fluctuations in the input voltage. This is important in electronic
devices that require a stable voltage input to function properly.
3. Audio amplification: Transformers are used in audio amplifiers to step up the low-
level audio signal from a microphone or guitar pickup to a higher voltage that can be
amplified by the amplifier. This enables the amplifier to produce a louder sound
without distorting the signal.
4. Welding: Transformers are used in welding machines to convert the low voltage and
high current from the power source into high voltage and low current needed for
welding. This reduces the risk of electric shock and enables more precise control of
the welding process.
5. Lighting: Transformers are used in halogen lamps to step up the voltage of the
electricity flowing through the lamp filament, which increases the brightness of the
light produced.
Remedial Physics
6. Battery charging: Transformers are used in battery chargers to step down the voltage
of the power supply to the level required for charging the battery. This prevents
damage to the battery and ensures safe and efficient charging.
These are just a few examples of how transformers are used in various applications. The
versatility and efficiency of transformers make them a critical component in many electrical
systems.
Solved examples
1. A transformer has 100 turns on its primary coil and 500 turns on its secondary coil. If
the voltage applied to the primary coil is 120 V, what is the voltage across the
secondary coil?
Solution:
ia l
We can use the transformer equation to solve this problem:
er
m at
Vp/Vs = Np/Ns
c e
e n
e f ercoil, Vs is the voltage across the secondary coil,
rt r
Where Vp is the voltage across the primary
o
Np is the number of turns on thehprimary coil, and Ns is the number of turns on the secondary
coil.
S
120/Vs = 100/500
Vs = (120 x 500) / 100
Vs = 600 V
Therefore, the voltage across the secondary coil is 600 V.
2. A step-up transformer has 200 turns on its primary coil and 1000 turns on its
secondary coil. If the power input to the primary coil is 500 W, what is the power
output from the secondary coil?
Remedial Physics
Solution:
We know that the power input to the primary coil is equal to the power output from the
secondary coil (assuming no losses). So we can use the formula:
And the transformer equation:
Vp/Vs = Np/Ns
Where Vp is the voltage across the primary coil, Vs is the voltage across the secondary coil,
Np is the number of turns on the primary coil, and Ns is the number of turns on the secondary
coil.
First, we need to find the voltage across the secondary coil. Using the transformer equation,
we get:
ia l
er
Vp/Vs = Np/Ns mat
c e
e n
120/Vs = 200/1000
e f er
o rt r
Vs = (120 x 1000) / 200 Sh
Vs = 600 V
Now, we can find the current in the secondary coil using:
Current = Power / Voltage
Current = 500 / 600
Current = 0.833 A
Finally, we can find the power output from the secondary coil using:
Power = 600 x 0.833

Remedial Physics
Power = 499.8 W
Therefore, the power output from the secondary coil is 499.8 W.
ia l
er
mat
c e
e n
e f er
o rt r
Sh
Remedial Physics
REFERENCES
Serway, R.A. and Vuille, C., 2018, College Physics,11th ed.,C engage Learning, Boston, USA
University Physics with Modern Physics by Young, freedman and Lewis Ford
Physics for Scientists and Engineers with Modern Physics by Douglas C. Giancoli
Fundamentals of physics by David Halliday, Robert Resnick and Gearl Walker
College Physics by Hugh D. Young Sears Zemansky, 9thedition
Herman Cember and Thomas A. Johnson, Introduction to Health Physics,4thed., (2008).
ial
er
mat
c e
e n
e f er
o rt r
Sh

Physics Remedial DBU-Short Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Physics Remedial DBU-Short Notes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Physics Remedial DBU-Short Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Debre Birhan University

College of Natural and Computational Science

Reference material for Remedial program

• Add vectors by graphical representation to determine a resultant.

• Add/subtract two or more vectors by the vector addition rule.

• Explain the use of knowledge of vectors in understanding natural phenomena.

1.1.1 Vector and Scalar quantities

1.1.2 Vector Representation

Vectors are represented in two methods (Analytical/Algebric) and Graphical/Geometrical)

1. Analytical methods: Vectors are representated analytically by a letter with an

2. Graphical/Geometrical methods: Graphically vectors are representated by a

• If the two vectors inclined at a certain anle θ to each other.

And its direction is given by α = tan−1 ( A+Bcosθ

sin(1800 −θ) sinα sin(1800 −θ)

– the same physical quantities

– have the same magnitude and

– have the direction

~ = 4bunit East and B

~ = 4bunit East and B

~ = 4bunit East and B

~ = 4bunit East and B

1.1.4 Vector Components

1.1.5 Unit Vector

Unit vector is dimensionless vector with unit magnitude.

Figure 1.2: Unit Vector in Rectangular Coordinat Axis

• In general Vector A in rectangular coordinate system can be written as the sum

a) The components of the resultant displacement and its magnitude

b) Unit vector in the direction of resultant displacement

1.2 Multiplication of vectors

1.2.1 Scalar-vector multiplication

~ = b(ax î + ay ĵ + az k̂) = bax î + bay ĵ + baz k̂

Scalar multiplication obeys the following rules:

• Additivity in the scalar: (c + d)~v = c~v + d~v ;

• Additivity in the vector: c(~v + w)

• Multiplying by -1 gives the additive inverse: (−1)~v = −~v .

1.2.2 Dot product

Figure 1.3: Dot Product

between a scalar and a vector is not allowed.

1.2.3 Cross Product

• the cross product is not commutative: ~a × ~b 6= ~b × ~a

• the cross product of any vector with itself is zero: ~a × ~a = ~b × ~b = 0

• cross product of any unit vector with itself is zero: î × î = (1)(1)sin(0) = 0,

~a × ~b = (ax î + ay ĵ + az k̂) × (bx î + by ĵ + bz k̂)

4. Is the triple product defined by A · (B × C) a scalar or a vector quantity? Explain

5. Vector A is in the negative y direction, and vector B is in the negative x direction.

6. Given M = 6î + 2ĵ − k̂ and N = 2î − ĵ − 3k̂ calculate the M · N, M × N and

• Describe Kinematical terms such as distance, Displacement, average speed (velocities)

• Define, Analyse and predict, terms in 2D motion

• Apply equations to solve problems related 2D motion.

• Distinguish between uniform and non-uniform circular motion.

2.1 Kinematics of the particle

2.1.1 One or two dimensional (2D) motion

Definition of Kinematical terms

Distance and Displacement

Distance: is the total path length covered by the moving object.

Velocity(~v ): the rate of change of displacement as a function of time.

~xf − ~xi ∆~x

Instantaneous Velocity and Speed

∆x ~x(t + ∆t) − ~x(t)

This can be rewritten as frist derivatives of displacement with respect time.