MECHANICS AND ELECTROMAGNETICS

(common to all)

UNIT-II: RELATIVISTIC MECHANICS

Topic-1: Frames of reference - inertial and non-inertial frames

Introduction to relativity:
The dependence of various physical phenomena on relative motion of the observer
and the observed objects, especially regarding the nature and behaviour of light, space, time
and gravity is called relativity. When we have two things and if want to find out the relation
between their physical properties, then we need relation between them that which is higher
and which is lower. In general way we referred it as relativity.
Description with examples:
a. Relative position:
Imagine two friends standing on the opposite banks of a river facing each other. There
is one house on the bank of the river. One friend says that it is towards left while the other
friend says that it is towards right. Now question is which of the two is right. The answer is
that both are correct because the house is to the left of one while right to the other. This
clearly shows the position is relative.
b. Relative size:
If we compare a hockey ball with an atom then it is extremely big and if compare it
with earth it is extremely small. Thus we can say that size is relative.
c. Relative time:
What is the time now? The answer depends upon the location because the time now in
India is different from the time in America. There is no paradox here because we cannot
answer the question without referring the place. Thus, time is relative
d. Relative motion:
Let us consider that a train is moving with a velocity of 60 km/hour. The train is
observed by three observers, the first standing on the earth, the second moving in the
direction of train with velocity of 20km/hour and the third moving with a velocity of 30
km/hour in the opposite direction of the train. The first observer would observe the velocity
of the train 60 km/hour, the second observer would observe the velocity of the train 40
km/hour and the third would observe the velocity of the train 90 km/hour. Thus, the velocity
of the train is different for different observers. Thus the motion is relative.

1
Frame of reference:
It is a set of directions (axis) act from a common intersect (origin) which is used to
specify the location and motion of an object exactly in space, such set of directions with
common origin are called as “frame of reference” or a “coordinate system”.
 Note: It is impossible to attach a set of coordinate axes to empty space. The choice of
a frame of reference is determined by our own convenience.
Description:
To describe the motion of bodies on the earth, we choose a frame of reference rigidly
connected to the earth, which is regarded as a fixed body. However, in reality the Earth is in
circular motion. In investigation of the Earth’s motion, we attach the coordinate system to
the Sun. In studying the Sun’s motion, we choose a reference frame connected to the stars.
Sometimes, we choose the floor or walls of a room as the reference frame which may be at
rest with respect to the Earth or which may be in motion if it is on a train or in a spacecraft.
The choice of a frame of reference is arbitrary. Therefore, a passenger in a moving train
may claim to be at rest and declare that the electric poles and trees are moving backward
while a person standing on the ground claims that the train is moving forward. Both are
equally right. On the basis of our daily experience, we intuitively choose a frame of reference
attached to the Earth and describe the motion of various bodies. Thus, in the reference system
attached to the Earth, it is the train that moves forward.

Figure. A frame of reference

2
There are two types of frames of reference:
1. Inertial or unaccelerated frames 2. Non-intertial or accelerated frames
1. Inertial (or) unaccelerated frames:
A frame of reference is said to be inertial when bodies in this frame obey Newton’s
law of inertia and other laws of Newtonian mechanics. In this frame, a body not acted upon
by an external force, is at rest or moves with a constant velocity. For instance, a reference
frame that moves with constant velocity relative to the distant stars is the best approximation
of an inertial frame. In reality, the Earth is not an inertial frame because of its orbital motion
about the sun and rotational motion about its own axis. However, the Earth may be assumed
to be an inertial frame in many situations.
Examples: 1. Observer at rest on the earth 2. A lift moving up/down with constant velocity.
2. Non-inertial or accelerated frames:
A frame of reference, which is in an accelerated motion with respect to an inertial
frame of reference, is known as a non-inertial frame of reference.
Note: The law of inertia is valid in an inertial frame, whereas it is not valid in an
accelerated reference frame.
Examples:
1. A ball placed on the floor of a train will move to the rear if the train accelerates
forward even through no forces act on it.
2. A coin placed on a rotating turntable will slide to periphery though no visible
force pushes it away from the center.
Topic-2: Postulates of general and special theory of relativity
Relativity is a fundamental theory in physics proposed by Albert Einstein in the early
20th century. It encompasses two major theories: special relativity and general relativity.
These theories revolutionized our understanding of the fundamental nature of space, time,
and gravity.
Special Relativity:
Special relativity, introduced by Einstein in 1905, deals with objects moving at constant
velocities relative to each other, unaffected by external forces like gravity. The special theory
of relativity is based on the following two postulates:
1. The principle of relativity:
3
 All the physical laws are the same in all inertial frames of reference which are
moving with constant velocity relative to each other.
Description:
The first postulate is, in effect, a generalization of Galilean principle of relativity to
cover all physical processes. All physical phenomena proceed identically in all reference
frames. All physical laws are absolutely identical in all inertial systems. Basically, no
experiment can distinguish one of the frames as preferable. Thus, Einstein’s principle of
relativity establishes the complete equality of all inertial frames and rejects the Newton’s
ideas of absolute space and absolute motion.
2. The principle of independence of the velocity of light: The speed of light in a vacuum
is independent of the motion of the light source or receiver
(Or)
The speed of light in vacuum is the same in every inertial frame.
Description:
According to this postulate, the speed of light is the same in all directions, no matter
whether the source of light is moving or stationary, or whether the velocity of light is
measured relatively to the medium in which it travels or relatively to a moving observer.
Galileo’s principle of relativity [Newtonian principle of relativity]:
Galileo’s principle of relativity states that the laws of mechanics are
the same in all inertial frames of reference.
Galilean transformation:
The transformation from one inertial frame of reference to another is called Galilean
transformation. Galilean transformation expresses the space-time relation of an event in
different inertial frames. The coordinates of an event are relative and have different values in
different reference frames. In Galilean transformation it is assumed that the passage of time is
the same in both the inertial systems. That is, the time of an event for an observer in frame 1
is the same as time for the same event in frame 2. This intuitive assumption is taken for
granted in classical mechanics. All the phenomena in mechanics where u < c do not
contradict this assumption.
Galilean space and time transformation equations:
The Galilean transformation establishes the relationship between the coordinates x, y,
z and t of an event in the inertial frame 1 (S), and the coordinates x′, y′, z′ and t′ of the same
event in the inertial frame 2 (S′). Galilean space and time equations is given by,

4
 '
x =x−vt
'
y =y
'
z =z
'
t =t
Failures of Galilean Transformation [Galilean Relativity]:
1. Failure to explain the Michelson-Morley experiment
2. Incompatibility with Maxwell's equations
3. It fails to accurately describe the motion of objects traveling at relativistic speeds
(close to the speed of light).
Topic-3: Lorentz transformations
 In Newtonian mechanics, the Galilean transformation equations relate the space and time
coordinates in one inertial frame to those in the other frame.
 The equations are not valid for cases where velocity approaches the value of c.
 The transformation equations that apply for all speeds up to c and incorporate the
invariance of speed of light were developed in 1890 by the German Physicist H.A.
Lorentz (1853–1928).
 These equations are known as the Lorentz transformations. Their real physical
significance was later established by Einstein.
Lorentz transformation of time:
 Let us consider two inertial reference frames S and S' in which the standards for
measuring distances and time are the same.
 Let the reference system S be stationary while the system S ' , moves with constant
velocity υ relative to system S along the directions of the axes x and x′.
 The axes x and x′ are in one line and the axes y and y′, and z and z′ are parallel.
 Let us assume that at the inertial instant, t = t′ = 0 and the origin O and O′ of the reference
systems coincide.
 Let a light pulse (flash) generated at time t=t ' =0at the origin which grows in the space.
Now consider the situation when the pulse reaches at point P.
 Let ( x , y , z , t )∧( x ' , y ' , z ' ,t ' ) be the positions and time coordinate of P measured by
observes O and O’ in frames S and S ' respectively.

5
 '
t=
( )
t−
vx
c
2

√( )
2
v
1−
c2
CASE: When the velocity v ≪ c , the Lorentz transformation equations approaches to Galilean
transformation.
Lorentz inverse transformations:
If we assume that the system S is moving with velocity – v relative to S ' along+ X ,
then the Lorentz transformation equations can be expressed as

x=
( x '+ vt ) '
, y= y , z=z ∧t=
'
( '
t+
vx '
c
2 )
√( ) √( )
2 2
v v
1− 1−
c2 c2

Galilean & Lorentz transformation equations:

Galilean Lorentz Inverse Lorentz transformations
transformations transformations
'
x =x−vt ( x−vt ) ( x '+ vt )
x'= x=

√( ) √( )
2 2
v v
1− 2 1−
2
c c
' ' ' ' ' '
y= y , z=z y= y , z=z y= y , z=z

( ) ( )
t=t ' vx ' vx '
t− 2 t+ 2
' c c
t= t=

√( ) √( )
2 2
v v
1− 2 1− 2
c c

The main concepts of special relativity are:

A. Time Dilation
B. Length Contraction
C. Mass variance
D. Mass energy relation
Topic-4: Time dilation and twin paradox
Time dilation:
According to special relativity, time is not absolute, but relative to the observer's motion.
When two observers are moving relative to each other at high speeds, they will measure
different time intervals for the same events. An observer moving at a significant fraction of
6
the speed of light will experience time passing more slowly compared to a stationary
observer. This phenomenon is called as time dilation.
Derivation of equation for time dilation in terms of velocity:
Consider two systems S and S ' . Let S ' be moving with a velocity ‘ v ’ with respect to S
in the positive direction of X-axis. Suppose a clock is situated in the system S at position ‘ x ’
and gives signals at intervals ‘∆ t ’, i.e.,
∆ t=t 2−t 1−−−−−(1)
If this interval is observed by an observer in system S ´ then interval ∆ t ' recorded by
him given by ∆ t '=t 2 ' −t 1 ' −−−−−(2)
From Lorentz transformations, we have

t 1 '=
t 1−
( vxc ) −−−−(3)
2

√( )
2
v
1− 2
c

t 2 '=
t 2−
( vxc ) −−−−(4)
2

√( )
2
v
1− 2
c
¿ . the eqn . ( 3 )∧( 4 ) ∈eqn . ( 2 ) , we get

( √( ) ) ( √( ) )
( vxc ) − t −( vxc )
t 2− 2 1 2
∆ t '=
2 2
v v
1− 2
1− 2
c c

∆ t '=
t 2−
( vxc )−t +( vxc )
2 1 2

√( )
2
v
1− 2
c
t 2−t 1
∆ t '=

√( )
2
v
1−
c2
∆t
∆ t '= −−−−−(5)

√( )
2
v
1− 2
c

7
The above eqn. shows that ∆ t '> ∆t , i.e., the time interval in system S ' is greater than the
time interval in system S.
Observations:
2
v
(i) When v is very small compared to c (v ≪ c) , the factor 2 will be negligibly small
c
compared to unity, hence
∆ t '=∆ t−−−−−(6)
i.e., the time interval recorded by a moving clock is the same as that when it is at rest.

√( )
2
(ii) When v is comparable to c (v ≈ c ), v will be less than unity. Therefore,
1− 2
c
∆ t '> ∆t−−−−−(7)
i.e., the time interval recorded by a moving clock is appears to be greater than the
time interval between the same events recorded by the clock when it is at rest.
2
v
(iii) When v is equal or greater than to c (v ≥ c ), 2 will be equal or greater than unity, so
c
that:∆ t '=∞∨imaginary
This implies that no material body can have the velocity equal to or greater
than the velocity of light.
Problems:
1. A certain process requires 10-6 sec to occur in an atom at rest in laboratory. How
much time will this process requires to an observer in the laboratory, when the atom
is moving with a speed of 5 X 107 cm/sec.
Sol.
We know that, the time dilation:
∆t
∆ t '=

√( )
2
v
1− 2
c
Given that, ∆ t=10−6 sec∧v=5 ×10 7 m/ sec
−6
10
∆ t '=

√( ( ))
7 2
5 ×10
1− 8
3 ×10

8
 −6
' 10 −9
∆t = =1.013× 10 sec

(√ 1− 900
25
)
2. A particle with a mean proper lift time of 2 µ sec. Calculate the lift time measured
by an observed in the laboratory when the particle is moving with a speed of 0.9 c.
Sol.
We know that, the time dilation:
∆t
∆ t '=

√( )
2
v
1− 2
c
Given that, ∆ t=2 μ sec =2× 10−6 sec∧v=0.9 c
−6
2× 10
∆ t '=

√( ( ))
2
0.9 c
1−
c
' −6
∆ t =4.58× 10 sec

3. What is the velocity of object whose observed mean lift is 2.5 ×10−7 sec . The proper
life time of the object is 2.5 ×10−8 sec .
Sol.
We know that, the time dilation:
∆t
∆ t '=

√( )
2
v
1− 2
c
Given that, ∆ t '=2 ×10−7 sec∧∆ t=2.5 ×10−8 sec
−8
−7 2.5 × 10
2 ×10 =

√( )
2
v
1− 2
c
1
10=

√( )
2
v
1− 2
c

( )
2
v
100 1− 2
=1
c

9
 2
v 1
1− 2
=
c 100
2
v 1
2
=1−
c 100
2 99 2
v= c
100
v=0.99 c
8 8
v=0.99 ×3 ×10 =2.9849 ×10 m/s
4. A stationary meson decays in 2.2 ×10−8 sec . what will be length of its path if it is
moving towards the earth with velocity 0.99 c.
Sol.
We know that, the time dilation:
∆t
∆ t '=

√( )
2
v
1− 2
c
Given that, ∆ t=2 μ sec =2× 10−6 sec∧v=0.9 c
−8
2.2× 10
∆ t '=

√( ( ))
2
0.99 c
1−
c
−8
' 2.2 ×10 −8
∆t = =15.596 ×10 sec
√ (1−0.9801 )
length of the path=time × velocity
−8 8
length of the path=15.596 ×10 ×0.99 ×3 ×10 =46.332 m
Twin paradox:
The time dilation effect leads to the famous “Twin Paradox” of special relativity. To
understand the concept of twin paradox, let us consider a hypothetical experiment involving
twins. One twin stays on Earth (let's call her A), and the other twin (let's call her as B) travel
into space with speed comparable to the speed of light and then returns to Earth. During this
journey, As B travels at speed of light, which leads to time dilation according to the
principles of special relativity. Hence, B ages at a slower rate and at the end of her trip, when
she joins her twin on Earth, she will be younger than Seetha.
But this explanation appears to contradict the postulate of special theory of relativity,
which asserts that all inertial frames are equivalent. All these contradictions disappear when
we take into account of the fact that the space traveller, was not in an inertial frame most of

10
the time. She experienced a series of accelerations when leaving the Earth and decelerations
when coming back to the Earth. Thus, she was in an accelerated frame for a greater part of
her trip. Hence, the predictions based on special theory of relativity are not valid in her
reference frame.
On the other hand, A is in an inertial frame all the time and, therefore, her predictions are
reliable. Therefore, B will indeed be younger than Seetha on returning to Earth.
Topic-5: Length contraction and Mass variance
Length contraction
Special relativity also showed that the length of an object moving at a high speed will
appear shorter in the direction of its motion when observed by a stationary observer. This
effect is known as length contraction
Consider two coordinate systems S and S', the latter moving with velocity v relative
to the former along the positive X-direction. Let a rod be placed in S' along X-axis as shown
in figure.

The length of the rod moving with velocity v relative to the observer in S frame is given by

√( )
2
v
l=l ' 1− 2 −−−−−(5)
c

This is known as Lorentz-Fitzerald contraction.

Observations:
2
v
(i) When v is very small compared to c (v ≪ c) , then 2 is negligibly small compared to
c
unity, hence
l=l '
i.e., the length of the moving rod or object is the same as that, when it was at rest.

11
 √( )
2
v
(ii) When v is comparable to c(v ≈ c ), 1− 2 will be less than unity. Hence,l<l'
c
i.e., the length of the moving rod or object is appearing to be less than the length
when it was at rest.
2
v
(iii) When v is equal or greater than to c(v ≥ c ), 2 will be equal or greater than unity, so
c
that:l=o∨imaginary
This is impossible. Hence no material body can attain the velocity of light.
(iv) The contraction takes place only along the direction of motion and remains
unchanged in a perpendicular direction
(v) Contraction cannot be visualized, though it really occurs.
(vi) The contraction cannot be visualized, though it really occurs.
(vii) The contraction is reciprocal i.e., if two identical rods are at rest, one in frame S and
the other in frame S', each observer in its own frame observes that the other rod is
shorter than the rod of his own frame.
Problems:
1. A rod has length 1 m. When the rod is in a satellite moving with a velocity that is one
half of the velocity of light relative to laboratory, what is the length of the rod as
determined by an observer (a) in the satellite? And (b) in the laboratory?
Sol.
(a) The observer in the satellite is at rest relative to the rod hence the length of the rod as
measured by him is 1 m
(b) The length l of the rod in laboratory is given by

√( )
2
v
l=l ' 1− 2
c

√( )
2
(0.5 c)
l=l ' 1− 2
c
l=1 √ ( 0.75 )=0.866 m.
2. If a rod travels with a speed v=0.6 c and its length 0.8 m, calculate the length for
the rod for an observed in the laboratory.
Sol.
We know that, the length l of the rod in laboratory is given by

12
 √( )
2
v
l=l ' 1− 2
c

√( )
2
(0.6 c )
l=l ' 1− 2
c
l
=0.8 √( 1−0.36 )=0.64 m .
l'
3. Calculate the velocity of the rod when its length will appear 90% of its proper
length.
Sol.
We know that, the length l of the rod in laboratory is given by

√( )
2
v
l=l ' 1− 2
c

√( )
2
v
90=100 1− 2
c

√( )
2
v
1− 2
=0.9
c
2
v
1− 2
=0.81
c
2
v
2
=0.19
c
2 2
v =0.19 c
v=√ 0.19 ×3 ×10 =1.307 ×10 m/sec
8 8

4. A rocket ship is 100 metre long on the ground. When it is flight, its length is 99 m to
an observer on the ground. What is its speed?
Sol.
We know that, the length l of the rod in laboratory is given by

√( )
2
v
l=l ' 1− 2
c
'
giventhat , l =100 m∧l=99 m ,Then

√( )
2
v
99=100 1− 2
c

√( )
2
v 99
1− 2
=
c 100

13
 2
v 2
1− 2
=(0.99)
c
2
v
2
=1−0.9801
c
2 2
v =0.0199 c
v=√ 0.0199 ×3 ×10 =0.423 ×10 m/s
8 8

Mass variation (Relativistic Mass):

According to Newtonian Mechanics, the mass of a body does not change with
velocity i.e., it is independent of velocity. The same force will produce the same acceleration
whether the body is at rest or moving with certain velocity. But according to Einstein, the
mass of the body in motion is different from the mass of the body at rest.
In fact, mass is a function of the velocity of the body. The mass increases with
increased velocity according to the relation
mo
m= −−−−−(1)

√( )
2
v
1− 2
c
Where, mo is the rest mas of the body (i.e., when the body is at rest), c is the velocity
of light and v is the velocity of the body.
Observations:
2
v
(i) When v is very small compared to c (v ≪ c) , then 2 is negligibly small compared to
c
unity. Hence,
m=mo
i.e., the mass of the moving body or object is the same as that of its rest mass

√( )
2
v
(ii) When v is comparable to c(v ≈ c ), 1− 2 will be less than unity. Hence,m>mo
c
i.e., the mass of the moving object is appears to be greater than its rest mass.
2
v
(iii) When v is equal or greater than to c(v ≥ c ), 2 will be equal to or greater than unity,
c
so that:m=∞∨imaginary
i.e., this is impossible. Hence no material body can attain the velocity of light.
Problems:
1. At what speed the mass of an object will be double of its value at rest?
Sol.

14
 We know that,
mo
m=

√( )
2
v
1−
c2
Given that , m=2 mo , then
mo
2 m o=

√( )
2
v
1− 2
c

√( )
2
v 1
1− 2
=
c 2
2
v 1
1− 2
=
c 4

2
v 3
2
=
c 4
2 3 2
v= c
4
8
v=2.6 ×10 m/ sec

2. The rest mass of an electron is 9.1 ×10−31 kg . What will be its mass, if it were moving
with (4/5)th of the speed of light.
Sol.
We know that,
mo
m=

√( )
2
v
1−
c2
−31 4
Given that , mo=9.1 ×10 kg , v= c=0.8 c then,
5

9.1× 10−31
m=

√( )
2
( 0.8 c )
1−
c2
−31
9.1 ×10
¿
√( 1−0.64 )

15
 −31
9.1 ×10 −31
m= =15.16 ×10 kg
0.6
3. A particle is moving with 90% fo the velocity of light. Find the ratio of relativistic
mass with its rest mass.
Sol.
We know that,
mo
m=

√( )
2
v
1− 2
c
giventhat , v =0.9 c ( 90 % ) , Then
m 1
=

√(
mo
)
2
(0.9 c )
1−
c2
m 1
= =2.294
mo √ 0.19
4. On the surface of the earth the mass of a man is 100 kg. when he is in a rocket
moving with a speed of 4.2×10 7 m/sec relative to the earth, what will be his mass as
observed by (a) an observer on the earth (b) an observer in his rocket?
Sol.
(a) We know that,
mo
m=

√( )
2
v
1−
c2
7
Given that , mo=100 kg , v=4.2 ×10 m/ sec, then

100
m=

√( )
7 2
(4.2 ×10 )
1− 8 2
(3 ×10 )
100
¿ =101 Kg
√( 1−(0.14)2 )
(b) When the observer is in the rocket, there is no relative motion between observer and
man. Hence, the observer finds the mass of the man as 100 kg.
Topic-6: Einstein's mass-energy relation
Albert Einstein proposed the mass energy relation in 1905 as part of his theory of special

16
relativity. This equation implies that mass and energy are interchangeable and can be
converted from one form to another. It suggests that even a small amount of mass can be
converted into a large amount of energy, and vice versa, under specific conditions.
The equation expresses the equivalence of mass (m) and energy (E) and states that energy is
equal to the mass of an object multiplied by the speed of light (c) squared.
In mathematical form, the equation is: E = mc²
Where: E = Energy, m = Mass, c = Speed of light in a vacuum.
Proof:
According to classical mechanics, the energy is defined as work done. i.e.,
w=Force ×distance−−−−(1)
The force acting on the body is rate of change of momentum, hence
dP d
F= = (mv )
dt dt
According ¿Relativity, the mass and velocity are variables, thus
dv dm
F=m +v −−−−(2)
dt dt
When a particle is displaced through a distance dx by the application of force F, Then the
increase in kinetic energy dK is given by
dK =F dx−−−−−(3)
Substitute eqn . ( 2 ) ∈ (3 ) , we get ,
dv dm
dK =m .dx + v . dx
dt dt
2
dK =mv dv + v dm−−−−−(4) ∵ v= ( dx
dt )
We know that, variation of mass with velocity is
mo
m=

√( )
2
v
1−
c2
Square on both sides, we get
2 2
2 mo c
m= 2 2
c −v
2 2 2 2 2 2
m c −m v =mo c
differentiating above equation we get ,
2 2 2
c 2m dm−v 2 mdm−m 2 v dv=0 ( ∵ mo ∧c both are constants )

17
 2 m ( c2 dm−v 2 dm−mv dv )=0
2 2
c dm−v dm−mv dv=0
2 2
c dm=v dm+mv dv −−−−−( 5)
Comparing eqn. (4) & (5), we get,
2
dK =c dm−−−−−(6)
Now, consider that the body is at rest initially and by the application of force it acquires a
velocity ‘v’. The mass of the body increases from mo to m. The total Kinetic energy acquired
by the body is given by
m

∫ dK=∫ c dm 2

mo

2
K=c ( m−mo )−−−−−(7)
The total energy of a moving particle is ∑ of kinetic energy∧energy at rest . Thus ,
2
E=K +mo c
2 2
E=c ( m−mo ) +mo c

∴ E=m c 2−−−−−−(8)
This eqn. (8) is the universal equivalence between mass and energy.
Problems:
1. How much energy could theoretically be obtained by annihilation of 1 gm of matter?
Sol.
We know that, total energy,
2
E=mc
−3 8
giventhat , m=1 gm=10 kg∧c=3 ×10
E=( 10−3 ) ×(3 ×108 )2
13
E=9 ×10 joule
−19
Further , 1 eV =1.602 ×10
13
9 ×10 32
E= −19
eV =5.618 × 10 eV
1.602 ×10
2. An electron¿) is moving with speed 0.99c. What is its total energy? Find the ratio of
Newtonian kinetic energy to the relativistic energy. (c=3× 108 m/sec )
Sol.
We know that,

18
 mo
m=

√( )
2
v
1− 2
c
−31
Given that , mo=9.1 ×10 kg , v=0.99 c m/sec , then
−31
9.1 ×10
m=

√( )
2
(0.99 c)
1− 2
c
−31
9.1× 10
m=
√ ( 1−0.99 ) 2

−31
m=64.5 × 10 kg
Now total energy,
2
E=mc
E=( 64.5 ×10−31) ×(3 ×108 )2
−13
E=5.8× 10 joule
1 2
Newtonian kinetic energy is K.E. = m v
2 o
2 2
Relativistic kinetic energy=total energy −rest energy=mc −mo c
1 2
m v
Newtonian kinetic energy 2 o
∴ =
Relativistic kinetic energy mc 2−mo c 2

()
1 mo v 2
¿ ×
2 m−mo c
−31
1 9.1 ×10
¿ × −31
( 0.99 )2=0.08
2 55.4 ×10

3. If the total energy of a particle is exactly thrice its rest energy, what is the velocity of
the particle?
Sol.
We know that, total energy,
2
E=mc
2
giventhat , E=3 mo c
2 2
mc =3 mo c
m=3 mo

19
 The variation of mass with velocity is expressed as
mo
m=

√( )
2
v
1−
c2
mo
3 m o=

√( )
2
v
1−
c2

√( )
2
v 1
1− 2
=
c 3
2
v 1
1− 2 =
c 9
2
v 8
2
=
c 9

v=
√ 8
9
×3 ×10 8=2.828 ×108
m
sec
.

Topic-7: Applications of relativity

A. Global positioning system, Doppler Effect, and medical imaging
 The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a network of satellites that orbits the Earth and
provides location information to GPS receivers on the ground.
 It is widely used for navigation, mapping, and various other applications.
 However, for the GPS system to work accurately, it must take into account the effects of
both special relativity and general relativity, which are two important theories in physics
proposed by Albert Einstein.
 Time Dilation due to Special Relativity: Because the GPS satellites are moving relative
to GPS receivers on the ground, their on board atomic clocks (which are highly precise)
tick at a slightly slower rate compared to clocks on the Earth's surface. It's essential to
account for this difference to ensure accurate positioning information.
 Time Dilation due to General Relativity: Additionally, the GPS satellites experience
weaker gravitational pull due to their altitude above the Earth. According to general
relativity, time runs slightly faster in weaker gravitational fields. As a result, the atomic
clocks on the GPS satellites tick faster than clocks on the Earth's surface.
 Therefore, in order to determine the positions accurately, the effects of special and
general relativity has to be taken into account by GPS receivers on the ground, in such a
way the GPS receivers allowing us to use navigation apps on our phones or in-car GPS

20
 devices effectively.
B. Relativity concept in Doppler effect: definition and relation with relativity:
The Doppler Effect is a phenomenon observed in waves, such as sound waves or light
waves when the source of the waves and the observer are in relative motion. It causes a
change in the frequency or wavelength of the waves perceived by the observer compared
to the frequency or wavelength emitted by the source.
Example:
The phenomenon can easily observed at the railway station. An observed standing on
the platform observes that the pitch of the note of the whistling engine approaches him is
higher than the true pitch while lowered when the engine recedes away from him.
The Doppler Effect is a classical concept, but its connection with relativity is important
and leads to some interesting consequences.

Relation with Relativity:

The Doppler Effect is a classical concept based on the relative motion between the source
and the observer. However, when objects move at very high speeds, close to the speed of
light, we find that the observed frequency or wavelength shift is no longer solely
dependent on the relative velocity between the source and the observer. Instead,
relativistic Doppler equations must be used to calculate the frequency or wavelength shift
when dealing with high speeds.

C. Relativity concept in medical imaging

Relativity concepts play a role in medical imaging, particularly in the field of nuclear
medicine, which involves the use of radioactive materials for diagnostic and therapeutic
purposes.
The pulse-echo technique
It is a fundamental principle used in various medical imaging modalities, such as
ultrasound imaging. It involves sending short bursts of high-frequency sound waves
(ultrasound) into the body and then detecting the echoes produced by the interaction of these
waves with internal structures. This technique allows medical professionals to create real-
time images of organs, tissues, and other structures inside the body.
Relativity Concept in Pulse-Echo Technique:
While the pulse-echo technique itself does not directly involve relativistic effects,
there is an indirect connection through the speed of sound in the body tissues. Ultrasound
21
waves travel at a much lower speed than light waves. The speed of sound in human tissues is
around 1500 meters per second (m/s). Since the velocities involved in the pulse-echo
technique are much lower than the speed of light (approximately 3 × 10^8 m/s), relativistic
effects are negligible for ultrasound imaging. However, when it comes to other imaging
techniques, such as positron emission tomography (PET) or single-photon emission
computed tomography (SPECT), which may involve the detection of gamma rays traveling
close to the speed of light, relativistic effects can be crucial, as mentioned in the previous
response.
Positron Emission Tomography (PET):
PET is a medical imaging technique that uses positron-emitting radioactive tracers to
visualize and measure metabolic processes in the body. The radioactive tracers are injected
into the patient, and when they decay, they emit positrons (positively charged electrons).
These positrons quickly interact with nearby electrons, resulting in the production of two
gamma rays traveling in opposite directions. The gamma rays travel at the speed of light, and
when they reach the PET detector, they are detected based on the time difference between
their arrivals. However, due to the high velocities of these gamma rays (close to the speed of
light), their "time" is dilated, as per the principles of special relativity. As a result, the time
delay between their arrivals is affected, and this must be taken into account when
reconstructing the PET image to ensure accurate localization of the radioactive tracer's origin
in the patient's body.

22