Nature Based Solutions Climate Cities

Nature-based Solutions for
Climate Resilient Cities

Perspectives and experiences from Latin America
Published by the United Nations Environment European Union or GEF. The United Nations
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ISBN: 978-92-807-4109-4 during or after this partnership.
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Cities. Perspective and experiences from Latin
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II
Contributions
Authors Ninike Celi Atala
Daniel Kozak, Manuel Winograd, Jorgelina Karina Suarez
Hardoy, Begoña Arellano, Melinda Maldonado, Adriana Avila Santacruz (District of Quito)
Tom Wild, Mariana Baptista, and Mariana The Knowledge Network for Research,
Giusti Strengthening, and Promotion of SUDS, as a
Measure of Adaptation to Climate Change of
This publication was edited by: Bogota.
Daniel Kozak, University of Buenos Aires (UBA)
and the National Council for Scientific and This report has been made possible thanks
Technical Research (CONICET), Argentina. to the generous contribution of our donors:
The European Union EUROCLIMA+ Programme,
This publication was led by: the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and
Marta Moneo, Lili Ilieva, and Ophelie Drouault the support of the Norwegian Development
(Adaptation Team, Climate Change Unit, UNEP Cooperation Agency. The research reflected
- Latin America and the Caribbean). It is a result in chapter 6 has been funded by the European
carried out as part of the CityAdapt regional Union as part of the Horizon 2020 research and
project, implemented by UNEP in El Salvador, innovation programme (Grant Agreement No
This publication was edited by: Jamaica, and 867564), through the CONEXUS project.
Mexico between 2017 and 2023.
We thank the following experts for reviewing Technical support and editorial production:
the chapters and their valuable contributions The editorial design process of this publication
to the report: has been directed by the Practical Action team:
Leyla Zelaya (UNEP)
Sergio Angon (UNEP) Jacqueline Gotuzzo
Carolina Ana Diaz (UNEP) Silvia Gonzales
Karem Rivero (UNEP) Dennis Gonzales
Maria Paula Viscardo (UNEP) Gabriela Ramos
Carlos Rodriguez Otero (INOTU - Cuba) Marita Obregón Rossi (proofreading)
Solution Comunicaciones (design and layout)
We thank the following experts for providing Carla Dongo (translation)
inputs for the publication and case studies:
Fernando Williams With support from the UNEP communication
Andres Borthagaray team:
Lorena Vecslir Karla Delgado-Olguin
Michiel van Eupen (WENR) Irati Durban Aguinagalde
Hernando Arenas (Institute of Urban Natalia Lopez Alvarez
Development of Bogota) Daniel Diaz Rivas
Cristina Arango (Bogota Aqueduct and Sewer Javier Bianchet
Company)
Arturo Mejia
Mauricio Marin
Maria Jose Escudero
III
Acronyms
AGEB: Basic Geo-statistical Areas
AMSS: Metropolitan Area of San Salvador
AU: Urban Agriculture
BGI: Blue and Green Infrastructure
CAF: Development Bank of Latin America
CBD: Convention on Biological Diversity
CC: Climate Change
CDKN: Climate and Development Knowledge Network
CDR: Climate-Resilient Development
CEPAR: Center for Agroecological Production Studies
CIRIA: Construction Industry Research and Information Association
CMAS: Drinking water and sanitation Municipal Commission
COCUPIX: Pixquiac River Basin Committee
COD: Onerous Concession of Rights
CONAGUA: National Water Commission
CPI: Climate Policy Initiative
CRC: Climate Resilient Cities
WSUD: Water-Sensitive Urban Design
EAAB: Bogotá Aqueduct and Sewerage Company
EC: European Commission
ECLAC: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean
EEA: European Environment Agency
EGIRH: Comprehensive Water Resource Management Strategy
ES: Ecosystem Services
EURAC: Eurac Research, European Academy Bozen-Bolzano
FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
IV
FFEM: French Global Environment Facility
FFLA: Latin American Future Foundation
FUNDASAL: Salvadoran Foundation for Development and Minimum Housing
GCA: Global Commission on Adaptation
GIS: Geographic Information System
GIZ: German Agency for International Cooperation
GEF: Global Environment Facility
GHG: Greenhouse Gas
GWP: Global Water Partnership
IDRC: International Development Research Centre
IDU: Institute for Urban Development
INTA: National Institute of Agricultural Technology
IPBES: Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and
Ecosystem Services
IPCC: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
IPTU: Urban Territorial Property Tax
IUCN: International Union for Conservation of Nature
IWRM: Integrated Water Resources Management
LAC: Latin America and the Caribbean
LOOTUGS: Organic Law on Territorial Planning, Land Use, and Management
MARN: Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources
MEA: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
NAU: New Urban Agenda
NbS: Nature-based Solutions
OECD: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
PACQ: Quito Climate Action Plan
PMDOT: Metropolitan Development and Territorial Planning Plan
POT: Land Management Plan
PROCOMES: Association of Community Projects in El Salvador
V
PUGS: Land Use and Management Plan
REVIVE A.C.: Biodiversity Nurseries Network
RCP: Representative Concentration Pathways
RVO: Netherlands Enterprise Agency
RWHS: Rainwater Harvesting Systems
SDGs: Sustainable Development Goals
SENDAS: Pathways and Encounters for Sustainable Autonomous
Development Civil Association
SINFRA: Secretariat of Infrastructure and Sustainable Territorial Planning
SUDS: Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems
UHI: Urban Heat Island
UN: United Nations
UNDP: United Nations Development Programme
UNDRR: United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction
UNEA: United Nations Environment Assembly
UNEP: United Nations Environment Programme
UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNFCCC: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
UNR: National University of Rosario
UNU: United Nations University
WSUD: Water-Sensitive Urban Design
WUNR: Western Urban Natural Reserve
VI
Table of Contents
Contributions III
Acronyms IV
Executive summary XI
Key messages XIV
Introduction 1
Chapter 1 7
Key concepts on NbS for adaptation in cities

Author: Daniel Kozak
Chapter 2 24
Climate risk analyses in cities and how to use them in

NbS planning and design
Author: Manual Winograd

Contributor: Michiel van Eupen
42
Chapter 3
Citizen participation in NbS planning and design
Author: Jorgelina Hardoy
Chapter 4 59
Resilient infrastructure in urban adaptation

Author: Begoña Arellano Jaimerena
Chapter 5 75
Overview of the planning and financing instruments that support
urban NbS
Author: Melinda Lis Maldonado
Chapter 6 92
Analysis and valuation of NbS impacts
Authors: Tom Wild, Mariana Baptista and Mariana Giusti
Bibliographic references 108

Additional materials 121
List of Figures
Figure 0.1. Case study map in Latin America 5
Figure 0.2. Publication Structure 6
Figure 1.1. NbS examples at multiple scales 10

Figure 1.2. Towards a water-sensitive Mexico City 15
Figure 1.3. Western Natural Urban Reserve, Santa Fe, Argentina 17
Figure 1.4. Historical model, current model and desired model of 20
pipe removal of the Maldonado stream, Buenos Aires
Figure 2.1. Example of a framework and metrics to assess vulnerability 30

and risks in cities
Figure 2.2. Elaboration of a socioenvironmental vulnerability map 35
Figure 2.3. Identification of priority areas for adaptation with NbS 37
Figure 3.1. Circular benefits of NbS 46

Figure 3.2. Urban Agriculture Programme (AU), Rosario. 50
Figure 3.3. Typical steps in a participatory process to develop NbS. 52
Figure 3.4. What changes do we look for throughout an NbS 53
development process?
Figure 4.1. Example of NbS, the risks and hazards they address and 62
the co-benefits they bring about
Figure 4.2. Left: Diagram showing RWHS main components. Right: 68
Example of RWHS implemented in one of the schools
Figure 4.3. Visualizations of the proposed measures, including for 71
example permeable pavements
Figure 5.1. SUDS (extended drainage dry basin) in the Metropolitano 78
San Cristóbal Sur Park, Bogotá, Colombia
Figure 5.2. SUDS in Elemento Building (69th Avenue and 26th 78
Street), Bogotá, Colombia
Figure 5.3. Relationship between building rights and building 85
standards
Figure 5.4. Floodable pits on Rincon Avenue, Suba, Bogota (left) 87
and infiltration ditches with bioretention zones under construction
on Rincon-Boyaca Avenue (right).
Figure 5.5. Bioretention zones, Bogotá. 88
Figure 6.1. Up. Co-benefits of Green Corridors Project. Down. 101

Pictures from the Green Corridors Project.
Figure 6.2 Aerial view of Ibirapuera Park. 103
List of Tables
Table 2.1. Elements and essential variables for risk and vulnerability 27
analyses in cities.
Table 2.2. Examples of hazards, vulnerability and risks and 28
adaptative capacity per type of city
Table 5.1. Characterization of urban development requirements 82

and property taxes, fees and contributions
Executive summary and
key messages
Reconnecting cities with nature
Climate impacts in Latin America and the housing deficits, and inefficient and
Caribbean are increasing in frequency unevenly distributed infrastructure; they
and intensity. According to the World also lack landscape or watershed planning
Meteorological Organization (WMO), that integrates ecosystem services into their
between 2020 and 2022, 88% of the sustainable development. With population
extreme events recorded in the region growth and concentration in urban areas,
were caused by meteorological, climatic, most citizens now live in high-risk areas
and hydrological factors. These events exposed to climate events. They are
accounted for 40% of the deaths and 71% increasingly exposed to river and coastal
of related economic losses (WMO 2022). flooding, heatwaves, extreme rainfall, and
Considering that currently, 8 out of 10 storms, as well as water scarcity, resulting in
people in the region live in urban areas, increasingly significant impacts.
and it is estimated that this figure could
reach 85% by 2040 (UN-Habitat 2022), and These high levels of exposure to climate risks
that 48% of the capitals of Latin America compel us to recognize the need to change
and the Caribbean are exposed to extreme the current unsustainable model of regional
risk due to the impacts of climate change urbanization. To reduce vulnerability, it is
(Development Bank of Latin America [CAF] necessary to transform these processes and
2014), it becomes essential to increase reconsider the relationship between cities
resilience in urban spaces. and their natural environment. This involves
investing in and planning the recovery of
Strengthening the adaptive capacity of ecosystems and their regulatory functions,
cities requires a rethinking of the urban as well as promoting orderly urban growth
development process, as it involves a as an integral part of the landscape.
significant transformation of territory and
land use. Historically, this development So how can we transform urban planning?
has been unsustainable, depleting the Are there accessible and cost-effective tools
natural resources on which cities rely. that allow us to begin building resilience in
Urban environments have developed these cities? The answers, as we will explore
separately from natural ecosystems, throughout this publication, may be closer
resulting in the channelingchannelling than we think.
of rivers and estuaries, deforestation of
hillsides, transformation of wetlands into Nature-Based Solutions (NbS) are an
landfills, and consequently, the loss of key effective way to strengthen the resilience of
functions that these ecosystems provide. urban communities by enhancing the natural
functions of ecosystems and providing
Cities in Latin America and the Caribbean social, ecological, and economic benefits.
not only face inadequate land planning, Ecosystems within and around urban areas
XI
play an essential role in retaining and
infiltrating water, regulating temperature,
controlling soil erosion and loss, among
many other services; our actions, when
properly planned and measured, can
maximize their positive impacts.
NbS are not a product but a process.

They require long-term commitment and
informed and effective citizen participation
to ensure their sustainability. This implies
a paradigm shift in the urban planning of
many cities, with the aim of addressing the
multidimensional nature of vulnerability
through integrated solutions.
Wider adoption of Ecosystem-based urban

Adaptation strategies and scaling up NbS
require coherent institutional and political
frameworks, urban planning tools informed
by climate risks, inclusive, intersectional,
and participatory processes, as well as a
sustainable financial strategy that guides
investment and urban development toward
resilience. Cities play a fundamental role as
key actors in local climate action and must
demonstrate ambition consistent with the
needs of their residents.
This publication aims at providing tools for

those involved in urban planning to more
effectively integrate climate risks and the
opportunities offered by the ecosystem
context of each city. This way, it seeks
to contribute to Latin America and the
Caribbean resilient urban development.
Photography: Xalapa, Mexico

XII
Source: © UNEP / Author: Josephat Kariuki.
The publication is organized around six key themes:
Chapter 1. Chapter 4.
Key concepts of NbS Resilient infrastructure
for adaptation in cities in urban adaptation
Introduces the concept of NbS and Analyzes the potential of NbS and hybrid
the fundamental role they can play in solutions to reduce climate risks and
urban adaptation to climate change. It impacts in cities. The chapter focuses on
is illustrated with specific examples from technical, governance, and monitoring
Mexico City (Mexico) and the cities of and evaluation aspects relevant to the
Santa Fe and Buenos Aires (Argentina). design and implementation of NbS,
using case studies from the cities of San
Salvador (El Salvador) and Oaxaca de
Chapter 2. Juárez (Mexico).
Climate risk analyses in cities
and how to use them in NbS
planning and design Chapter 5.
Overview of planning
Presents a methodology for assessing and financing instruments
climate risks, emphasizing the that support urban NbS
importance of such analysis for planning
urban adaptation strategies based Provides an analysis of financing
on ecosystems. The chapter includes instruments that enable the transition
examples from the cities of Xalapa from planning to implementation and
(Mexico) and San Salvador (El Salvador). seek self-sustaining models of local
financing. The chapter includes examples
from the cities of Quito (Ecuador) and
Chapter 3. Bogotá (Colombia).
Citizen participation in NbS
planning and design Chapter 6.
Analysis and valuation
Highlights the importance of building of NbS impacts
participatory processes involving key
actors in territorial planning, design, Identifies the main references on
and implementation of NbS in cities. NbS financing and valuation today,
The chapter includes tools and describing possible business models,
examples from the cities of Rosario and exploring the relationships between
(Argentina) and Xalapa (Mexico). the co-benefits of NbS and valuation
frameworks. The chapter includes
examples from the cities of Medellín
(Colombia) and São Paulo (Brazil).
XIII
Key messages
1. Cities are intrinsically connected to their

surrounding watersheds and depend on them for
various services contributing to climate resilience.
Cities and the watersheds surrounding them maintain an essential
connection in the context of climate change. Urban areas depend on their
watersheds for a range of vital ecosystem services that play a fundamental
role in climate resilience. In this context, healthy watersheds play a key role
in managing the water cycle for urban areas, acting for water regulation,
distribution, and flow. This in turn, contributes to reducing the risk of
flooding and increasing water security.
2. Climate risk analysis at the watershed scale: a key

approach for an integrated urban planning based
on climate impacts and risks.
Climate risk analysis at the watershed scale is a key tool that drives resilience
in cities. Climate risks are complex and encompass multiple dimensions, from
climate patterns to land use, water resources, and ecosystems. But to truly
understand vulnerability and risks, we must look beyond the city limits and
consider a multiscale perspective. By analyzing climate risks at the watershed,
peri-urban, and urban levels, we gain a comprehensive view of how climate
change impacts vital ecological functions for urban resilience. From the
identification of critical vulnerability points to the understanding of the origin
of floods, this approach provides us with a holistic and precise understanding
of how to address climate challenges and build cities prepared for the future.
3. The transformative power of ecosystems in

building resilient cities.
Ecosystems have the ability to control floods, mitigate droughts, improve air quality,
and regulate the urban microclimate, making them a key element in building urban
resilience. At all scales, from wetlands to forested areas in cities and peri-urban
areas, they act as natural sponges that absorb and retain rainwater, reducing the
risk of flooding and ensuring groundwater recharge and retention. Restoration
and conservation actions for valuable ecosystems as part of NbS can foster a path
to sustainable urban adaptation. Through NbS, we can maximize their potential
to ensure a resilient future for our cities and build an urban environment better
prepared for current and upcoming challenges.
XIV
4. Participatory governance for an inclusive
and sustainable future in resilient urban
environments.
Participatory governance in the construction of urban resilience with
NbS is essential to ensure inclusion, recognition of local knowledge,
community empowerment, and accountability. By involving a wide
range of stakeholders in the decision-making process, it is possible
to develop and implement more effective and sustainable solutions
that address urban challenges and promote long-term resilience.
Empowering citizens in all their diversity, as well as involving actors
from the private sector, civil society, academia, and others, is
fundamental to the effectiveness of the solutions.
5. Investing in innovative financial instruments for

NbS implementation.
Financing and urban management tools, as well as land-based instruments,
offer a unique opportunity to support the implementation of NbS. By
leveraging local resources and the participation of diverse stakeholders,
funds can be generated to drive their development. In urban planning or
construction projects, NbS or financial resources can be legally required
to finance them. Property taxes can incorporate NbS through their use
for fiscal purposes, such as tax collection or through additional incentives
that promote NbS implementation.
6. Profitability, benefits, and co-benefits of NbS

for urban resilience building.
NbS and resilient infrastructure offer greater social, economic, and
environmental benefits, such as improved health and the creation of
green jobs, compared to conventional solutions, and complement
climate mitigation actions and biodiversity conservation. NbS can replace
or complement grey infrastructure, such as levees and conventional
drainage systems, which are often costly to build and maintain. By using
nature as a resilient infrastructure, it is possible to reduce construction,
maintenance, and long-term operational costs.
XV
Photography: San Salvador, El Salvador
Introduction
1
The role of cities in Gender and environmental interlinkages
the climate change are necessary and are called for
and biodiversity in international agreements. The
agenda construction of climate-resilient
cities must be carried out inclusively,
recognizing the interrelationships
There is increasing evidence of the between gender and the environment,
destructive impacts of climate change as stipulated in international agreements
on the human population, nature, and and by the Convention on Biological
infrastructure (Intergovernmental Panel Diversity (CBD 2021).
on Climate Change [IPCC] 2022a).
Meanwhile, biodiversity has declined Cities vulnerable to
unprecedentedly in human history climate change in
(Intergovernmental Science-Policy Latin America and
Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem the Caribbean
Services [IPBES] 2019). Addressing this
crisis requires joint action that establishes Latin America and the Caribbean is the
complementary synergies between second most urbanised region in the
climate and biodiversity agendas. world: 8 out of 10 people live in cities,
Cities can play an important role in and it is estimated that the proportion of
accelerating these actions and addressing the urban population could reach 85% by
both challenges: strengthening the 2040 (ONU-Habitat 2022). Cities are highly
climate resilience of the population and exposed, vulnerable, and strongly affected
critical infrastructure while conserving by climate risks, such as river and coastal
and creating habitats to boost flooding, heat waves, extreme rainfall,
biodiversity. The New Urban Agenda storms, and water scarcity (IPCC 2022b, p.
(ONU-Habitat 2020) and the Regional 1).
Action Plan for the implementation of the
New Urban Agenda in Latin America and Cities face multidimensional challenges
the Caribbean (Economic Commission as climate risks impact urbanisation, loss
for Latin America and the Caribbean of biodiversity and ecosystem services,
[ECLAC] 2018) highlight the need to poverty, and increasing socioeconomic
integrate nature into urban planning and inequalities. As a result of the high rate
design. Likewise, the Paris Agreement of urbanisation and inadequate urban-
on Climate Change (United Nations territorial planning, deficient and unevenly
Framework Convention on Climate distributed infrastructure, housing deficits
Change [UNFCCC] 2015) and the Post- (both in quantitative and qualitative terms),
2020 Global Biodiversity Framework as well as the recurring occupation of high-
(Convention on Biological Diversity [CBD] risk areas, the urban population in the
2021) recognise the potential of cities to region concentrates an exceptionally high
contribute to achieving commitments on level of vulnerability (IPCC 2022b, pp. 1-2).
climate change and biodiversity. This, on the one hand, disproportionately
The construction of climate-resilient affects populations already exposed to
cities must be carried out inclusively, different types of risks, such as people with
recognizing the interrelationships disabilities or older individuals who have
between gender and the environment, limited access to resources and public
as stipulated in international agreements services. On the other, climate impacts
and by the Convention on Biological exacerbate gender inequalities due to their
2
causal interrelationship with environmental Working with nature to strengthen
degradation (UN Women, United Nations urban resilience can be cost-effective in
Development Programme [UNDP], United addressing climate change adaptation while
Nations Environment Programme [UNEP] reaping broader benefits for biodiversity,
2020). communities, and the local economy.
Nature-based solutions (NbS) are, first and
Despite women being seen as agents foremost, actions inspired and sustained
of change and leaders in addressing by natural processes to protect, manage,
challenges linked to climate change, they and restore ecosystems to address societal
experience differentiated impacts and are challenges such as climate change. These
burdened by a changing climate. Women interventions should be integrated into
represent majority of the world’s poor and designing new urban developments and
are dependent on natural resources for their retrofitting existing infrastructure wherever
livelihoods with these resources threatened possible. Nature-based solutions have been
by weather events. increasingly effective in tackling complex
urban challenges such as unregulated
The limited capacity of governments to urbanisation and climate change.
plan and finance adaptation to climate
change (CC) in cities is an additional barrier Wider adoption of ecosystem-based urban
to the construction of ambitious and adaptation strategies and scaling up of
effective adaptation processes, especially NbS require strengthened institutional
in intermediate and small towns. Thus, the and policy frameworks, adequate and
need to build innovative urban resilience climate risk-informed urban planning tools,
strategies and obtain sustainable financing inclusive and participatory processes, and a
becomes urgent in the urban agenda in the sustainable financial strategy for choosing
region. and implementing the most appropriate
and cost-effective NbS interventions.
Nature as a solution
for adaptation to
climate change in
cities
In response to climate change forecasts
highlighting increasing risks for cities, there
is a need to increase their resilience and
urban ecosystems to withstand climate
stress better. Such a paradigm shift can be
achieved by adopting urban ecosystem-
based adaptation strategies as the preferred
urban planning and development model. To
maximise the functionality of ecosystems in
building resilience, the ecosystem approach
must be at the centre of urban planning
processes, which are informed by climate
risk data, ecosystem assessments and
participatory vulnerability analyses.
3
Objectives and scope of the publication
This publication hopes to provide urban planning professionals with tools
to better understand, assess, plan, and act on climate change in cities. The
purpose of this publication is to:
1 Provide information and practical tools to guide urban planning

processes in order to integrate climate risks and plan for medium
and long-term urban resilience.
2
Support the integration of NbS in urban development and
adaptation strategies and urban infrastructure design.
3 Promote an inclusive and participatory planning process that

includes everyone and integrates urban planning activities with
the participation of local communities.
4 Improve understanding of the financial landscape and opportunities

for mobilising and accessing sustainable financing to invest in NbS
interventions and ensure their sustainability.
Key topics The publication is organised around six key topics:
Key Concepts on NbS Resilient Infrastructure in

for adaptation in cities. urban adaptation.
Climate Risk Analyses Overview of the planning

in cities and how and financing instruments
to use them in NbS that support urban NbS.
planning and design.
Citizen participation Opportunities and

in NbS planning and challenges for the analysis
design. and valuation of NbS
impacts.
4
To illustrate the practical use of the tools and approaches presented in each of the six
topics, this publication includes case studies from cities across the region, from Mexico to
Argentina (see Figure 0.1).
MÉXICO
a Xalapa
b Oaxaca
COLOMBIA
EL SALVADOR d Medellín
c San Salvador e Bogotá
d
e
f
ECUADOR
f Quito
Chapter Case City Location BRASIL

g
São Paulo
h
1 1 Santa Fe, Argentina h
2 2 Xalapa, México a i
2 3 San Salvador, San c

Salvador
3 4 Rosario, Argentina i
3 5 Xalapa, México a ARGENTINA
4 6 San Salvador, San c h Santa Fe
Salvador i Rosario
4 7 Oaxaca, México b
5 8 Quito, Ecuador f
5 9 Bogotá, Colombia e
6 10 Medellín, Colombia d
6 11 São Paulo, Brasil g
Figure 0.1 Case study map in Latin America
5
These are some of the guiding questions that will serve as the common thread throughout
the publication:
What are the most appropriate NbS to reduce climate change impacts in cities and
urban regions in Latin America and the Caribbean?
How to overtake the pilot and demonstration-only project stage? That is, a change of
scale is brought about by:
a) increasing the size of the interventions;
b) expanding the territorial coverage; and, mainly,
c) mainstreaming its implementation in decision-making and budget allocations.
Ch.
Ch.
2 Ch.
Climate risk
analyses in cities NbS analysis
Nature-based
What are they Solutions: and valuation
useful for?
key concepts Why are they
important?
What are
Ch.
urban NbS? Ch.
3 5
Ch.
4
Citizen Urban planning and
participation financing instruments
How are they
achieved? How are they
Resilient financed?
infrastructure
How are they
implemented?
Figure 0.2. Publication Structure
6
Chapter
1
Key concepts on
NbS for adaptation
in cities
Author: Daniel Kozak
7
Key Concepts on NbS for adaptation in cities

1.1 adaptation to climate change
Over the last few years, Nature-based There is increasing evidence that NbS
Solutions (NbS) have been widely can be complementary or an efficient
recognised as an approach that can and effective alternative to gray
address most of society’s critical infrastructure to achieve climate
challenges; climate change. These adaptation and increase resilience
solutions are inspired and supported by (Chausson et al. 2020). In adaptation,
the ecosystem approach that promotes NbS contribute to coping with multiple
ecosystem conservation and sustainable climate threats (e.g., floods, landslides and
use (CBD 2000). Protected and well- water stress) while generating additional
managed ecosystems (such as forests, benefits such as biodiversity conservation
wetlands, coastal dunes, and mangroves) and income generation opportunities.
generate critical ecosystem services (ES)
for adapting people and infrastructure to
climate change and reducing the impact
of extreme events (Kapos et al. 2019).
Box 1. Ecosystem Services (ES)
Ecosystem services (ES) are the benefits that people derive from ecosystems. ES are
classified as:
• Provisioning: food, water, fiber, wood and fuel.

• Regulating: air quality, soil fertility, flood control.
• Cultural: aesthetic inspiration, cultural identity, and spiritual well-being.
• Supporting: necessary for the production of all other services.
Source: Daily 1997, Millennium Ecosystem Assessment [MEA] 2003
8
Chapter 1
Box 2. Nature-based Solutions (NbS)
“NbS are actions to protect, conserve, restore, sustainably use and manage natural
or modified terrestrial, freshwater, coastal and marine ecosystems, which address
social, economic and environmental challenges effectively and adaptively, while
simultaneously providing human well-being, ecosystem services and resilience and
biodiversity benefits”.
NbS for adaptation to climate NbS for climate change mitigation:

change: Solutions to reduce Greenhouse Gas
Solutions to reduce the impacts (GHG) emissions or increase their
on and vulnerability of people and capture through green or blue sinks.
infrastructure to climate hazards.
Source: UNEA 5, 2022
Depending on adaptation needs, NbS can

NbS have the potential to act efficiently
be implemented in various ecosystems –
on both dimensions of climate action –
terrestrial, freshwater, coastal and marine,
natural or modified – and at different scales mitigation and adaptation– reducing
and contexts –urban, peri-urban, rural, or trade-offs and building synergies.1 Thus,
river basin. Examples of NbS for adaptation NbS is important in Climate Resilient
include the conservation and restoration Development (Intergovernmental Panel
of wetlands and forests in upstream on Climate Change [IPCC] 2022a), an
basins, improving water retention capacity objective that can only be achieved by
and reducing flood risk for downstream equitably integrating the role of women
areas. In contrast, the availability of water and vulnerable groups.
in dry periods is ensured. In addition, the
conservation and restoration of forests
lead to stabilising slopes, thus reducing
the risk of landslides (Figure 1.1).
1
Unlike other types of actions that seek to respond to CC in one dimension. For example, some solutions focused solely on mitigation, such as
the monoculture of a tree species with a high CO2 sequestration capacity, may be effective as green sinks but detrimental to biodiversity, and
therefore, do not constitute an NbS faithful to the definition adopted in UNEA-5, mentioned at the beginning of this chapter.
9
Figure 1.1. NbS examples at multiple scales

Source: UNEP 2022
Water drainage through The provision of quality water for

permeable areas that infiltrate human consumption thanks to
rainfallthrough theprovision
The regulationof
capacity
qualityofwater
forests
for provision of q
The
drainage Water drainage through
eableTemperature
areas that infiltrate human consumption thanks to human consumptio
control permeable
thanks to areas that infiltrate
the regulation capacity of forests
the of
regulation cap
l rainfall
the provision of shade and heat Control of erosion and prevention
absorption by the foliage landslides by vegetation on slopes
erature control thanks to Temperature control thanks to and in riparian areas
ovision of shade and heat the provision of shade and heat Control of erosion and prevention Control
of of erosion
ptionResilient
by the gardens
foliage thatabsorption
provide an by the foliage landslides by vegetation on slopeslandslides by vege
alternative source of food and can Reducing
and the risk
in riparian of sea level rise,
areas and in riparian are
use drip irrigation and/or coastal erosion or violent tides due
rainwaterthat
harvesting to mangroves and coral reefs
nt gardens provideResilient
an gardens that provide an
ative source of food and
alternative
can source of food and can Reducing the risk of sea levelReducing
rise, the risk o
ip irrigation and/or use drip irrigation and/or coastal erosion or violent tides
coastal
due erosion or
ater harvesting rainwater harvesting to mangroves and coral reefsto mangroves and
10
Chapter 1
New development models imply a more inclusive social model that leaves no one behind.
By incorporating popular traditions, indigenous knowledge, intersectoral sensitivities, and
ancestral knowledge into their design, and above all, by considering the multidimensionality
of vulnerabilities, NbS can contribute to improving the exercise of citizen rights and
promoting gender equality and women’s empowerment.
To create a “framework for designing and verifying NbS that deliver desired results by solving
one or several societal challenges,” the Global Standard for NbS (Box 3) was developed by
the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN 2020).
Box 3. Global Standard for NbS
The Global Standard for NbS includes eight criteria with 28 indicators.
1
Social
challenges
Bio div
ec
nan
ers
er5
es si z
e
D
3 y ne
it
ig n 2 the
ov
t ad a pt d to
e
G
ga
in
Econom4 ili t y
ic via b
Ba -o ffs
la n c 6
e b etw ee n tr ade
Ada
ptive m7anagement
Ma
ty
in st
ream 8 a b ili
in g an d s ustain
Source: IUCN 2020.
11

1.2 adaptation in cities
NbS are increasingly applied in urban

3
areas to increase climate resilience, Around cities (water basins),
support sustainable development, and where they can become part of
safeguard biodiversity. Unlike single- city-water basin interrelationships
purpose grey infrastructure options, NbS related to basin management, flood
offers numerous co-benefits regarding risk reduction, and safeguarding
public health, job opportunities, social access to water during dry periods.
cohesion, biodiversity and climate change
mitigation. NbS are important for urban
areas at three levels:
Many NbS provide direct and indirect

benefits in both urban and non-urban
1 settings, such as increased biodiversity
or improved water quality from the ability
Within cities, where they can provide of certain plant species to capture and
natural shade and reduce urban heat metabolise pollutants. Other NbS provide
island effects and cooling needs, specific ecosystem services to cities, such
manage runoff water, improve health as temperature regulation to reduce the
and well-being, reduce air pollution, heat island effect in urban centres and,
and provide recreational space. consequently, the reduction of energy
demand for thermal conditioning in
summer and the adverse impact on the
population’s health due to heat waves.
NbS with the potential to increase urban
2 resilience to climate change include:
Close to cities (peri-urban areas),

where they can strengthen connectivity
between urban-rural ecosystems
to reduce flood and drought risks
and provide sustainable alternative
livelihoods to communities.
12
Chapter 1
Permeable surfaces, green roofs, riparian forest systems, and

floodplains reduce the adverse effects caused by heavy rains.
Absorbing excess rainwater, they reduce flooding and stagnation risks
in city centres. Rain gardens, bioretention ditches, and natural and
constructed wetlands collect and remove pollutants from stormwater.
Maintenance of vegetation cover and afforestation along slopes

stabilise soils, mitigating landslides in urban areas located in valleys
or slopes.
Urban trees reduce air temperature, green corridors offer better

ventilation, and green roofs and walls improve thermal comfort for
residents.
Restoration and management of wetlands, mangroves, and reefs

form a natural buffer between the sea and the land that reduces the
intensity of waves and prevents erosion that affects coastal cities.
It is essential to consider that urban NbS the necessary safeguards that include
have certain limitations and potential,2 the rights to own and control land,
such as complexity around land control, territories, and resources and the rights
fragmentation of natural habitats in to free, prior and informed consent. They
metropolitan regions, high level of dispute must be developed through participatory
involved in producing urban space, and processes that ensure climate impact
the existence of dense underground mitigation does not increase social risks,
infrastructure networks, among others. nor gender-based violence or insecurity
towards certain population groups such
NbS design must therefore integrate a as children, elderly, pregnant women and
climate justice approach and prioritise people with disabilities, as it may happen
2
Those located in rural areas also require specific studies, but they are not the focus of this publication.
13
with creating parks or green spaces without ecosystems– usually represents one of
considering social sensitivities and gender the main barriers to NbS adoption. For
indicators criteria. this reason, NbS must be integrated into
urban and land planning processes.
Implementing urban NbS for CC
adaptation implies the challenge
of producing space for natural
environments in cities. Although it may
seem obvious, creating space in cities –
making room for more absorbent surfaces,
vegetation, open-air streams and bodies
of water, enough areas to constitute urban
Integrated solutions for

1.3 building climate resilience in
cities
NbS should be applied through an Water Sensitive

integrated approach to ensure the Urban Design
achievement of specific adaptation (WSUD)
objectives, such as water security or
improved infrastructure resilience. Some of direction. WSUD promotes the
of the most widespread approaches to conservation and reuse of water, recreating
urban planning using NbS are (i) Water its natural cycle as faithfully as possible
Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD); (ii) Blue- and “draining only when necessary”
Green Infrastructure (BGI); (iii) Sustainable (Figure 1.2), as suggested by the “Towards
Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS); and (iv) a water-sensitive Mexico City” program
Hybrid solutions. (Hacia una Ciudad de México sensible
al agua. Government of Mexico City, De
The approach shift from conventional Urbanisten y Deltares 2016). Contrary,
grey infrastructure to Water Sensitive the objective of the previous paradigm
Urban Design (WSUD) implies a reversal was focused on increasing the drainage
capacity and speed.
14
Chapter 1
This shift implies rethinking the place of The Western Urban Natural Reserve in the
water in the city: “generating space for City of Santa Fe, Argentina, - designed
water”, as postulated by the Dutch Room and built as part of an agreement between
for the River program (Rijke et al. 2012). the Municipality of the City of Santa Fe
It also requires anticipating the different and the French Global Environment Fund,
conditions that those spaces designed to presents a representative example of this
hold water (e.g., flood-prone parks and approach (Case 1).
natural reserves with bioretention capacity)
will adapt to over time. The challenge
is also sociocultural; overcoming the
perception of a flooded park as a negative
contingency is necessary to reformulate
it as an opportunity to recreate new
landscapes and beneficial uses, for
example, equivalent to a snowy park
(Kozak 2021, pp. 37-38).
STORE DELAY RETAIN REUSE
Rain
DRAIN ONLY
WHEN
Reduce subsidence
NECESSARY
Aquifer recovery
Aquifer recharge
Figure 1.2. Towards a water-sensitive Mexico City.

Source: Hacia una Ciudad de México sensible al agua, Government of Mexico City, De Urbanisten y Deltares
2016, p. 118. Diagram drawn by De Urbanisten.
15
Case 1
Western Urban Natural Reserve (RNUO)

Location: City of Santa Fe, Argentina
Funded by: Municipality of the City of Santa Fe and FFEM
Executed by: Municipality of the City of Santa Fe
Year: 2015-2020
Built on two hydraulic reservoirs designed to reduce flooding risk, the objective of
the RNUO is to provide protection, particularly in the event of a combination of an
extreme water event and the flooding of the Salado River on the western bank of the
city and the Parana River on the eastern bank.3 The reservoirs, in this case, work as
large artificial wetlands.
Following the RNUO Management Plan (Haene et al. 2018), native vegetation was
reintroduced, which, in turn, called for the appearance of native fauna. In this way,
a measure primarily aimed at managing the city’s flood risk, contributes to the
regeneration of a complex urban ecosystem that provides an enormous amount
of ecosystem services, including an increase in biodiversity, capturing atmospheric
pollution, improving the quality of the rainwater discharged into the river, regulating
the temperature as a microclimate is generated, among many other services
(Borthagaray, Kozak, and Maldonado 2022).
3
The current strategy for protection against flood risk in Santa Fe essentially responds to the tragic flooding that occurred in April 2003
(Bacchiega, Bertoni, and Maza 2003).
16
Chapter 1
Figure 1.3. Western Natural Urban Reserve, Santa Fe, Argentina.

Sources: Santa Fe, Municipality of Santa Fe 2022, p. 7; Borthagaray, Kozak, and Maldonado 2022.
17
Blue-Green BGI requires a fixed support anchored to

Infrastructure (BGI) the territory, allowing a service’s circulation
and distribution. Understanding BGI in
these terms facilitates its planning and
The Blue-Green Infrastructure (BGI) management.
concept is particularly relevant here,4
as it is understood as a type of NbS Second, thinking of green spaces,
and sometimes also included under the watercourses, and bodies of water in cities
Nature-based Infrastructure or Natural as network nodes, connecting pieces and
Infrastructure category.5 connectors –and not as isolated episodes–
not only enhances the capacity to
The BGI concept recognises the innate produce ecosystem services and manage
capacities of green space and water, their distribution but it also enables the
and the ecosystems in which they are creation of circuits and itineraries of high
immersed, to produce environmental environmental quality, thus creating new
benefits and quality of life. It meets the ways of moving around in cities. For this
demand to improve ecological quality in reason, BGI synergises with sustainable
cities, and respond to the limitations of mobility networks, particularly non-
conventional grey infrastructure solutions, motorized networks.
by taking advantage of topography and
climate (Kozak et al. 2021, p. 223). Finally, planning and managing in these
terms, quantifying the benefits and socio-
To a large extent, the essential components environmental contribution of ecosystem
of BGI have always existed in most cities services, also makes it easier to discuss
or are innovations based on traditional BGI on an equal footing with the rest of the
urban elements. This includes green urban infrastructures, including –and very
spaces, courses and bodies of water – especially with– resource allocation. This
of different sizes and shapes– that have means moving landscape planning and
been and are part of the conventional design from the place of the ornamental,
city landscapes. The advantages of sumptuous and accessory to that of the
considering them as part of a BGI are productive and essential, understanding
manifold. First, considering them –and their budgets as an investment (in the
consequently, planning and designing same sense that the rest of the urban
them– in terms of infrastructure sets the infrastructures are understood) and not as
focus on one of their primary functions: an expense without return.
establishing biodiversity corridors and
networks, which run through cities and
metropolitan regions, connecting them
with their hinterland, allowing biological
continuity to flow. Like all infrastructures,
4
BGI: “Strategically planned network of natural and semi-natural areas with environmental features designed and managed to deliver a wide range
of ecosystem services” (Joint Nature Conservation Committee [JNCC] 2019).
5
Natural Infrastructure: “Network of natural spaces that preserve the values and functions of ecosystems, providing ecosystem services. The
network of natural spaces is understood as the set of ecosystems recovered and conserved, through interventions considered as investments or
activities” (Ministry of the Environment of Peru 2015). The use of the term natural infrastructure is more common in areas with arid climates, where
the reference to blue-green is inaccurate.
18
Chapter 1
Sustainable Urban Drainage

Systems (SUDS)
Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS)6 can be understood under the conceptual
umbrella of NbS and BGI. The change from the conventional approach to that of SUDS
can be summarized in four main objectives (Construction Industry Research and Information
Association [CIRIA] 2015):
1 3
Controlling the amount Promoting biodiversity

of water to avoid rainwater floods and through the recovery of micro-
recover the urban hydrological cycle; ecosystems and habitat for native
flora and fauna, together with the
replenishment of aquifers; and
2
4
Taking care of water quality Generating amenities

by reducing pollution in bodies of from improvements to the urban
water through the implementation of landscape and creating more
unitary processes typical of the natural pleasant spaces for people to
hydrological cycle; exercise their rights fully.
The SUDS toolbox includes, for example, rain gardens, infiltration wells and trenches,
and green swales, among many other bio-infiltration devices. Sometimes, the SUDS
solve the complete excess water treatment cycle without connecting to the conventional
rainwater network. In other cases, particularly in densely occupied urban contexts, they
are connected to the conventional network, forming hybrid solutions. In those instances,
the contribution occurs from subtracting pressure at the time of peak demand from the
network by absorbing a runoff percentage, slowing down the contribution that cannot
be retained and, fundamentally, improving the water quality before its discharge in the
receiving body of water (generally a river or the ocean).
6
SUDS and WSUD are terms that are part of the same batch of related concepts that have emerged from the stormwater management shift
described here (Fletcher et al. 2015).
19
Hybrid NbS design requires

solutions its adaptation to the
sites where they are
located
Urban ecosystems must coexist and,
wherever possible, establish synergies Generating space, solving possible
with many conventional infrastructures interferences with other infrastructures,
and city components, making up hybrid and having the population’s support,
solutions or, at minimum, not impeding among other considerations. Conversely,
one another. In line with what was conventional grey infrastructures must
described in the paragraph above, this also be retrofitted to complement NbS.
also implies a substantial shift from Figure 1.4 below offers an example of a
how urban infrastructures in cities have hybrid solution that can be illustrative. This
traditionally been conceived, usually is a typical case of culverting a historical
built in opposition to nature, which was watercourse covered by an avenue under
sometimes considered, “at worst, an which a relief tunnel was subsequently
obstacle to development” (IUCN 2020, built.
p. 1).
HISTORICAL MODEL CURRENT MODEL DESIRED MODEL
1891 1925 1937 2020 PROPOSAL
Figure 1.4. Historical model, current model and desired model of pipe removal of the
Maldonado stream, Buenos Aires.
Source: Kozak et al. 2021 / Graphics: Pilar Costa and Camila Lennon
20
Chapter 1

The proposal from an NbS approach (the The hybrid solution proposed in the figure
desired model) consists of opening the consists of readjusting the tunnel system
primary culvert and renaturalisation the at depth to operate as a relief system that
surface watercourse, creating a linear park would be activated only in cases where the
that would serve as a biodiversity corridor, BGI capacity was exceeded. This implies
marked by open-air reservoirs in artificial that the underground infrastructure should
wetlands strategically located in parks that not operate through communicating
make up a BGI network with the capacity to vessels but rather through overflow once
provide numerous ecosystem services. This the system’s absorption, retention, and
proposal also suggests the readaptation of expansion capacities are saturated.8
the recently built relief tunnel to operate That is, it would not be part of the daily
by the BGI on the surface. rainwater management in the basin.
Under the most favorable circumstances,
Relief tunnels are usually designed to fill it would play a role only in rainwater that
through communicating vessels gradually. falls exceptionally (Kozak et al. 2022, p.
In other words, as soon as it starts to 19). Such a solution significantly increases
rain, surface runoff, or first flush,7 is the protection against flooding, providing
channeled through the gray infrastructure resilience to the system.
and, generally, dumped into receiving
bodies without treatment, generating the
pollution in rivers, their surroundings, and
on marine coasts.
7
First flush is the first discharge at the beginning of each rainfall. It usually generates the most pollution because it drags dirt from the streets,
including highly polluting substances such as oil residues and car tire particles.
8
The design of these systems would require complex overflow structures, with the difficulty of establishing an optimal level to transfer water from
the existing system to the relief tunnel. However, these would significantly reduce contamination at the mouth of the channel (Kozak et al. 2022,
p. 19).
21
Conclusions
Nature-based Solutions (NbS) constitute a valuable resource

available to cities in Latin America and the Caribbean to
respond to the challenges posed by climate change. Whether
replacing or complementing traditional gray infrastructure, NbS
can contribute to climate change adaptation in cities and bring
multiple benefits, direct and indirect, with positive impacts on
society and the environment.
Wider adoption of NbS in urban planning requires improved

institutional and policy frameworks, adapted and climate risk-
informed urban planning tools, and a sustainable financial strategy
to guide the selection of the most appropriate and cost-effective
NbS interventions. Additionally, gender-sensitive approaches
should be mainstreamed in NbS frameworks to ensure that
integration of women’s, men’s and other gender’s concerns/needs
are part of analysis, planning, and implementation. Planning with
NbS works at the system level, enhances connectivity, and acts at
multiple scales, each of which is critical to advancing NbS in an
urban context:
1 Systems:
Cities are complex socio-ecological systems in which
ecosystems are critical. Urban development processes
are a powerful force within urban areas and their
surrounding peri-urban areas and show dynamics
and structures that vary across spatial and temporal
scales. The design and implementation of NbS require
the consideration of these dynamic systems.
22
Chapter 1
2 Connectivity:
Connectivity is an important ecosystem concept and is, along
with its multifunctionality, fundamental to the planning,
design, and implementation of NbS in cities. Cities rely on
landscapes and ecosystems within their peri-urban areas for
a range of climate resilience functions, including watershed-
based flood management. At more minor scales, maintaining
and enhancing the connectivity of urban ecosystem networks
is critical to delivering ecosystem services, for example,
linked to biodiversity conservation and improvements in
health and well-being.
Multifunctionality:
3
Urban NbS can bring many additional benefits to human
beings and the environment, such as creating green
jobs, positive health benefits, and improved habitats for
biodiversity. With alarming levels of biodiversity loss, cities
are responsible for contributing to global efforts to restore,
strengthen and enhance biodiversity by protecting critical
habitat areas and providing supplemental habitat.
Scale:
4
NbS exist at different scales, from individual parcels to the
water basin scale. However, NbS do not exist in isolation.
They connect across spatial scales with other ecosystems
and elements of the urban system. Therefore, the generation
of ecosystem services associated with NbS requires
understanding the dynamics of the linkages between NbS
interventions operating at different scales to ensure that they
function in harmony.
23
Source: © UNEP
Chapter
2
Climate risks analyses
in cities and how to use
them in NbS planning
and design
Author: Manuel Winograd
Contributor: Michiel van Eupen
24
Chapter 2
2.1 Introduction
Urban expansion in Latin America and the erosion, salinization of soils and aquifers,
Caribbean affects ecosystems that provide heat island, and landslide. These risks
essential services and contribute to the have various impacts, such as mortality,
well-being of communities, increasing loss of infrastructure and housing, food
the risks in infrastructure and vulnerable security, diseases, and water availability.
communities, such as the elderly, women,
children, migrants, and Afro-descendant There is no single approach to assessing
communities, among others. For this risks and vulnerability in cities, but rather
reason, adaptation to climate change in a number of practical methodological
cities appears as the most effective way to approaches and indicator frameworks
reduce risks in the face of extreme events which depend on the planning process
and address the challenges generated and decision scopes (Intergovernmental
by the climate crisis. This implies the Panel on Climate Change [IPCC] 2022). Risk
need to reintroduce nature in cities as an analyses must be carried out to identify
asset in their development to promote social groups, infrastructures, livelihoods,
more inclusive and climate-resilient cities. and ecosystem services (ES) in a greater
Integrated climate risk management to climate vulnerability situation. This allows
reduce the vulnerability in urban areas can for identifying the differentiated impacts
be catalyzed by incorporating adaptation and the exposure to hazards caused by
into urban planning processes (UNEP current and future climate variability,
2020). enabling the assessment of the effects and
response capacity of nature and societies.
Hazards are extreme events such as This analysis provides critical points that
heavy rains, droughts, heat waves, consider risks and actions in cities (key
landslides, and hurricanes, with negative points).
consequences on population and city
infrastructures, disproportionately The key points are especially important for
affecting populations in socially urban planning since they help identify the
vulnerable situations, including those areas, the moment, the type of actions,
from poor socio-economic backgrounds, the groups, and the infrastructures where
people with disabilities, women and the to intervene. In the context of cities, it
elderly. Depending on the intensity of is essential to identify the key points in
hazards and exposure, different areas and different zones that constitute the urban
social groups have different degrees of area, such as urban, peri-urban, or rural
vulnerability. Societies and ecosystems, in areas, as this has important implications
turn, have various adaptation capacities; for decision levels and the implementation
that is to say, that cities exhibit varying of solutions for adaptation, mitigation, and
degrees of exposure to flooding, coastal resilience building.
25
This chapter exemplifies how climate
risk and vulnerability assessment can
be used as a structured approach
for identifying appropriate actions
and sites to implement adaptation
measures and potential co-benefits for
climate change mitigation and urban
planning, particularly from a Nature-
based Solutions (NbS) perspective.
Within this risk analysis and climate

vulnerability framework for urban
planning, the methodological approach,
rather than a rigid theoretical framework,
should involve a series of stages to
facilitate the integration of vulnerability
dynamics into decision-making processes
through the generation, communication,
and provision of relevant and usable
information (table 2.1):

26 Source: © UNEP / Author: Josephat Kariuki.
Chapter 2
Table 2.1. Elements and essential variables for

risk and vulnerability analyses in cities
a Identifying and assessing current and future climate risks about

exposure and sensitivity using current information and climate
scenarios.
b Analyzing climate impacts on ecosystems (including goods and

services), the differentiated impacts on society according to
vulnerability, and infrastructures and sectors.
c Assessing the differentiated adaptation capacities and opportunities

for nature and society according to the risk and vulnerability
situation of different social groups, including gender indicators.
d Reporting and having credible and solid data on the spatial location
of current and future climate risks and impacts and the temporary
planning of adaptation and mitigation actions.
e Contributing to a transparent and effective system for monitoring

and evaluating adaptation actions, considering the city as a set
of dense urban areas, peri-urban areas, and rural areas within the
surface and underground basins, diversity of landscapes and land
uses.
27
28
Table 2.2. Examples of hazards, vulnerability and risks and adaptative capacity per type of city
Hazards Vulnerability and Risks Adaptation Capacity

Type of
Example
city
Threat Exposure Ecosystems Society Structural Non-structural
Sea level Population Flooding Mortality Gray/green/ Disaster

Havana Temperature (gender, age, Coastal Morbidity blue management
Maracaibo Rainfall ethnicity, origin erosion Infrastructure infrastructures Climate
Costal/ Cartagena Water occupation) Soil erosion losses Ecosystem insurances
Delta Guayaquil balance Social groups Landslides Mobility based Social security
Belem Extreme (women, the Drought Housing adaptation Conditional
Buenos Aires events (rains, elderly, boys, Heat waves Groups Reforestation transfers
droughts, girls, young Fires (poor, elderly, Protection Planned
heat waves, people, people Water women, Restoration relocation
winds) living in poverty) availability Infants) Connectivity Efficient use of
México DF Infrastructures Biodiversity Food security Crop resources
San Pedro Housing types loss Diseases movement and Urban
Sula Livelihoods Reduction of adaptation instruments
Manaus Natural traditional Public policies
Flat/ Asunción resources food
Climate Risk Analyses in cities and how to use them in NbS planning and design
Riverfront Curitiba Ecosystem production

Rosario services
Sources: GIZ, Eurac Research and UNU 2018a; IPCC 2022.

Chapter 2
2.2 Methods for risk and

vulnerability assessment
Methodological framework: Depending conceptual framework (Oppenheimer
on the use, there are many vulnerability and et al. 2014; Deutsche Gesellschaft für
risk assessment methods. In the disaster Internationale Zusammenarbeit [GIZ]
management area, risk is considered “the GmbH, European Academy of Bozen-
probability of a hazard multiplied by its Bolzano [Eurac Research] and United
consequences”, whereas, in the domain of Nations University [UNU] 2017; IPCC
climate change adaptation, risks are “the 2022), as seen in figure 2.1. In this way, it
result of the interaction between hazards, will be possible to address fundamental
exposure, vulnerability, and adaptive questions based on the use of information
capacity” (Development Bank of Latin and user needs, namely:
America [CAF] 2019; IPCC 2022).
What are the climate hazards and risks?
Therefore, vulnerability and risk Who and what is at risk?
assessments should consider the Where and when do impacts occur?
specificity of the biophysical and What adaptation options exist and are
socioeconomic context, including they necessary?
exposure to climate threats, while
contemplating the social determinants In the case of the cities of Latin America
and their differentiated impacts. In and the Caribbean, climate risks and
addition, special attention should be paid vulnerability show different facets
to differential and cascading impacts depending on the socioeconomic
depending on ecosystem types and contexts. This variation increases the
city circumstances, which can influence impacts and restrictions for planning
adaptation capacities. In addition, in the and implementation of adaptation and
case of urban areas, vulnerability and mitigation actions, such as displacement
risks, as well as adaptation actions, differ of social groups, income inequality,
according to the type of city and within the unequal access to health and basic
cities themselves. Therefore, the metric services, dependency ratio, location of
system gains great importance to ensure infrastructure and population in risk areas,
the production of useful information for extreme poverty, food insecurity, and
decision-making and planning. participation and governance mechanisms
(IPCC 2022; Villamarin G. et al. 2019).
No fixed rule defines which variables and
indicators should be considered for risk The fastest increase in vulnerability
and vulnerability assessments. The metric in occurs in cities, where over 80%
system will depend on each city’s context, of the population resides. It has been
user needs, and available information. determined that intermediate cities in
Hence, it is important to identify the type coastal, flat delta, and hillside areas are
of components and metrics useful for risk experiencing the fastest demographic
and vulnerability analysis based on spatial and unplanned urban growth (particularly
and temporal scales rather than a rigid unplanned and informal settlements in
29
Vulnerability
• Socioenvironmental vulnerability
• Vulnerability in ecological services
• Vulnerability in land use
• Population vulnerability
• Infrastructure vulnerability
• Livelihood vulnerability
Hazard Risk
• Sea level increase • Population at risk
• Heat waves increase • Groups at risk
• Temperature increase • Infrastructure at risk
• Droughts increase • Households at risk
• Change in rainfall • Livelihoods at risk
• Change in water balance • Land use at risk
• Extreme rainfall
• Supply services at risk
• Violent winds
• Regulatory services at risk
• Landslides and floods
• Pest distribution
• Support services at risk
• Risk of food shortages
Exposure
• Unsatisfied basic needs (UBN)
• Household income level
• Population with access to basic services
• Educational level of the population
• Population with access to health services
• Households without access to internet
• Women-headed households
• Unemployment rate
• Poverty levels
• Population affected by disasters
Impacts Adaptation
• Effects of mortality/morbidity • Disaster management plans
• Increase of communicable diseases • Land-use plans
• Housing losses • Climatic insurance
• Effects on vulnerable groups • People/infrastructure relocation
• Effects on food safety • Poverty reduction plans
• Effects on water supply • Conditional transfers
• Effects on water regulation • Adaptation policies
• Effects on soil erosion • Gree/Gray infrastructure plans
• Effects on temperature regulation • Conservation and restoration plans
• Crop displacement
Figure 2.1. Example of a framework and metrics to assess vulnerability and risks in cities.
Sources: GIZ-EURAC-UNU 2017; IPCC 2018; IPCC 2022; Winograd et al. 2021
30
Chapter 2
hillside and coastal areas); consequently, descendant, migrant populations, or

they have fewer capacities for disaster LGTB+ communities, are an integral part
mitigation and adaptation (IPCC 2018; of the analyses. For example, in marginal
IPCC 2022). urban areas, the number of women-
headed households with minor children
Most vulnerable groups, such as low- and/or elderly dependents imposes
income people, women-headed greater domestic responsibilities, work,
households, the elderly, boys and and family burdens, contributing to their
girls, indigenous populations, Afro- social, economic, and climate vulnerability.
Data:
A significant amount of data and information is available in the cities to

evaluate vulnerability and risks. However, there are often information gaps
at the required scale or a need for more confidence in time series data. For
example, disaggregated social data at district, neighborhood, or block level
on gender, income, and livelihoods are often unavailable; consequently,
not all the needed information can be collected. Mixed approaches,
cross-referencing, or alternative information collection methods can partly
overcome these deficiencies. Therefore, in many cases, the use of “proxies”
is necessary, and although they are less accurate than a direct indicator,
proxies are the most cost-effective and easy to measure. These may include
available data correlated with unavailable data or data and information
collected on a broader scale for appropriate downscaling (Winograd et al.
2021).
Furthermore, information on climate scenarios at the city scale needs to

be used and adapted to provide relevant information for urban planning
to reduce future climate effects. Therefore, it is necessary to scale the
resolution of the information provided by climate scenarios. For instance,
climate scenarios generally have low resolution (100km x 100km grid cells),
which limits their use on a city scale and is more commonly used to define
national policies and sectoral strategies. For urban planning and a selection
of adaptation alternatives, information must be produced at medium scales
(10km x 10km grid cells), while high-resolution information (10 m-20 m x
10 m-20 m grid cells) is required for exploring, designing, and implementing
adaptation measures.
31
Uncertainty:
As in any assessment of future medium- to long-term scenarios, uncertainty

needs to be taken into account, as part of the information about climate
change risks and impacts is based on future climate models and scenarios.
For example, it is vital to transparently analyze the uncertainty related to the
type and scale of information used, as understanding the information gaps on
climate change and its impacts will help stakeholders better understand the
evaluation results and utilize them more effectively and comprehensively in
urban planning (GIZ, Eurac Research and UNU 2017). In addition, new useful
information can be generated to assess current and future vulnerabilities
and risks, thus compensating for information gaps.
Multi-stakeholder involvement:
Stakeholder mapping is essential to identify key individuals and groups in

planning and decision-making processes related to city risks and vulnerability.
Through this mapping, the organization and dynamics of ongoing city
processes can be understood. It also allows gathering perceptions and
collecting thematic information (e.g., land use and urban fabric, risks and
threats, physical and social vulnerability, services and infrastructure, planned
or ongoing projects, etc.) that are usually dispersed across different offices,
departments, institutions, and individuals.
Additionally, stakeholder mapping enables the identification and analysis

of the type of relationships among actors, whether cooperative, conflictive,
or synergistic. It also helps evaluate the existing gaps between information
production and use, decision-making and planning, and interests and
sectors involved. During and after the risk and vulnerability assessment, the
results must be validated to discuss with the actors, thus generating contrast
and enrichment based on local knowledge and perception. Validation can
be carried out through participatory workshops or consulting with expert
personnel, ensuring the parity and representativeness of different social
groups.
32
Chapter 2

Scale:
Regarding the scale of evaluation and decision-making levels, given the

nature of vulnerability and adaptation, it is important to highlight that urban
ecosystem services are those produced in urban and peri-urban spaces
within widespread metropolitan limits. This includes spaces that are inserted
within continuous and discontinuous urban areas, defined by the city’s
physical structure and not only by its administrative definition, which in many
cases can include basins, landscapes, and territories that are beyond what
is commonly understood as a city (Hardoy et al. 2019). For example, water
recharge zones in a basin, urban forested areas on hillsides that support soil
conservation and landslide control, or parks and promenades as air pollution
concentration and temperature regulators. (see Box 2).
Usefulness:
An essential aspect of risk and vulnerability assessments is producing accurate,

transparent, and usable information that can be translated into the context of
urban planning and policy-making to be relevant to decision-making. The results
must be presented in a way that is easy to understand for the general public
(Coninx Nuesink and Brazao Vieira Alho 2021). Uncertainty, which is inherent
to the science of climate change, is only sometimes integrated into urban
planning. Particular attention should be given to communicating information so
decision-makers can act upon the assessment’s results and effects (IPCC 2022;
Coninx Nuesink and Brazao Vieira Alho 2021).
33
Results:
The way results are presented is central to assessing risks and vulnerability,
considering the needs of the users and the audience (GIZ EURAC UNU 2017).
The evaluation must describe the objectives, methods, and tools used, as well
as the main findings and conclusions that facilitate the interpretation of results;
the visualization format enhances understanding. There are several tools to
present the results, such as maps, diagrams, and graphs; however, the selected
visualization implies different levels of data capacity and interpretation. For
example, as illustrated in Boxes 1 and 2, maps allow visualizing where risks are
located and comparing impacts. Diagrams and graphs, such as radar charts,
can also be used to understand change dynamics and when impacts occur.
Case 2
Assessing risks and vulnerability in cities

Location: Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico
Donor Agency: GEF
Executing agency: UNEP
Team: Pladeyra and Gulf of Mexico Fund
Year: 2019
The assessment identifies those areas in greatest danger caused by weather-related

occurrences such as landslides, erosion, and flooding (Map 1). From this, those areas
where people, their productive systems, and ecosystems are most exposed to the
accumulation of these hazards were delimited (Map 2).
In parallel, using various social and economic variables, a socio-economic sensitivity

indicator was set up for basic areas (Basic Geo-Statistical Areas - AGEB) (Map 3).
Finally, the adaptive capacity was analyzed by estimating the areas that provide
greater ecosystem services (surface water supply, sediment retention, carbon
storage) and connect with the city’s ecosystems (Map 4).
With these inputs, it is possible to calculate the accumulated exposure to hazards

in the natural and productive systems and the population (Map 5) and carry out
ecosystem valuations (Map 6). Cumulative exposure and socio-economic sensitivity
allow calculating of the potential impact (Map 7), and the accumulation of ecosystem
services is used as an adaptive capacity indicator (Map 8). Thus, socio-environmental
vulnerability (Map 9) was established by relating areas with a higher degree of impact
from climate events to the adaptive capacity based on their ecosystems, both in
rural and urban areas of Xalapa and Tlalnelhuayocan.
34
Map 5
Accumulated
Map 1 exposure
Flood
Areas subject to
risk hazards in the
case of climate
events
Exposure
Map 2 People, productive Map 9

Exposure: systems and
exposed Socio-environmental vulnerability
Population ecosystems Potential Map 7
exposed to impact
Potencial
flood risk impact
Socioeconomic Sensitivity
Socio-
environmental
Map 3 vulnerability
Socio economic
sensitivity
Presence of Map 8
ecosystems Adaptative
capacity
Ecosystem Adaptive
valuation capacity
Map 4 Ecosystem
Ecosystem services and
connectivity
services:
Water Map 6
provision
Ecosystem
valuation
Figure 2.2. Elaboration of a socioenvironmental vulnerability map

Source: Pladeyra and the Gulf of Mexico Fund 2019.
Based on this analysis, the most appropriate measures to promote NbS were
identified. Vulnerability assessments can focus on problems and impacts that are
often overlooked: for this reason, a gender approach was incorporated in the case
of estimating the socioeconomic vulnerability index in Xalapa. Five variables -which
have available data- were selected for this purpose: average school grade among
the female population, women family heads, female economic participation rate,
households with water availability outside the home, and households without
access to a washing machine.
The vulnerability index in Xalapa showed that the most vulnerable areas are
located on the outskirts of the city and in rural areas, and that the areas with the
highest vulnerability for women coincide with the zones of general socioeconomic
vulnerability.
Case 3
Risk assessment to integrate NbS in cities

Location: Arenal Monserrat Basin, San Salvador, El Salvador
Donor Agency: GEF
Executing agency: UNEP
Team: FUNDASAL
Year: 2020
San Salvador Metropolitan Area (AMSS) includes 14 municipalities. The CityAdapt

project focused on the Arenal Montserrat micro-basin, which is located on the part
of the territory that covers three AMSS municipalities: San Salvador, Santa Tecla, and
Antiguo Cuscatlan. In this example, the objective of the vulnerability assessment
was to identify current and potential hotspots as entry points to NbS interventions.
For this reason, areas that are exposed to risks were first identified in order to link
data such as rainfall with the natural attributes in the area, such as slopes, soil cover
and type, and infiltration capacity, among others. Population density is added to
this information to obtain exposure to flood risk (Map 1). To identify sensitivity,
data on the population’s social and economic variables were added, such as
precarious human settlements (Map 2). To evaluate adaptive capacity, the provision
of environmental services that mitigate part of the adverse climate impacts was
determined. In this regard, an analysis of the ecosystems present in the area was
conducted, which shows the different ecosystem services they provide, in this
case, aquifer infiltration and recharge capacity (Map 3). The aggregation of this
information allows for the characterization of the priority areas for adaptation with
NbS based on the ecosystem characteristics in the area of analysis (Map 4).
36
Map 1. Exposure: Map 2. Sensitivity:
Flood risk areas precarious
settlements
Map 4: Priority areas for

adaptation with NbS
Map 3. Adaptative capacity:

Aquifer infiltration and recharge
Source: Fundación Salvadoreña de Desarrollo y Vivienda Mínima [FUNDASAL] 2020.

Figure 2.3. Identification of priority areas for adaptation with NbS
To provide this type of ecosystem services (regulation of water cycle and water
supply), NbS are materialized through infiltration ditches and absorption wells in the
rural and peri-urban areas of the city, with direct benefits in controlling drought and
erosion in agricultural areas and flooding in the denser urban area. This ensures not
only the conservation of soils and the recharge of the aquifer that provides drinking
water to the city, but it also complements the capacity of the reservoir built to slow
down violent water flows and reduce peak flows. It should be noted that these
activities were carried out mainly in the upper zone of the basin (volcano area), but
their impacts and effects influence runoff water in the entire basin, especially in the
city of San Salvador (lower basin).
Barriers and challenges

2.3 to integration in urban
planning
Barriers and challenges related to climate information is often limited due to the need
risk analysis in cities can be analyzed as they for more capacity to translate information
are grouped around two central themes: into action. Numerous risk, vulnerability,
availability of and access to information and impact assessments are related to
and integration in urban planning. climate variability and change. Still, there
needs to be more useful information on
These stages imply transforming ecosystem services in urban areas and the
knowledge into actions to build resilience potential for integrating different types of
and improve adaptation to climate risks. solutions to achieve maximum benefits
Addressing the adaptation challenge in and co-benefits. This integration can be
cities requires balancing multiple, often achieved by facilitating and promoting
conflicting objectives specific to the local data sharing, access, and use to produce
context. Consequently, the vulnerability valuable and relevant information for
and risk assessment process must the active use of assessments in urban
include several stages of data search planning (Hardoy et al. 2019).
and consultation, exchange, validation,
and co-construction of information. For this reason, although there is plenty
of data, it is necessary to address the
Considering the benefit of using risk challenge of accessing and making
and vulnerability information to support available information for specific issues
decision-making processes and urban (especially social and economic issues
planning, it is striking that, despite the such as gender mainstreaming and an
increasing availability of data and tools, this intersectional approach for vulnerable
38
Chapter 2
populations, analysis on the distribution climate action plans, and public policies
of economic inequality, and differential regarding risk management. However,
impacts and costs of mitigation and the compartmentalized structure of
adaptation). This can be achieved by municipalities usually hinders information
using proxies to generate information exchange between areas. On the other
for decision-making. The lack of data, hand, staff fluctuations over short periods
information at the required scale, or limit the empowerment and understanding
confidence in the time series are the most of approaches that prioritize NbS. In many
significant limitations for carrying out cases, the integration of these issues in
vulnerability assessments that integrate urban planning is limited to the assessment
all components, which must be analyzed of past situations without providing
using spatially explicit methodologies. inputs to support the exploration and
implementation of solutions that allow for
When using information –especially in safeguarding livelihoods, reducing risks in
the form of maps– it is important that it is the face of natural disasters, improving the
understandable to non-technical actors so habitability of cities, and using, restoring
they can grasp the spatial representation and conserving ecosystem services,
of vulnerability instead of perceiving it as among many other social, economic, and
fragment pieces of a puzzle. environmental benefits (Winograd et al.
2021).
In a context of uncertainty regarding
climate change impact, and as knowledge
increases, climate data and scenarios
are updated and staggered, and
environmental and socioeconomic data are
enhanced, maps must be adjusted. In this
sense, the production and use of technical
information need to be demystified and
integrated into participatory processes,
creating capacities to use data in various
formats. In turn, it is also important that
technical bodies are consolidated within
government structures to gradually
generate greater autonomy and address
the diversity of issues involved in
integrating vulnerability into the urban
planning process (Hardoy et al. 2019).
Finally, to address the complex challenges

faced by cities in Latin America and the
Caribbean, decision-makers need access
to accurate and updated information
to explore and implement creative
solutions. These actions must be
profitable, accepted by the communities,
technically feasible, and should provide
multiple benefits. A growing number of
cities have territorial management plans,
39
Recommendations and conclusions
To facilitate access to information and its integration into urban

planning, there is a need to consider the gap between decision-
making timeframes, policy formulation, implementation of actions
to reduce vulnerability, and the impacts of climate change actions
and effects, ranging from the very short term (1 to 3 years) to the
very long term (25 to 50 years).
Although the methods and tools are generic, the use of data, the
production of information, and the integration of indicators in
decision-making are specific to the context and ongoing processes
in each city and to the needs and capacities of the actors involved.
Practical implications of methods and uses to evaluate the present
or the future must be taken into account, as analyzing current risks
with low uncertainty is different from assessing future risks with high
uncertainty.
Given the diversity of interests, one of the main difficulties in the

evaluation processes is relating different scales of action (farm,
home, neighborhood, commune, city, basin) and the actors involved
in decision-making (community leaders, cooperative members,
local authorities, national government, decentralized institutions,
private sector). This process facilitates the consolidation of technical
visions with community needs and political and institutional realities,
balancing the decision-making process with urban planning.
These steps help reduce the risk of politicization of actions, ensure

support for ongoing processes, and separate them from short-term
government mandates or support from individual actors. Thus,
by integrating risk assessments and climate vulnerability into city
decision-making, it is possible to have a significant impact on urban
planning and public policies.
40
Chapter 2
Finally, there is an excellent opportunity to create capacities in cities

with minimal investment by using information systems based on
opensource and user-friendly programs that can easily be updated:
First, by harmonizing Second, by moving away

formats and scales from isolated and siloed
of all databases and work in municipalities
information and using this and incorporating open
process to strengthen and transparent methods
municipal capacities. and processes.
In this way, all actors will become familiar with the rules, it will be
easier to share and use available information, and it will be possible to
share and validate the evaluations generated by institutions and the
different sectors or actors.
Lastly, it is necessary to communicate the results of the analysis to all

stakeholders to build truly participatory and transparent processes,
ensuring that information becomes an input in every municipal
decision-making process (Hardoy et al. 2019; Villamarin et al. 2019;
Winograd et al. 2021).
41
Chapter
3
Citizen
participation in
NbS planning and
design
Author: Jorgelina Hardoy
42
Chapter 3
3.1 Introduction
In this chapter we address citizen b. Citizen involvement is recognized
participation in Nature-based Solutions as a means to ensure and increase
(NbS) projects in urban and peri-urban the relevance, ownership, and
contexts in Latin America and the sustainability of different measures
Caribbean. In NbS literature there is an such as NbS and, essentially, to ensure
important consensus on the importance their fairness.
of starting from a transdisciplinary
approach, involving citizens in the c. The possibility of mainstreaming
process of change and being innovative the gender perspective in NbS
to integrate the different efforts and policies and programmes, making
capacities of the parties involved differentiated impacts visible and work
(Wamsler et al. 2020). From a broader collaboratively to address them.
perspective, and from the understanding
of NbS as part of a set of actions that On the other hand, NbS facilitate
promote Climate Resilient Development participatory processes in urban
(CRD), the latest IPCC report highlights planning and management. Due to their
that people, ethics and justice are core modular, decentralized, and low capital-
to the very conception of sustainable intensive characteristics, NbS can be
development and emphasizes the need sources of work for cooperatives and small
for CRD trajectories where different businesses, generating green employment
social interests, values, and worldviews opportunities, promoting different ways
are combined through inclusive and of working and producing, and engaging
participatory processes (Intergovernmental with the population at much more citizen-
Panel on Climate Change [IPCC] 2022). friendly scales.
There are several reasons why NbS In this chapter we review how to integrate
should be developed from participatory different actors and sectors to generate
processes: new urban planning practices in the short,
medium and long term, that integrate the
participatory use of NbS in all stages of
a. Climate change and its impacts a process –reflected in this publication–
present challenges that are beyond from identifying vulnerabilities and
the ability of local governments risks, planning resilient infrastructure
to act on their own. They require and selecting, planning and financing
climate governance schemes where instruments, to analyzing and valuating
governments do not make decisions in impacts in order to review and adjust
isolation, but rather negotiate policies collaboratively. Finally, some barriers
and practices with those who are part and challenges to participation in NbS
of it or are affected by them. projects are highlighted, along with
recommendations and conclusions.
43
Citizen Participation in NbS planning and design
What is meant by citizen participation?
Participation refers to an “inclusive process, where actors can be part of,

have a part, and take part in processes and decision-making” (Cabrera,
Gravez and Pereira 2011, quotes in Cabrera 2016, p. 1). Citizen participation
is an essential part of a good governance process where governments
do not make decisions in isolation, but instead negotiate policies and
practices with those who are part of, or are affected by decisions (Mitlin
2004; Hardoy and Velásquez Barrero 2014). In this sense, good governance
determines that participation, accountability, transparency, social justice,
the performance of roles and responsibilities, and the vision built among
all actors are elements that enrich decision-making, and contribute to the
processes being sustainable and effective (Villamarín et al. 2019). People
only participate when they feel that by doing so, they will actually bring
about some important change (Arnstein 1969).
Through participation, the aim is to avoid a “pre-defined product” prepared

beforehand on an office desk with a technocratic approach and, seeks a
“target-product” that arises from a participatory and concerted process.
There is a goal towards which the actions of the process are directed,
allowing modifications both on the path chosen and the strategies used to
achieve the objectives, as well as on the final product sought (Motta and
Almansi 2017).
Citizen participation in NbS

3.2 projects for adaptation
As in different development projects, Development Research Centre [IDRC]

the active role of the community is key 2016):
in the analysis, design, establishment of
priorities and scales of action, steps to
follow, budget review, implementation, a the involvement of the
and monitoring of a NbS project. participating actors
There are three basic conditions to b the commitment to assume

ensure that participation affects actions roles and responsibilities
and generates the sought changes
(Climate and Development Knowledge c the sense of identity and
Network [CDKN], Foundation Future for trust that is generated.
Latin-American [FFLA] and International
44
Chapter 3
Each participatory process has specific NbS actions and policies –like the rest of
and unique characteristics. The success urban actions and policies– are not neutral
of NbS as an innovative type of to gender and generate differentiated
intervention depends to a large extent impacts on women and men. The possible
on how well it is integrated into a consequences of gender relations and
particular local, social, and geographic inequalities in the design of NbS policies
context. Throughout this process all and programmes need to be assessed.
participants must learn and adapt some Similarly, positive actions that ensure
of their expectations and points of view. equitable access to NbS resources
It is essential to build consensus in the and benefits need to be identified and
diagnostic and co-design stages so that the promoted.9
measures developed respond to particular
contexts and needs, as well as generating
appropriation throughout the process to
ensure the continuity and sustainability of
the adopted measures.
Therefore, in order to integrate and sustain NbS actions and policies, spaces for
equal participation for women and men need be created and ensured. In this
regard, it is important to work on several fronts:
Training technical teams and decision-makers in the methodological

tools for incorporating the gender approach into policies and
programs that develop NbS and climate resilience in general.
Strengthening women’s organizations and representations of

diversity from other civil society groups for their empowerment
and active participation in the design and implementation of NbS
projects.
Developing participatory assessments that analyse territories from a

gender and intersectionality perspective, highlighting existing gaps
in order to identify NbS measures that not only do not exacerbate
inequalities, but are functional for reducing gaps and achieving
gender equality.
Generating both quantitative and qualitative gender indicators that

account for the reduction of inequalities.
Developing a budget with a gender perspective that ensures resource

allocations for those NbS actions that contribute to the reduction of
gender gaps.
9
For example, in the Urban Agriculture (AU, in Spanish) Programme of the City of Rosario (see Case 4), participation has always played a key
role and, from the beginning, women gardeners played a leading role, almost two thirds of the people who work in the sector are women, and
marketing mechanisms appropriate to their needs and possibilities were developed.
45
NbS
NbS benefits individuals,
Benefits from communities and societies
participating for NbS improving environments
such as support, and quality of life, provides
management, learning, more sensitivity towards the
monitoring, protection environment, interest in
and sustainability being part of the change
Participation
Figure 3.1. Circular benefits of NbS.

Source: Adapted from Cárdenas et al. 2021.
Therefore, the participation of a broad Integration of visions and perceptions

group of actors is key to ensure that of the people who may be affected
NbS are at the core of the development or have some type of interest in
process in the longer term and do not the project; therefore, it allows taking
become “one-off” and isolated measures different opinions into account and
in the urban territory that reinforce improving the project design and
inequality and gender inequity patterns. implementation, reducing negative
There are mutual benefits between NbS impacts and enhancing positive ones,
and participation as seen in figure 3.1. including a gender perspective.
On the one hand, people, communities, Bringing together and generating
and societies benefit from participating in an information and knowledge
NbS, improving their quality of life, mental exchange that helps making better
health and well-being, gaining a greater decisions.
sensitivity towards the environment, a Helping people understand and
desire to be part of the changes; whereas defend their rights, including being
NbS benefit from participation by able to live in healthy, safe, inclusive
receiving greater support, follow-up and and quality environments.
being integral to the urban development
process (Cárdenas et al. 2021). It is important to highlight that frequently,
like any other types of measures and
Moreover, participation brings several actions, NbS are not necessarily formulated
other benefits:10 as a response to climate change. However,
as they gain recognition and are integrated
Greater transparency and into public policies, their climate value is
involvement of people improves acknowledged.
trust, the acceptance of ideas and
appropriation.
10
Based on Kvam 2019.
46
Chapter 3
3.3 Development of a
participatory process
People are involved in different ways some kind of concession or manipulated
within participatory processes, according involvement to carry out actions that the
to project objectives, the goals set by the population does not understand and
process, the stage at which they join the that responds to interests other that
process, and the type of participation their own. Then, it goes through a façade
that is of interest or can be managed. It participation (information, consultation,
is key to have transparency and clarity advice) before moving towards
regarding the scope of participation in increasing citizen power, which involves
order to achieve an honest exchange collaboration, a progressive delegation
from the outset. of power, and citizen control. It is in the
last stages where participation manages
It is common to visualize participation to influence public policies, monitor and
in the form of a ladder where there is no control processes (Arnstein 1969; Hart
participation at the lower levels, but only 2001).
Three types of inclusion can be distinguished to understand the levels of

participation in a project (CDKN, FFLA and IDRC 2016)
Basic Participation: People participate by setting up working groups

to respond to objectives predetermined by the project. They do not
affect the formulation, but they are taken into account in activity
monitoring and adjustment. This is probably the most frequently
used participation style in projects.
Interactive participation: Locally organized groups participate

in the project formulation, implementation, and evaluation; this
implies systemic and structured teaching-learning processes, and a
progressive control of the project. Possibly this is the participation
style to which the vast majority of projects aspire, where the type
of relationships and rules that are established and matured for the
project design and implementation matters more than who initiates
them.
Self-development: Locally organized groups take initiatives without

waiting for external interventions. In its purest state, this is the
least common style used for project and initiative developments; it
requires enormous organizational capacities.
47

A good example of interactive breakthroughs and setbacks depending

participation is participatory budgeting on the circumstances and needs of
developed in different cities around the each stage and the people involved.
region and which funds are currently Both cases clearly have ups and downs
being allocated to the development of in participation, but they show what is
climate change adaptation and mitigation possible to achieve when large groups of
initiatives. Innovative approaches led by actors work collaboratively.
citizen groups (organized or not) and
their governments are used, along with
a strong political will to act and support
participatory budgeting programmes.
The cases of the cities of Rosario and
Xalapa, briefly presented here, are also
examples of interactive participation
where consensual and dynamic rules and
relationships have given predictability
and permanence to the programme or
strategy over time. In both cases, some
self-development can be seen as they
were initiated through the actions of civil
society groups and then integrated as a
state policy with clear leadership from
the local government.
It is necessary to highlight that these

participation levels throughout a
project or programme are dynamic, with
48
Chapter 3
Case 4
Rosario (ARG): Urban Agriculture (AU, in Spanish)11

Location: Municipality of Rosario, Argentina
Executors: CEPAR, Municipality of Rosario, orchard and vegetable garden farmers, INTA.
Year: ca. 1988–present
The Urban Agriculture (AU) programme in the city of Rosario has become a
cornerstone of the city’s response to climate change. AU activities began in
Rosario at the end of the 1980s as a strategy for food production and access,
and for genuine income generation. It began as an initiative of the NGO
Centro de Estudios de Producciones Agroecológicas (Center for the Study of
Agroecological Productions - CEPAR) that worked with organizations at the
neighborhood level to grow vegetables in community gardens. The initiative
gained strength with some official programmes both at the municipal level
(creation of the Departamento de Huertas [Department of Orchards and
Vegetable Gardens] 1991-1995), and at the national level (creation of the
Pro Huerta Food Security programme [Pro-Orchards], National Institute of
Agricultural Technology [INTA, in Spanish]). In December 2001, faced with the
acute economic and social crisis suffered in Argentina, AU was introduced as a
strategy to overcome the emergency. In this new stage, the alliance of actors
from previous years was woven again and in February 2002, the Government of
Rosario launched the AU Programme in collaboration with these key partners.
A wide variety of actors took part in the development and strengthening of the
AU programme. Among the initial actors, CEPAR, the municipal government,
INTA with Pro Huerta and orchard and vegetable garden farmers12 stood out.
The programme worked cross-sectionally from different municipal government
offices that provided inputs (seeds, tools, fabrics), technical support, services
(water and electricity), and facilitate marketing spaces (fairs, municipal markets).
They have also been supported by different schools of the National University
of Rosario (UNR), private companies, international cooperation, and the local
press. It is also worth noting the participation of the national government in
assigning vacant land for agroecological production. Regarding product
commercialization, a direct marketing system was chosen through fairs, an
agreed list of prices, and commercialization zones.13 In general, women played
a key role overseeing marketing and production management. This allowed
them to generate their own income and a certain economic independence.
11
Interviews with Raul Terrile (6/1/2022) and Paula Hoyos (6/13/2022). See Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Alimentación y la Agricul-
tura [FAO] 2014; Lattuca et al. 2005.
12
Neighbors organized into a network of producers with municipal support that included member registration, establishing the promoting
board and a delegate council to coordinate activities, with the importance of opening spaces for participation and avoiding strong leadership.
Although the network is not currently active, it was until recent years. It is worth noting the legal status that was gained and allowed resource
management.
13
Interview with Raúl Terrile (6/1/2022).
49
Today, more than 2,400 families produced each year, 40 points of sale
practice sustainable AU and and 7 markets in operation. The different
generate income from this decisions have been supported by
economic activity. There are 75 ha ordinances to grant predictability to the
under production in urban orchards, programme that has received different
800 ha for peri-urban agriculture, awards, including the Ross Prize for cities
2,500 tons of fruits and vegetables in 2021.14
Figure 3.2. Urban Agriculture Programme (AU), Rosario. .

Source: AU, Rosario, May 2022.
14
See: https://prizeforcities.org/project/sustainable-food-production-rosario
50
Chapter 3
Stakeholder map and

3.4 baseline construction for an
NbS project
Carrying out a participatory NbS project in A graphic representation of the
general requires identifying which persons stakeholder map is created by identifying
to work with (stakeholder mapping), the levels or scales at which they
building a solid baseline (being clear of operate (for example, neighbourhood,
the starting point), and being able to local, regional, or national scale),
take advantage of all existing knowledge types of relationships (whether they
and information. Stakeholder mapping are collaborative, conflicting, or non-
is a methodological tool that facilitates existent), the individual resources, be it
the identification of key actors, analyse by knowledge of the territory, experience
connections and relationships between in NbS, technical capacities, leadership,
them, their interests, importance, or information, data generation and
influence on a given topic or project. It is management, financial resources, etc.
important to specify aims and purposes In general, the actors are positioned
of the mapping. It is recommended to in a table or matrix. They can also be
prepare it at the beginning of the project analysed based on the function they fulfil
and adjust and monitor it throughout the in relation to the topic, which serves to
entire process, since reality is continuously design the best work strategy with each
changing and actors can modify their one and ensure that a gender perspective
perceptions, levels of influence and and attention to diversity are integrated.
interest, etc. (Ortiz, Matamoro and
Psathakis 2016). Likewise, mainstreaming The initial stakeholder map leads to the
a gender perspective and ensuring identification of the core stakeholders
the inclusion of a broad set of actors is to be interviewed, with whom to hold
essential. focus groups and with whom to build and
develop the project. In parallel, but in
Regarding the usual steps taken to start a constant dialogue with the stakeholder
participatory process (figure 3.3), a long list mapping, the project baseline is built,
of preliminary identification of institutions, which allows knowing the general context
organized groups or people relevant to in which it is embedded, including the
an NbS project is prepared, and they are institutional and governance structure,
classified according to, for example, who projects and programmes already
holds information, knowledge, power, underway, the type and quality of
and control. It is done based on the initial information and knowledge that already
knowledge that exists about the site, exists on the subject, where it is located
information obtained from meetings with and in what formats, and the existing
political, social and technical focal points, gaps, for example, in relation to who and
as well as brainstorming sessions, among which groups are invisible and voiceless
others. (various actors who, due to age, ethnicity,
51
gender, income, etc. inhabit and make and what is at risk and what response
differential use of common spaces, and options are being implemented. In this
may have specific needs both in relation way, the chances of success of the project
to the development of NbS and for proposal are increased, ensuring a real
participation). As presented in the previous co-design of the entire NbS development
chapter, it also helps to understand who and implementation plan and validation.
1 2 3 4 5 6
Actor Matrix: analysis Positioning of Generation of a
Creating a project baseline Co-design of NbS
classification of actors (power actors based on
long list of (allows to know the development and
based on / influence – influence: they are
actors context, ensure implementation
variables of interest), or core (essential),
relevance, monitor plan and
interest, action commitment to primary or
changes) validation
scales the topic secondary
Figure 3.3. Typical steps in a participatory process to develop NbS.

Source: Prepared by the author.
Co-design and validation,

3.5 support to decision-making
Once the stakeholder mapping and where? and for what? With this validation,
the baseline have been developed, the the following stages begin, which will
information is analyzed, integrated, and vary in content depending on the project
organized with the aim of returning it to scope. It is important to highlight that,
the participating stakeholders seeking to throughout the entire project-process,
provoke a second reflection. Integrating both the stakeholder mapping and the
all the information allows to finish shaping baseline are dynamic and will be updated
questions in NbS projects, such as for (figure 3.4).
whom and with whom? what?, when?,
52 Xalapa, Mexico
Photography:
Chapter 3
From this stage it is usual to develop a perspective throughout the process. This
series of workshops to iterate, deepen includes looking for ways for everyone
issues, prioritize lines of action, propose to participate and get involved in a safe
innovative ideas, co-design, develop and comfortable manner, taking into
indicators to monitor scopes of action, account schedules, location, or the type
agree on a workplan, assign roles and of information.
responsibilities, budget, and enhance the
necessary agreements to carry out the The proposal design and goals, and the
NbS project in all its stages.15 There is a workplan, vary depending on the timelines
wide range of tools and methodologies (short-, medium-, long-term) and action
to carry out participatory workshops. It is scales (local micro - neighborhood, city,
key to generate appropriate mechanisms region, country/basin, urban, peri-urban,
to address the diversity of stakeholders’ rural). Participatory processes must also
needs and ensure that all voices are ensure building consensus around these
represented, integrating a gender times and scales of the project.
Changing the governance Increasing internal and

ways by ensuring access of external capacities to
actors to knowledge and develop projects, co-create
information to identify risks solutions and solve conflicts
and co-create solutions
Goal
To implement NbS to increase
resilience in the face of CC
with inclusion criteria in
intermediate cities of Latin
America and the Caribbean
Changing the Integrating (micro local, local,

desicion-making processes – regional, national) scales and
including participatory (short, medium and long) terms,
processes in the exploration, (economic, political, of resource
definition, implementation utilization, livelihood, rights, etc.)
and monitoring stages interests and visions
Figure 3.4. What changes do we look for throughout an NbS development process?
15
See chapter 4 Resilient infrastructure in urban adaptation and chapter 5 Overview of the planning and financing instruments that-
support urban NbS.
53
Case 5
Xalapa (MEX): Integral Water Resource Management (IWRM)16

Location: Xalapa City Hall, Mexico
Executors: Senderos y Encuentros para un Desarrollo Autónomo Sustentable Civil
Association (SENDAS, in Spanish), Xalapa City Council through the Drinking water
and sanitation Municipal Commission – (CMAS, in Spanish) and the support of the
United Nations Environment Programme - CityAdapt
Year: 2005 – present
The city of Xalapa, together with its neighboring municipalities, faces increasing
challenges to meet its population’s drinking water needs. The city seeks to face
this challenge from a comprehensive natural resource management vision. In
2005, the Senderos y Encuentros para un Desarrollo Autónomo Sustentable
(SENDAS) civil association began a comprehensive co-managed project for the
Pixquiac river sub-basin. In 2008 the Pixquiac River Basin Committee (COCUPIX,
in Spanish) was created to manage resources for the conservation and restoration
of forests and generate more sustainable productive alternatives. A Fund Scheme
for Payment for Environmental Services in the basin was developed. In 2014, the
“Coordination for Water and Social Liaison” was created in the Drinking Water
and Sanitation Municipal Commission of Xalapa (CMAS, in Spanish). In 2019, the
Strategy for the Comprehensive Management of Xalapa Water Resource (EGIRH,
in Spanish) was prepared based on the collaboration between civil society and the
city council. It became the governing public policy for the conservation of forests,
basins and water that supplies the city. In this framework, throughout 2020-2021
CMAS proposed and developed a voluntary contribution from the population
of 2% of their consumption for the payment of environmental services, and the
Council of Environmental Services17 was created.
A wide variety of actors have been participating in the Integral Water Resource
Management of Xalapa (IWRM) and in the development and implementation
of the EGIRH. The process is carried out by the municipality of Xalapa through
CMAS, the Coordination of Water and Social Liaison, and its respective
Department of Basin Management and the Department of Water Culture. Civil
society organizations such as SENDAS participate and receive the support of
academic institutions (National Autonomous University of Mexico, University
of Veracruz, and the Institute of Ecology A.C.), environmental associations
(Marangola, A.C., Pladeyra, S.C., Gulf of Mexico Fund), professional groups, the
Environmental Fund of Veracruz, the National Water Commission (CONAGUA,
16
Interview with Sergio Angón and Isabel García Coll, coordinators of the CityAdapt Project in Xalapa, (6/13/2022). See Angón Rodríguez et al.
2021; Programa de Naciones Unidas para el Medio Ambiente [CityAdapt] 2022.
17
An auxiliary, collegiate, plural, and participatory body that helps to formulate and evaluate the projects to be implemented with the funds from
the voluntary contribution.
54
Chapter 3
in Spanish), and the United Nations Environment Programme [CityAdapt]. This

broad involvement of actors demonstrates the collective effort carried out by
organized civil society, academia and the municipal government to achieve
comprehensive water resource management. There is a mainstreaming of the
resource management within the structure of the Xalapa City Council, since
environmental, urban planning and public works directorates and advisers
participate.
EGIRH became a State policy. An instrument was generated to ensure funds

for the payment of environmental services that can be redirected to basin
protection. Today more than 1,400 ha of the Pixquianc sub-basin are being
conserved. As part of the CityAdapt project, Rainwater Harvesting Systems
(domestic RWHS) were installed in 10 schools and public buildings and the
riparian restoration of the Papas-Carneros stream began, implemented through
the Biodiversity Nursery Network (REVIVE A.C.).18 Based on this initiative, the
municipality invested in 10 additional rainwater harvesting systems and the
financing was arranged, and another 90 were installed. Rainwater harvesting
systems are planned to be installed in homes located in vulnerable areas
of the city, followed by riparian restoration with funds from the payment for
environmental services. The Manifesto for Water for Xalapa was signed and the
Pixquiac experience is planned to be replicated in the Huitzilapan river basin (in
the state of Puebla) and the El Castillo springs (rural area of Xalapa).
As a whole, the participatory process municipal ordinance formalized the

strengthens the internal and external concessions of vacant urban land to
capacities of actors to develop orchard and vegetable garden farmers in
projects, co-create solutions, and exchange for their care, and successive
resolve conflicts (Hardoy et al. 2019). It bylaws contributed to giving strength
is important to highlight the role played to the program.20 The development of
by various actors in the construction knowledge, learning, awareness and
of a collective assessment and in the participation of users, organized society
development of a long-term process. and citizens was and is key, both in the
For example, a challenge in the City of IWRM development process and in the
Rosario was to have long-term vacant voluntary contribution instrument on
land to develop AU. A study carried out water consumption for the payment of
between municipal secretariats and the environmental services implemented in
National University of Rosario identified Xalapa.21
areas unsuitable for construction but
suitable for agriculture.19 Later, a 2004
18
See Programa de Naciones Unidas para el Medio Ambiente [CityAdapt] 2022.
19
Railway sidetracks and urban highway side-lanes, flooded or floodable soils and public spaces for green areas awaiting completion due to lack
of budget.
20
See Lattuca et al. 2005.
21
See Angón Rodríguez et al. 2021 and CityAdapt 2022.
55
Barriers and
3.6 challenges
to citizen
participation
Despite the recognition of the usefulness
of developing participatory processes
for NbS projects in urban and peri-urban
contexts, it is often complex to successfully
carry them out in practice. There are
common barriers and challenges to
urban development processes in general
and others that are specific to NbS.
Anticipating these barriers and planning
the appropriate ways to solve them
according to each context is an important
starting point in any project.
The most common political-institutional

barriers are related to:
a lack of mechanisms and

structures that facilitate
stakeholder participation
beyond public consultation
mechanisms in real decision-
making instances;
b lack of capacities and resources

at the local level to carry out
participatory processes;
c traditional approaches to
planning (limited stakeholder
involvement, technocratic
perspectives); and
d elections and cyclical

government transitions
that frequently generate
interruptions or changes
in governance practices,
affecting the quality of citizen
participation.

56 Source: © UNEP / Author: Josephat Kariuki.
Chapter 3
On the other hand, the integration of

priorities, perspectives, and capacities
of each actor, is not usually co-designed
or implemented jointly and, in addition,
there is a tendency to rush the timeline for
designing and developing ideas. In this
sense, it is usual to find:
a little interest or recognition of

the value of incorporating the
perspectives, priorities, and needs of
“others”;
b short-term agendas that do not
allocate time to develop participatory
processes;
c biased perceptions, visions, and
beliefs; and
d pre-defined projects that do not
contemplate the development of
participatory processes beyond some
form of consultation.
Access to and dialogue on information

and knowledge result in better decision-
making while empowering the actors.
However, there is often:
a lack of shared information and data

and in compatible formats to be
usable;
b lack of knowledge and skills to be
able to get involved in an informed
manner;
c little interest and capacities to
generate knowledge exchange and
recognize different capacities; and
d few exchanges that promote learning
and build upon it.
Finally, as a consequence of actors’

beliefs and preferences, that are closely
linked to the process of generation
and appropriation of knowledge and
resources, biased or conflicting visions
and perceptions are usually encountered.
This results in: a) an overvaluation of the
role and the ability of grey infrastructure
to mitigate risks in comparison to NbS or
hybrid solutions and b) a disengagement
of citizens from natural landscapes and
their functions.
57
Conclusions and recommendations
Developing NbS in cities through citizen participation processes is an

opportunity to renew and improve urban planning from an integrated
perspective that is much more attentive to resolving situations of
vulnerability and exclusion, in an environmentally sustainable manner.
Citizen participation is key to ensure that NbS are the core to a
comprehensive long-term urban development process and gain scale
and incidence. Through participation, efforts should be made to ensure
that NbS are not seen as an additional isolated implementation but rather
as an integral part of the range of solutions to address the different
challenges of climate change. In turn, participation is key to integrating
diverse knowledge and perceptions and ensuring that the implemented
initiatives and measures are sustained over time.
Participation is not generated automatically, nor is it an item to be checked

off a list of actions to be taken, let alone a recipe to be followed. It must be
thought and designed, reviewed and adapted to each particular context
and for each and every stage of a process. Although NbS are not new
measures, their valuation and integration into urban development are new
in many aspects. Therefore, it is recommended to develop participatory
processes that give enough time to iterate and generate consensus, for
which access to and integration of information are key, along with the
generation of adequate spaces for real participation and incidence in
decision-making.
58
Chapter
4
Resilient
infrastructure in
urban adaptation
Author: Begoña Arellano Jaimerena
59
4.1 Introduction
Resilient infrastructure is the foundation of There are various approaches, criteria,
social and economic activities, protecting and principles for the design of resilient
and connecting communities, industries, infrastructure, depending on the
and markets and providing essential services perspective taken. For example, from a
such as energy, water, communications and risk management perspective, the United
transportation networks, which enables the Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction
flow of goods, services and information. This (UNDRR) is developing a set of principles
type of infrastructure allows cities to recover for resilient infrastructure (United Nations
from disruptions caused by different kinds [UN] 2022a) focused on systemic resilience,
of threats, including adaptation to changing continuity in the provision of critical services,
conditions and the uncertainty presented and the Sustainable Development Goals
by climate change (Organization for (SDGs); while from an asset management
Economic Co-operation and Development point of view, the focus is on critical
[OECD] 2018). Nature-based Solutions infrastructure, infrastructure systems and
(NbS), understood as a type of resilient service provision (OECD 2021). For the
infrastructure, are multifunctional development of NbS as a type of resilient
solutions that not only make it possible infrastructure, adopting a systemic vision
to address the various threats that in collaboration with nature is necessary.
affect cities, including impacts related This allows developing flexible solutions
to climate change, but also contribute that are part of an integrated strategy for
to sustainable development, as already safer and more sustainable cities, avoiding
discussed in Chapter 1. the perception of the presented solutions
as individual components.
60 Xalapa, Mexico
Photography:
Chapter 4
NbS as resilient
4.2 infrastructure for climate
change adaptation in Latin
America and the Caribbean
As discussed in Chapter 2, there are coastal floodings, (iii) water scarcity and
various climate hazards and risks that droughts, and (iv) landslides. It should
affect cities in Latin America and the be noted that the NbS shown below
Caribbean. Their impact varies not contribute to some extent to mitigate
only depending on how exposed they the effects of heat islands, predominantly
are, but also on their level of sensitivity strong in cities, as heat stress is reduced
and accumulated vulnerabilities. Urban by increasing green or water surfaces.
areas, in particular, are highly exposed to Figure 4.1 shows examples of the overlap
climate change-related risks.22 especially between functions and co-benefits of the
floods, droughts and landslides, as well different NbS mentioned, without being
as storms, water stress and heat waves an exhaustive list of possible NbS.
(World Meteorological Organization
2022). Some urban areas also present
heat stress, with heat islands in areas
that experience considerably higher
temperatures than their surroundings
(Villanueva-Solís, Ranfla and Quintanilla-
Montoya 2013; Siclari 2020). In addition,
the urban population in Latin America
and the Caribbean already exceeds 80%.
Although its growth has slowed down in
recent years, it is expected to continue
increasing (UN 2022b), affecting a greater
number of people, especially women
and communities in greater vulnerability
conditions, further stressing urban areas.
Regarding hazards, some may occur at the
same time (multi-hazards), or on different
time scales, such as cyclical hazards; long-
term hazards such as droughts, and others
of sudden origin such as tornadoes. For
the purpose of this chapter, we group
urban NbS according to the following
hazards: (i) pluvial and fluvial floodings, (ii)
22
See Chapter 2, Table 1: Elements and essential variables for risk and vulnerability analyses in cities.
61
Main risks
NbS Co-benefits
and hazards
Water quality
Biodrainage canal improvement
Urban wetland Spatial quality

improvement
Rainfall and Reservoir Recreational and

river flooding sport areas
risk increase
reduction Green covers
Household
Permeable expense
pavements reductions
Urban agriculture
Thermal stress
reduction
Water scarcity
and drought risk RWHS Water
reduction conservation
Air quality
Mass landslide Urban forest improvement
risk reduction
Dune systems Acoustic

contamination
reduction
Coastal
vegetation
Coastal flooding
Biodiversity increase
risk reduction
Mangroves
Food supply
Coral reefs increase
Figure 4.1. Example of NbS, the risks and hazards they address and the co-benefits they
bring about.
Source: Prepared by the Author
62
Chapter 4
Pluvial and fluvial impact on increasing biodiversity, and in

floodings a similar way, but to a lesser extent, so
do bioswales. Both NbS also contribute
to improving the quality and quantity of
Examples of suitable NbS. available water. Urban agriculture and, in
NbS used to mitigate flood risks should some cases, green roofs can provide food,
focus on: (i) improving rainwater infiltration contributing to food security, which can
into the subsoil, and (ii) creating more have a great impact on the expenses of
space for water, either by increasing the vulnerable households and the health of
rainwater storage capacity or by increasing their members. Low-income families will
the water conveyance capacity of rivers and be able to have access to a healthier diet
streams. Additionally, in the case of fluvial through community kitchens that get their
floodings, it is appropriate to reinforce supplies from urban vegetable gardens.
river and stream banks through riverside
vegetation restoration and reforestation Implementation.
(Ozment et al. 2021). Other measures such Depending on site-specific conditions,
as those included in sustainable urban for example, space availability, slope, and
drainage systems (SUDS)23 are adequate soil type, some solutions will be more
to reduce stormwater flooding risks, appropriate than others. Linear and/or
contributing to urban water management. smaller-scale solutions such, as bioswales,
For example, some solutions provide an are suitable for situations where the
area for stormwater storage on the surface, available space is scarce, as long as the
such as retention and detention reservoirs type of soil is permeable enough to allow
and urban wetlands. Furthermore, green infiltration. If, for example, the soil type is
roofs allow a portion of the rainwater to be not permeable enough, or the groundwater
captured on the roof of a building, which is very close to the surface, there will not
is useful for the irrigation of vegetation be enough space left in the subsoil for the
and allows its evaporation. Bioswales are water that is being infiltrated to be stored,
linear solutions that convey stormwater which will result in an ineffective solution.
runoff to then allow its slow infiltration On the other hand, if the available space
into the subsoil. Urban agriculture can also is greater but the soil type does not allow
be an appropriate NbS on green roofs suitable infiltration, retention basins
or in gardens, contributing to improve can be a good solution since they allow
infiltration into the subsoil. permanent surface storage of rainwater
and can become a landscape element as
Co-benefits. an urban park.
NbS that mitigate flood risks are very
varied, so their co-benefits will depend It is important to note that, in contexts
to a large extent on the type of specific of extreme rainfall, such as in the tropics,
solution. Although they all contribute NbS alone may not be sufficient for
to reducing heat stress and to some rainwater storage and flooding mitigation.
extent improving spatial quality, larger- In those cases, it is particularly beneficial
scale solutions such as reservoirs and to consider complementing NbS with
wetlands can also provide spaces for traditional solutions, thus creating a hybrid
recreation, improving the quality of life solution.24
of communities. Wetlands have a major
23
For more information refer to Chapter 1 – Key Concepts on NbS for adaptation in cities.
24
See chapter 1 – Key Concepts on NbS for adaptation in cities.
63
Maintenance and monitoring.

All urban NbS require some type of regular
maintenance and ideally some monitoring,
in order to identify potential performance
problems and take the necessary actions in
time. In general, maintenance focuses on
pruning and weeding, as well as avoiding
sediment and solid waste accumulations
that may prevent the measure’s proper
functioning. For example, if bioswales
are not properly maintained, they can
accumulate sediment to such an extent that
they no longer have the capacity needed
to receive the runoff for which they were
designed. The monitoring will depend on
the type of measure; but in general, it is
possible to carry out regular (monthly)
visual monitoring to check the measure’s
status. For example, whether there are
solid wastes that hinder water flow, or
if the infiltration capacity has changed.
It will always be necessary to carry out
an inspection after either rainfall or river
flooding events. In this way it is possible to
evaluate the measure’s performance over
time and make modifications to its design
or maintenance if necessary.

64
Chapter 4
Coastal NbS should be designed as multifunctional

floodings areas that allow for other uses (for example,
recreational use, fishing, transportation,
etc.) in addition to disaster risk mitigation.
Examples of suitable NbS.
NbS used to mitigate the risk of coastal Maintenance and monitoring.
flooding should focus on dissipating wave In the case of dune systems, due to their
energy in coastal areas. Some appropriate high dynamism, fragility, and susceptibility
NbS for this purpose are man-built or to human activity, maintenance and
natural coastal forests such as coral reefs monitoring tasks are carried out on
(Silva et al. 2020), mangroves, coastal foot or with the use of non-motorized
vegetation, and dune systems (TNC 2021). transportation. The use of motorized
vehicles in coastal areas negatively
Co-benefits. impacts the vegetation that is part of
By dissipating the energy of waves the dune systems, which has a stabilizing
and marine currents, this type of NbS effect. Without that vegetation, sand
contributes to reducing coastal erosion. movement will vary. Periodic maintenance
They also contribute to provide recreation and monitoring will allow the identification
and tourist areas (Silva et al. 2020), to of unwanted changes in the dune dynamic
increase biodiversity and to improve the processes. By comparison, coastal forests
spatial quality of coastal zones. In some are more stable, and their maintenance
cases, they can support mitigating wind focuses on their early years, while the
action, as is the case with mangroves, or species are in their growth stage. Although
even to work with the wind, as is with dune maintenance will be less intensive in later
systems. Coral reefs are also the habitat years, long-term monitoring is essential,
of various essential marine species both especially after coastal flooding events.
for human life and for other species. In
addition, they allow sustaining fishing
activities, contributing to food security
and local economies. Mangroves are not
only high biodiverse ecosystems, but they
contribute to reducing seawater intrusion,
and therefore, reduce saline intrusion risk
(Hilmi et al. 2017).
Implementation.
All the aforementioned NbS belong to a
landscape scale, since their application
generally exceeds the limits of the urban
area, making it impossible to implement
them on a smaller scale. This especially
applies to dune systems since they are
dynamic systems in constant movement.
The implementation of these measures
requires a considerable area along the
coastline to have a real impact on wave
energy dissipation. However, the urban
coastline is generally an attractive area, so
65
Water scarcity
and droughts
Examples of suitable NbS.

NbS used to mitigate the risk of water
scarcity and drought should focus on
improving water conservation and
storage capacity at the local level (United
Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization [UNESCO] 2018).
Although water scarcity and droughts are
long-lasting events that cover a larger
scale than just cities, it is possible to
implement measures at the urban level
that contribute to water conservation
and storage strategies at the landscape
or basin level. Some appropriate NbS
in these cases are those that involve
afforestation, reforestation, restoration,
and revegetation (OECD 2020), using
species with low water requirements
and, ideally, native species. Increasing
the urban area covered by vegetation
can also allow aquifer recharge,
depending on their depth and specific
soil conditions. Additionally, urban
vegetation helps regulating temperature
and mitigating the heat island effect in
urban areas, especially those located in
arid zones (Villanueva-Solís, Ranfla and
Quintanilla-Montoya 2013). Measures
involving rainwater harvesting may
contribute to water conservation efforts
and management at a local level.
Co-benefits.
Some of the co-benefits of NbS involving
afforestation, reforestation, revegetation
and restoration are increased biodiversity,
improved air quality, carbon sequestration,
and reduced noise pollution. In addition,
these NbS provide spaces for recreation and
sports that contribute to a better quality of
life in the communities. On the other hand,
rainwater collection has the co-benefit Photography: San Salvador, El Salvador
of reducing household expenses. These Source: © UNEP / Author: Josephat Kariuki.
66
Chapter 4
co-benefits are particularly valuable for the

most vulnerable groups that have scarce
resources to cover their basic needs and
limited access to quality green areas for
public use. Also, women play a key role in
water resource supply and management
(Global Water Partnership [GWP] 2011),
since women and girls are responsible
for providing and managing water in
approximately 80% of households that
experience water scarcity (UN n.d.).
Implementation.
Most NbS that are suitable to mitigate
the risk of water scarcity and drought
are measures whose effectiveness is
generally related to their size; commonly
they are larger-scale NbS, such as urban
forests. However, rainwater collection that
contributes to water scarcity risk mitigation
is a measure that can be implemented on
a smaller scale, for example, at home.
Available space and average rainfall are
the main criteria for the selection of this
type of NbS. In extreme drought contexts,
for example, rainwater harvesting is not
recommended, since the amount of
water collected does not compensate for
infrastructure spending. A native species
urban forest may be an appropriate
measure for this context.

Maintenance is essential in solutions such
as urban forests in a drought context.
Although the use of native species allows
a better adaptation, during the first
years of life of the trees more intensive
maintenance will be necessary until the
forest is consolidated. On the other hand,
Rainwater Harvesting Systems (RWHS) will
require regular maintenance throughout
their lifecycle. Both types of measures
will benefit from a long-term monitoring
system, especially if considering that
droughts are long-lasting events, generally
over years or decades.
67
Case 6
Rainwater Harvesting Systems (RWHS) in schools in San Salvador

Location: San Salvador, El Salvador
Executor: CityAdapt Project, implemented by the United Nations Environment
Program (UNEP) and the Ministry of the Environment and Natural Resources (MARN,
in Spanish) of El Salvador, with the support of the Salvadoran Foundation for
Development and Minimum Housing (FUNDASAL) and the Association of Community
Projects of El Salvador (PROCOMES, in Spanish).
Beneficiary: Selected schools in the municipalities of Santa Tecla and Antiguo
Cuscatlán
Year: 2020 – 2021
The objective of this project was to facilitate the collection of rainwater for daily
community use in schools in San Salvador, to mitigate climate risks caused by droughts,
changes in rain patterns, and high temperatures. Through the installation of RWHS,
this project seeks to provide ecosystem services for the mitigation of climate events
and water provision.
Roof
(capturing)
Canals and pipes

(recolection)
Distribution
Filters and system
tank
(storage)
Figure 4.2.
Left: Diagram showing RWHS main components. Right: Example of RWHS implemented
in one of the schools.
Source: CityAdapt.
This area is characterized by an insufficient drainage system, informal settlements,

and heavy rains with flooding and mass landslide risks in certain areas. Available
space, basic infrastructure and land tenure were taken into account for the selection
of schools. The implemented systems have a storage tank, a centrifugal pump and a
hydropneumatic tank, sediment filter and a double filter to make the water drinkable.
They are connected to the rainwater downspouts coming from the school rooftop,
collect the water that is captured on the roof and treat it before distributing it for
consumption, use in bathrooms and irrigation of vegetable gardens. The system
maintenance must be carried out on a regular basis, in order to ensure a good quality
of the collected water.
68
Chapter 4
The results of this project were characterized by exchange of knowledge, local

capacity building on climate change adaptation and rainwater harvesting, and the
successful demonstration of RWHS. For example, in the Jardines de la Sabana School
in the Municipality of Santa Tecla, RWHS and urban vegetable gardens were installed.
RWHS in this location have benefited 643 students, not only by supplying them with
water for consumption and use in bathrooms, but also by allowing them to irrigate the
vegetable garden. The yield from that vegetable garden is then distributed among
students’ families. Through this process, education and awareness are combined
with the practical application of this type of NbS that contributes to reducing water
scarcity.
Landslides
Examples of suitable NbS. provide spaces for recreation and sports

Landslides –commonly rock and earth– that support a better quality of life in the
are associated with various either natural communities, which is particularly beneficial
or anthropic factors resulting from for the most vulnerable groups, who often
human action. Some contributing or have limited access to quality green areas
even triggering events are intense and for public use. Also, by mitigating landslide
prolonged rainfalls that erode and saturate risks in certain locations, this type of NbS
the soil, and changes in the land use that offers the co-benefit of protecting critical
modify the natural drainage system of infrastructure, such as transportation
an area (Olarte 2017). The suitable NbS infrastructure systems (Ozment et al.
to reduce landslide risks in cities may 2021) and public services (for example,
focus on restoring or improving soils in electricity, telecommunications, health,
areas with steep slopes, protecting them and education).
and avoiding their saturation. As with
droughts, some appropriate NbS for this Implementation.
case include reforestation, rehabilitation, The implementation of such measures
and restoration, aiming at increasing depends on the specific context, the
vegetation cover, strengthening the type of landslide and what causes it,
soil structure and restoring the natural and the type of soil, among others. In
drainage system. general, NbS should be implemented on
a landscape scale, using native species
Co-benefits. on sloping lands that have been affected
As with NbS that mitigate water scarcity by anthropic actions, such as areas with
and drought, co-benefits of NbS that informal settlements on gully slopes, or
mitigate landslides contribute to increasing where extreme events have increased rock
biodiversity, improving air quality and decomposition.
reducing noise pollution. In addition, they
69

The maintenance and monitoring of this type of NbS is necessary since landslide processes
are complex. Once NbS are implemented, it is necessary to monitor them to prevent the
vegetation from being degraded or removed. This happens in some cases, either to use
wood for timber, or to illegally develop areas intended for other purposes. Even when native
species are used, it will be necessary to carry out maintenance during the first years of the
trees’ life, while the forest consolidates.
Case 7
Calzada de la República (La República Avenue), Oaxaca de Juárez – Mexico

Location: Oaxaca de Juárez, Mexico
Beneficiary: Secretariat of Infrastructure and Sustainable Territorial Planning
(SINFRA, in Spanish) – Oaxaca de Juárez, Mexico.
Funded by: Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland (RVO), The Netherlands
Year: 2020
Team: BD+P (team leader and design), Deltares (urban resilience), Move
Mobility (mobility)
The project was part of a city initiative to increase urban resilience, with an
emphasis on climate resilience through the remodeling and improvement
of its main avenues, one of which is Calzada de la República. The process
was guided by urban design, incorporating aspects of mobility and urban
resilience. As part of the latter, the conceptual design was assessed using
the Climate Resilient Cities (CRC)25 tool to identify potential NbS and model
its contribution to improving urban resilience by mitigating the risk of pluvial
flooding as green surfaces are increased. The strategy is based on the idea of
a “sponge city”, which tries to manage water locally following retention and
storage principles, then infiltration and, only when necessary, drainage. The
tool allowed quantifying the rainwater storage capacity of the measures, their
contribution to reducing heat stress and improving the quality of the water
that infiltrates the subsoil. After an iterative process of design, testing and
adjustment, a master plan was developed, informed by scientific knowledge
and validated by the different institutional actors involved during a workshop.
The CRC tool was also used during the workshop to explain the process and
the relationships between NbS, urban resilience and pluvial flooding.
25
https://crctool.org/en/documentation/
70
Chapter 4
Figure 4.3. Visualizations of the proposed measures, including for example

permeable pavements.
Source: © BD+P
4.3 Challenges for NbS

implementation and monitoring
Generalize the challenges that Latin for future adversities. The region also
America and the Caribbean (LAC) face for shares challenges with many others in
NbS implementation in cities is complex. the world, such as the lack of monitoring
LAC is a vast region, with different of NbS, which prevents understanding its
climates, landscapes, socioeconomic long-term performance and, therefore,
and institutional contexts, and faces adequate planning. From the point of view
diverse challenges. Some cities are more of NbS implementation and monitoring,
prepared to face climate risks, while others the following challenges are particularly
are still struggling to solve more pressing relevant:
challenges, such as access to safe drinking
water and sanitation, without having the
resources, time, and capacity to prepare
71
Lack of enabling conditions for NbS implementation, referring not

only to an inadequate institutional context of short-term strategies
but also to aspects related to their governance, with actors that
are not very committed and involved in their implementation and
maintenance.
Comprehensive spatial planning in a departmental institutional

context, as discussed in Chapter 5, on NbS implementation with
urban financing instruments. This chapter also addresses the
existing focus on planning over implementation, with a clear gap
between strategic plans and NbS investment plans (Altamirano et
al. 2021), which is the main obstacle to NbS implementation in LAC
(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC] 2022). This also
translates into the difficulty of scaling up or conventionalizing NbS
pilot projects.
Long-term NbS performance, given future uncertainties and climate

change. Although there is a broad consensus on the great value of
NbS, the quantification of their benefits and co-benefits still poses
great challenges. The lack of historical data on NbS performance
makes it difficult to have a comprehensive understanding of their
ecosystem services, as well as to establish the level of service over
time. The latter is particularly relevant during the first years after NbS
implementation, since these types of solutions usually take time to
establish and perform according to the level they were designed for.
Lack of a robust and long-term monitoring system that allows

understanding the NbS performance in the long term. This
requires an entity responsible for planning, and either implementing
or overseeing a monitoring plan implemented by a third party.
Furthermore, when aiming to implement a smart monitoring system,
certain local technical capabilities and additional resources are
required, but they are not commonly available.
72
Chapter 4
Recommendations and conclusions
NbS implementation requires a comprehensive process, with specific objectives

and ambitions and including the participation of all actors –from both public
and private sectors– throughout the process. The main stages (adapted from
Loucks and van Beek 2017) of this process are:
1 Understanding of the water, environmental, and socioeconomic

system and identification of the main challenges and hazards,
both current and future. This allows for the elaboration of a long-
term, comprehensive vision, agreed upon by the different groups
of actors, combining sustainable development and the needs of
different sectors.
2
Identification and analysis of potential NbS appropriate for
the context, comparing benefits and performances between
measures, analyzing synergies and potential trade-offs, and using
tools that support the decision-making process. This step also
includes mapping NbS life cycles and service levels. 26
3 Definition of the preferred approach and strategy for NbS

implementation, which responds to the context in which they
are found while prioritizing measures and identifying those that
provide guaranteed results.
4 Implementation, maintenance, and monitoring of NbS and

hybrid solutions, including an implementation plan indicating
technical details, and an investment plan and actions to follow,
including maintenance and monitoring. Monitoring can also
involve the community and schools, creating links between the
different sectors.
26
Refer to Altamirano et al. 2021, p. 22.
73
Education and awareness about the risk and hazards that NbS help to face (for
example, “Diálogos del Agua, Panama”27), are cross-sectional aspects of this
process, as well as relevant social and cultural considerations for each context.
This refers not only to the education of the communities, but also to the training
of technicians and decision-makers. It is necessary to regionally collaborate and
share the generated knowledge and the lessons learned in different cases,
both from a technical point of view as well as regarding the failure or success
factors. Sharing knowledge also entails integrating local, ancestral knowledge
and women’s perspectives in NbS planning and implementation, in an inclusive
and collaborative process. This process should include local communities,
indigenous people, and especially groups in vulnerable situations, contributing
to creating rooted projects.
In addition to working with communities, suitable enabling conditions and

comprehensive strategies at a larger scale (for example region, basin) are
essential for scaling up and mainstreaming NbS. Appropriate enabling conditions
are built in part by strengthening local capacities, both at the technical and
governance levels, and the institutional memory on NbS in public institutions,
to ensure the continuity of knowledge on this topic beyond each government’s
circumstances.
To fully understand NbS performance, long-term monitoring systems need

to be established, which are especially relevant considering climate change
effects and the uncertainty this poses. Long-term monitoring not only allows
understanding the performance of the measures over time, but also their
impact, that is, the level of service they provide in relation to the function
for which they were designed. Additionally, when this process is carried out
with communities, through initiatives such as citizen science, it leads to the
community’s empowerment and better understanding of their operation, which
contributes to more robust NbS.
Finally, it is important to emphasize that, although in this chapter it was decided

to break down NbS according to the types of hazards they face, NbS are
complex and multifunctional solutions, and part of their value lies in being able
to reduce various risks and contextually provide valuable co-benefits to the
community.
27
https://www.wetlands.org/casestudy/living-water-wetlands-flood-risk-reduction-panama-city/
74
Chapter
5
Overview of the
planning and financing
instruments that
support urban NbS
Author: Melinda Lis Maldonado
75
Overview of the planning and financing instruments that support urban NbS
5.1 Introduction
Recent years have seen important to articulate the responsibilities of each
breakthroughs in climate and urban sector, or that are simply the result of
planning which are key to the processes taking place at different times.
implementation of Nature-based Solutions It may also be due to the segmentation
(NbS). However, NbS implementation of available information or due to the lack
in the cities of the region faces two of information sharing between ministries
important barriers. On the one hand, a within the same government. This
disconnect between urban and climate translates into overlapping policies and
policies, strategies, and regulations; and, profuse and confusing legal regulations
on the other, insufficient, or difficult-to- that make implementation difficult.
access, financing sources, that prevent or
hinder NbS implementation. The second barrier is related to NbS
financing. Although climate financing
The first barrier is of two orders. The has increased in recent years, the gap is
first is a vertical barrier indicating a lack still huge, particularly for CC adaptation
of carry through of national policies, finance, a situation that is especially critical
strategies, and regulations to the local in Latin America and the Caribbean.28
level. The second is horizontal, expressed
as a disarticulation or lack of alignment Given these obstacles, the main objective
between urban plans and climate action of this chapter is to reflect on how
plans or resilience strategies. This can be certain urban planning and financing
seen (i) in a disconnect in the objectives of instruments can offer opportunities to
these plans, (ii) in a statement of different overcome these barriers by supporting
issues to be tackled and, therefore, and facilitating NbS implementation.
(iii) in the lack of articulation between
instruments that are seeking to achieve
different purposes. Thus, for example,
urban plans do not recognize the
climate risks assessed in climate action
plans, and urban planning instruments
are not designed to serve the fight
against climate change (CC). This lack of
connection is the result, in many cases,
of sectoral planning processes that fail
28
According to the latest Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC] (2022a), adaptation is more focused on planning than implementa-
tion; and within the soft limits of adaptation in all regions, financial constraints have been identified as the biggest reported obstacle to climate
adaptation in South and Central America, in addition to weak institutional capacity. To better understand these financial limitations, other
aspects that are mentioned by the IPCC 2022b are that: a) climate financing has increased, but it has mainly focused on mitigation, b) there is
little climate financing for adaptation and most of it comes from public sources, and c) adverse climatic impacts may reduce financial resource
availability.
76
Chapter 5
5.2 Urban planning

instruments
In recent years, one of the more positive Another interesting aspect to highlight
signs that has been detected is the is when urban or territorial plans
growing rapprochement between consolidate previous practices and
climate and urban policies, strategies, policies where different actors play key
and regulations. Indeed, different urban roles. This can be noted specifically in
plans now recognize CC challenges, the Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems
setting climate objectives, and aligning (SUDS) regulation in the new POT in
these with the national and international Bogotá. This legalizes, in a more systematic
climate and urban agenda. For example, way, the different policies, regulations, and
the Land Management Plan29 (POT, in practices of the last 20 years, and where
Spanish) for Bogotá (Colombia) now different actors —whether governmental,
recognizes the climate emergency and is academic or from the private sector—
also aligned with the global Sustainable have now promoted its implementation,
Development Goals (SDGs). Similarly, the as illustrated in figures 5.1 and 5.2.
Belo Horizonte Master Plan30 31 (Brazil)
proposes sustainability as one of its Figure 5.1 shows an extended drainage dry
guiding principles for urban development, basin in a public park, its implementation
including for climate change resilience. being the result of coordination between
the local public sector and academia.32
This trend has been a gradual process, Figure 5.2 illustrates part of the Blue and
that has faced barriers, but also presented Green Infrastructure (BGI)33 program
opportunities. One such opportunity is implemented by a private sector actor on
when the urban plan formulation processes private land, an investment far exceeding
take place simultaneously, or close in time, the standards required by the urban
to the climate action plan formulations. regulations.34
This is the case of the Land Use and
Management Plan (PUGS, in Spanish) in
Quito and the POT in Bogota (see cases
1 and 2).
29
The Land Management Plan of Bogotá, “Bogotá Reverdece, 2022-2035” (Greening Bogota), approved through District Decree No. 555 of
December 29th, 2021.
30
Belo Horizonte Master Plan. Municipal Law No. 11.181/19.
31
Recife Master Plan. Complementary Law No. 2, April 23rd, 2021.
32
The Bogota Aqueduct and Sewer Company (EAAB, in Spanish) and the District Environment Secretariat (SDA, in Spanish) through the inter
administrative agreement No. SDA 01269 of 2013 established the need to promote a SUDS system. Under that agreement, they hired the
De Los Andes University to study different typologies suitable for each sector in the city. As a result, the EAAB subsequently approved Technical
Standard NS – 166-2018, Criteria for Sustainable Urban Drainage Design and Construction (SUDS), Bogota.
33
For a definition of BGI, see Chapter 1.
34
One of the developer’s motivations was to obtain LEED Platinum certification, with the prestige that this entails, and another was to achieve
water and energy savings. Both goals were achieved. The project has received other awards such as The Next Green Award 2016 Design
Winning Project, Latin America Category.
77
Figure 5.1: SUDS (extended drainage dry basin) in the Metropolitano San Cristóbal Sur
Park, Bogotá, Colombia.
Source: Urban Development Institute, August 2019 (left) and February 2022 (right).
Figure 5.2: SUDS in Elemento Building (69th Avenue and 26th Street), Bogotá, Colombia.
Source: Urban Development Institute, November 2021 (left and center) and Luis Alberto Suarez, July 10th,
2017 (right).
78
Chapter 5
In addition to these trends observed in the Perhaps the most relevant contribution
region, urban planning offers specific tools of these urban techniques to climate
to address climate challenges, in the form challenges is to advance the establishment
of land classification, categorization, and of a differentiated legal development
qualification.35 rights and duties regime for each land
class, category or specific territorial
Land classification and categorization area. In many cities in Latin America
involve the division and subdivision of land and the Caribbean, especially those
according to criteria that typically consider that do not have national regulations
the intended purpose or actual use of that encompasses land policies, these
the land. The starting point for territorial techniques are more concentrated around
structuring is the land’s ecosystems, its the recognition of land rights, rather than
components, functions, and support in the establishment of duties. A notable
capacities. Based on this foundation, case is the Quito PUGS, where a set of
decisions can be made to intervene in the building standards that include NbS for
territory with different measures, including both urban and rural land have been
NbS. established. These are mandatory for the
basic exercise of development rights and
Zoning or land qualification
is an are established in a differentiated way in
urban technique through which land is the territory (see Case 8).
differentiated according to its use, the
intensity of its use, and the role it must
play. The consideration of risks or climate
factors in urban zoning, the assigning of
mixed land use (in line with the model
of the ’15-minute city’), the possibility of
changing land use intensities over time or
due to adverse or extreme scenarios,36 are
alternatives that can be used to implement
NbS effectively in different parts of the
land territory. As an example, the primary
purpose of harvesting rainwater may be
to reduce stormwater runoff in periods
of heavy rainfall, but harvested rainwater
can also be used in times of drought and
even as protection against fire risks. Even
though the incorporation of uncertainty in
urban planning is a great challenge, urban
regulations should consider the risks and
diverse scenarios that a city could face,
regulating the legal framework for climate
adaptation accordingly.
35
These terms and their meanings in Latin America and the Caribbean are not used in the same way in all countries. However, it is used for
educational purposes in this Chapter. For these concepts to be clarified in the comparative regional legislation in Spain, see Beltran Aguirre
2006.
36
The intensity of water use rights could be modified in drought or water scarcity periods.
79
5.3 Urban financing

instruments
Having navigated the challenges different actors in financing (depending
encountered in the planning phase, on the specific case), with obligations
obstacles regarding implementation then that involve doing something, not doing
need consideration. How to put in place something, or making a payment in cash or
NbS in practice? in-kind. The involvement of external actors
provides greater opportunities for public
Among the available alternatives, the role administration to deal with the budgetary
of land-based tools or land value capture limitations that they face. Through these
should be evaluated. These are both mechanisms it is possible to manage and
management and financing instruments. finance NbS by requiring private actors, for
Thus, they simultaneously answer the example, to execute SUDS, to undertake
questions of how to implement NbS, conservation measures, to make payments
and how to pay for it. The principles that in cash with a specific purpose of financing
legitimize the use of these instruments are an NbS, or to provide land for the
mainly of two types. The first is that relating development of a BGI. One consequence
to an increase in land value brought of the two characteristics mentioned is
about by a given public action, that can that these instruments promote ways of
be recovered from the beneficiaries and local self-financing, strengthening the
reinvested.37 The other principle is that autonomy of local entities and climate
of the generation of negative impacts governance.
caused by new urban developments,
requiring reduction or mitigation actions. In previous research, a comparative
Across the world, there are varied analysis was carried out across three
regulatory mechanisms with differing countries (Brazil, Colombia and Argentina)
characteristics based on these principles, to measure the potential of certain urban
that are deployed for different purposes. development and tax instruments to
address climate challenges (De la Sala,
These instruments show some advantages Maldonado and Alterman 2019), further
in relation to other financing mechanisms, developed into case studies deriving from
two of which stand out. The first is that this research (Maldonado et al. 2020). These
they are local instruments. The local research studies laid the foundations for an
dimension relates to the public powers understanding of the subject, allowing the
over territorial planning and management, identification of certain types of instruments
exercised mainly by municipal entities as and their potential to achieve climate
well as by supralocal, subnational entities, objectives.
in accordance with the legal regime in
force. The second advantage is that these
mechanisms allow for the involvement of
37
In this regard, see the Global Compendium of Land Value Capture Policies (Organización para la Cooperación y el Desarrollo Económicos
[OCDE] and Lincoln Institute of Land Policy 2021).
80
On this occasion, a proposal is made to legal system these conditions are called
advance the conceptualization of these “developer obligations” or “charges for
instruments or mechanisms −urban development rights”.38
development requirements on the one hand;
and property taxes, fees or contributions Property taxes, fees or contributions39 can be
on the other− based on their main legal understood as those impositions deriving
characteristics. from the power of the State, which can
be levied independently of the taxpayer’s
Urban development requirements can willingness or desire to meet these charges.
be understood (in a broad sense) as Depending on the type of mechanism,
those conditions that must be followed in these may or may not be linked to some
exchange for the permission to build or form of public services or works. These
engage in urban development. In this case, tools are characterized by their unilateral
there is a bilateral relationship between and compulsory nature, based on legal
the applicants (usually the landowners or principles and the rule of law. They may have
developers) and public administration. The the purpose of collecting revenues (fiscal
former seek development rights based tools) or of promoting certain contributor
on current regulations, and the latter behavior (extra fiscal tools).
grant or approve planning permits. Urban
development requirements are intended Below is a comparative table of urban
to reduce the negative impacts of urban development charges and property taxes,
developments and/or finance processes fees and contributions emphasizing their
for urban-climate development. In same main characteristics.
38
See OCDE AND LILP (2021)
39
Property taxes, fees or contributions being the three main taxation categories.
Property taxes, fees or

Urban development requirements
contributions
Giving something. For example, Giving or delivering something.

giving cash, or the provision of land Generally, this is a payment in cash
as a green public space. (for fiscal ends), but there may be
Type of duties Doing something. For example, exceptions. These exceptions seek
executing a sustainable urban to promote specific behaviors, for
drainage system, or incorporating example, the reduction of waste,
green roofs or surfaces.
through home composting.
Not doing something. For example,
not waterproofing the floor.
Urban regulation, urban plans, urban Taxation legislation.

Legal source: or building codes. Generally local or supralocal
typologies, level, Generally local or supralocal (subnational) level.
governing body (subnational) level. Always legislative powers (principle of
Legislative or Executive powers. legality).
Voluntary nature: whoever wants Power of the State: the State

to access development rights is coercively and unilaterally levies
not forced into a particular action, certain obligations regardless of the
Source of requi- rather a bilateral relationship is taxpayer’s will.
rements generated between the developer
and the public administration. Once
the planning permits have been
approved, the different kinds of
duties become mandatory.
Linked to the public activity of the Linked to owning or having rights of

State: the granting of urban or possession (property taxes).
Cause building rights framed by a particular Linked to public services (fees)
regulation. or to public works (betterment
contributions).
Principles that Increase in land value, and/or the Increase in land value, benefits from
legitimize their negative impacts of the development services and public works.
use
Penalties for Not getting the benefit (urban or Infraction (pecuniary penalty).
non-compliance building rights).
with the inten-
ded conduct
Table 5.1: Characterization of urban development requirements and property taxes,

fees and contributions.
82
Chapter 5
Understanding these concepts provides systems to prevent public drain collapses

elements to strengthen decision making. in the event of heavy rains, along with
Knowing in which cases the bases that a requirement for permeable ground
legitimize their use can be used, and surfaces (Maldonado et al. 2020). The city
their purpose, is crucial in deciding their of Xalapa (Mexico) requires the building of
implementation, in communicating and rainwater storage devices, promoting its
raising awareness about their importance, reuse for the irrigation of green areas and
and even in monitoring and evaluating vegetation in gardens in each dwelling.40
their operation. Other cities are also incorporating different
NbS requirements at the time of approval
The most frequent modalities or typologies or review of urban or territorial plans,
of urban development requirements and undertaken in a more cross-sectional and
property taxes, fees and contributions comprehensive manner. Such is the case of
are presented below. Following this the PUGS in Quito, Ecuador (see Case 8).
typification, some regulations will be
noted which require obligations that can When basic development or building
be considered as NbS. rights have been granted, legislation
may consider the possibility of increasing
Urban development requirements have these rights. For this, public administration
two modalities: basic or additional. may require additional conditions be
From a broad perspective, basic urban met. These are the additional urban
requirements can be considered as the requirements. Some of these conditions
minimum requirements, which are set out may incorporate an environmental or
in the urban regulations, to obtain basic climate perspective. They can be of three
development or building rights, whether types:
this is for urbanization or for building
purposes (identified in many legal Conditions related to the same plot of
instruments as standards or parameters). land. These include, for example, the
Some of these requirements have requirement to incorporate green roofs,
environmental and specific climate SUDS, or solar energy on the same plot
components. They have evolved from of land accessed by the developer or
traditional instruments, such as land landowner.
provision for parks or green spaces, to
building standards that require SUDS, Conditions with a redistributive
trees, or energy savings. There is a effect. These include cash payments
wide variety of regulations that include for additional development rights using
requirements that can be considered specific instruments, with the possibility
NbS. In some cases, cities have been of reinvesting and redistributing those
gradually incorporating them to address revenues to other areas.41
priority risks. For example, the city of
Santa Fe (Argentina) has incorporated a A combination of both. They include the
requirement for stormwater harvesting combination of tools on the same plot of
land, with redistribution as an objective.42
40
Articles 248 and 250 of the Urban Development Regulation for the Municipality of Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico, published on January 20, 2016.
41
In one Mexican case, building rights beyond the height limits are granted to a trust, which sells them and uses the proceeds to finance public
infrastructure projects, including NbS for flood mitigation (Ozment et al. 2021).
42
An innovative mechanism is the one established in the PUGS in Quito, which, in order to access the additional building rights, requires
compliance with certain standards that incorporate NbS in the property, without sacrificing the payment for additional rights (called Onerous
Concession of Rights [COD in Spanish]).
83
Proportionality is a fundamental criterion risks of encouraging the execution of

in designing and implementing urban environmental or eco-friendly measures
development requirements. This means through density bonuses, without
that the impact of the duties must be measuring the negative impact of the
equivalent to the benefits of the builder/ additional development rights granted.
developer. This criterion emphasizes the
Case 8
Sustainable standards to access building rights in the PUGS in Quito

(Ecuador).
Location: Metropolitan District of Quito (Ecuador).
Key actors: Quito Metropolitan Government (mainly Quito’s Secretariat of Territory,
Habitat and Housing and Municipal Financial Administrative Management).
Year: 2021
In September 2021, the update of the Metropolitan Development and Land

Management Plan (PMDOT, in Spanish) and the Metropolitan District of
Quito’s Land Use and Management Plan (PUGS) were approved. By approving
the PUGS, for the first time in its territory Quito anchored the content of
Ecuador’s recent Organic Law of Land Planning, Use and Land Management
(LOOTUGS, in Spanish) creating new rules and methodologies that demand
a plan with characteristics that address local and global challenges, including
CC. The PMDOT and PUGS preparation process was carried out in parallel
with the Quito Climate Action Plan (PACQ-c40 Cities), approved in January
2021. The parallel timing of the two instruments allowed their alignment and
integration, which started with the identification of similar problems, and
an intent to achieve the same goals (SDGs) through prioritized programs
and actions. In territorial terms, this alignment resulted in one of the main
decisions made by PUGS: a classification of the territory into urban and rural
areas, which must be respected for twelve years. For this, multiple criteria
were considered, including risk factors.
One of the most innovative aspects of the PUGS is the regulation of urban
management and financing instruments. Through these tools, climate
challenges gain greater relevance, and so do the NbS measures to address
them. An example of this are the “sustainability” requirements for accessing
basic and additional development or building rights. The Quito PUGS
establishes basic building rights, which can be exercised when certain
standards are followed, without having to pay the Municipality for these. But in
84
Chapter 5
order to access to additional building rights, it is necessary to meet additional

building standards and to pay the ‘Onerous Concession of Rights’ (COD),
an instrument that captures the increase in land value from these additional
rights, so that the revenues generated can be redistributed later.
These standards are applied to both urban and rural land. While in urban
land the project scale is the main consideration; in rural land, the type of land
use is the main consideration. Sustainable standards that include NbS relate
mainly to water management, native vegetation, and vegetable gardens. An
example is that on both rural and urban land, 20% plant cover is required, and
5% of plants must be native. Moreover, there is a scoring system that allows
these percentages to be increased, with vegetable gardens, rain gardens, and
composting generating extra points. In relation to water, there are different
measures of permeability and rainwater harvesting and reuse, the efficiency of
water consumption, gray water reuse and management, the use of infiltration
ditches, and of water effluent management.
Additional building Additional building rights (Nbs included)

rights + Payment of Onerous Concession of Rights
(revenues that could be reinvest in Nbs)
Basic building rights Basic standars (NbS included)
Figure 5.3: Relationship between building rights and building standards.

Source: Adapted from PUGS in Quito (2021), Annex: Standards
One noteworthy aspect is that, in order to access additional building

rights, COD payment must not be relinquished. Without the use of this
instrument, beneficial measures would only be obtained in the place where
the building takes place. Whereas COD generates resources from the use
of additional building rights in one place, in order to finance measures in
other areas of the city that require priority intervention, a great challenge
and opportunity for climate justice.
85
Regarding financial charges linked to efficient lighting, or storm drain

land use, the three most traditional types maintenance. In certain localities some
in Latin America are taxes, fees, and proposals for the reduction of municipal
betterment contributions.43 Many of these fees connected to public services were
have incorporated an environmental/ initiated with the implementation of home
climate perspective for a number of years composting, but there were difficulties
now; particularly property taxes. Each of in their implementation and continuity.44
these tools has characteristic elements The approach is interesting, given that
(subject of taxation, tax base, tax rate, it does not only reward the additional
etc.), presented below in a generic way: environmental effort –of composting– but
its implementation means a reduction in
Property taxes are applied for the mere waste generation and, therefore, in the
fact of owning or having certain rights public collection service.
in relation to a property. They generate
recurrent resources for territorial entities Betterment contributions are taxes linked
to fund their general budgets. An to the implementation of public works
observed trend here is the reduction in that produce an increase in land value
these taxes as a reward for sustainability that benefit land or property owners or
measures implemented by the taxpayer. developers. This instrument has a long
These measures, which can be considered tradition in countries such as Argentina
NbS, might include the creation and and Colombia infrastructure levy.45 Its
maintenance of permeable zones on the use is more linked to carrying out gray
land, on sidewalks, rainwater harvesting infrastructure (such as public roads) and,
and reuse, among others. In Brazil, for in some cases, to the development of
example, there are many cities that have green spaces. The mechanism has a
implemented a green property tax (green lot of potential for financing BGI or for
IPTU, in Spanish) (Azevedo and Portella incorporating complementary NbS in
2019). This mechanism is an alternative traditional gray infrastructure. A case
that can be considered given the criticality in point is the incorporation of SUDS as
of climate impacts and the urgency in complementary to mobility or transport
achieving NbS, when it is not possible to infrastructure projects as highlighted
wait to obtain NbS as a condition of the in Bogota, where infrastructure levy are
approval procedure of development or expected to be used (see Case 9).
building permits.
Fees are tools linked to the provision of

public services. They are levied as long as
those public services are being provided.
These services may have environmental
components such as garbage collection,
43
These are the more traditional types. However, in some countries some variations can be noted.
44
In Puerto Yeruá and La Criolla, two small towns in the province of Entre Ríos in Argentina, the “organic zero” program was proposed, with the
idea of reducing the local fees for public services, for residents who adhere to this program by carrying out composting.
45
According to OCDE-LILP taxonomy (2021).
86
Chapter 5
Case 9
Infrastructure levy to finance sustainable transport infrastructure or other

public spaces, with NbS components in Bogotá (Colombia)
Location: District of Bogotá, Colombia.
Key actors: Institute of Urban Development (IDU, in Spanish) of the District of
Bogotá.
Year: 2018- present
In recent years, the District of Bogotá has begun to venture into SUDS46 design
and construction that can be financed from different sources depending on their
characteristics and the processes to which they are linked. Of these, SUDS financing
stands out as an innovator with an infrastructure levy instrument as a component
in projects executed by the IDU that are contemplated in local tax legislation.
Colombia has a great tradition in the use of this tool. This instrument allows the cost
of public works to be distributed among the landowners who are benefited by the
works, taking account of their taxable capacity and certain criteria for calculating
the benefit accruing to the landowners. In recent years, the IDU of Bogotá has
financed some NbS with this instrument,47 specifically SUDS, as a complement to
works in public spaces or transport infrastructure.
Figure 5.4: Floodable pits on Rincon Avenue, Suba, Bogota (left) and infiltration
ditches with bioretention zones under construction on Rincon-Boyaca Avenue
(right).
Source: IDU, August 2019 (left) and IDU, June 2022 (right).
46
In accordance with the Technical Standard NS-166 guidelines of 2018 that identifies the most appropriate SUDS types for implementation in
Bogotá.
47
Not all the works carried out by IDU are financed by infrastructure levy; to be financed by this instrument they need to have legal approval and
meet certain requirements.
87
The execution of public works contemplated in Act 724/2018 is currently underway

in Bogotá. This regulation specifies the public works to be achieved and their
schedule. Likewise, the areas of influence of the works are set out, based on
an analysis of the geographic extent of the benefit for each of these areas, and
identified in the map attached to the said regulation. Another relevant aspect
is who pays for the works. The norm specifies that the landowners or holders or
those with possession rights that are within these three areas of influence (i.e., the
direct beneficiaries) are those who pay for the works. Not all pay the same amount.
Cadastral value is considered, weighted by the distance of the property from the
public works and/or accessibility to the public works (art. 6). This tax is recorded
as a levy in the registration of the property, and the property holders are notified
of the payment required. They can either pay in cash outright, in installments, or
by the transfer of some land to the District municipality as required by IDU, for the
construction of public infrastructure works (art. 15).
Among the works committed to in this regulation, IDU has incorporated some
SUDS. One example is the sidewalks and bike lanes on 116th Street (Figure 5.5),
between the Northern Highway and Boyacá Avenue, financed through the levy
infrastructure mechanism. IDU is in charge of execution of the works, and in one
area, it has implemented eight bioretention zones.
Area for
Zona thela
para
implementention
implantación de
of bioretainers
biorretenedores
Calle 11
6 (Av. Pe
pe Sierra
)
rte
ista No
Autop
Figure 5.5: Bioretention zones, Bogotá.

Source: IDU, June 2022 (left); bioretention zones implantation area from aerial view of 116th Street
and the Northern Highway, based on Google Earth (10/2/2021) (right).
88
Chapter 5

Challenges in the implementa-

tion of land-based instruments
using NbS
Urban planning and management Rigidity and unpredictability in urban
instruments have great potential to support regulations in dealing with uncertainty
NbS implementation. However, their and the diversity of climate scenarios
implementation poses some challenges
that make these processes difficult, among A lack of knowledge of the principles
which the following are notable: that legitimize the use of certain land-
based financing instruments, the periods
Limitations in the institutional capacity of of their enforceability, and their legal
local governments nature
Misunderstandings about, or An absence of monitoring and evaluation

overlapping, territorial competence and of the instruments that are implemented
responsibilities of any given agency in order to measure their usefulness and
make necessary adjustments.
Segregated, insufficient or unshared
information undermining understanding
of what is happening or which solutions
are being implemented
89
Conclusions and suggestions for decision-makers
This chapter opened with the recognition of two barriers to NbS implementations.
The first is a disconnect in the policies, strategies, and regulations, as implemented
vertically and horizontally; and the second barrier is in the financing of NbS, a
critical aspect worldwide, but aggravated in the region by limitations in institutional
capacities. Recognition of these problems allows some progress in understanding
the potential for urban planning and land-based instruments, to address these
barriers.
In particular, examining the disarticulation between climate planning and urban

planning, there are some urban planning tools that facilitate the connection with
climate challenges and that lay the foundations for subsequent NbS implementation,
namely land classification, categorization, and qualification.
Land-based financing and management instruments offer specific advantages for

supporting NbS implementation, given their local nature and the involvement of
other actors in their financing. As a requirement for the granting of development or
building rights, NbS or financial resources may be required. Property taxes, fees or
betterment contributions can also incorporate NbS, as a means of achieving fiscal
(tax collection) or extra fiscal (promoting NbS implementation) purposes.
Although the use of these instruments will depend on the legal regimes of each
country and city, some general recommendations are made that could be useful to
decision-makers involved in NbS implementation, using these planning and land
management instruments. They are expressed as suggestions and take up some of
the main aspects highlighted in this chapter.
1 The articulation of local policies with national policies and with

international urban and climate change agendas.
The alignment of climate and urban planning at a local level,

promoting simultaneous policy formulation processes, or
adapting those procedures that have taken place at different
times. The following should be sought in particular: the
alignment of objectives for climate and urban plans, the
evaluation and common recognition of climate risks, the
articulation of instruments, a structuring of the territory based
on ecosystems, and the establishment of a regime based on the
rights and duties of the land in a differentiated and appropriate
way for each area in the territory given its problems.
90
Chapter 5
3 The analysis and implementation of land-based instruments

–urban development requirements and taxation tools– as
mechanisms for NbS financing.
4
The consideration of the particular characteristics of each case
(of the contexts in which they are applied, and the aspects that
legitimize their use and their purpose), to decide when and how
to use each instrument.
This last point is key. The timing of the approval of building or development permits
is a unique opportunity to consider the negative impacts of the development and
to require conditions (including NbS) to access the permits, guided by the principle
of proportionality, to be duly regulated in a specific piece of legislation. Access to
additional building or development rights following on from additional climate action
measures, such as NbS, must be carefully evaluated to avoid negative impacts. In
particular, it is recommended that these measures do not renounce cash payments for
these additional rights (since these allow the redistribution of benefits) and that the
measures are based on an assessment which evaluates their contributions to climate
plans, with clear rules on the minimums and maximums of these land use rights in
each zone in the city. Reductions in property taxes arising from the implementation of
environmental measures and NbS can be a viable alternative in the face of the urgency
of climate adaptation, but the fact that it implies the reduction of public revenues that
could also be used for these purposes must also be considered. Therefore, it could
be envisioned as a temporary measure. While the fees and betterment contributions
are tools linked to public services and public works, respectively, incorporating NbS
within them would allow the financing of these measures.
In all cases, building institutional capacities in planning and especially in climate

financing, as well as in the monitoring and evaluation of instrument implementation,
is seen as fundamental. This is crucial in determining whether they are working to
meet the objectives set and in addressing the challenges that have been recognized.
Those who participate in the legislative, planning, and management processes in

urban and climate fields are facing a unique opportunity to vindicate the role of
nature through the incorporation of NbS in a cross-sectional and comprehensive way
in these matters.
91
Chapter
6
Analysis and valuation
of NbS impacts
Authors: Tom Wild, Mariana Baptista

and Mariana Giusti
92
Chapter 6
6.1 Introduction
This chapter focuses on specific aspects interventions, was addressed at the Fifth
of the relationships between the urban Session of the United Nations Environment
climate finance gap, and the need for Assembly (UNEA). The discussion resulted
stronger NbS impact assessments. It in an updated definition of NbS that takes
does so by unpicking key challenges, into account the provision of “economic
examining NbS innovations, business benefits” as well as other principles,
cases and governance, and exploring the including “cost-effective” and “resource-
use of performance data and indicators efficient” interventions (United Nations
to support wider implementation in cities. Environment Assembly [UNEA] 2022).
We build on the earlier chapters’ review
of key concepts48 and risk analysis,49 Whilst there may be legitimate and
understandings of the benefits of citizen understandable concerns around the risks
participation,50 and cases of planning of greenwashing (Friends of the Earth
and decision-making around NbS in International 2021), this oversimplified
Latin America and the Caribbean.51 message may be unhelpful where NbS
These provide invaluable insights into are viewed from only a climate mitigation
opportunities and challenges to the perspective or where NbS are framed only
uptake of NbS, as well as providing the in terms of rural, existing green areas,
chance to re-examine framings of NbS nature reserves and protected habitats.
from elsewhere in the world.
The term ‘Nature-based Solutions’ acts as a
Traditionally, there has been little evidence useful umbrella concept for several valuable
of private sector investment in nature intervention types but the assembly of
conservation and restoration (Dempsey such broad sets of activities may also mask
and Suarez 2016) although there is the important differences between different
possibility that this may change as a result NbS. Urban NbS offer real scope to bring
of natural capital accounting and the nature back into areas where it is urgently
international climate mitigation markets, needed, including to help solve social and
the so-called “carbon market” being the economic problems in cities. Interventions
most famous one. At present time, interest such as sustainable drainage (Kozak et al.
has grown rapidly in business cases (Mayor 2020), urban forestry (Barona et al. 2020)
et al. 2021) around NbS, and their role in a and daylighting of culverted rivers (Wild,
nature-positive economy (EC 2022a). Dempsey and Broadhead 2019) can deliver
multiple wins including reduced flood risk,
In March 2022, the increasing interest in water pollution, air quality and heat island
understanding the economic benefits of benefits (Wild, Freitas and Vandewoestijne
NbS, as well as the cost-effectiveness of eds. 2020; European Environment Agency
48
See chapter 1.
49
See chapter 2.
50
See chapter 3.
51
See chapter 5.
93
“Overall, there is good evidence related to the costs and benefits of

increasing urban green space, albeit almost all in case study form. These
demonstrate convincingly a wide range of positive benefits coming from
increasing and maintaining higher levels of urban green space. Due to
the wide variation, however, in many aspects of the studies, such as the
climate/locations/type of urban space, and the (often limited) parameters
being investigated - pollution, energy, water runoff, health and well-
being, climate mitigation, etc.-, it is not possible to monetize some of
these benefits in a generalized manner. Indeed, the high number of
multiple co-benefits provided by using NbS to urban challenges tends
to mean often the full benefits of urban green space and tree cover
are underestimated. So, while it has not been possible to undertake a
traditional cost/benefit analysis, as can be done on single issues, evidence
points to the clear net positive values of halting the loss of, and then
restoring green urban spaces.” (EC 2022b, p.94).
[EEA] 2021). With the wide availability NbS investments often produce a mix of
of the international stormwater best multiple benefits (including ecosystem
management practices database (Clary services), some of which can be difficult
et al. 2017), it can hardly be argued that to quantify in monetary terms, including
insufficient evidence exists on the specific public benefits that do not necessarily
benefits of sustainable drainage, or the produce direct financial revenue streams
clear case for implementing these NbS. (Wild, Henneberry and Gill 2017). The
use of typical market mechanisms such as
These demonstrable benefits of NbS private development schemes to deliver
and the supporting data encompass the Blue-Green Infrastructure52 is restricted,
so-called ‘business case’ for return on because the goods arising from such
investment within appropriate payback investments have a high degree of non-
timescales. It is important to distinguish excludability and non-rivalry (Wilker and
that the investor in a business case may be Rusche 2014).
from any sector of a society (including the
public sector), whereas the term business In the subsequent sections, the
model (George and Bock 2011) refers interrelationships between these various
specifically to organisational structures strands are further explored, and illustrated
put in place to realise commercial using place-specific and strategic case
opportunities, i.e. specifically in the private studies.
sector.
52
See chapter 1.
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Chapter 6
Background:
6.2 are better data
required to
unlock urban NbS
Finance?
NbS provide multiple functions and

benefits drawing on natural mechanisms,
enabling cities to adapt to environmental
changes and socio-economic challenges
whilst also enhancing biodiversity
(Miyahara et al. 2022; UNEA 2022).
These functions and benefits deliver

across diverse agendas and policy sectors
in cities, making NbS cost effective
responses to challenges such as climate
change adaptation (Wild, Freitas and
Vandewoestijne eds. 2020)
However, on a global basis, cities face

critical shortages in urban climate
adaptation investment for NbS. There
is a shared urgent need to find new
mechanisms to bridge gaps between
cities’ funding needs c.f. the finance for
adaptation using NbS (Swann et al. 2021).
Some authorities have called for the

increased monetisation of NbS, suggesting
that demonstrable performance metrics
may support this process to increase
private sector participation and unlock
new and diverse funding streams (Marsters
et al. 2021). This raises the importance of
ongoing performance monitoring and
evaluations to help verify expectations and
provide proof of concept to investors. The
lack of economic valuation of NbS benefits
remains a key barrier to development and
implementation in Latin America and the
Caribbean (Vásquez and Dobbs 2020).
Demands for better evidence of NbS
impacts have been common, particularly
as regards the quantification of NbS cost-
benefit effectiveness (Whiteoak 2020) but
the sharing of data on the prices-side of

95
NbS remains rare, let alone on the values Why are urban
side (Wild, Dempsey and Broadhead 2019). NbS values
These two challenges –to find funding for 6.3 and valuations
becoming
NbS that deliver benefits across multiple increasingly
sectors and domains on the one hand, important?
and the need for evidence on cost-
effectiveness on the other– may well be Improved, practicable guidance to
strongly related to one another, and this bridge the gap between data on NbS
relationship provides the focus for this performance, and economic valuation,
chapter. will be vital to support robust proposals
to access funding from development
finance institutions. For instance, the
UN Adaptation Fund, to which the EU
alone is contributing US$100m, will
require stronger business case analysis,
and more robust treatment of the logic
chain for management interventions.
Established examples include the Food
and Agriculture Organisation’s (FAO)
‘Bankable Business Plans’ model and
associated guidance (FAO 2021).
Between 2010 and 2014, cities received

less than 5% of global adaptation finance
(Global Commission on Adaptation [GCA]
2019; Richmond, Upadhyaya and Ortega
Pastor 2021) despite containing more
than half of the world’s population. As
discussed in chapter 1, the vast majority
of investment in ecosystems restoration
using NbS continues to ‘land’ in rural
areas, as exemplified by the Finance Earth
Market Review (2021). Notable exceptions
often involve water treatment or water
management, often at the catchment
scale (and so encompassing peri-urban
and rural areas).
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Chapter 6
Urban adaptation finance includes only activities that address urban

climate risk which directly affects the city and urban communities and/or
occurs within the municipal boundary, whereby, according to the Climate
Policy Initiative (CPI) key challenges in mobilising urban climate adaptation
finance include (CPI 2020):
1 Incongruity with development finance institutions’ mandates;
2 Low diversity of revenue streams lacking use of lucrative

income, sales, and fuel taxes;
3 Lack of jurisdictional control at relevant scales;
4 Low credit worthiness;
5 Poor policy, institutional and market environments;
6 High cost of projects and unknown value added;
7 Lack of technical capacity; and
8 Limitations of private insurance.
Three of these challenges are of particular relevance here, namely the added value and
cost effectiveness (6), technical capacity (7) and weak (governance) ‘environments’ (5).
Additionally, in Latin America and the Caribbean, a lack of region-specific information and
methods may result in different and sometimes erroneous outcomes (Dobbs et al. 2019).
97
The Horizon 2020 Grow Green project reviewed several innovative approaches
to financing NbS in cities (Baroni, Nicholls and Whiteoak 2019) addressing direct
investment by municipalities and incentives to encourage others to implement
NbS. This provides a useful summary of examples across the full spectrum of
societal challenges, using a range of instruments (Wild and Henneberry 2020),
including:
using public health budget contributions for, for example, green prescribing;
implementation within school premises or utilising education department
budgets;
redirection of drainage, leading to cost savings in water treatment;
use of charitable funds such as lottery budgets to combine NbS with
heritage programmes;
philanthropic contributions at the global and local scales, e.g. donations to
support deprived communities;
crowdfunding of smaller projects not necessarily suitable to benefit from
other financing instruments;
land value capture mechanisms, relating to land sales, leases or developer
contributions;
funds linked to offsetting or compensation, for instance carbon offsetting;
taxes at the national, regional and local scales;
bonds, endowments, and other financing facilities.
These challenges are of course interwoven, policy decisions themselves. Take for
and may stem from poor assessments of example the calculated welfare value of UK
impacts, either in terms of systemic flaws greenspaces assessed at £25.6bn (approx.
(e.g. double counting; incommensurability US$31.1bn) which is in stark contrast to
of data) or indicators that lack specificity. deep cuts in UK greenspace budgets (Day
Either can undermine the business case for and Smith 2018).
NbS implementation by cities (i.e. municipal
and regional government authorities). However, cities have the option to remove
one of the most important barriers to
Furthermore, innovative accounting producing robust NbS business cases
approaches often employed in NbS in cities, which is to maintain a coherent,
propositions may sit too far from cities’ socio- consistent and straightforward narrative
political realities, their extant calculative for NbS implementation. This can be
practices, and their norms in terms of achieved by basing the argument on less
economic planning and decision-making complex economic modelling of a more
processes. The result may be a mismatch modest set of societal challenges, using
between policy-relevant evidence, and simpler messages that strongly resonate
98
Chapter 6
with citizens' perspectives of their city, and

the associated socio-political contexts.
Doing so may allow proponents for NbS to
better handle complexity of land use and
land ownership issues, by developing a
more manageable scope and span for NbS
impact assessment frameworks.
6.4
Why might simpler,
participatory frameworks
for NbS impact assessment
help with valuation
and business case
development?
Analysing the market for NbS, in terms of

demand (buyers) and supply (sellers), can
assist in better understanding barriers
to adoption as well as strategies and
instruments to overcome those challenges
(Whiteoak 2020). We can seek to better
understand the market for NbS in terms
of the cities themselves as customers,
and the NbS benefits that those cities
want or need to ‘buy’. Two such cases are
described below:

99
Case 10
Impact assessment of Medellín’s Green Corridors

Location: Medellín, Antioquia, Colombia.
Recipient: Medellín’s Mayor’s Office.
Team: Physical Infrastructure Secretariat and Environmental Secretariat of Medellín
with C40 cities and Ramboll.
Year: 2016-2019
Medellín is the capital of the department of Antioquia, Colombia. It is the second

most populous city in Colombia with 2.3 million inhabitants. The Green Corridors
project (Corredores Verdes) was implemented by the Government of Medellín
between 2016 and 2019 (Alcaldía de Medellín 2021) and includes 36 corridors (18
associated with the transport system –developed by the Physical Infrastructure
Secretariat– and 18 associated with streams and hills –developed by the
Environmental Secretariat−), covering 65 hectares with 10,270 trees, bushes and
palms. The project aims to reverse the negative impacts on the environment and
public health from high Urban Heat Island intensity (UHI) and pollution. Medellín
recorded the highest diurnal intensity (UHI) and by 2040-2050 it is estimated that
for 150 days a year it will exceed the threshold of 29ºC (Occam’s Typewriter 2012)
(although this is not a climate risk, the increase in temperature due to climate
change could worsen its effects).
In addition to more traditional assessment of greenhouse gas emissions

reductions (i.e. climate mitigation) and the climate change impacts risks (i.e.
climate adaptation), relevant co-benefit indicators include environmental, social
(employment generation), health and economic data. Using the “Heat Resilient
cities tool” (produced by C40 cities and Ramboll with input and feedback from
experts and city representatives) two climate change scenarios were evaluated:
RCP53 2.6 (global average temperature increase by 2100 of 0.9 to 2.3ºC), followed
by emissions decreasing significantly from 2020 and reaching zero in 2100.
RCP 8.5 (increase in global average temperature by 2100 between 3.2 -5.4ºC).
Co-benefits calculated using the Tool (C40 cities 2021) were as follows (Figure 6.1):
For the first scenario, a decrease in urban heat of 2.72º C (above the 1,5°C Paris
agreement target) and 49.5 fewer days per year above the risk temperature threshold
53
RCP, or Representative Concentration Pathway, are scenarios that include time series of emissions and concentrations of the full suite of green-
house gases (GHGs), aerosols and chemically active gases, as well as land use/land cover. RCP2.6 refers to one pathway where radiative forcing
peaks at approximately 3 W m–2 before 2100 and then declines. RCP8.5 One high pathway for which radiative forcing reaches greater than 8.5
W m–2 by 2100 and continues to rise for some amount of time (IPCC, 2022).
100
Chapter 6
would be achieved, which means avoiding 513 deaths per year related to heat stress.
This translates to an economic impact of USD 153 million. If this action was projected to
the 12% of Medellín, 33,919 avoided deaths between 2020-2030 were associated with
savings of USD 10.2 million for the same period.
In scenario 2, the urban heat reduction value is maintained at 2.72ºC, while there are
70 fewer days per year above the risk temperature threshold, avoiding 688 deaths per
year with an economic impact of USD 155 million. Projecting this scenario to the 12% of
Medellín, 45,471 deaths would be avoided saving USD 10.2 million for the period 2020-
2030.
TOTAL BENEFITS
PROBLEM SOLUTION EXIT
OF THE PERIOD
Climate change
scenario Urban heat Economic
Avoided
decrease deaths related impact (USD
to heat millions)
Only action
Fewer days Having

per year above 12% of
threshold Total for Medellín Total for
Urban Heat the period covered the period
Days 2020-2030 with the 2020-2030
Island
And action
Global
temperature Urban Park
increase
Fewer days
per year above Avoided Economic
deaths related impact (USD
threshold millions)
to heat
Days
Only action
Climate change
Having
scenario Urban heat 12% of
decrease Total for Medellín Total for
the period covered the period
2020-2030 with the 2020-2030
action
Figure 6.1: Up. Co-benefits of Green Corridors Project. Down. Pictures from the
Green Corridors Project
Source: C40 cities 2021; Medellín, Alcaldía de Medellín 2017.
101
Case 11
Urban trees as an asset: monetary valuation of trees, Ibirapuera Park, São

Paulo, Brazil.
Location: Sao Paulo.
Research team: Urban Forestry Laboratory, University of São Paulo, ESALQ campus
(Laboratório de Silvicultura Urbana/ESALQ/USP).
Year: 2010
The Ibirapuera Park is located at the heart of Sao Paulo (Brazil), one of the largest
metropolises of Latin America and Caribbean. Created in August 1954, the park
has a green area of 1.6 million m², and receives more than 18 million visitors per
year (Prefeitura de São Paulo 2021). Much of the park is covered by trees, with
approximately 15,000 trees providing multiple benefits for users and surrounding
areas. However, the value of these benefits is often not as evident as the costs of
implementation and management, which can cause citizens to question whether
the investment allocated is justified by the benefits they provide (Silva Filho and
Tosetti 2010).
One way to demonstrate the value of trees in a green area is through their monetary
valuation. The value of each tree in the Ibirapuera park was calculated using
inventory data, which included size, general condition, location, biometric data and
frequency of the species at the site. The most valuable tree, a Cedro (Cedrela fissilis
Vell.) located on the jogging track, was valued at approximately Brazilian Reais R$
21,500 per tree. In total the Ibirapuera trees asset was valued at approximately
R$ 31 million (approx. US$17 million or €14 million), considering trees’ individual
values, and R$ 94 million (approx. US$52 million or €42 million), considering trees’
relative values.
Monetary valuation of trees is just one of the indicators that can support decision
making and conservation in nature-based solutions interventions, since trees
are only one layer of these areas. Other indicators were not considered in this
calculation, such as the risk of falling index and more subjective aspects, such as
the historical value, and the users’ perception of aesthetic value (Silva Filho and
Tosetti 2010).
102
Chapter 6
Figure 6.2: Aerial view of Ibirapuera Park

Source: Leo Martins/Veja SP
These invaluable case studies illustrate how (6) understanding development dynamics
a more targeted assessment of economic and economic viability (Barton 2015; Wild,
values of NbS can be both powerful and Henneberry and Gill 2017).
purposeful. However, which impacts to
focus upon, and which indicators to apply, Ultimately, most NbS economic
depends on the specific place considered, valuations share in common some form
and this demands more nuanced and of analysis of their benefits, utilities or
participatory assessment frameworks impacts, as the basis of understanding
(see Recommendations section, below). their cost-effectiveness. This may entail
Establishing the economic case for NbS comparison with other (conventional, grey)
such as urban green infrastructure is infrastructures or responses. Therefore, the
important if local authorities and private ways in which the various benefits of NbS
enterprises are to continue to invest in are framed, synthesised and integrated
urban greening, as is the need to balance becomes centrally important in how their
social or ecological needs with economic economic values are understood.
viability.
At present, three main approaches have
Several different reasons exist for gained ground in the assessment of
undertaking such economic analyses, NbS impacts: (1) the Eklipse framework
and it is important to understand the (Raymond et al. 2017) (2) the IUCN Global
contexts for the decisions to carry out such Standard (Cohen Stracham et al. 2019), and
investigations. Such decision contexts
can include (1) awareness-raising; (2)
accounting; (3) priority-setting; (4) design;
(5) calculation of economic liability; and
103
(3) the EC’s Impact Assessment Handbook echo earlier findings that overly complex
(Dumitru and Wendling 2021). These tools and approaches to promote green
frameworks agree on the need to support economy are rarely applied in urban green
and enhance biodiversity and ecosystem space planning (Davies et al. 2015). It
integrity (Seddon et al. 2021); all stress may be the case that the realms of what
the importance of co-designing NbS with may be deemed possible or desirable in
citizens and stakeholders. assessing NbS impacts could be based on
understandings and routines derived in
Furthermore, these frameworks share in rural areas, which may be less relevant or
common their comprehensiveness in terms wholly impractical in urban contexts.
of ecosystem services, the wide variety of
benefits to be assessed, and their complex
technical support requirements (e.g.
IUCN offers training at cost and requires
assessment of results by a panel of experts).
The scope and span of an envisaged NbS 6.5d. Summary of
barriers and
programme or project in an urban area, challenges
according to these frameworks, could thus
become hugely demanding of data. Urban municipal and regional authorities
face dual challenges to adapt to climate
In rural areas, where land use management change and to secure finance for this
and land ownership patterns tend to be far transition whilst achieving mitigation
simpler (fewer larger blocks of land under through reduced Greenhouse Gases
similar usage and ownership), assessing (GHG) emissions. Global climate finance
multiple benefits and impacts in terms represents a potential opportunity to
of ecosystem services may be relatively invest in urban NbS, but investors require
straightforward. This may explain why sound business cases, usually based on
natural capital accounting, which is heavily monetary valuation.
reliant on GIS and spatial data, has tended
to be used more often in agricultural and The multifunctionality of urban NbS
other non-urban contexts. represents their key strength but also
means that proving their impact in terms
However, research in Conexus54 (an of cost-effectiveness can quickly become
international cooperation on NbS and complex and onerous. Large amounts of
ecosystem restoration between Latin data exist on NbS performance for certain
American and European partners) found solutions, such as sustainable drainage
that the uptake of these frameworks by and urban forestry, but these benefits are
cities in Europe and Latin America is limited, often context-specific, and the data may
and also that such assessment frameworks not be readily transferable.
tend to lack critical governance indicators
(Van der Jagt et al. 2022). Furthermore, the Steadily, NbS impact assessment guidance
three frameworks do not explicitly address frameworks are becoming more readily
scaling issues or specify detailed decision- available. However, the most widely known
contexts described above. The results and accepted frameworks to assess NbS
54
See www.conexusnbs.com
104
Chapter 6
services and disservices tend to promote

holistic and comprehensive analyses,
requiring extensive datasets and expertise.
Onerous or demanding assessment
frameworks may be less frequently applied
in cities, where land use information is
more complex and fragmented than in
rural environments.
Participatory assessment frameworks

in which stakeholders (such as urban
municipal authorities) are responsible
for driving the decision-making around
which indicators to develop and apply
may offer a more productive approach, by
bringing NbS assessments closer to local
socio-political priorities within cities, and
enabling better (access to) data on urban
challenges and NbS performance.
The number of publications on NbS is

increasing exponentially (Wild, Freitas
and Vandewoestijne eds. 2020) and a
significant proportion of these studies
address the economic valuation
of urban NbS, representing a
strengthening evidence base
to underpin NbS business
case development. Indeed,
many of these publications
stem from studies in Latin
America and the Caribbean.
We highlight invaluable case
studies and signposts to further
information, to support the
work of stakeholders seeking
to improve urban NbS business
case development.
105

e. Recommendations a shared interpretation of sustainability is
6.6 for urban

NbS impact
assessments and
developed and applied in an integrated
manner for a specific context (Wild et al.
2015). In other words, by involving local
valuations stakeholders directly in the process of
defining which are the key criteria and
The evident lack of use of NbS assessment indicators of success, this increases the
frameworks by local governments may chances of both monitoring and achieving
indicate that they are overly complex, those outcomes. When NbS assessment is
insufficiently connected with cities’ cultural more contextualised and based on wide
and social imaginaries, or too demanding stakeholder participation, it can generate
of data (including extraneous or largely more useful data (Van der Jagt et al. 2022),
irrelevant data). In other words, perhaps which are also more likely to be meaningful
current models for NbS impact assessment in terms of valuations.
do not adequately address the societal
challenges that cities face (or provide Broad assessments of NbS impacts may be
the tools to do so), nor the socio-political driven by the belief that project financing
frameworks within which NbS actions are depends strongly on linkages between
embedded. This potential disengagement green urban infrastructure and other
also serves to highlight how the ‘market’ themes such as regional development,
for NbS in terms of cities as their buyers climate adaptation and so on (Merk et
and suppliers (Whiteoak 2020) might be al. 2012) aligning partnership agendas to
better understood. Clues to this might also cross subsidised projects that would not
come from the more frequent uptake of otherwise be viable. However, it has been
sustainability appraisals and sustainability highlighted previously that this broad
action planning (Van der Jagt et al. 2021; scope may also be one of the biggest
Salbitano et al. 2021). weaknesses of NbS (Wild, Henneberry and
Gill 2017); if propositions are not properly
Building on previous frameworks for costed, accounting for core benefits can
integrated sustainability (Weaver and be dismissed as ‘jack of all trades, master
Rotmans 2006; Hurley et al. 2010), of none’.
participatory assessment offers the scope
of a cyclical process of scoping, via which
106
Chapter 6
Recommendations
Bearing in mind the above, certain key recommendations can be made
1 Firstly, NbS assessments can be narrow or wide in both their

span in terms of benefits and their scale geographically. Data
demands increase exponentially where both the substance
and scale of the assessment are widened. This means that
assessments of broad environmental, social and economic
outcomes at the city scale are likely to require such extensive
data gathering as to become impractical, or to build in so many
assumptions that they are unlikely to be convincing or can be
readily unpicked.
2 Secondly, NbS themselves and the metrics used to ascertain or

predict their benefits can be, and should be, closely matched
with their city contexts. Most city strategies and plans give
strong indications of the most relevant challenges and the NbS
propositions should probably address these criteria.
3 Thirdly, the integration of gender responsive approaches,

intersectional perspective and stakeholder participation is
critical not only in the co-design of planned NbS, but also in the
co-designing the measures of success. Whilst examples of this
are rare, tools do exist to support the creation of participatory
assessment frameworks in cities.
4 Fourthly and finally, it does not usually pay off to attribute too
many benefits to NbS – and overselling the monetary value
that NbS providers can offer is rarely convincing. A recurring
theme in NbS valuation is that key decision-makers tend to put
economic data first in their deliberations. People also tend to
believe simpler answers, even when problems such as urban
climate adaptation are far from simple.
107
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Wilker, J. and Rusche, K. (2014). Economic valuation as a tool to support decision-making in strategic green infrastructure
planning (La valoracion economica como herramienta de apoyo a la toma de decisiones en la planificacion estrategica
de infraestructuras verdes). Local Environment (Ambiente Local) 19(6), 702-713.
Winograd M., C. Figueroa, M. van Eupen, J. Hardoy. 2021. Guia metodologica sobre Soluciones Basadas en la
Naturaleza (SbN) para ciudades de America Latina y el Caribe (Methodological Guide on Nature-Based Solutions
(NBS) for Latin American and Caribbean Cities) Panama: CityAdapt.
World Meteorological Organization (2022). State of the Climate in Latin America and the Caribbean 2021 - No. 1295
120
Additional Material
Chapter 2
Manuals and guides on methods and tools
ECLAC (2018). Guia de ejercicios para la evaluacion de desastres (Exercise guide for
disaster assessment), ECLAC and GIZ, Chile.
GIZ, EURAC and UNU (2017). The Vulnerability Sourcebook: Concept and Guidelines for
Standardised Vulnerability Assessment. Bonn.
GIZ, EURAC and UNU (2018). Climate Risk Assessment for Ecosystem-based Adaptation
– A guide for planners and practitioners. Bonn.
Storymaps on case studies in cities
Construccion de resiliencia climatica en sistemas urbanos mediante SbN (Building

climate resilience in urban systems through NbS). https://www.arcgis.com/apps/
MapJournal/index.html?appid=73fd061ae8514816b4e11368ba388360
Interrumpiendo ‘trampas de riesgo’ urbano: integrando conocimiento e inversión para

una planificación justa y resiliente en Lima (Disrupting urban ‘risk traps’: integrating
knowledge and investment for fair and resilient planning in Lima) https://climasinriesgo.
net/online-story-maps/?lang=es
Climate Vulnerability Map

https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/29e8195408564e369752361e0d7c6d36
Internet sites to search for information on climate and climate change

scenarios
Climate knowledge https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/
Data for scenario scaling up http://www.ccafs-climate.org/climatewizard/
Methods for scaling up http://www.ccafs-climate.org/data_spatial_downscaling/
Platform for disaster reduction https://www.preventionweb.net/english/
121
Chapter 3
Cabannes, Y. (2020). Contributions of Participatory Budgeting to climate change

adaptation and mitigation. Current local practices around the world & lessons from the
field. Barcelona: IOPD; Barcelona: UCLG; Dakar: Enda ECOPOP; Paris: FMDV; Surakarta:
Kota Kita Foundation; London: UCL / DPU.
https://www.uclg.org/sites/default/files/contributions_of_participatory_budgeting_
to_climate_change_adaptation_and_mitigation_current_local_practices_around_the_
world_lessons_from_the_field.pdf
https://oidp.net/es/publication.php?id=1716
Observatorio Internacional de Ciudadania y Medio Ambiente Sostenible (International

Observatory for Citizenship and Sustainable Environment - CIMAS) (2009). Metodologias
participativas. Manual (Participatory methodologies. Manual). https://www.redcimas.
org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/manual_2010.pdf
Observatorio Internacional de la Democracia Participativa (International Observatory

for Participatory Democracy - OIDP). (2006). Guia para la deteccion de buenas practicas
en procesos participativos (Guide for the detection of good practices in participatory
processes). https://www.oidp.net/docs/repo/doc599.pdf
Winograd M., C. Figueroa, M. van Eupen, J. Hardoy (2021). Guia metodologica sobre
Soluciones Basadas en la Naturaleza (SbN) para ciudades de America Latina y el Caribe
(Methodological guide on Nature-Based Solutions (NbS) for cities in Latin America and
the Caribbean), CityAdapt, Panama. https://cityadapt.com/guiassbn/
WWF (2021). Soluciones urbanas basadas en la naturaleza. Ciudades que lideran el

camino (Urban nature-based solutions. Cities leading the way). https://wwfint.awsassets.
panda.org/downloads/exe_wwf_a4_template_sbn_final_es.pdf
122
123

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Nature-based Solutions for

Climate Resilient Cities

The designations employed and the presentation

Key messages XIV

Key concepts on NbS for adaptation in cities

Climate risk analyses in cities and how to use them in

Author: Manual Winograd

Resilient infrastructure in urban adaptation

Bibliographic references 108

Figure 1.1. NbS examples at multiple scales 10

Figure 2.1. Example of a framework and metrics to assess vulnerability 30

Figure 3.1. Circular benefits of NbS 46

Figure 6.1. Up. Co-benefits of Green Corridors Project. Down. 101

Table 5.1. Characterization of urban development requirements 82

NbS are not a product but a process.

Wider adoption of Ecosystem-based urban

This publication aims at providing tools for

Photography: Xalapa, Mexico

1. Cities are intrinsically connected to their

2. Climate risk analysis at the watershed scale: a key

3. The transformative power of ecosystems in

5. Investing in innovative financial instruments for

6. Profitability, benefits, and co-benefits of NbS

1 Provide information and practical tools to guide urban planning

3 Promote an inclusive and participatory planning process that

4 Improve understanding of the financial landscape and opportunities

Key topics The publication is organised around six key topics:

Key Concepts on NbS Resilient Infrastructure in

Climate Risk Analyses Overview of the planning

Citizen participation Opportunities and

Chapter Case City Location BRASIL

2 3 San Salvador, San c

Figure 0.1 Case study map in Latin America

Figure 0.2. Publication Structure

Author: Daniel Kozak

Nature-based Solutions for

Box 1. Ecosystem Services (ES)

• Provisioning: food, water, fiber, wood and fuel.

Source: Daily 1997, Millennium Ecosystem Assessment [MEA] 2003

Box 2. Nature-based Solutions (NbS)

NbS for adaptation to climate NbS for climate change mitigation:

Source: UNEA 5, 2022

Depending on adaptation needs, NbS can

Figure 1.1. NbS examples at multiple scales

Water drainage through The provision of quality water for

Box 3. Global Standard for NbS

Source: IUCN 2020.

Nature-based Solutions for

NbS are increasingly applied in urban

Many NbS provide direct and indirect

Close to cities (peri-urban areas),

Permeable surfaces, green roofs, riparian forest systems, and

Maintenance of vegetation cover and afforestation along slopes

Urban trees reduce air temperature, green corridors offer better

Restoration and management of wetlands, mangroves, and reefs

Integrated solutions for

NbS should be applied through an Water Sensitive

STORE DELAY RETAIN REUSE

Figure 1.2. Towards a water-sensitive Mexico City.