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Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 172 (2008) 132 – 147

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Evolution and architecture of a large felsic Igneous Province in western

Laurentia: The 1.6 Ga Gawler Range Volcanics, South Australia
S.R. Allen a,⁎, J. McPhie a , G. Ferris b , C. Simpson c
a
School of Earth Sciences and Centre of Excellence in Ore Deposits, University of Tasmania, Private Bag79, Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia
b
Intermet Resources, Forestville SA 035, Australia
c
School of Environmental and Life Sciences, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia
Received 11 March 2005; accepted 30 September 2005
Available online 17 November 2007

Abstract

The Gawler Range Volcanics (GRV) of South Australia are an intracontinental, subaerial Large Igneous Province (LIP) formed during
supercontinent assembly in the Mesoproterozoic. Like many LIPs, the GRV are intraplate, were erupted over a geologically short time (∼ 2 million
years), and are dominated by voluminous lavas. However, the GRV are overwhelmingly dominated by felsic units. The GRV are essentially
undeformed and have not been deeply buried so that their original textures are exceptionally well preserved. Furthermore, they are well exposed in
very gently northward and eastward dipping sections up to 4 km thick, allowing assessment of the facies architecture and evolution of this felsic
volcanic LIP. The evolution of the GRV can be clearly separated into two main stages. Initial eruptions at numerous volcanic centres produced
small to moderate volume, geochemically distinct, felsic lavas and lava domes, together with ignimbrites and minor mafic and intermediate lavas,
forming a sequence 0.5 to 3 km thick. Volcanic activity in this lower sequence varied from effusive to explosive and was not much different in
style or products from Phanerozoic felsic volcanic provinces. However, the second stage produced at least three voluminous felsic units, each of
which represents about 1000–3000 km3 of magma. Moreover, the dominance of evenly porphyritic textures and lack of pyroclastic textures
(pumice, shards, broken crystal, lithic clasts) in these units suggests that they were erupted effusively and flowed as lavas. Each of these felsic
lavas are generally dominated by a single uniform composition, and commonly mingled with a subordinate and compositionally distinct lava.
© 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Gawler Range Volcanics; felsic Large Igneous Province; Mesoproterozoic; facies architecture; widespread felsic lava; Eucarro Rhyolite; Yardea Dacite

1. Introduction Only a few examples of felsic volcanic LIPs have been

documented worldwide. Of those, three are Proterozoic and
The Gawler Range Volcanics (GRV) of South Australia are a were formed during supercontinent assembly (ie. ∼ 2100 Ma
record of an intracontinental, Mesoproterozoic dominantly felsic rhyolites and dacites of the Rooiberg Felsite, South Africa, Twist
volcanic province that was erupted during the Laurentian and French, 1983; 1592 Ma Gawler Range Volcanics, South
supercontinent assembly (Blissett et al., 1993; Creaser, 1995; Australia, Creaser, 1995; Allen and McPhie, 2002; and the
Allen and McPhie, 2002). Mafic Large Igneous Provinces in 1100 Ma rhyolites in the North Shore Volcanic Group,
intraplate settings are renown for their voluminous outpourings Minnesota, Green and Fitz, 1993).
of basaltic lava from fissure vents and for extensive basaltic lava One consistent feature of these Proterozoic, felsic LIPs is the
flows that undergo inflation (e.g., Deccan Traps, Bondre et al., presence of widespread felsic volcanic units with special charac-
2004; Columbia River Basalts, Self et al., 1996). The teristics. These units are dominated by evenly porphyritic textures,
volcanology of felsic LIPs has received much less attention. euhedral crystals and coherent (microcrystalline, spherulitic,
glassy) groundmass textures; brecciated and/or pumiceous facies
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +61 3 6226 2476; fax: +61 3 6226 7662. are predominantly monomictic and confined to the tops and bases
E-mail address: [email protected] (S.R. Allen). of the units. The lack of broken crystals, bubble-wall shards,
0377-0273/$ - see front matter © 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2005.09.027
 S.R. Allen et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 172 (2008) 132–147 133

abundant pumice clasts and vent-and conduit-derived lithic clasts has yielded indistinguishable ages of 1591 ± 3 and 1592 ± 3 Ma,
suggests that their eruption mechanisms could not have been suggesting that volcanism occurred over a short time interval
highly explosive (Bonnischen and Kauffman, 1987; Branney et al., (Fanning et al., 1988; Creaser, 1995). However, the magmatism
1992). These “lava-like” widespread felsic units may each cover relating to the Hiltaba Suite granitoids spans a much longer time
tens of thousands of square kilometres and represent magma interval, 1583 ± 7 to 1598 ± 2 Ma (U–Pb in zircon isotopic dates;
volumes in the order of 100-3000 km3. Such widespread felsic Flint, 1993).
units are not restricted to the Proterozoic, but also occur in younger The GRV overlie deformed Archaean and Palaeoproterozoic
volcanic successions worldwide (e.g., Late Devonian Comerong granitoid suites, metamorphic complexes and metasedimentary
Volcanics, Dadd, 1992; Cretaceous ∼132 Ma quartz latites in the formations. The volcanic units were emplaced in a subaerial,
Etendeka Formation, Namibia, Milner et al., 1992; Renne et al., intracontinental setting on a landmass that included the Mawson
1996; Tertiary ∼36 Ma quartz trachytes and low-silica rhyolites of Continent (Gawler Craton and East Antarctic Shield, Fanning et al.,
the Trans-Pecos volcanic field, Texas, Henry et al., 1988; Henry et 1996) and the proto-Yilgarn Craton. Continental reconstructions
al.,1990; 11–8 Ma rhyolites of the Snake River Plain volcanic (e.g., Dalziel, 1991; Borg and DePaolo, 1994; Burrett and Berry,
province, Idaho, Bonnischen and Kauffman, 1987; Manley, 1992). 2000) propose that this landmass was part of western Laurentia.
Despite their “lava-like” characteristics, until recently, most The world-class Olympic Dam Cu–U–Au–Ag ore deposit
widespread felsic units were assumed to be pyroclastic flow de- (Haynes et al., 1995) and Pb–Zn–Ag mineralisation at Menninnie
posits rather than lavas, because the high viscosity of conven- Dam (Roache, 1996) are closely associated with the GRV.
tional felsic magmas is known to inhibit eruption rate, and hence, The GRV comprise a lower sequence of texturally and com-
lateral outflow (e.g., Branch, 1978; Milner et al., 1992; Blissett positionally varied volcanic units that amount to 0.5–3 km
et al., 1993). Petrological and geochemical investigations have in thickness, and are gently to moderately dipping (10°–30°).
found that the magmas that produced these widespread felsic units These units are best exposed on the western and southern margin
were especially hot (900–1100 °C), dry and fluorine-rich, resulting of the GRV (Fig. 1). These lower GRV units range in composition
in elatively low viscosities (103–106 Pa s) (e.g., Bonnischen and from basalt to rhyolite and comprise lavas, ignimbrites and other
Kauffman, 1987; Henry et al., 1990; Creaser and White, 1991; minor volcaniclastic facies. Tholeiitic basalt and andesite are
Milner et al., 1992; Stewart, 1994). Moreover, outcrop character- subordinate to dacite and rhyolite (∼90 vol%). In comparison, the
istics and morphology of several well-exposed widespread felsic upper GRV consist of very gently dipping (b∼5°), widespread,
units have been interpreted to indicate that they are extensive lavas thick (250–300 m), crystal-rich (15–40%), rhyolitic and dacitic
(e.g., Star Mountain Rhyolite, Gibbon, 1969; Bracks Rhyolite, units considered to be lavas (Garner and McPhie, 1999; Morrow
Henry et al., 1990; Badlands lava, Manley, 1995, 1996; Yardea and McPhie, 2000; Allen and McPhie, 2002; Allen et al., 2003).
Dacite, Garner and McPhie, 1999; Eucarro Rhyolite, Allen and The GRV have been intruded by porphyritic rhyolitic dykes and
McPhie, 2002). The combination of low viscosity and large granites of the Hiltaba Suite. Juxtaposition of granites with the
magma volume promotes extensive outflow, and it is likely that GRV suggests that at least 1 km of the overlying rocks (GRVand/
felsic lavas can retain heat during outflow, being insulated by thick or sedimentary formations) have been eroded.
upper and lower crusts (Manley, 1992). The GRV are essentially undeformed and unmetamorphosed.
Three widespread felsic lavas, each representing in excess of They postdate the most recent regional deformation (Palaeo-
1000 km3 of erupted magma, are exceptionally well exposed in proterozoic Kimban Orogeny, Daly et al., 1998) and have only
the GRV. In addition, there are at least 30 other felsic units in the been affected by gentle tilting in fault-bound blocks. There is no
succession that include lavas, ignimbrites, and pumiceous sedi- cleavage except locally within ∼ 10 m of faults. There is also no
ments, together with minor mafic and intermediate lavas. The indication of deep burial and the province has formed a long-
variety of volcanic units present, excellent preservation, good lived region of positive relief. The GRV have well preserved
exposure and extensive mapping in the GRV make this succession primary textures and depositional structures (e.g., spherulites,
ideal for detailed volcanological investigations. In this paper, we amygdales, welded shards, columnar joints, flow bands, bed-
explorethefaciesarchitecture andevolutionofthis felsic volcanic, ding). Some units retain near-glassy (cryptocrystalline) black
intracontinentalLIP. domains and pristine glassy melt inclusions are present in quartz
phenocrysts throughout (Kamenetsky et al., 2000). Phenocrysts
2. Regional geological setting other than quartz are variably altered to chlorite (ferromagnesian
phases) and sericite (feldspar), but retain their original crystal
The GRV and co-magmatic Hiltaba Suite granitoids cover shapes and twinning. The feldspar crystals are predominantly 2–
more than 25,000 km2 of the central part of the Gawler Craton 6 mm and blocky to equant in form; laths are generally restricted
(Fig. 1), and the total volume of magma represented by the GRV to groundmasses. Quartz phenocrysts range from clear, 0.5–
exceeds 25,000 km3 (Blissett et al., 1993). They also extend 2 mm, euhedral or subround crystals to 4–6 mm, slightly turbid,
beneath younger Proterozoic and Phanerozoic sedimentary blebby crystals representing crystallisation from the melt and
formations of the Stuart Shelf in South Australia and have been xenocrysts from distintegration of co-magmatic granitoid clasts,
correlated with 1.6 Ga felsic volcanic clasts in glacial sedi- respectively (Kamenetsky et al., 2000; Allen and McPhie, 2002).
mentary units of the Terre Adelie Craton, Antarctica (Blissett Creaser and White (1991) and Stewart (1994) established
et al., 1993; Peucat et al., 2002). U–Pb zircon isotopic dating that the magmas that fed the widespread felsic lavas had a high
of the oldest and youngest exposed units of the southern GRV temperature (900–1100 °C) and were relatively dry (b 2 wt.%
134 S.R. Allen et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 172 (2008) 132–147

Fig. 1. Simplified geological map of the Gawler Range Volcanics in South Australia based on published regional maps (Blissett, 1977a,b; Blissett et al., 1988; Allen
et al., 2003). Extensive dacitic and rhyolitic ‘lava-like’ units dominate the upper GRV in the southern and central map area. Inset: the location and distribution of the
GRV in the Gawler Craton, South Australia.

H2O). Estimates of viscosity based on whole-rock composition and McPhie, 2003). Similarly, streaky or fiamme textures can
and crystal contents using the methods of Shaw (1972) and occur in felsic lavas, particularly at the base or outer margins
Pinkerton and Stevenson (1992) are in the range of 2.7–3.5 × within the pumiceous carapace (Henry and Wolff, 1992).
106 Pa s (Stewart, 1994). In addition, Stewart (1994) recognised Autobreccia occurs when more rigid flow layers, and parts of
that the dissolved volatiles in these magmas included significant the chilled exterior, are broken in response to the applied shear
halogens, particularly F, which would further reduce the viscosity stresses locally exceeding the tensile strength (e.g., Fink and
by depolymerising the melt (Manning and Pichavant, 1983). Manley, 1987). Clasts in autobreccia formed at the base of lavas
are commonly welded and deformed by heat and stresses from the
2.1. Criteria for distinguishing lavas from pyroclastic units overriding ductile flow, giving a streaky or fiamme texture
(Bonnischen and Kauffman, 1987; Henry et al., 1990; Sparks
Interpretations of eruption and outflow mechanisms are best et al., 1993). Streaky or fiamme texture can also occur in
considered on the basis of a combination of field outcrop in- compositionally flow-banded units where bands with different
vestigations, thin-section textural analysis and geochemistry physical properties become highly attenuated (Morrow and
(Table 1). Ideally, data from the base, middle and upper parts McPhie, 2000).
and from outcrops over significant lateral extent should be
included. Features such as broken crystals, and discontinuous 3. The lower GRV
streaks or fiamme textures are not exclusive to pyroclastic units
and need to be assessed with caution. Broken crystals also occur The lower GRV was the first expression of this intraconti-
in relatively low abundances in felsic lavas from brittle fracture nental LIP. This early volcanism exhibits varied compositions
of crystals in the cooler, almost-solid outer parts of flowing and lithofacies and was erupted from numerous separate vol-
lavas (Manley, 1996) or from decompression of the rising mag- canic centres (Blissett et al., 1993). The Chitanilga Volcanic
ma causing melt inclusions within crystals to expand and crack Complex at Kokatha and Glyde Hill Volcanic Complex at Lake
the host crystal (Tait, 1992; Best and Christiansen, 1997; Allen Everard are the two best exposed volcanic centres and occur
 S.R. Allen et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 172 (2008) 132–147 135

Table 1
Criteria used to interpret thick and extensive felsic volcanic units in the GRV
Lava Pyroclastic flow
Outflow Non-particulate; crystals suspended in melt Particulate; solid pyroclasts entrained in gas
mechanism
Components Phenocrysts and glassy or crystalline groundmass; Pumice, crystals, shards, scattered or locally
sparse irregularly distributed xenoliths abundant lithic clasts
Lithofacies Dominantly coherent; monomictic breccia at top and base; Pyroclastic textures (fiamme, shards) at least locally
character breccia can be pumiceous; columnar joints preserved; columnar joints only where densely welded
Internal Evenly porphyritic; may show compositional flow bands or mingled domains; Massive with layers of lithic breccia
features steeply-dipping flow bands
Crystal Dominantly evenly distributed and euhedral; however, Heterogeneous distribution; many broken
components where granitoid clasts are present, there is an additional
population of granite-derived coarse feldspar and blebby
quartz crystals
Groundmass Coherent, glassy or finely crystalline (spherultic, lithophysal, micropoikilitic); Relicts of shards or else vitriclastic matrix crystallised
textures commonly vesicular (amygdaloidal) at tops of units
Composition Dominance of a single composition; can be vertically compositionally zoned along a Bulk composition dependant on proportion of crystals and
single fractionation trend; can show mingling with one compositionally distinct magma; types and abundances of lithic clasts
shows variable compositions where the host encloses granitoid clasts

on the western margin of the GRV (Fig. 1). In addition, the well-sorted pumice breccia to laminated, tuffaceous mudstone
Menninnie Dam volcanic centre at Nonning in the southern interbedded with fine pumice breccia and crystal-rich sand-
GRV and a volcanic succession at Myall Creek on the eastern stone. The well-sorted pumice breccia has lithofacies character-
margin was intersected during drilling. Products of the lower istics similar to those of primary subaerial or water-settled
GRV volcanic centres are also exposed at Tarcoola (northwest), fallout. In comparison, the laminated tuffaceous mudstone and
and within inliers beneath the upper GRV at Lake Acraman. crystal-rich sandstone intervals are probably composed of
pyroclasts reworked by fluvial and/or lacustrine processes.
3.1. Chitanilga volcanic complex Branch (1978) suggested that this lower sequence was part of a
stratovolcano. Certainly, the slightly steeper dips and dom-
The Chitanilga Volcanic Complex is exposed in a ∼ 3 km- inance of mafic-intermediate lavas are consistent with proximity
thick section. The large number of mappable stratigraphic units to a volcanic cone. However, the preservation of fine-grained,
present range from basalt to rhyolite (Blissett, 1975, 1977a; well bedded volcaniclastic intervals suggests that the setting
Branch, 1978; Giles, 1980; Robertson, 1989; Stewart, 1994). was likely to be within a few kilometres of the summit close to
Felsic units are dominant, comprising 70% of the volcanic pile the low-gradient ring plain (e.g., Hackett and Houghton, 1989).
(Fig. 2). The first (∼ 1.5 km-thick) part of the sequence has the
steepest dips at 10–30° representing primary depositional dips 3.1.2. Second sequence
of ∼ 5–20°. The second part is 800 m thick and faulted, and the Sparsely porphyritic dacitic and rhyolitic lavas dominate this
third part is more gently dipping, comprises only two units and part; andesitic lavas and thin volcaniclastic facies are minor. The
has a disconformable lower contact. This complex shows felsic lavas are relatively localised (b few kilometres across) and
highly variable compositions. With increasing SiO2, major and show complex or steeply dipping planar foliation defined by
trace elements show a somewhat scattered distribution and long (N 5–10 cm), black, very thin (b1 cm) bands. Some of the
offsets in the fractionation trend coincide with the pyroclastic bases and tops of these lavas consist of welded autobreccia
units and felsic lavas in the second part (Fig. 3a and b). Such composed of annealed, compositionally identical rhyolite clasts.
variations could be in part due to crystal enrichment processes These small volume felsic lavas are typical of conventional felsic
and incorporation of country-rock or basement clasts, but may lava dome complexes (e.g., Okataina and Maroa volcanic
also indicate the involvement of separate magmas. centres, Taupo Volcanic Zone) and probably lie directly above or
close to their vents.
3.1.1. First sequence Two kilometres east of Kokatha homestead, one of the felsic
Basaltic and basaltic andesite lavas dominate the lowermost lavas includes cm to m-sized subround granitoid clasts. The
sequence and are up to 500-m-thick, composite units compris- granitoid clasts have gradational contacts with the host rhyo-
ing many overlapping lavas with amygdaloidal upper parts lite and have contributed large (1 cm) feldspar megacrysts and
(Fig. 4a). These lavas are interbedded with ignimbrites and irregular-shaped blebby quartz crystals to the host. They appear
other volcaniclastic facies (Fig. 2). The rhyolitic ignimbrites to have been partially melted, similar to those identified in the
are a few metres to tens of metres thick. They have a eutaxitic upper GRV (Yardea Dacite, Garner and McPhie, 1999).
texture defined by flattened pumice clasts (fiamme) in a matrix
of glass shards that show varying degrees of plastic deforma- 3.1.3. Third sequence
tion. The volcaniclastic facies include pumiceous and crystal- The two units in this sequence are the Chandabooka Dacite
rich beds that are up to several metres thick. They range from and Lake Gairdner Rhyolite. The Chandabooka Dacite is a
136 S.R. Allen et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 172 (2008) 132–147

Fig. 2. Stratigraphic logs of the GRV in the Chitanilga Volcanic Complex, Glyde Hill Volcanic Complex, Menninnie Dam volcanic centre and in drill core at
Myall Creek.
 S.R. Allen et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 172 (2008) 132–147 137

Fig. 3. XRF major and trace element compositions of the lower GRV units from (a and b) the Chitanilga Volcanic Complex and (c and d) the Glyde Hill Volcanic
Complex (recalculated 100% anhydrous; Giles, 1980; Robertson, 1989; Stewart, 1994; Allen et al., 2003). (a and c) wt.% SiO2 vs wt.% Al2O3. (b and d) wt.% SiO2 vs
Zr (ppm). Major and trace element trends are relatively scattered and do not lie on a consistent fractionation trend.

predominantly evenly feldspar–phyric, thick (N 200 m) lava with larly distributed, together with altered ferromagnesian phases
well-developed flow banding at the base. It lacks vitriclastic (pyroxene). Scattered mafic clasts are present, along with
textures. This lava is moderately extensive, covering over 15 km abundant elongate or irregular-shaped rhyolite clasts up to
around the Kokatha area. Outcrops to the east of Lake Gairdner several centimetres across (Fig. 4b). The source for the
have also been mapped as Chandabooka Dacite (Blissett, 1977a, ignimbrite is not known, but its absence from the main
1985) suggesting a total lateral extent of more than 43 km. The Chitanilga sequence at Kokatha suggests that this area was
moderately widespread distribution and homogeneous composi- not the source but provided a topographic barrier to the outflow
tion (Fig. 3a and b) make it similar in character to the widespread path of the pyroclastic flow.
felsic lavas of the upper GRV. The source for this lava is unknown.
The Lake Gairdner Rhyolite is a relatively thick (N30 m) and 3.2. Glyde Hill Volcanic Complex
moderately widespread (N35 km) ignimbrite that outcrops to the
north and east of Kokatha (Blissett, 1985). It has a eutaxitic The Glyde Hill Volcanic Complex is an ~1-km-thick
texture defined by flattened pumice clasts, and includes abun- sequence on the western margin of the GRV. Felsic units
dant broken quartz and K-feldspar crystals that are irregu- dominate (90%) and only very minor andesite and basalt are
138 S.R. Allen et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 172 (2008) 132–147

Fig. 4. Lower GRV. (a) Amygdaloidal basaltic-andesite lava from the first sequence of the Chitanilga Volcanic Complex at Kokatha. (b) Eutaxitic texture in ignimbrite
of the Lake Gairdner Rhyolite north of Kokatha. Scale bar, 2 cm. (c). Accretionary lapilli from pyroclastic beds within the Glyde Hill Volcanic Complex. (d) Rhyolitic
crystal- and pumice-rich beds (pyroclastic surge deposits?) in the Waurea pyroclastics, Glyde Hill Volcanic Complex.

present (Blissett, 1975, 1977a, 1977b; Giles, 1980, 1988; Ferris, include irregular-shaped, coarse (1–10 cm) amygdaloidal clasts
2003). Evenly porphyritic felsic lavas are interbedded with (autobreccia). In addition, the base of the Mangaroongah Dacite
polymictic breccia and pumiceous and crystal-rich volcaniclas- can exhibit weakly defined apparent lobate shapes within
tic facies (Fig. 2). The lowest unit (Childera Dacite) has been otherwise coherent lava that could result from either annealing
intruded by dykes of porphyritic andesite and dacite. Reverse autobreccia clasts or mingling of two similar compositions. The
faults are inferred from stratigraphic repetition. The composi- uppermost lava of the Mangaroongah Dacite has a brecciated
tions of units in the Glyde Hill Volcanic Complex define a broad top of flow-banded, amygdaloidal clasts. The lavas within
fractionation trend although small deviations coincide with the the Yantea Rhyolite include macroscopic flow bands, 1–2 cm
Childera and Bunburn Dacites (Fig. 3c and d). spherulites nucleated on feldspar phenocrysts, minor lithophy-
sae and locally abundant, strongly elongate amygdales. The
3.2.1. Felsic lavas bases of single lavas in the Yantea Rhyolite comprise fine wispy
Five moderately widespread (40–70 km east–west) felsic fiamme. The restricted occurrence (base of units only) and
units have been mapped (Blissett, 1977a, 1977b) (Fig. 2). These absence of shards, lithic fragments or broken crystals sug-
felsic units are each 100–200 m thick (Blissett et al., 1989). gest that the fiamme were former vesicular lava clasts that
However, all (except the Bunburn Dacite) appear to be com- were compacted and incorporated into the base of the flow
posite units that comprise groups of tens-of-metres-thick, com- (pumiceous autobreccia). The Bunburn Dacite is finely flow-
positionally distinct feldspar–phyric lavas separated by thin banded and exhibits perlitic fractures indicating that it was
pumice and/or crystal-rich felsic volcaniclastic facies. The five originally glassy. The flow bands are locally near vertical but
units can be distinguished using the abundance of plagioclase almost flat-lying overall.
(1-15%), K-feldspar, clinopyroxene and quartz, and by colour. The distribution of these composite, moderately widespread
The dacites (Childera, Mangaroongah and Bunburn) are less felsic lavas around Glyde Hill suggests that the source is likely
extensive (40 km) than the Wheepool and Yantea Rhyolites to be close to Glyde Hill. Although the composite units have
(75 km). The lavas within the Mangaroongah Dacite show the been mapped as moderately extensive, the distribution of single
greatest range in SiO2 (from 58-70 wt% SiO2; Fig. 3c and d). lavas remains unknown so that more accurate determinations of
These lavas are dominanted by evenly porphyritic textures the vent locations are not possible.
and coherent facies; textural variations are confined to bases At least three more localised (b few kilometres across)
and upper parts. Upper parts are amygdaloidal. Bases of the felsic lavas are also present (Arburee and Karkulta Rhyolites,
Childera and Mangaroongah Dacites are either brecciated, or Whyeela Dacite; Fig. 2). These lavas include domains that are
comprise irregular-shaped or blocky clasts that intrude into the evenly porphyritic and flow banded as well as domains of
underlying sandstone (fluidal and blocky peperite; Busby-Spera autobreccia. Flow bands within the Karkulta Rhyolite are
and White, 1987) suggesting that the sediment was unconso- defined varying abundance of b2 cm lithophysae. In addition,
lidated when the lavas were emplaced. The brecciated parts large (up to 40 cm in diameter) spherulites and lithophysae
 S.R. Allen et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 172 (2008) 132–147 139

overprint the flow bands. Most lithophysal vugs are filled with Stratification is defined by clast- or matrix-supported domains,
quartz. The breccia facies consists of poorly sorted monomictic, lenses of pumice and by very thin, green lenticular ash beds.
angular–subangular rhyolite clasts that are up to 15 cm across Some poorly defined internal scours are also present. The clasts
and lacks matrix. Some domains are in jig-saw fit arrangement are weakly compacted green pumice and purple-red, 10 cm to
whereas others are only partly fractured. The Whyeela Dacite is 1 m, rhyolitic lithic clasts. The rhyolitic clasts are angular to
the uppermost unit and has centripetal dips of 10o defined by subrounded, delicately flow banded and sparsely plagioclase–
vesicular flow bands. The lithofacies characteristics and phyric. The upper part of the breccia is finer-grained and matrix-
distribution of these felsic units are consistent with them supported and alternates between massive and diffusely
being lava domes, composed of coherent cores and autobrec- stratified 10-30 cm beds which include 0.3–0.6 cm accretionary
ciated margins. They are inferred to lie above or very close to lapilli. The overlying ignimbrite is N5 m thick and weakly
their source vents. columnar jointed. It is matrix-supported, and contains smaller
(b1 cm) rhyolitic lithic clasts and more flattened pumice clasts
3.2.2. Volcaniclastic facies than the lithic breccia. The occurrence of a coarser denser
The pumiceous and crystal-rich volcaniclastic facies inter- breccia beneath an ignimbrite is typical of deposits from vent-
bedded with the lavas vary from tuffaceous mudstone to crystal- clearing explosive eruptions that go on to produce pyroclastic
rich and pumice-rich sandstone and breccia. Most intervals are flows (e.g., Walker, 1985). The dominance of rhyolitic lithic
less than 2 metres thick. The dominant facies is pink and green, clasts suggests the explosive eruption destroyed a rhyolite lava
well-sorted, crystal-and pumice-rich tuff or fine breccia. The dome. The thick, coarse and stratified breccia is likely to be
laminae and thin beds are rich in feldspar crystals (pink) or proximal, perhaps within ∼10 km of the source vent.
blocky 2–6 mm, flattened pumice fragments (green). In some
units, layers of accretionary lapilli are present (Fig. 4c). Units 3.3. Southern lower GRV
are overall planar bedded, and together with being well sorted,
resemble deposits from water-settled fall. However, some that In the south, the lower GRV are sporadically exposed over an
show low-angle truncations of bedding may have been east-west distance of 200 km. They are dominated by two
reworked by currents. Another, less common volcaniclastic moderately widespread felsic units (Waganny Dacite and Bitalli
facies type consists of thinly bedded, brown, pebbly, crystal- Rhyolite; Fig. 1) separated by ∼2-m-thick interval of mudstone.
rich sandstone with overall normal grading. The thin beds are The Waganny Dacite is the lowermost exposed unit and extends
discontinuous and comprise fine and coarse lithic pebbles. The for N 50 km. It resembles the moderately widespread units of the
base of the unit infills the irregular top surface of the underlying Glyde Hill Volcanic Complex: it is several hundred metres thick
lava but the upper surface is flat. The sandstone lacks juvenile and composite, consisting of single lavas separated by
clasts and the bedforms resemble those formed by relatively monomictic breccia (autobreccia) and crystal-rich, volcaniclas-
high-particle concentration watery flows, such as hyperconcen- tic facies that are cross cut by vertical to subvertical polymictic
trated flood flows (e.g., Sohn et al., 1999). Collectively, these breccia dykes. The source of the Waganny Dacite is not known,
volcaniclastic facies are interpreted to represent short time but its distribution towards the southwestern margin suggests a
breaks between lava flow emplacement. Most are primary, or source in the Hiltaba area.
slightly reworked and resedimented pyroclastic units. Their The Bitalli Rhyolite is ∼ 200 m thick and extends over
presence indicates that explosive felsic eruptions occurred 150 km east-west. It is a composite of several different rhyolitic
intermittently throughout the effusive volcanism associated units that are laterally and vertically juxtaposed. The distin-
with the Glyde Hill Volcanic Complex. guishing feature of the Bitalli Rhyolite is the high abundance of
In addition to the pumiceous and crystal-rich volcaniclastic 2 mm, round quartz crystals. At Hiltaba and Paney, this unit
facies, two thicker (N 3 to N 7 m) localized pyroclastic units are consists of delicately flow banded, evenly porphyritic lava with
exposed. The Waurea Pyroclastics is N 3 m thick and comprises near-vertical flow foliation. In addition, at Hiltaba, the lava is
laminated, coarser and finer intervals of moderately sorted, compositionally heterogeneous and composed of mingled
b 2 mm, feldspar and subrounded quartz crystals, and minor feldspar–phyric and quartz–phyric domains that include
pumice and black lithic? fragments. The bedding includes low partially melted, co-magmatic granitoid clasts, similar to those
angle truncations, scours and cross beds in 30-cm-thick bed sets in the felsic lava in the Chitanilga Volcanic Complex (Fig. 5a).
(Fig. 4d). Cross bed orientations suggest both northerly and
southerly transport directions. Slump structures are also present. 3.3.1. Menninnie Dam volcanic centre
The abundant crystals and pumice fragments are probably The unit mapped as the Bitalli Rhyolite around Menninnie
pyroclasts generated by small explosive events (e.g., Brooker et Dam is b 200 m thick and directly overlies basement. It has been
al., 1993) and there is a strong resemblance to pyroclastic surge comprehensively drilled and consists of the products of two
deposits. However, the opposing cross-bed directions could rhyolitic eruption episodes: (1) a small (b 600 m diameter)
result from complex overlapping of surge deposits from rhyolite lava dome and associated pyroclastic deposits, and (2) a
multiple vents, or else indicate reworking by water currents. lithic-rich ignimbrite (Fig. 2) (Roache, 1996; Roache et al.,
The other is a N7-m-thick sequence of ignimbrite and lithic 2000). The first eruption episode was initially hydromagmatic
breccia beneath the base of the Yantea Rhyolite. The lithic and explosive, producing polymictic lithic breccia that locally
breccia is N 2 m thick, poorly sorted and diffusely stratified. includes quartz–phyric rhyolitic fiamme (Roache et al., 2000).
140 S.R. Allen et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 172 (2008) 132–147

Fig. 5. Lower GRV. (a) Partially melted granitoid clasts within the Bitalli Rhyolite southeast of Hiltaba. (b) Fluidal (top) and blocky (bottom) peperite involving
polymictic lithic breccia and quartz-phyric rhyolite, both in dykes; drill core from the Menninnie Dam volcanic centre. Drill hole 25 at 544.5 m, drill core 5 cm wide.
(c). Handspecimen of thel muddy sandstone facies from the Menninnie Dam volcanic centre. The thinly bedded to laminated, poorly sorted muddy sandstone is
composed predominantly of basement lithic clasts, and is the distal equivalent of the polymictic lithic breccia facies. Drill hole 32 at 279.15 m (b2 m above the
palaeosurface) (d) Fiamme (pumice) breccia facies from the Menninnie Dam volcanic centre. The fiamme are highly attenuated and commonly deformed around
basement lithic fragments. This facies is interpreted to be proximal welded fall deposit (Roache et al., 2000). Drill hole 32 at 278.6 m (b3 m above the paleosurface).

The polymictic breccia occurs in dykes in the underlying non- 3.4. Myall Creek
volcanic basement and has been intruded locally by quartz–
phyric rhyolite with peperitic contacts (Fig. 5b). One fiamme- Drill core from the eastern extremity of the main mass of the
bearing breccia dyke has a steeply dipping fiamme foliation and GRV at Myall Creek revealed a N 500-m-thick sequence
is interpreted to be infilling the eruptive conduit. The polymictic dominated by felsic lava and ignimbrite (90%); minor basaltic
lithic breccia also occurs as a layer unconformably overlying the lava (8%) and fine-grained volcaniclastic facies are also present
basement, and records the first, vent-opening phreatic explo- (Blissett, 1981). The thickest unit is a single, 300-m-thick,
sions. This polymictic lithic breccia is overlain by fallout that coarsely feldspar–phyric dacitic lava (Fig. 2). This lava has a
grades from rhyolite-poor and lithic-rich at the base, to welded relatively evenly porphyritic texture and also contains granitoid
rhyolitic fiamme breccia at the top. Distal equivalents in- clasts up to 20 cm across in the middle. The base includes
clude laminated to medium bedded muddy volcanic sandstone fiamme (pumiceous autobreccia) similar to those within the
(Fig. 5c) and fiamme breccia (Fig. 5d). The rhyolitic lava dome Yantea Rhyolite, and the upper part is a monomictic autobreccia
overlies these pyroclastic facies. of the same composition. Perlitic fractures indicating a formerly
The lithic-rich ignimbrite generated by the second eruption glassy groundmass occur towards the upper part. Two ∼100-m-
episode has a sharp and conformable contact with the rhyolitic thick rhyolitic ignimbrites occur above and below the lava
lava dome (Roache, 1996). It is massive and at least 265 m thick These ignimbrites are characterised by abundant highly atten-
as the upper contact is an erosion surface. The volcanic clast uated fiamme and scattered felsic lithic clasts. The basalt lavas
population includes both porphyritic rhyolite (∼47%) and include a monomict basaltic breccia where the angular clasts
wispy, lenticular, aphyric fiamme that are interpreted to be have altered margins (hyaloclastite). The source for the Myall
flattened, juvenile pumice lapilli (5–30%). Angular to sub- Creek sequence is not known, but the basaltic lavas could be
rounded, basement lithic clasts are also present and many are related to the volcanic complex at Roopena, 20 km to the south
very coarse (up to 15 m across). The matrix comprises various (Fig. 1) (Blissett et al., 1993). The uppermost unit in the drill
proportions of lithic fragments and relict shards. The ignimbrite core section is coarsely feldspar–phyric rhyolitic lava that is
underwent hot welding compaction, as indicated by the sub- evenly porphyritic although sparse broken feldspar crystals and
horizontal compaction foliation defined by the fiamme, defor- fiamme occur in the basal autobrecciated part. This lava has
mation of fiamme around the margins of lithic clasts, plastic been correlated with the Eucarro Rhyolite in the upper GRV
deformation of cuspate matrix shards and the presence (Blissett, 1981).
of spherulitic and micropoikilitic textures within the fiamme
(resulting from high-temperature crystallisation of a glassy 4. The upper GRV
precursor; Lofgren, 1971a,b; 1974). Roache (1996) suggested
that the lithic-rich nature and substantial thickness of this The upper GRV are exposed in the southern and central parts
ignimbrite were consistent with it being an intra-caldera facies. of the province and are dominated by thick (250–300 m),
 S.R. Allen et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 172 (2008) 132–147 141

widespread (N 160–225 km), felsic lavas (Eucarro Rhyolite, crystal fragments. Plastically deformed and flattened relict shards
Pondanna Dacite, Moonaree Dacite) that combined represent are evident in thin section. The rhyolite lava that separates the
at least 4000 km3 of magma (Creaser and White, 1991; Pondanna and Moonaree Dacites at Hiltaba extends ∼3 km east-
Allen and McPhie, 2002). North–south extents are more limited west and is ∼50 m thick. This lava is dominantly plagioclase–
(5–100 km) due to northerly dips and erosion. The Pondanna phyric and has mingled with a flow-banded aphyric rhyolite. The
and Moonaree Dacites are members of the Yardea Dacite, and localised distribution suggests that it is a small lava dome. A
were mapped as separate lavas by Allen et al. (2003). The several-metres-thick, fine-grained silicified sandstone separates
Carnding Rhyodacite (Tarcoola area) and Chandabooka Dacite the Eucarro Rhyolite from the Pondanna Dacite at Nonning.
(Kokatha area) were also recognised by Blissett et al. (1993) to
be laterally extensive units of the upper GRV and field 4.1. Eucarro Rhyolite
investigations suggest that at least the Chandbooka Dacite is a
lava. Contacts between the lavas and the presence of near- The Eucarro Rhyolite extends more than 225 km from west
vertical columnar joints (Fig. 6a) indicate that they are horizon- to east (Fig. 1). The lava is approximately 300 m thick and for
tal to gently northward dipping. Slightly steeper northward dips the most part, consists of texturally uniform, evenly porphyritic
occur at the bases of the units, and adjacent to major faults or to plagioclase–phyric rhyolite, with 15–21% phenocrysts of
Hiltaba Suite intrusions. Bases of the units are exposed along feldspar, ferromagesian phases and rare quartz (Fig. 6b)
their southern margins, and the upper or outer parts are exposed (Allen and McPhie, 2002; Allen et al., 2003). The basal facies
along the northern margins. is black or brown whereas most of the middle part of the unit is
The widespread felsic lavas are separated by layers of silicified red or pink and columnar jointed. The outer northern margin is
sandstone and small-volume lavas and ignimbrites. No lavas of mingled with the Paney Rhyolite (Fig. 6c).
mafic or intermediate compositions have been identified in the The black or brown basal facies is 2–15 m thick and includes
upper GRV (Fig. 2) (Blissett et al., 1988; Dalgarno et al., 1968; sparse broken phenocrysts and conspicuous quartz (up to 1.5%).
Allen et al., 2003). The ignimbrite separating the Eucarro Ferromagnesian phases (pyroxene, olivine) are relatively unaltered,
Rhyolite and Pondanna Dacite at Paney (Mt Double Ignimbrite, and only their margins are replaced by secondary minerals. Intricate
Allen et al., 2003) is a black, poorly sorted, fiamme-bearing unit μm-scale flow bands are visible in thin sections under plane
about 20 m thick. It is texturally heterogeneous, comprising polarised light. The groundmass of the black facies is cryptocrystal-
irregularly distributed, angular, cm-sized lithic clasts and feldspar line and probably the result of devitrification (crystallization
and sparse quartz crystal fragments (1–2 mm) in a matrix that below the glass transition temperature) of a glassy precursor (e.g.,
contains strongly attenuated, bedding-parallel fiamme. The Lofgren, 1971a; Murphy and Marsh, 1993) that was rapidly cooled.
fiamme have ragged edges, and are deformed around lithic and The lowermost part may be marked by discontinuous red streaks

Fig. 6. Upper GRV. (a) Vertical columnar joints within the Pondanna Dacite north of Paney. (b) Evenly feldspar–phyric texture of the Moonaree Dacite at Yardea.
(c) Mingled compositional flow bands in the Paney Rhyolite at Paney. (d) Feldspar and blebby quartz xenocrysts in host Eucarro Rhyolite at Nonning. Scale bar, 2 cm.
142 S.R. Allen et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 172 (2008) 132–147

(annealed autobreccia). The streaks vary in quartz abundance and/ the Paney Rhyolite vary but most bands are spherulitic, or else
or in feldspar size. The streaks have a fine micropoikilitic (snow- cryptocrystalline. In some places, the groundmass is perlitic and
flake texture, Anderson, 1969) or spherulitic texture, suggesting was formerly glassy.
slightly slower cooling rates at these locations. Apart from mingled domains and those with granitoid clasts,
The middle, red or pink facies has groundmass textures that the Eucarro Rhyolite is compositionally uniform throughout its
range from granophyric in the interior to spherulitic towards the lateral extent (70.3–73.7 wt.% SiO2) although the base is
base and margin, consistent with the interior undergoing slower slightly more silica-rich (Fig. 7). The source for the Eucarro
cooling than the base (e.g., Keith and Padden, 1963; Lofgren, Rhyolite is thought to be an elongate fissure system (Allen and
1971a; Bouloton and Gasquet, 1995). This facies includes McPhie, 2002). Flow directions inferred from anisotropy of
sparse (b 1 vol%) mafic igneous clasts (b2 cm), partially magnetic susceptibility (AMS) and petrofabric analysis indicate
melted, co-magmatic granitoid clasts (5–30 cm), feldspar a source to the south-southwest of the preserved distribution for
megacrysts (2–3 cm) and irregularly shaped blebby quartz the western part and a source to the north for the eastern part
crystals (up to 1 cm). Crystals in the granitoid clasts vary from (McPhie et al., 2008-this issue).
euhedral to strongly embayed and irregular, and are surrounded
by domains of vermicular granophyre. These granitoid clasts, 4.2. Pondanna Dacite
feldspar megacrysts and coarse, irregular quartz crystals are
sparsely scattered throughout the rhyolite, but are most abun- The Pondanna Dacite spans more than 160 km from west to
dant (up to 5 vol.%) around Hiltaba and Nonning (Fig. 1). The east across the southern Gawler Ranges. Rare occurrences of
feldspar megacrysts and blebby quartz appear to have been this lava overlie the Eucarro Rhyolite at Paney indicating that its
liberated from the partially molten granitoid clasts and southern extent was much greater. It is ∼250 m thick. Minor
incorporated in the adjacent host rhyolite (Fig. 6d). basal black or grey facies occurs along the southernmost
The northernmost part of the lava is mottled green and contacts and amygdaloidal facies occurs close to northern
includes abundant mm to cm vesicles infilled by quartz, calcite contacts, but the majority of the lava is red.
or fluorite. The largest amygdales (up to 0.3 m diameter) occur The basal black or grey facies is typically flow banded.
around Nonning (Fig. 1). The northern part of the lava is Continuous, steeply dipping flow bands are variably crypto-
mingled with a compositionally distinct quartz–phyric rhyolite crystalline to microcrystalline versus micropoikilitic to spheru-
(73.8–75.9 wt.% SiO2; Paney Rhyolite) (Morrow and McPhie, litic. The black or grey facies is slightly finer and less crystal-
2000; Kamenetsky et al., 2000; Allen et al., 2003). The Paney rich (20–25%) than the red facies (23–37% phenocrysts), and
Rhyolite is more heterogeneous than the rest of the Eucarro shows mingled and gradational relationships with the red
Rhyolite in terms of its phenocryst abundance (11–21%) and facies. The red facies is generally massive and columnar jointed
texture, as it is compositionally flow banded (Fig. 6c). Flow (Fig. 6a), although browner occurrences towards the top of the
banding in the Paney Rhyolite is generally steeply dipping and unit in the westernmost portion are steeply flow banded.
either planar or highly contorted. Groundmass textures within Phenocrysts are mostly 3–5 mm but sparse feldspar megacrysts

Fig. 7. XRF major and trace element compositions of the upper GRV (recalculated 100% anhydrous; from Allen et al., 2003). (a) wt.% SiO2 vs wt.% Al2O3. (b) wt.%
SiO2 vs Zr (ppm). Major and trace element trends are consistent with the fractionation of the modal minerals such as plagioclase and sanidine (Al2O3), pyroxene and
magnetite (Fe2O3).
 S.R. Allen et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 172 (2008) 132–147 143

(up to 10 mm) are also present. Groundmass textures are around Hiltaba and Yardea may indicate proximity to source,
predominantly spherulitic, with or without granophyric however, calculations by Garner and McPhie (1999) suggest
domains, suggesting higher crystallization temperatures than that the megablocks were near-neutrally buoyant in the molten
the black or grey facies (i.e., smaller degrees of undercooling, dacite and could have been rafted well away from the source
Keith and Padden, 1963; Lofgren, 1971a). Rare mafic and vent.
intermediate igneous clasts up to 5 cm across are scattered
throughout. The amygdaloidal northern part is mottled green 5. Discussion
and includes abundant mm-cm vesicles infilled by quartz,
calcite or fluorite, similar to the Eucarro Rhyolite. 5.1. Source magmas
The Pondanna Dacite is compositionally uniform throughout
(68.5–70.3 wt.% SiO2; Fig. 7) and lacks granitoid clasts. The The GRV are dominated (∼ 90 vol.%) by dacitic to rhyolitic
source of the lava is unknown. units. The mafic and intermediate units occur exclusively in the
lower GRV. Other intraplate LIPs that include felsic composi-
4.3. Moonaree Dacite tions and widespread lava-like felsic units (e.g., Miocene Snake
River Plain–Yellowstone Plateau Province, Idaho and Wyom-
The Moonaree Dacite is the uppermost preserved unit in the ing, Bonnischen and Kauffman, 1987; Cretaceous Etendeka
GRV. It covers the central part of the GRV, spanning more than Igneous Province, Namibia, Marsh et al., 2001) differ in being
160 km east–west and 100 km north–south and is ∼250 m thick strongly bimodal, basalt–rhyolite successions. Examples of
(Fig. 1). Two compositions are dominant: (1) a red facies with a silicic-dominated LIPs are associated with Gondwana, but they
granophyric groundmass, and (2) a brown, more silica-rich, are composed mainly of ignimbrite, and were active over
quartz-bearing facies (Allen et al., 2003). The red facies and prolonged periods of time (40–50 m.y.) (e.g., Cretaceous
quartz-bearing facies occupy separate large areas and also occur Whitsunday Volcanic Province, Bryan et al., 2000; Jurassic
complexly intermingled. Both are columnar jointed. Although Chon-Aike Province of Patagonia, Pankhurst et al., 1998; Riley
the original top of the lava has been eroded, weakly vesicular and Leat, 1999).
quartz-bearing dacite occurs at the top of the unit in drill core The GRV involved at least ∼ 25,000 km3 of magma, more
50 km east of Moonaree (Fig. 1). There is also a black facies that than 90% of which was felsic. Petrogenetic studies of the GRV
is volumetrically minor and has a sporadic distribution around have suggested that the mafic magmas, though subordinate in
the base along the southern and western-most margins. The volume, were derived from the mantle and that the silicic
black facies has cryptocrystalline to finely microcrystalline magmas were generated by fractional crystallization of the mafic
groundmass textures. parent, and in some cases, melting and assimilation of Archaean
The red facies is generally massive, although steeply dipping or Palaeoproterozoic crust (Giles, 1988; Stewart, 1994; Creaser,
flow bands are very rarely present towards the basal contact with 1995). The GRV compositions are metaluminous and show
the black facies around Yardea. It is crystal-rich (up to 40% broad fractionation trends. Enrichments in rare earth elements
crystals) with a predominantly spherulitic or granophyric ground- are consistent with the fractionation of minerals such as
mass. Megacrysts of K-feldspar, less common plagioclase and rare plagioclase, K-feldspar, clinopyroxene, magnetite and apatite
quartz are most abundant (up to 5 vol.%) and largest (7–25 mm) (Giles, 1988; Blissett et al., 1993; Creaser, 1995; Stewart, 1994).
near the base. Megablocks of partially melted, co-magmatic Given that the lower GRV is 0.5–3 km thick (cf. 1 km thick
granitoid clasts and basement lithic clasts (up to 50 m in diameter) for the upper GRV), a significant volume of the magma
are locally abundant at Hiltaba and Yardea (Garner and McPhie, involved in generation of this LIP (∼20,000 km3) was erupted
1999), but are uncommon elsewhere. Fine-to medium-grained, during the initial phase of volcanism. Stewart (1994) showed
mafic and intermediate igneous clasts are most abundant (up to that the lower GRV units (including the moderately widespread
5 vol.%) and largest (up to 5 cm) at Hiltaba. Chandabooka Dacite) have highly variable ɛNd values (− 7.4 to
The quartz-bearing facies is less crystal-rich (25–32%) than − 1.6 Chitanilga; − 3.6 to + 1.2 Glyde Hill volcanic complexes).
the red facies and also distinguished by the presence of small These wide ranges in isotopic signatures, together with the great
(0.5–1 mm diameter), round and embayed quartz phenocrysts. variety in bulk-rock compositions in the lower GRV, suggest
The groundmass is also distinctive in comprising a finely mi- multiple sources of magma even within single volcanic centres.
crocrystalline quartz-feldspar mosaic that contains abundant, Each magma batch involved varying degrees of assimilation of
randomly oriented, 50–70 μm, feldspar laths and essentially no the surrounding crust. Field mapping and drilling suggest that
granophyre or spherulites. Crude flow bands, where present, are volcanic centres were spread out over the landscape. Due to the
defined by variations in quartz abundance, or in the size of upper GRV cover, these centres are exposed along the western
feldspar crystals, or by groundmass textures (microcrystalline and southern margin of the GRV at Kokatha, Glyde Hill and
versus spherulitic). Feldspar megacrysts (up to 12 mm) and Menninnie Dam. The available geochronological data for the
mafic inclusions are sparsely scattered throughout (b 2 vol.%). whole GRV suggest that the volcanism was relatively
The Moonaree Dacite is composed of two compositions continuous, rapidly generating volcanic piles up to 3 km
represented by the red facies (66.8–68.3 wt.% SiO2) and quartz- thick. Each lower GRV eruption involved b 1 to ∼ 50 km3 of
bearing facies (68.3–69.2 wt.% SiO2; Fig. 7). The source for the magma, so the rate for small eruptions could have been in the
lava is unknown. The localised abundance of megablocks order of one per century.
144 S.R. Allen et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 172 (2008) 132–147

The upper GRV involved the production of at large-volume, 5.2. Facies architecture
felsic lavas. Three are well preserved and each amounts to
1000–3000 km3 of felsic magma. Only minimal other felsic The GRV are dominated by the products of effusive
volcanism (small-volume lavas and ignimbrites) and no mafic eruptions, whereas ignimbrites and other volcaniclastic facies
volcanism occurred during this stage. The only evidence for are subordinate (b 20 vol.%) (Fig. 8). One particular feature of
mafic magma being involved is the small (b 5 cm) mafic both the lower and upper GRV is that the upper parts of lavas
igneous clasts that are scattered within the lavas. One particular have been preserved. Only loose, unconsolidated pyroclastic
feature of the widespread felsic lavas is that in each case, the deposits have been eroded. Consistent preservation of unit tops
dominant facies has single, narrowly defined composition. For suggests that the preserved GRV occupied a depo-centre.
example, the main mass of the Eucarro Rhyolite, the Pondanna The lower GRV are dominated by small- and moderate-
Dacite and two mingled facies of the Moonaree Dacite, each volume volcanic units (b1–50 km3) that accumulated in nested,
plot in well-defined fields on Harker diagrams (Fig. 7). This and/or overlapping volcanic centres. The felsic lavas and lava
feature has been particularly useful in mapping boundaries domes show similar lithofacies characteristics: they are 100–
between the texturally similar Pondanna Dacite and Moonaree 300 m thick and have a basal autobreccia or peperitic contact,
Dacite (Allen et al., 2003). The three widespread felsic lavas overlain by the main coherent part with steeply dipping flow
define a single fractionation trend (Fig. 7), and have relatively banding, and an upper compositionally mingled or amygdaloi-
constant ɛNd values (ɛNd values between − 3.8 and −4.5; dal part. Several texturally similar lavas can be vertically
Stewart, 1994). These characteristics led Stewart (1994) to stacked and separated by volcaniclastic facies a few metres
suggest that the upper GRV units represent a single thick, producing successions in excess of 300 m thick. The
evolutionary sequence in magma composition, that was small-volume lavas are inferred to be sitting on, or near to their
sourced by a more mafic, compositionally and isotopically source vents. Some felsic lavas were more moderate volume,
homogeneous parent magma. Two lavas in the upper GRV extending several tens of kilometres from source. The sources
(Eucarro Rhyolite and Moonaree Dacite) involved mingling for the moderately widespread lavas are less well defined, but
between at least two compositionally distinct felsic magmas. were presumably located within or close to their present extents.
For the Eucarro Rhyolite, one magma was overwhelmingly Mafic and intermediate lavas are thinner (1–30 m thick) and
dominant, whereas in the Moonaree Dacite, the two magmas amygdaloidal, and vesicle size and abundance increase upwards
had subequal volumes. Local concentrations of granitoid and within single units. Mafic and intermediate lavas, although
other basement lithic clasts in the Eucarro Rhyolite and minor overall, are thickest (up to 500 m thick) and most
Moonaree Dacite coincide with the appearance of these abundant in the lower GRV in the Chitanilga Volcanic Complex
compositionally distinct mingled magmas. The partially melted which is thought to be the remnant of a volcanic cone (Branch
state of some of the granitoid clasts strongly suggests that they 1978).
formed wall rock around the magmas responsible for the upper Welded ignimbrites with conventional vitroclastic textures,
GRV. Allen and McPhie (2002) speculated that, in each case, and pumiceous and other volcaniclastic facies occur sporadi-
the influx of wall-rock lithic clasts resulted from syn-eruptive cally throughout the lower GRV. Most occurrences are in the
rupture of barriers separating closely adjacent, compositionally northwest (Lake Gairdner Rhyolite and Ealbara Rhyolite at
distinct magmas. Tarcoola), south (Menninnie Dam ignimbrite) and southeast

Fig. 8. Schematic cartoon of the facies architecture of the GRV based on the successions in the Chitanilga Volcanic Complex(CVC), Glyde Hill Volcanic Complex
(GHVC) and the Menninnie Dam volcanic centre (MDVC). The lower part of the GRV is dominated by small, felsic lava domes and moderate-volume felsic composite
lava flows. A thick succession of basaltic and andesitic lavas representing a volcanic cone occurs at the base of the CVC. Ignimbrites and other volcaniclastic facies are
subordinate and scattered throughout the lower GRV. The upper GRV is dominated by three widespread felsic lavas. See Fig. 2 for symbols.
 S.R. Allen et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 172 (2008) 132–147 145

(Myall Creek). The apparent dominance of welded ignimbrites volume pyroclastic deposits and their reworked equivalents
could in part reflect the poor preservation potential of non- record intermittent explosive eruptions.
welded pyroclastic deposits. These ignimbrites are up to 260 m In contrast, the upper GRV is dominated by widespread felsic
thick and can be relatively widespread (Lake Gairdner lavas; only very minor volcaniclastic sediment, ignimbrites and
Rhyolite). Although ignimbrites are present, only one probably small volume felsic lava domes are present. At least three
caldera was intersected during drilling (at Menninnie Dam; widespread felsic lavas are recognised. They cover areas up to a
Roache, 1996). Branch (1978) also interpreted the Chitanilga few hundred kilometres across and each one represents magma
Volcanic Complex to be a caldera, in large part because volumes in excess of 1000 km3. These widespread lavas show
the Chandabooka Dacite was thought to be a caldera-related similar lithofacies characteristics to the small-volume felsic
ignimbrite. However, we interpret the Chandabooka Dacite to lavas. They include basal autobreccias, overlain by the main
be a moderately widespread lava, and the caldera interpretation coherent outflow sheet with steeply dipping flow bands, and an
is questioned. amygdaloidal outer or upper margin is well developed. In
The presence of numerous pumiceous, crystal-rich or fine- addition, they commonly show local compositional mingling of
grained volcaniclastic beds (both primary and reworked) in the at least two different magmas, as well as scattered clusters of
Chitanilga and Glyde Hill Volcanic Complexes suggests that granitoid clasts derived from the ruptured walls of adjacent
small-volume pyroclastic eruptions occurred throughout the magma chambers. The widespread felsic lavas were relatively
history of the lower GRV. In many cases, these volcaniclastic hot, dry and fluorine-rich, and erupted in large volumes that
deposits separate single lavas, suggesting that eruptive activity promoted extensive outflow. The presence of large-volume,
alternated/switched between effusive and explosive during widespread felsic lavas appears to be a feature shared with other
development of the lower GRV. Reworked volcaniclastic facies intraplate felsic volcanic LIPs (e.g., ∼ 2100 Ma Rooiberg
and the presence of accretionary lapilli in the Glyde Hill Vol- Felsite, South Africa; 1100 Ma rhyolites in the North Shore
canic Complex, together with possible water-settled fallout Volcanic Group, Minnesota; Middle to Late Devonian Eden–
(Chitanilga Volcanic Complex), indicate that surface water, Comerong–Yalwal volcanic zone, Australia; and Miocene
perhaps rivers and lakes, was present. Snake River Plain volcanic province).
The upper GRV are dominated by the products of large The lower GRV are characterised by a wide variation in
(∼ 1000–3000 km3) effusive outpourings of felsic magma. The composition, representing multiple batches of magma with
widespread felsic units are single, 100–300-m-thick successive varying degrees of fractional crystallization and assimilation of
lavas that partly overlap and young progressively northwards. the crust. In comparison, the source magmas for each of the
Rare small-volume welded ignimbrites and lava domes also widespread felsic lavas in the upper GRV is compositionally
occur in the upper GRV. Vent sources for the widespread felsic monotonous and when plotted together, the lavas in the upper
lavas have yet to be identified. Allen and McPhie (2002) sug- GRV line up on a single, well-defined fractionation trend.
gested that widespread outflow would be promoted by eruption
from several vents along a fissure rather than from point-source Acknowledgements
vents, a relationship that is well demonstrated in flood basalt
provinces (e.g., Self et al., 1996). The lavas show no textural or This research was funded by an Australian Research Council
lithofacies variations that might serve as reliable vectors to Large Grant to JMcP and an internal research grant to SA. Field
source vents. However, at least one of them, the Eucarro and logistical support were provided by the Office of Minerals
Rhyolite, retains well defined and consistent AMS character- and Energy Resources, South Australia. Kathy Stewart
istics, and the AMS data suggest outflow from sources located (U. Adelaide), Sue Daly and Alistair Crooks (PIRSA) are
to the southwest and north of the present GRV outcrop area gratefully acknowledged for helpful discussions and technical
(McPhie et al., 2008-this issue). support during the fieldwork and mapping. The owners and
managers of the stations in the Gawler Ranges (Lake Everard,
6. Conclusions Hiltaba, Yardea, Paney, Thurlga, Mount Ive, Nonning, Siam,
Kangaroo Wells, Moonaree and Kolendo) are thanked for al-
The GRV are a well-exposed, intracontinental volcanic LIP lowing access and for their hospitality. This manuscript was
dominated by felsic lavas. The dominance of rhyolites and written while SA was an ARC Research Fellow.
dacites could be related to the intracontinental setting in which
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