S. S.

S ONE

TABLE OF CONTENT
WEEK TOPICS
1 ELECTRIC CURRENT, POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE, ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE,
RESISTANCE AND THEIR UNITS
2 RESISTOR IN SERIES AND PARALLEL, CELLS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL.
3 ELECTRICAL ENERGY AND POWER
4 PARTICLE NATURE OF MATTER

5 CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF MATTER

6 SURFACE TENSION
7 PERIODIC TEST
8 CAPILLARITY - ADHESION AND COHESION

9 ELASTICITY
10 WORKDONE IN ELASTIC MATERIALS
11 PROJECT
12 REVISION

13 EXAMINATION

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WEEK ONE

ELECTRIC CURRENT, POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE, ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE,

RESISTANCE AND THEIR UNITS

Electric current I is defined as the rate of flow of electric charge (or electron) along a conductor
(or metal). It is measured in Ampere (A).

An Ammeter measures the current and it’s connected in series to the circuit. Milli-ammeter is
used for measuring smaller current and extremely small current are detected by galvanometer.
Potential Difference also known as Voltage is defined as the work-done in moving a positive
charge from one point in the electric field to another. It is measured in volts (V).

If a cell has 1 Volt, it delivers 1 Joule of energy to each coulomb of charge (J/C).

Electromotive force or emf denoted with E or V is defined as the total work-done in driving one
coulomb of electricity round a circuit. OR The maximum voltage a cell or battery can produce. It
is measured in volts (V).
V = work = W
Charge Q
Therefore; W = QV

One coulomb is the charge passing any point in a circuit when a steady current of one ampere
flows for one second. i.e 1 C = 1 A s.

OHM’S LAW
Ohm’s law relates the current and the potential difference to the properties of a conductor i.e
resistance, temperature e.t.c.
Ohm’s Law states that the voltage across a conductor is directly proportional to the current
flowing through it, provided all physical conditions, such as temperature, remain constant. i.e I α
V, V = IR, where R is the resistance in a conductor.
Example 1: A torch lamp takes a current of 0.3 A from a 3 V battery. Calculate its resistance.
Given; I = 0.3A, V = 3V and R =?
R = V/I, R = 3/0.3 = 10Ω

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN OHMIC AND NON-OHMIC CONDUCTORS

Conductors that obey Ohm’s law such as; metals and resistors are called ohmic conductor while
those that does not obey Ohm’s law such as; diode, semiconductors, filament bulb etc are known
as non-ohmic conductors.

OHMIC CONDUCTOR NON-OHMIC CONDUCTOR

1 It obeys ohms law. It does not obey ohms law.
2 Magnitude of current remains unchanged Magnitude of current changes when current
when current or voltage is reversed. or voltage is reversed.
3 Current is proportional to voltage i.e V=IR. Current is not proportional to voltage.
4 Temperature affects current and resistance Different factors affect current and resistance
in resistor and other pure metals. in e.g bulb filament and semiconductor.

Electric Resistance can be defined as the opposition to the flow of charges (electron) in a
conductor. It is measured in ohms (Ω).
The component of electric circuit that opposes the flow of current is known as Resistor or Load.
INTERNAL RESISTANCE ‘r’: The p.d across the circuit is always below the value of emf
supply to the circuit because the quantity of charge moving through the material encounter an
opposition known as internal resistance (r).

When electricity flows round a circuit the internal resistance of the cell itself resists the flow of current
and so thermal (heat) energy is wasted in the cell itself.

According to Ohm’s law emf, E = V + Ir i.e E = I(R + r). Where r is the internal resistance of
the cell, V is the terminal potential difference and Ir is the lost voltage.

Example 2: A battery of emf 24V and internal resistance 4Ω is connected to a resistor of 32Ω.
Calculate the terminal P.d. of the circuit.

Given; E = 24V, r = 4Ω, R = 32Ω and V =?

Using; I = E = 24 = 0.67A
R+r 36
V = IR = 0.67 x 32 = 21.4V

OHM is the resistance of a conductor in which the current is one ampere when a voltage of one
volt is applied across it.

RESISTIVITY AND CONDUCTIVITY OF A MATERIAL

Resistivity (ρ): Is the property of a material that determines how strongly it opposes the flow of
electric current. It is measured in ohm-metre (Ωm).

Factors Affecting Electrical Resistance of A Conductor

 Length of a conductor: The resistance of a conductor of uniform cross sectional area is

directly proportional to its length. i.e R α L.
 Area: The resistance of a conducting wire is inversely proportional to its area; i.e R α 1/A.
 Temperature: The resistance of a conductor varies directly with its temperature i.e R α T.
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 Nature of the Material: The resistance of a conductor depends upon the material which it is
made. Silver is the best electrical conductor followed by copper and aluminum.
Mathematically; ρ = RA
L
Where R = resistance, A = area and L = length

Conductivity (σ) is the measure of a material's ability to conduct electric current. It is the inverse
of resistivity and its measure in (Ωm)-1
Example 3: Find the resistance of a wire of length 0.65m, radius 0.2mm and resistivity 3 x 10-
6
Ωm. [𝛑 = 3.142]
Given; L = 0.65m, r = 0.2mm = 0.0002m, ρ = 3 x 10-6Ωm, R =?
A = 𝛑r2 = 3.142 x (0.0002)2 = 1.26 x 10-7m2
R = ρL = 3x 10-6 x 0.65 = 15.5Ω
A 1.26 x 10-7

Example 4: What is the resistivity of a cylindrical material wire whose 1.0m length has a
resistance of 2ohms? The diameter of the wire is 0.5mm. [𝛑 = 3.142]

Given; L = 1m, r = 0.5/2 = 0.25mm = 2.5 x 10-4m and R = 2Ω.

A = 𝛑r2
ρ = RA, ρ = 2x 3.142 x (2.5 x 10-4)2
L
ρ = 3.93 x 10-7Ωm

Practice Exercise

1. A car fuse is marked 15A and operates normally on a 12V battery. Calculate the resistance of
the fuse. Answer: 0.8Ω
2. A cell of emf 1.5V is connected in series with a resistor of resistance 3Ω. A voltmeter
connected across the cell registers only 0.9V. Calculate the internal resistance of the cell.
Answer: 2Ω
3. A resistance wire of length 2 m and of uniform cross-sectional area 5.0 x 10-7 m2 has a
resistance of 2.2Ω. Calculate its resistivity. Answer5.5 x 10-7 Ωm
4. A constant wire has a cross sectional area of 4 x 10-8m2 and a resistivity of 1.1 x 10-6 Ωm. If
a resistor of resistance 11Ω is to be made from this wire, calculate the length of the wire
required. Answer: 0.4m

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WEEK TWO
RESISTOR IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

ELECTRIC CIRCUIT is the complete path provided for the flow of electric current. It consists
of the source of electric energy (battery or cell), a switch or key to start or stop the flow of
current, an ammeter to measure the current flow, a voltmeter to measure the potential difference,
a resistor or load and a rheostat to adjust the flow of current. These components can be connected
as shown below.

Electric circuit

COMPONENTS IN THE CIRCUIT

SERIES
In a series circuit, there is only one path for the current to follow. That is, current is not used up
as it goes round the circuit. The current is the same at all points in a series circuit.

According to Ohm’s Law; V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2 and V3 = IR3. If V is the combined voltage in the
circuit, then; V = V1 + V2 + V3 i.e IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3. In as much as current at all points are the
same then, dividing both sides by I gives; R = R1 + R2 + R3.
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Note: In series circuit, if one component fails, the other components will stop working because
current flows through one path.
PARALLEL
In a parallel circuit, the current splits: some goes through one component and the rest through
the other. The current from the source is larger than the current in each branch. The sum of the
currents in the branches of a parallel circuit equals the current entering or leaving the parallel
section while voltage at all points are the same.

Note: Parallel circuit arrangement allows electricity to flow through more than one path,
therefore if one component fails, the others won't be affected.

Therefore; I1 = V , I2 = V , I3 = V
R1 R2 R3
For total Current in the circuit we have;
I = I1 + I2 + I3
I=V = V + V+ V
R R1 R2 R3
Dividing both side by V;
1=1+1+ 1
R R1 R2 R3

Example 1: If three resistors 2Ω, 3Ω and 5Ω are connected in series in a circuit, calculate the
equivalent resistance of the combination.

R = R1 + R2 + R3, R= 2 + 3 + 5 = 10Ω

Example 2: Calculate the equivalent resistance if the following resistors are connected in
parallel; R1 = 1Ω, R2 = 6Ω and R3 =13 Ω.

1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3

1/R = 1/1 + 1/6 + 1/13

1/R = 1 + 0.167 + 0.076, R = (1 + 0.167 + 0.076)-1 = 0.8Ω

Example 3: Calculate the effective resistance in the circuit below:

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Solution: R1 = 4Ω, R2 = 2Ω, R3 = 1Ω, R4 = 3Ω, R5 = 5Ω, R6 = 5Ω

1/R(2,3) = 1/R2 + 1/R3 = ½ + 1 = 3/2,

1/R(3,5,6) = 1/R3 + 1/R4 + 1/R5 = 1/3 + 1/5 + 1/5 = 11/15

Therefore RT = 4+2/3+15/11 = 6.03 Ω

Practice Exercise
1. Three 2Ω resistors are placed in series. What is the total resistance of the circuit? Answer:
6Ω
2. Three resistors R1=1.00Ω, R2=2.00Ω and R3=2.00 are connected in parallel. The parallel
connection is attached to a V=3.00V voltage source. (a) What is the equivalent resistance?
(b) Find the current supplied by the source to the parallel circuit. (c) Calculate the currents in
each resistor. Answer a) 0.5Ω b) 6A c) I1 = 3A, I2 = 1.5A and I3 = 1.5A

WEEK 3

ELECTRIC ENERGY AND POWER

When a charge moves through a potential difference, electrical work is done and energy is
transferred. The electrical energy transferred (work-done) can be calculated using the equation
below:

Work done (Energy transferred) = Charge (Q) × Potential difference (V)

i.e. W = QV, but Q =It. Therefore W = IVt.

From ohms law V = IR; therefore W = I2Rt = V2t/R where I = current, R = resistance, t =
time and V = potential difference.

Example 1: The headlamp of a car takes a current of 0.4A from a 12V supply. Calculate the
energy produce in 5 minutes.

Given; I = 0.4A, V = 12V, t = 5mins = 5 x 60secs = 300secs

E = IVt = 0.4 x 12 x 300 = 1440J
Example 2: How much work is done when 3 C of charge moves through a potential difference of
6 V?

Given; Q = 3C, V = 6V and W =?

W = V x Q = 6 x 3 = 18J

ELECTRIC POWER (P) is the rate of transfer of energy. i.e. Power = Energy/time. It is
measured in Watts (W) or Joule per second (Js-1).

P =IV = I2R = V2/R.

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Example 3: An electric lamp is marked 240V, 60W. What is its resistance when it is operated at
the correct voltage?

Given; V = 240V, P = 60W and R =?

R = V2/P = (240 x 240)/ 60 = 960Ω

Example 4: When a lamp is switched on for 60 s, 3,000 J of energy are transferred. Calculate the
power of the lamp.

Given; t = 60s, E = 3000J and P =?

P = Energy/time = 3000/60 = 50W

BUYING AND SELLING OF ELECTRICITY

Electric energy is measured and sold in units of kilo-watt hour (kWh). Thus 1kwh = 1 x 1000 x
60 x60 = 3.6 x 106J.

Example 5: An electric Jug takes 10A when operated on a 220V supply. Find the cost of
operating the appliance for 24hrs at ₦50.00 per kWh.

Given; I = 10A, V = 220v, t = 24hrs.

Power in kW = (10 x 220)/1000 = 2.2kW.
Energy in kWh = power x time = 2.2 x 24 = 52.8kWh
Cost in ₦50.00k per kWh = 52.8 x 50 = 2640 = ₦2640.00k

Example 6: A television (40W), a refrigerator (650W), an electric iron (1.1kW) and 10 lamps
(15W each) are connected in series in a house. How much will it cost the housekeeper to switch
on all the appliances for 24 hours if the cost of electricity is ₦50.00 per kWh?

Total power = (40 + 650 + 1100 + 150) W = 1940W.

Total power in kW = 1940/1000 = 1.94kW
Energy in kWh = 1.94 x 24 = 46.56kWh
Cost in naira = 46.56 x 50 = ₦2328.00k

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PRACTICE EXERCISE 3

1. A portable generator is connected to six 100 W lamps and a 600 W amplifying system. How
much energy is consumed if the generator runs for 6 hours? (a) 0.2 kWh (b) 1.2kWh (c) 3.0
kWh (d) 4.2 kWh (e) 7.2 kWh
2. Calculate the time in which 4.8 kJ of energy would be expended when an electric heater of
resistance 1.8 x 103Ω is used on a 240 V mains supply. (Neglected heat losses to the
surrounding) (a) 150.0s (b) 90.0s (c) 36.0s (d) 20.0s (e) 2.7s
3. A lamp marked 100W, 250 V is lit for 10 hours. If it operates normally and 1kwh of
electrical energy cost 2k, what is the cost of lighting the lamp? (a) 1k (b) 2k (c) 5k (d) 10k (e)
20k
4. Five 80 –W and three 100-W lamps are run for 8 hours. If the cost of energy is N5.00 per
unit, calculate the cost of running the lamps. [1 unit = 1kWh]. (a) N280.00 (b) N28.00 (c)
N7.20 (d) N1.44 (e)N5.5

WEEK 4
PARTICLE NATURE OF MATTER

Structure of Atom
The atomic theory of matter assumes that matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms and
that these atoms are at all times in a rapid state of motion.
The speed/nature of this motion and its behavior depend on the temperature of the matter and
other factor.
Atom: This is the smallest indivisible particle of an element which can take part in chemical
change. It combines in simple proportions to form molecules.

The nucleus is the heaviest portion of the atom and is located at its centre. It consists of two
parts, the proton (positively charge) and the neutron (no charge).
The second part of atom is electron (negatively charge) which is very light compared to the mass
of a proton.
In a neutral (stable) atom, the total charges due to the protons must be balance the total charges
due to the electrons.
Molecules: This is the smallest particle of a substance which can have a separate existence and
still retain the properties of that substance. The molecules of any substance are identical. They

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have the same structure, the same mass and the same mechanical and identical properties. The
size of a molecule is extremely small about (10-9 – 10 -10) m.

EVIDENCE OF THE PARTICLE NATURE OF MATTER

1. Brownian motion is the rapid, constant and irregular motion of tiny particles suspended in a
fluid. It is due to the continuous and random bombardment by air molecules.
2. Diffusion is the tendency of molecules to migrate and fill an empty space due to their
random thermal motions. OR It is the process by which different forms of fluid mix with one
another due to the kinetic nature of their particles.
It is due to movements of molecules and it takes place in gases and liquids and slowly in
solids. Rate of diffusion depends on the density of the gas, its pressure, its concentration, its
mass and its temperature.

3. Osmosis is a process by which the molecules of a solvent pass from a solution of low
concentration to a solution of high concentration through a semi-permeable membrane.

STATES OF MATTER

Matter can exist in three states – solids, liquids and gases.

SOLIDS: In solids, molecules are closely packed. They are held rigidly together by
intermolecular forces of cohesion. These molecules only vibrate about their fixed positions. Thus
solids have definite shapes and volumes and cannot be poured. When solid is heated it turns to
liquid at a very high temperature (melting point).

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LIQUIDS: In liquids, the molecules are freer to move about because the intermolecular forces
binding them are weaker than those in solids. The molecules of a liquid are also closely packed
together but can move about randomly. It has no definite shape or form but always assume the
shape of its container. It can be poured when liquid is heated it turn to vapour at its boiling point.

GASES: In gases, the cohesive forces binding the molecules are negligible. These molecules are
therefore very free to move about in all directions restricted only by the walls of the container. A
gas has no definite shape and occupies the whole volume of its container. Gases are more easily
compressed than liquids and solids. This is because the molecules are relatively far apart.

PRACTICE EXERCISE
1. In which of the following states of matter do the molecules vibrate about their mean
positions? (a) Liquids only (b) solids only (c) liquids and gases only (d) solids, liquids and
gases
2. Which of the following is not an evidence of the particle nature of matter? (a) diffusion (b)
Brownian motion (c) Diffraction (e) Crystal structure (e) photo-electricity
3. When an atom loses or gains a charge, it becomes (a) an ion (b) an electron (c) a neutron (d)
a proton (e) a deuteron
THEORY

Outline the difference between solids, liquids and gases in term of (a) the separation of the
molecules (b) the motion of the molecules.

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WEEK 5

CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF MATTER

Crystal is a piece of solid matter in which the atoms, molecules or ions are arranged in a highly
regular repeating pattern or lattice. They are small particles which make up a crystalline
substance.

The particles in crystals are arranged in regular three-dimensional framework or pattern called
crystal lattice which repeats over and over again in all directions. This high degree of regularity
in the arrangements of the molecules is the principal feature distinguishing solids from liquids.

STRUCTURE OF SIMPLE CRYSTALS

 SIMPLE CUBIC LATTICE: This is structure in which the atoms are placed at the corner
of imaginary cubes stacked side by side, up and down like building blocks e.g. NaCl
structure.

 BODY-CENTRED CUBIC CRYSTAL: In this structure the unit cell has identical particles
at each corner plus one in the centre of the cell. Each atom has eight immediate neighbors.
Examples of such crystal are chromium, iron and platinum salts.

 FACE – CENTRED CUBIC CRYSTAL: In this structure the unit cell has identical
particles at each of the corners plus another in the centre of each face. Examples of such
crystals are those of many common metals like copper, silver, aluminum, lead etc.

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NON-CRYSTALLINE OR AMORPHOUS SUBSTANCES

Non-crystalline substances lack the regular arrangement of atoms characteristics of crystals.

They are said to be amorphous, or without form. Examples of such amorphous substance are
glass and plastics.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CRYSTALLINE AND AMORPHOUS SUBSTANCES

CRYSTALLINE AMORPHOUS
1 It has a definite shape. It has no definite shape.
2 It has boiling and melting point. It has no melting and boiling point.
3 It is usually soluble It is usually insoluble
4 They can exist either in hydrated or anhydrous They exist only in anhydrous.
form.

Practice Exercise 5

1. Distinguish between crystalline and amorphous substances. Give two examples of each.
2. Describe the structure of sodium chloride.
3. Distinguish between simple cubic crystal and the body-centred crystal.

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WEEK 6
SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY

SURFACE TENSION
This is the force acting along the surface of a liquid causing liquid surface to behave like a
stretched elastics skin.

The surface of a liquid behaves as if it is covered by an elastic skin and this is as a result of
cohesive forces among liquid molecules. Surface tension is responsible for the shape of liquid
droplets.

For instance a needle or a razor blade place on a filter paper on the surface of the water will float
when the paper soaks and sinks. The weight of the needle or razor acting upward, this enables
the needle to rests on the ‘skin’ of the water surface making only slight depression on it.

Mathematically surface tension, ɣ, of a given surface can be calculated using;

ɣ = F/L

Where F = force acting on the surface and L = length where the force act.

OR ɣ = rhρg/2, where r = radius of a tube or container, h = height of the liquid, ρ = density of the
liquid and g = acceleration due to gravity.

Example 1: A water strider 1.5 cm long poses on the water surface. If the surface tension of the
water is 5 N/m. Calculate the estimated mass of the insect? [g = 10m/s2]

Given: L = 1.5cm = 0.015m, ɣ = 5N/m and m =?

Weight, W, of the insect equals the force, F, exerted by it on the surface of water.

Therefore; W = F = ɣL = 5 x 0.015 = 0.075N

W = mg, m = W/g = 0.075/10 = 0.0075kg = 7.5g

EFFECT OF SURFACE TENSION

 Beading of rain water on a waxy surface, such as leaf.

 Formation of drops occurs when a mass of liquid is stretched.

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 Floatation of objects denser than water occurs when the object is non-wettable and its weight
is small.
 Separation of oil and water.
 Lubricating oil spread easily on all parts because of their low surface tension.
 Water striders stay atop the liquid because of surface tension.

APPLICATION OF EFFECT OF SURFACE TENSION

 In water proof materials.

 Cleansing action of soaps and detergents.

HOW TO REDUCE SURFACE TENSION

 By adding soaps and detergents to the liquids e.g. water.

 By increasing the temperature of the liquid i.e. heating.
 By adding impurities to the liquids.
 By adding less viscous liquids to the liquid.
 By aeration or by pumping air into the liquid.

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WEEK 7

CAPILLARITY

This is the action or tendency of liquid to rise or fall in a narrow tube.

It is the ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without the assistance of, and in opposition to
force of gravity. Capillary action is important for moving water (and all of the things that are
dissolved in it) around. It can also be defined as the movement of water within the spaces of a
porous material due to the forces of adhesion, cohesion, and surface tension.

Examples of capillary action in water around us:

 Water moving up a straw or glass tube.

 If one end of a towel is dipped into a bucket of water and the other end hangs over the
bucket, the entire towel soon becomes wet due to capillary action.
 The supply of water to the leaves at the top of even a tall tree is through capillary rise.
 Cotton dresses are preferred in summer because cotton dresses have fine pores which act
as capillaries for sweat.
 Tears moving through tear ducts.

Capillary Actions of Water and Mercury in a Narrow Tube

When a capillary tube is dipped in the water, water molecules will be attracted towards the
surface of capillary tube as a result of higher adhesive force between water and glass molecules
compare to the cohesive force between its molecules and thus gradually increase in the level of
water in capillary tube. This is also the reason why the meniscus shape in this case is concave.

But when the capillary tube is dipped in mercury, molecules of mercury are attracted towards
one another and will not stick with capillary wall as a result of higher cohesive forces compared
to adhesive forces. Therefore mercury level falls in the tube. This is the reason why meniscus in
this case is convex.

Two major terms required to explain the capillary action of liquids are cohesion and adhesion.

COHESION is the force of attraction between the molecules of the same kind, e.g molecules of
water.

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ADHESION is the force of attraction between the molecules of different kinds, e.g the molecules
of water and glass.

Capillarity explains;

 Why a blotting paper absorbs ink.

 Water rises in the stem of plants.
 Liquid candle wax rises up the wick of a lamp.
 A drop of water remains for a time on the surface of a dry cloth being absorbed.

PRACTICE EXCERCISE

1. Which of the following will not lower the surface tension of water? (a) detergent (b)
Methylated spirit (c) soap solution (d) grease (e) camphor
2. Which of the following has the highest surface tension? (a) cold water (b) soapy water (c)
warm water (d) oily water (e) salt water
3. The force between molecules of the same substance is termed (a) elastic force (b) repulsive
force (c) cohesive force (d) adhesive force
4. A steel needle floating on water, sinks when kerosene is added to the water. This is because
the kerosene (a) increases the surface tension of the water (b) reduces the density of water (c)
reduces the surface tension of the water (d) reduces the upthrust on the needle

THEORY
1. Describe a simple experiment to demonstrate the surface tension of a liquid.
2. Why does water wet a clean glass surface whereas mercury does not?

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WEEK 8
ELASTICITY

This is the ability of a substance to regain its original shape and size after being distorted by an
external force.

Elastic materials are those that regain their original shapes and sizes after the distorting force
has been removed.

For a wire or spring it is found that if a gradual stretching force, F, is applied, the extension, e,
produced at any time is directly proportional to the force applied. If the applied force is removed,
the wire should return to its original size and shape.

HOOKE’S LAW

Hooke’s law state that provided the elastic limit is not exceeded, the extension, ‘e’ in an elastic
material is proportional to the load or applied force ‘F’.

i.e Fαe F=ke

Where k = Stiffness or elastic constant

k = F/e. It is measured in Nm-1

Elastic constant is the force required to produce a unit extension. It gives a measure of how
strong a wire or spring is.

Example 1: A force of 0.8N stretches an elastic spring by 2cm. Find the constant of the spring.

Given; F = 0.8N, e = 2cm = 0.02m and k =?

k = F/e, k = 0.8/ 0.02 = 40Nm-1

Example 2: A spring is stretched 0.01m by a weight of 2.0N. Calculate: a) the force constant k
b) the weight, W, of an object that causes an extension of 0.08m.

a) k = F/e = 2/0.01 = 200Nm-1

b) W = ke = 200 x 0.08 = 16N

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION: STRAINED ELASTIC WIRE

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P = Proportionality Limit, E = Elastic Limit, Y = Yield point, OE= Elastic Region, EB = Plastic
region and B = Breaking point

DEFINITION OF TERMS

1. ELASTIC LIMIT: Is the limit of force beyond which the stretched wire does not return to
its original length that the stretching force is removed.
2. YIELD POINT: Is the point beyond the elastic limit in which the elastic material has
yielded all its elasticity permanently and has become plastic.

YOUNG’S MODULUS

If a wire of length L and cross sectional area A is extended through e by a force F, then the:

i) Tensile stress is defined as the ratio of force F to the Area A i.e. tensile stress = F/A. It is
measured in Nm-2.

ii) Tensile strain is defined as the ratio of extension, e, to the original length, L. i.e tensile
strain = e/l.

iii) YOUNG’S MODULUS is defined as the ratio of tensile stress to the tensile strain.

ϒ = Stress = F/A = FL
Strain e/l Ae
-2
It is measured in Nm .

Example 3: A wire of length 5.0m and diameter 2.0mm extends by 0.25mm when a force of
50N was used to stretch it from its end. Calculate the: a) Stress in the wire b) strain in the wire.
c) Young’s modulus. [𝛑 = 3.142]

Given; L = 5m, d= 2.0mm = 0.002m, e= 0.25mm = 0.00025m and

F = 50N.
i) stress = F/A = F/𝛑r2 = 50/(3.142 x 0.0012) = 1.59 x 107Nm2
ii) Strain = e/L = 0.00025/5 = 5 x 10-5
iii) ϒ = stress/strain = 1.59 x 107/5 x 10-5 = 3.18 x 1011Nm-2

Practice Exercise

1. A spiral spring of natural length 30.0 cm and force constant of 20 N m-1 is compressed to
20.0 cm. Calculate the energy stored in the spring (a) 0.1J (b) 1.0 J (c) 10.0 J (d) 100.0 J
(e)500J
2. State the physical quantities one has to measure in order to determine the young’s modulus of
a wire.
3. What is the force constant of a spring which is stretched (a) 2 mm by a force of 4 N, (b) 4 cm
by a mass of 200 g? Answer a) 2000Nm-1 b) 50Nm-1

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4. Force of 40 N is applied at the end of a wire 4m long and produces an extension of 0.24mm.
If the diameter of the wire is 2.00mm, calculate the (i) stress on the wire (ii) strain in the
wire. Answer a) 1.27 x 107Nm-2 b) 6 x 10-4
5. A spiral spring, loaded with a piece of metal, extends by 10.5cm in air. When the metal is
fully submerged in water, the spring extends by 6.8cm. Calculate the relative density of the
metal. (Assume Hooke’s law is obeyed). Answer: 1.54

WEEK 9

WORK-DONE IN ELASTIC MATERIALS

Provided the deformation is within elastic limit, the work done in stretching or compressing a
spring is equal to the elastic potential energy stored in the spring and it is given by;

W = E = ½Fe = ½ke2

e
2e

Example 1: A string is stretched 40mm by a force of 15N. What is the work-done by the force?

Given; e = 40mm = 0.04m, F = 15N, W =?

W = 1/2Fe = ½ x 0.04 x 15 = 0.3J

Example 2: A spiral spring is compressed by 0.02m. Calculate the energy stored in spring, if the
force constant is 400N/m.

Given; e = 0.02m, k = 400N/m and E =?

E = ½ke2 = ½ x 400 x 0.022 = 0.08J

Example 3: A stone of mass 20g is released from a catapult whose rubber has been stretched
through 4cm. if the force constant of the rubber is 200N/m. calculate the velocity with which the
stone leaves the catapult.

Given; m = 20g = 0.02kg, e = 4cm = 0.04m, k= 200N/m,

and v =?

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The elastic potential energy of the stretched rubber is

transformed into kinetic energy of the stone.
Therefore;
1/2ke2 = 1/2mv2
½ x 200 x 0.042 = ½ x 0.02 x v2
v2 = 16, v = √16 = 4ms-1.

Practice Exercise

1. An elastic string of force constant 200 Nm-1 is stretched through 0.8 m within its elastic limit.
Calculate the energy stored in the string. (a) 64.0J (b) 80.0J (c) 128.0 J (d) 160.0J (e)500J
2. A stone of mass 50g is released from a catapult whose rubber has been stretched through
0.05m. If the force constant of the rubber is 200Nm-1, calculate the velocity with which the
stone leaves the catapult. Answer: 3.16ms-1
3. When a force of 50 N is applied to the free end of an elastic cord, an extension of 4 cm is
produced in the cord. Calculate the work done on the cord. Answer: 1J

REFERENCES

1. M. W. Anyakoha (2013), “New School Physics for Secondary Schools Fourth Edition”,
Africana First Publishers PLC.
2. Mike Crudell, Geoff Goodwin, Chris Mee (2014), “Cambridge International AS and A-Level
Physics Second Edition”, Hodder Education.
3. Paul Peter Urone, Roger Hinrichs, Kim Dirks, Manjula Sharma (2013), “College Physics”.
4. Tom Duncan, Heather Kennett (2002), “Cambridge IGCSE Physics Third Edition”, Hodder
Education.

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