TYPE Brief Research Report

PUBLISHED 02 February 2023

DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1090340

Cultural values and changes in

OPEN ACCESS happiness in 78 countries during
the COVID-19 pandemic: An
EDITED BY
Paul T. P. Wong,
Trent University,
Canada

REVIEWED BY
analysis of data from the World
Lok Sang Ho,
Lingnan University,
China
Happiness Reports
Rongwei Zhang,
Fujian Academy of Governance, Ravi Philip Rajkumar *
China
Department of Psychiatry, Jawaharlal Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education and Research (JIPMER),
*CORRESPONDENCE
Puducherry, India
Ravi Philip Rajkumar
[email protected]

SPECIALTY SECTION The concept of happiness is consistent across cultures to a significant extent, and
This article was submitted to
Positive Psychology,
encompasses both internal (subjective) and external (situational) aspects. Cultural
a section of the journal values and norms shape emotions and behavior from an early age, and hence play a
Frontiers in Psychology key role in influencing cross-national variations in happiness. Cross-national variations
RECEIVED 05 November 2022 in culture can thus play a key role in influencing the relationship between adverse
ACCEPTED 16 January 2023 circumstances, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, and happiness. The current study
PUBLISHED 02 February 2023
examines the relationship between the six dimensions of culture, defined by Hofstede
CITATION
and his colleagues, and subjective ratings of happiness in 78 countries, obtained
Rajkumar RP (2023) Cultural values and
changes in happiness in 78 countries during before (2017–19) and during (2020–21) the COVID-19 pandemic, based on data from
the COVID-19 pandemic: An analysis of data the most recent World Happiness reports. The key results were: (a) countries were as
from the World Happiness Reports.
likely to experience an increase as a decrease in self-reported happiness during this
Front. Psychol. 14:1090340.
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1090340 period; (b) distinct domains of culture were significantly correlated with happiness
COPYRIGHT
at each time point, though there was a certain degree of overlap; (c) pre-pandemic
© 2023 Rajkumar. This is an open-access article levels of happiness were negatively associated with changes in happiness during the
distributed under the terms of the Creative pandemic; and (d) among cultural dimensions, long-term orientation was positively
Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use,
associated with changes in subjective happiness, while indulgence was negatively
distribution or reproduction in other forums is
permitted, provided the original author(s) and the associated with this variable. Certain cultural values may play an important part in
copyright owner(s) are credited and that the fostering a path to well-being in the face of stressful or traumatic circumstances.
original publication in this journal is cited, in
This path may be similar to the concept of mature happiness, derived from existential
accordance with accepted academic practice.
No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted philosophy, which is characterized by achieving a balance between the positive and
which does not comply with these terms. negative aspects of one’s life.

KEYWORDS

happiness, culture, individualism–collectivism, power distance, long-term orientation,

uncertainty avoidance, indulgence versus restraint, masculinity-femininity

Introduction
Definitions of happiness vary across nations and cultures, but share certain core features. While
happiness is commonly understood as satisfaction with one’s life, cross-national research has shown
that happiness is a heterogeneous construct, incorporating both subjective, psychological dimension
and broader social, relational, or contextual dimension (Uchida and Ogihara, 2012; Delle Fave et al.,
2016; Cabanas and Gonzalez-Lamas, 2022). Other aspects of happiness, such as those relating to
economic or social success, have been identified in empirical research (Doh and Chung, 2020);
however, these two dimensions, which can be considered to reflect “inner harmony” and “social
harmony,” appear to have primacy over the others. At the most fundamental, biological level, both

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Rajkumar 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1090340

aspects of happiness can be understood in terms of the molecular and culture is described in terms of six dimensions: power distance,
neural mechanisms that regulate positive emotions and social behavior, individualism–collectivism, masculinity-femininity, uncertainty
and their evolutionary origins (Burgdorf and Panksepp, 2006; Niculescu avoidance, long-term orientation and indulgence vs. restraint (Hofstede
et al., 2010). However, these lower-order factors are themselves shaped et al., 2010). A detailed description of these cultural dimensions, and
by cultural factors, which influence the degree of importance assigned their potential relationships with happiness, is provided in
to the subjective and contextual dimensions of happiness (Matsunaga Table 1 below.
et al., 2018). Some aspects of happiness appear to be similar in diverse The psychological processes involved in adaptation to crises, and to
cultural settings, even in childhood (Song et al., 2020), while others have the maintenance of happiness in the face of adversity, mechanisms are
been found to vary across cultures from the earliest stages of the life strongly influenced by cultural values and attitudes (Lawley et al., 2019;
cycle (Rajhans et al., 2016; Liu et al., 2021). These variations are due to Mayer and Oosthuizen, 2020). For example, cultural collectivism has
differences in parenting practices, and in the beliefs and rules governing been associated with increased resilience following bereavement
both personal and social conduct and the evaluation of life events (Ariapooran et al., 2018). However, certain aspects of adaptation to
(Jordan and Graham, 2012; Simsek and Demir, 2014; Rudan et al., 2016; adversity appear to be independent of culture (Mana et al., 2021), and it
Reyes-Garcia et al., 2021; von Suchodoletz and Hepach, 2021; Wang, is not known which specific cultural dimensions contribute to happiness
2022). All of these are fundamentally “rooted in culture and tradition” in the face of a global crisis.
(Daniels, 2019). Therefore, while the dimensions of happiness appear to Changes in happiness during a crisis such as the COVID-19
be uniform across diverse cultures, culture can shape both the manner pandemic are also influenced by other demographic and psychological
in which happiness is pursued (Ho et al., 2014) and the relationship variables. These include economic development, social support, and a
between efforts to seek happiness and subjective well-being (Ford et al., prior history of psychiatric illnesses such as depression and anxiety
2015). A corollary of these observations is that as cultures change, these disorders (Osawa et al., 2022; Shams and Kadow, 2022). Economic
relationships are also modified (Timimi, 2010; Fuchsman, 2016). factors may also indirectly affect happiness through their influence on
The global COVID-19 pandemic has led to a deeper understanding the severity of the COVID-19 pandemic in a given country or region
of these concepts of happiness. As a global health crisis of unprecedented (Chang et al., 2022). An increase in the number of deaths due to
proportions, accompanied by widespread disruptions of social and COVID-19 is also associated with a consistent decrease in population
economic life, this pandemic has been associated with elevated levels of levels of happiness over time (Greyling et al., 2021). Therefore, analyses
subjective psychological distress (Cenat et al., 2021). In such a situation, of the relationship between culture and happiness over the course of the
one would logically expect a significant and widespread decrease in both pandemic should be corrected for these potential confounding factors.
subjective and situational happiness. However, this has not been the case. The aim of the current study was to examine whether national
Surveys conducted among the general population in several countries, scores on each of Hofstede’s cultural dimensions were associated with
including Ecuador, Japan, Spain, and South Africa, found that a significant changes in national levels of happiness during the COVID-19 pandemic,
proportion of respondents reported average or even increased levels of while correcting for the aforementioned confounders.
happiness (Greyling et al., 2021; Gutierrez-Cobo et al., 2021; Kimura et al.,
2022; Paz et al., 2022). Moreover, even in studies reporting a decrease in
self-reported happiness, this change was modest; a study of over 8,000 Methods
Chinese adults found that mean happiness decreased by an average of
0.6% from the pre-pandemic period to the first year of the pandemic (Lin The current study was a cross-national, ecological analysis of the
et al., 2021), while a study of respondents from 43 countries found that relationship between Hofstede’s six dimensions of culture and levels
despite a slight decrease in average happiness, there were expectations of of happiness at the national level, before and after the onset of the
increased happiness in the near future (Muresan et al., 2022). This COVID-19 pandemic. Both cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses
seemingly paradoxical finding can be explained if one considers that were performed.
happiness is not a static but a dynamic phenomenon, and that mature
happiness can be experienced even in the midst of adversity through a
process of adaptation (Cloninger et al., 2012). The processes involved in Data sources
this dynamic adaptation have been referred to by various terms, such as
resilience, flourishing, salutogenesis, and post-traumatic growth; however, Happiness
there is a significant degree of overlap between these constructs (Beckstein Data on estimated national levels of happiness were obtained
et al., 2022). More recently, existential positive psychology (PP2.0) has from the World Happiness Report for the year 2021. The World
provided a framework within which these phenomena can be understood Happiness Reports, which have been published annually from the
and applied at the psychological, social, and spiritual levels (Wong year 2012 onward, are compiled by a panel of independent experts.
et al., 2021). These reports provide rankings of happiness for over 90 countries
When studying the relationship between culture and happiness, it around the world based on a wide range of data, particularly the
is important to distinguish between fine-grained, “micro”-level Gallup World Polls which collect data on subjective happiness and
analyses, such as examinations of the relationship between parenting life satisfaction from each country (Helliwell et al., 2021). The 2021
practices and subjective happiness in childhood, and broader, “macro”- report was selected because it provided composite indices of
level analyses (Ye et al., 2015). In the latter approach, cross-cultural average national ratings of happiness for both the pre-COVID
variations in happiness are studied in terms of differences across one or period (2017–2019) and the period following the onset of the
more orthogonal dimensions identified through the analysis of large, COVID-19 pandemic (2020–2021) for a total of 95 countries. The
multi-country data sets. One such approach that has been used in happiness scores for each country range from 0 to 10, with higher
happiness studies is Hofstede’s six-factor model, in which a nation’s scores indicating greater levels of self-reported happiness.

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TABLE 1 Hofstede’s six-factor model of culture and its relationship to happiness.

Factor Definition Scoring Relationship with happiness

Power distance The degree to which less powerful Higher scores indicate a more “hierarchical” High power distance has been negatively
members of a society accept and expect organization of society (e.g., Malaysia, with a score of associated with subjective happiness in pre-
inequality in power distribution. 100) and lower scores indicate a more “egalitarian” pandemic research (Ye et al., 2015)
society (e.g., Austria, with a score of 11)

Individualism–collectivism The degree to which society accords Higher scores indicate greater individualism (e.g., Individualism may be associated with
relative privilege to the individual or the the United States, with a score of 91) and lower reductions in the interpersonal dimension of
wider social group / community scores indicate collectivist values (e.g., Guatemala, happiness (Ogihara and Uchida, 2014)
with a score of 6).

Masculinity-femininity A social preference for either Higher scores indicate more masculine values (e.g., No significant associations between this
achievement, assertiveness, and Slovakia, with a score of 100), and lower scores dimension and happiness have been reported
competitiveness (masculinity) or care, indicate more feminine values (e.g., Sweden, with a to date (Ye et al., 2015)
nurturing and cooperation (femininity) score of 5).

Uncertainty avoidance The degree to which members of a society High scores indicate less comfort with ambiguity and High Uncertainty Avoidance may
are comfortable with uncertainty and a greater need for certainty and clarity (e.g., Greece, be associated with increased levels of
ambiguous situations with a score of 100), and lower scores indicate a unhappiness in relation to social change
better ability to improvise in ambiguous situations (Hofstede et al., 2010); however, an analysis
(e.g., Singapore, with a score of 8) of cross-national data found a positive
association between this dimension and
happiness (Ye et al., 2015)

Long-term orientation Indicates a preference for pragmatism, Higher scores indicate a greater “future” orientation Higher Long-Term Orientation may
modernity, perseverance and delayed and pragmatism (e.g., the Republic of Korea, with a moderate the association between economic
gratification (future orientation), as score of 100), while lower scores indicate a “past” status and happiness (Graafland, 2020)
opposed to traditionalism and resistance orientation (e.g., Ghana, with a score of 4).
to change

Indulgence-restraint The extent to which a society allows Higher scores indicate greater freedom to gratify Indulgence has been positively associated
gratification of human drives related to desires for pleasure (e.g., Venezuela, with a score of with subjective happiness (Li et al., 2022) and
pleasure or enjoyment 100), while lower scores indicate strict social norms prosocial behavior (Guo et al., 2018)
and social disapproval of such desires (e.g., Pakistan,
with a score of 0).

was the general level of socioeconomic development achieved by

Cultural dimensions each country as of 2019, prior to the onset of the COVID-19
Data on Hofstede’s dimensions of culture was obtained from the pandemic. This was estimated using the Human Development
Hofstede Insights database, which provides scores on each of Hofstede’s six Index, a composite measure of education, income, and life
cultural dimensions for a total of 115 countries (Hofstede Insights, 2022). expectancy, obtained from the United Nations’ Human
Each cultural dimension is assigned a score from 0 to 100, with lower or Development Report for the year 2019 (United Nations
higher scores indicating a cultural orientation toward a particular “pole.” A Development Programme, 2019). The third was the estimated
description of these scores is provided in Table 1. For example, for the prevalence of common mental disorders (depression and anxiety
dimension “masculinity-femininity,” higher scores indicate a more disorders) in each country for the year 2019. This variable was
masculine cultural orientation (characterized by an emphasis on selected in view of the negative correlation between these disorders
achievement), and lower scores indicate a more feminine orientation and self-reported happiness observed by earlier researchers (Keyes,
(characterized by an emphasis on care and nurturing). Of the 115 countries 2005), as well as the finding that those with pre-existing mental
covered by this database, 78 were also included in the World Happiness disorders are more likely to experience psychological distress
Report for 2021. These 78 countries were included in the current study. during the pandemic (Millroth and Frey, 2021). Data on this
variable was obtained from the Global Burden of Disease Study
Confounding factors 2019 (Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, 2022).
In order to ensure that any observed associations between
cultural values and happiness were not incidental, all analyses were
corrected for certain confounding factors. The first of these the Data analyses
number of deaths related to the COVID-19 pandemic in each
country, as measured by the estimated crude mortality rate and Study variables were tested for normality using the Shapiro–Wilk
case-fatality ratio. Information on these variables was obtained as test. As the COVID-19 mortality indices (crude mortality rate and case
of March 20, 2021 (the date of the publication of the World fatality rate) did not follow a normal distribution (p < 0.01, Shapiro–
Happiness Report) from the Johns Hopkins Coronavirus Resource Wilk test), these variables underwent a natural logarithmic
Center (Johns Hopkins University of Medicine, 2022). The second transformation prior to further analyses.

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TABLE 2 Correlation matrix of associations between national happiness scores, Hofstede’s cultural dimensions, and potential confounding before and
during the COVID-19 pandemic.

10 11 12 13
Variable 1 H17 2 H20 3 PD 4 IC 5 MF 6 UA 7 LTO 8 IVR 9 HDI
ANX DEP CMR CFR
1 – 0.94† −0.60† 0.60† −0.12 −0.09 0.13 0.45† 0.82† 0.47† −0.11 0.24* −0.31†

2 – −0.63† 0.66† −0.16 −0.13 0.27* 0.31† 0.84† 0.39† −0.08 0.20 −0.33†

3 – −0.74† 0.20 0.40† 0.06 −0.38† −0.57† −0.46† −0.23* −0.01 0.32†

4 – −0.02 −0.38 †
0.13 0.21 0.65 †
0.40 †
0.21 0.16 −0.21

5 – 0.02 0.01 0.04 −0.12 −0.11 −0.18 −0.05 0.24*

6 – 0.18 −0.25* 0.04 −0.08 −0.27* 0.40† 0.18

7 – −0.49† 0.36† −0.24* −0.32† 0.19 0.06

8 – 0.15 0.34 †
0.12 −0.12 −0.15

9 – 0.43 †
−0.14 0.37 †
−0.26*

10 – 0.35† 0.15 −0.09

11 – −0.15 −0.10

12 – 0.26*
H17, World Happiness Report score (2017–18); H20, World Happiness Report score (2020–2021); PD, Power Distance; IC, Individualism–Collectivism; MF, Masculinity-Femininity; UA,
Uncertainty Avoidance; LTO, Long-Term Orientation; IVR, Indulgence Versus Restraints; HDI, Human Development Index (2017); ANX, prevalence of anxiety disorders (Global Burden of Disease
Study, 2017); DEP, prevalence of depression (Global Burden of Disease Study, 2017); CMR, COVID-19 crude mortality rate; CFR, COVID-19 case fatality ratio. *Significant at p < 0.05; †Significant
at p < 0.01.

Cross-sectional analyses Results

Associations between each of the six cultural dimensions of
Hofstede’s model and average happiness scores for each country A total of 78 countries were included in the current analysis,
were computed using Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r) for the including 38 countries from Europe, 16 from the Asia-Pacific region, 13
pre-pandemic (2017–19) and pandemic (2020–21) periods. from the American continent, and 11 from Africa. Mean happiness
Correlation coefficients between happiness scores and potential scores, given as mean (standard deviation), were 5.91 (1.05) in 2017–19,
confounding factors (COVID-19 mortality indices, Human with a maximum of 7.81 (Finland) and a minimum of 3.48 (Tanzania).
Development Index, and prevalence of common mental disorders) In 2020–21, the corresponding value was 5.94 (0.96), with a maximum
were also computed. Based on these results, partial correlation of 7.89 and a minimum of 3.79 in the same countries, respectively.
analyses were then carried out to examine if any of the relationships Happiness scores at both time points were very strongly correlated with
between culture and happiness remained significant after correcting each other (r = 0.94, p < 0.001).
for confounders significantly associated with either variable. The
strength of each correlation was quantified using standard
guidelines for psychological research as follows: absolute value of Cross-sectional associations between
r (|r|) = 0.1–0.39, weak correlation, |r| = 0.4–0.69, moderate cultural dimensions and happiness scores
correlation, and |r| = 0.7–0.99, strong correlation (Akoglu, 2018).
Results of the correlations between happiness scores and
Longitudinal analyses Hofstede’s cultural dimensions, as well as between these scores and
The paired samples t-test was used to examine whether there was a potential confounding variables, are presented in Table 2. It can
significant change in happiness scores across countries between the be seen that at both time points, happiness scores were positively
periods 2017–19 and 2020–21. Countries were then categorized correlated with scores on the cultural dimensions of Individualism–
according to whether their happiness score had increased or decreased Collectivism and Indulgence-Restraint. In other words, higher
during the COVID-19 pandemic, and the percentage change in happiness individualism and higher indulgence were associated with higher
score was computed for each country. Mean differences in baseline happiness scores. On the other hand, scores on the cultural
cultural dimensions and in confounding variables between these two dimension of Power Distance were negatively correlated with
groups of countries were examined using the independent samples t-test. happiness scores at both periods, suggesting that high Power
A cross-lagged regression analysis was carried out to examine whether Distance was negatively associated with happiness. For the period
the relationship between culture and happiness was suggestive of a causal 2020–21 alone, corresponding to the COVID-19 pandemic, the
relationship. This possibility was further explored using an analysis of cultural dimension of Long-Term Orientation was positively
covariance (ANCOVA) using any confounding factors that differed correlated with happiness scores, though the strength of this
significantly between groups as covariates. Finally, the correlations correlation was weak (r = 0.27).
between changes in happiness scores and cultural dimensions were When examining confounding variables, the Human Development
examined using Pearson’s r (unadjusted and adjusted for confounders). Index and the prevalence of anxiety disorders were positively correlated
All tests were two-tailed, and a significance level of p < 0.05 was used with happiness scores; the former correlation (r = 0.82 to 0.84) was
for all analyses. strong, while the latter was moderate (r = 0.39 to.47). During the

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TABLE 3 Cross-lagged regression analysis of the relationship between Hofstede’s cultural dimensions and national happiness scores before and during the
COVID-19 pandemic.

Correlation with 2017–18 Correlation with 2021–21

Cultural dimension Inference
happiness score happiness score
Power distance −0.60 (<0.001) −0.63 (<0.001) No causal relationship

Individualism–collectivism 0.60 (<0.001) 0.66 (<0.001) No causal relationship

Masculinity-femininity −0.12 (0.280) −0.16 (0.160) No causal relationship

Uncertainty avoidance −0.09 (0.417) −0.13 (0.273) No causal relationship

Long-term orientation 0.13 (0.291) 0.27 (0.023) Possible causal relationship

Indulgence vs. restraint 0.45 (<0.001) 0.31 (0.008) No causal relationship

All correlation coefficients are given in the form: Pearson’s r (p value). Values in bold indicate a possible causal relationship (i.e., a significant correlation between pre-pandemic cultural scores and
pandemic happiness scores, but not the converse).

TABLE 4 Bivariate correlations between Hofstede’s cultural dimensions and the percentage of change in national happiness scores from 2017–18 to 2020–
21.

Cultural dimension Power Individualism– Masculinity- Uncertainty Long-term Indulgence

distance collectivism femininity avoidance orientation vs. restraint
Correlation with change in happiness scores 0.10 (0.398) −0.04 (0.739) −0.06 (0.597) −0.10 (0.410) 0.27 (0.020)* −0.44 (<0.001)†

Correlation with change in happiness scores, −0.06 (0.608) 0.10 (0.379) −0.10 (0.369) −0.13 (0.271) 0.21 (0.072) −0.36 (0.002)†
adjusted for baseline prevalence of anxiety
disorders
All correlation coefficients are presented as Pearson’s r or partial r (value of p). *Significant at p < 0.05; †Significant at p < 0.01.

pandemic, COVID-19 case fatality rate was negatively correlated with When comparing happiness before and during the pandemic, it was
happiness scores. There was no observed correlation between COVID-19 found that an equal number of countries (n = 39 in each case) showed an
crude mortality rates and happiness. increase or a decrease in happiness scores. The mean percentage change in
happiness scores was 1.22 ± 7.36%, with a maximum decrease of-15.42%
seen in the Philippines and a maximum increase of 28.7% observed
Partial correlation analyses in Zambia.
When these countries were compared in terms of baseline
Given the positive associations of happiness scores with the Human (pre-pandemic) characteristics, it was found that countries with an increase
Development Index and the prevalence of anxiety disorders, partial in happiness had significantly higher scores on Long-Term Orientation
correlation analyses of the relationships between happiness scores and (t = 2.28, p = 0.025) and lower scores on Indulgence versus Restraint
cultural dimensions were carried out holding these two factors constant. (t = −4.3, p < 0.001). Among confounding factors, only the pre-pandemic
In these analyses, the happiness score in 2017–18 was negatively prevalence of anxiety was significantly lower in countries reporting an
correlated with Power Distance (partial r = −0.24, p = 0.039) and Long- increase in happiness (t = −2.51, p = 0.014). It was also observed that
Term Orientation (partial r = −0.25, p = 0.035) and positively correlated countries with a decrease in happiness scores over this period had
with Indulgence versus Restraint (partial r = 0.55, p < 0.001). The significantly higher pre-pandemic happiness scores (t = 3.24, p = 0.002).
happiness score in 2021 was negatively correlated with Power Distance
(partial r = −0.34, p = 0.003) and Uncertainty Avoidance (partial
r = −0.29, p = 0.011) and positively correlated with Individualism– Longitudinal associations between cultural
Collectivism (r = 0.27, p = 0.017) and Indulgence versus Restraint dimensions and changes in happiness during
(r = 0.33, p = 0.005). In other words, the associations between two the pandemic
specific cultural dimensions (Power Distance and Indulgence versus
Restraint) and national happiness were consistent over time and retained Three methods were adopted to test the hypothesis of a relationship
significance even after adjustment for confounders. between Hofstede’s cultural dimensions and changes in happiness
during the COVID-19 pandemic. The first method adopted was a cross-
lagged regression analysis, the results of which are presented in Table 3.
Changes in happiness during the pandemic From this analysis, it can be seen that only the cultural dimension of
Long-Term Orientation showed a possible causal relationship with
When comparing mean happiness scores from 2017–19 to happiness scores, as indicated by a positive prospective correlation but
2020–21, it was found that there was no significant difference in this no significant correlation in the opposite direction.
variable across time points (paired-samples t = −0.87, p = 0.388, The second method was a bivariate correlation analysis of the
df = 77). Though there was a slight increase in the mean happiness relationship between cultural dimension scores and the percentage of
score, this was modest in magnitude (Cohen’s d = 0.1) and not change in happiness scores during the pandemic. The results of these
statistically significant. correlations are presented in Table 4. In these analyses, Long-Term

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TABLE 5 Analyses of covariance of the association between Hofstede’s cultural dimensions and changes in happiness scores during the COVID-19
pandemic.

Result for independent

Independent variable Covariates Result for covariates
variable
Indulgence vs. restraint LTO, Anxiety F = 9.44, p = 0.003** LTO: F = 13.40, p < 0.001**
Anxiety: F = 2.15, p = 0.147

Long-term orientation IVR, Anxiety F = 0.03, p = 0.869 IVR: F = 13.40, p < 0.001**
Anxiety: F = 0.53, p = 0.468
Countries were compared based on whether happiness scores increased or decreased during the pandemic. Abbreviations: Anxiety, estimated prevalence of anxiety disorders (%) as per the Global
Burden of Disease Study, 2019; IVR, Indulgence vs Restraint; LTO, Long-Term Orientation. * Significant at p < 0.05; ** Significant at p < 0.01.

Orientation was positively correlated with changes in happiness (r = 0.27, Both the experience of happiness, and its relationship to adversity, are
p = 0.02), while Indulgence vs. Restraint was negatively correlated with crucially shaped by cultural values. Though various definitions of culture
changes in happiness (r = −0.44, p < 0.001). The association between have been proposed, Hofstede has conceptualized cultural values as
Indulgence vs. Restraint and changes in happiness remained significant “software of the mind” which are not biologically determined, but have
when controlling for Long-Term Orientation (partial r = −0.37, p = 0.002), evolved in response to environmental and human challenges in a historically
but the converse was not true (partial r = 0.07, p = 0.566). When adjusting contingent manner (Hofstede et al., 2010). In fact, there is evidence that past
for the possible confounding effects of the prevalence of anxiety disorders outbreaks of infectious disease may have influenced the development of
before the pandemic, the association with Indulgence versus Restraint specific cultural values: regions with a higher burden of such diseases may
remained significant (r = −0.36, p = 0.002), but the association with Long- have “evolved” a more collectivist orientation in order to cope more
Term Orientation was reduced to a trend (r = 0.21, p = 0.072). effectively with them (Fincher et al., 2008; Shapouri, 2022). However, most
The third and final method was an analysis of covariance research in this field has focused on Individualism–Collectivism and not on
(ANCOVA) using Indulgence vs. Restraint and Long-Term Orientation other dimensions of culture that may be equally or even more important in
as the dependent variables and the percentage of change in national influencing the behavioral and psychological responses to a large-scale crisis.
happiness scores as the independent variable. The results of these In the current study, certain cultural dimensions (Power Distance,
analyses are presented in Table 5. When Indulgence vs. Restraint was Individualism–Collectivism, and Indulgence-Restraint) were
taken as the dependent variable, it remained significantly different significantly associated with happiness scores for each country both
across groups, and the association with Long-Term Orientation was also pre-and post-pandemic. However, when examining changes in
found to be significant. When Long-Term Orientation was taken as the happiness in the course of the pandemic, the cultural dimensions most
dependent variable, it was not significantly different across groups, strongly associated with this variable were Indulgence-Restraint, and to
though a meaningful effect of Indulgence vs. Restraint was identified. a lesser extent, Long-Term Orientation. This suggests that the cultural
The prevalence of anxiety disorders was not significantly associated with factors associated with a baseline or “stable” level of happiness are not
between-group differences in either model. necessarily the same factors that influence the relationship between
adversity and happiness. This supposition is corroborated by the findings
that countries with a higher pre-pandemic happiness score were more
Discussion likely to experience a decrease in happiness during the pandemic. In the
case of Indulgence-Restraint, a paradoxical phenomenon was observed:
In the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic, concerns were raised this cultural dimension was positively correlated with total happiness
that this unprecedented crisis would lead to a rapid increase in mental scores, but negatively correlated with changes in happiness during the
ill-health and a decrease in subjective happiness (Rose et al., 2020). These pandemic. In the case of Long-Term Orientation, a correlation with
concerns appeared to be corroborated by reports during this time period. happiness scores was observed only during the pandemic, and this
For example, a survey of Chinese adults found that the onset of the dimension was positively correlated with changes in happiness.
pandemic was associated with a decrease in subjective happiness of over Prior research on these dimensions suggests that Indulgence-Restraint
70% (Yang and Ma, 2020), while a similar survey of adults in Spain found is positively correlated, and Long-Term Orientation negatively correlated,
that 44% of respondents reported a decrease in feelings of optimism and with prosocial behavior (Guo et al., 2018). Therefore, it is possible that
positivity (Hidalgo et al., 2020). However, even at this stage, some these aspects of culture may have influenced happiness in the opposite
researchers felt that such concerns were overstated, and that even if an direction during a period of widespread social distancing and isolation
increase in distress or unhappiness was observed, it was likely to vary (Su et al., 2022). Long-Term Orientation has also been found to moderate
markedly across populations, and to reflect the combined influence of the relationship between economic freedom and subjective well-being
baseline social and economic factors alongside pandemic-related factors (Graafland, 2020). Thus, it is possible that the personal values associated
(Rose et al., 2020). The subsequent course of events has tended to support with this dimension, such as patience, perseverance, and delaying
the latter view: deteriorations in mental health status have been far from gratification, may have enabled individuals in such cultures to cope better
uniform (Shevlin et al., 2021), and increases in life satisfaction and with the economic hardships caused by the pandemic (Richards et al.,
happiness have been reported from diverse geographical regions, 2022). On the other hand, Indulgence represents a tendency toward
particularly in the later stages of the pandemic (Greyling et al., 2021; gratification of human desires, “enjoying” life, and having “fun” (Hofstede
Gutierrez-Cobo et al., 2021; Henseke et al., 2022; Kimura et al., 2022; Paz et al., 2010; Smith, 2011). This would explain why this dimension is
et al., 2022). Moreover, it was observed that in certain settings, individuals associated with happiness during times of relative normalcy. However, the
came to value the interpersonal or relational dimension of happiness to thwarting of these tendencies by an event such as the COVID-19
a greater extent than they did pre-pandemic (Bimonte et al., 2022). pandemic could conceivably lead to a decrease in subjective happiness

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Rajkumar 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1090340

(Simon et al., 2022). However, this finding may not extend to the relational happiness among individuals and communities. It is also possible that,
dimension of happiness: a global survey of over 9,900 parents found that regardless of the cultural orientation of a given country, reliance on
Indulgence was negatively associated with parental burnout and processes that transcend cultural variations could aid this process. These
unhappiness during the initial stages of the pandemic, with higher include a connection with Nature (Svoray et al., 2022) and the construction
Indulgence predicting lower unhappiness (van Bakel et al., 2022). of a sense of meaning and purpose in the face of suffering (Mana et al., 2021).
In contrast to the findings relating cultural dimensions and
happiness over the course of the pandemic, relatively few associations
were found when examining possible confounding factors: the Human Conclusion
Development Index was associated with total happiness scores but not
with changes in happiness, while the COVID-19 case-fatality ratio was The results of the current study suggest that certain dimensions of a
negatively associated with total happiness scores. Among mental nation’s culture may influence their reported levels of happiness in the
disorders, anxiety disorders, but not depression, were negatively context of a global crisis. Though the findings of this study should
associated with changes in happiness during the pandemic. The latter be interpreted cautiously, they suggest that certain culturally determined
finding is unexpected, and a detailed exploration of its implications is values and patterns of behavior may influence a populations’ capacity to
beyond the scope of this paper. However, it has been observed that in adapt to such a crisis. The identification of these patterns of thought and
cultures placing a high emphasis on the “pursuit of happiness” (i.e., high conduct may be of use in building resilience and fostering adaptation in
Indulgence), this “pursuit” may itself generate significant anxiety such situations, and such approaches could be profitably combined with
(Cloutier et al., 2020; Humphrey et al., 2021). Given that the prevalence more general, culturally invariant strategies aimed at fostering mature
of anxiety disorders was positively correlated with Indulgence, such happiness in communities.
findings may offer a possible explanation for this result.
Certain key limitations of this study should be borne in mind when
interpreting its results. First, the findings are based on a particular model Data availability statement
of culture and on estimates of specific parameters obtained from survey
data, which necessarily involve a certain margin of error. Second, the The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made
World Happiness Report data provided information on the subjective available by the authors, without undue reservation.
dimension of happiness; therefore, it was not possible to examine the
relationship between culture and other aspects of happiness. Third, due
to the correlational nature of these results, firm conclusions regarding Author contributions
causality cannot be drawn. Fourth, it is possible that other confounding
factors, such as economic inequality, religion, social support, spirituality, The author confirms being the sole contributor of this work and has
and even innate biological differences between populations, could approved it for publication.
account for some of the variation observed. Fifth, there was a relative
under-representation of Asian and African countries in the study
sample, which limits the extent to which these results can be generalized Acknowledgments
to non-Western cultures. Sixth, the period covered by the available data
included only the first year of the pandemic: it is not known if these The author thanks the authors of the World Happiness Report, 2021,
findings will remain significant over a longer period of time. Finally, for making the data that formed the basis for this paper available.
these findings should not be taken as promoting the superiority of one
culture over another. As mentioned earlier, cultural values represent
historically contingent adaptations and compromises, and it is possible Conflict of interest
that the values identified as positively associated with happiness during
the pandemic may have quite different consequences in other situations. The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence
Nevertheless, the current study’s results are in line with the proposal for of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as
a “new behavioral economics of happiness.” Such a behavioral economics a potential conflict of interest.
would extend beyond the pursuit of pleasure or subjective satisfaction,
embrace the “hard questions” of dealing with suffering, and address not just
the relational but the transcendental aspects of happiness (Wong et al., Publisher’s note
2021). The COVID-19 pandemic has exposed certain hard truths about the
limitations of pre-pandemic attitudes and beliefs. The cultural values that All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and
are consistent with the former, pre-pandemic model of happiness are not do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or
necessarily consistent with the latter. This has been demonstrated by a recent those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that
study of individuals from 30 different countries. In these individuals, a may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its
conventional model of happiness based on subjective and objective well- manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
being did not protect against psychological distress during the pandemic,
but a model based on mature happiness and adaptation to adversity was
protective (Carreno et al., 2021). It is possible that a reduced emphasis on Supplementary material
gratification of desires and subjective enjoyment, and a cultivation of the
virtues associated with the cultural dimension of Long-Term Orientation, The Supplementary material for this article can be found online at:
such as perseverance and the ability to delay gratification and look toward https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1090340/
the future, could help in building and sustaining a more mature form of full#supplementary-material

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Rajkumar 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1090340

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