Simplified Guide To

Fingerprint Analysis
We touch things every day: a coffee cup, a car door, a computer keyboard. Each time we do, it is likely
that we leave behind our unique signature—in our fingerprints.

No two people have exactly the same fingerprints. Even identical twins, with identical DNA, have
different fingerprints. This uniqueness allows fingerprints to be used in all sorts of ways, including for
background checks, biometric security, mass disaster identification, and of course, in criminal situations.

Fingerprint analysis has been used to identify suspects and solve crimes for more than 100 years, and it
remains an extremely valuable tool for law enforcement. One of the most important uses for
fingerprints is to help investigators link one crime scene to another involving the same person.
Fingerprint identification also helps investigators to track a criminal’s record, their previous arrests and
convictions, to aid in sentencing, probation, parole and pardoning decisions.

Principles of Fingerprint Analysis

Fingerprints are unique patterns, made by friction ridges (raised) and furrows (recessed), which appear
on the pads of the fingers and thumbs. Prints from palms, toes and feet are also unique; however, these
are used less often for identification, so this guide focuses on prints from the fingers and thumbs.

The fingerprint pattern, such as the print left when an inked finger is pressed onto paper, is that of the
friction ridges on that particular finger. Friction ridge patterns are grouped into three distinct types—
loops, whorls, and arches—each with unique variations, depending on the shape and relationship of the
ridges:
Loops - prints that recurve back on themselves to form a loop shape. Divided into radial loops (pointing
toward the radius bone, or thumb) and ulnar loops (pointing toward the ulna bone, or pinky), loops
account for approximately 60 percent of pattern types.

Whorls - form circular or spiral patterns, like tiny whirlpools. There are four groups of whorls: plain
(concentric circles), central pocket loop (a loop with a whorl at the end), double loop (two loops that
create an S-like pattern) and accidental loop (irregular shaped). Whorls make up about 35 percent of
pattern types.

Arches - create a wave-like pattern and include plain arches and tented arches. Tented arches rise to a
sharper point than plain arches. Arches make up about five percent of all pattern types.
To Each His Own

The two underlying premises of fingerprint identification are uniqueness and persistence (permanence).
To date, no two people have ever been found to have the same fingerprints—including identical twins.
In addition, no single person has ever been found to have the same fingerprint on multiple fingers.

Persistence, also referred to as permanence, is the principle that a person’s fingerprints remain
essentially unchanged throughout their lifetime. As new skin cells form, they remain cemented in the
existing friction ridge and furrow pattern. In fact, many people have conducted research that confirms
this persistency by recording the same fingerprints over decades and observing that the features remain
the same. Even attempts to remove or damage one’s fingerprints will be thwarted when the new skin
grows, unless the damage is extremely deep, in which case, the new arrangement caused by the damage
will now persist and is also unique.

The Proof is in the Minutiae

Analysts use the general pattern type (loop, whorl or arch) to make initial comparisons and include or
exclude a known fingerprint from further analysis. To match a print, the analyst uses the minutiae, or
ridge characteristics, to identify specific points on a suspect fingerprint with the same information in a
known fingerprint. For example, an analyst comparing a crime scene print to a print on file would first
gather known prints with the same general pattern type, then using a loupe, compare the prints side-by-
side to identify specific information within the minutiae that match. If enough details correlate, the
fingerprints are determined to be from the same person.
When and when is fingerprint analysis
used?
Fingerprints can be used in all sorts of ways:

 Providing biometric security (for example, to control access to secure areas or

systems)
 Identifying amnesia victims and unknown deceased (such as victims of major
disasters, if their fingerprints are on file)
 Conducting background checks (including applications for government
employment, defense security clearance, concealed weapon permits, etc.).

Fingerprints are especially important in the criminal justice realm. Investigators

and analysts can compare unknown prints collected from a crime scene to the
known prints of victims, witnesses and potential suspects to assist in criminal
cases. For example:

 A killer may leave their fingerprints on the suspected murder weapon

 A bank robber’s fingerprints may be found on a robbery note
 In an assault case, the perpetrator may have left fingerprints on the victim’s skin
 A burglar may leave fingerprints on a broken window pane
 A thief’s fingerprints may be found on a safe
In addition, fingerprints can link a perpetrator to other unsolved crimes if
investigators have reason to compare them, or if prints from an unsolved crime
turn up as a match during a database search. Sometimes these unknown prints
linking multiple crimes can help investigators piece together enough information
to zero in on the culprit.

In the absence of DNA, fingerprints are used by the criminal justice system to
verify a convicted offender’s identity and track their previous arrests and
convictions, criminal tendencies, known associates and other useful information.
Officers of the court can also use these records to help make decisions regarding
a criminal’s sentence, probation, parole or pardon.

How It’s Done

Where Fingerprints May be Found
Fingerprints can be found on practically any solid surface, including the human
body. Analysts classify fingerprints into three categories according to the type of
surface on which they are found and whether they are visible or not:
Fingerprints on soft surfaces (such as soap, wax, wet paint, fresh caulk, etc.) are
likely to be three-dimensional plastic prints; those on hard surfaces are either
patent (visible) or latent (invisible) prints. Visible prints are formed when blood,
dirt, ink, paint, etc., is transferred from a finger or thumb to a surface. Patent
prints can be found on a wide variety of surfaces: smooth or rough, porous (such
as paper, cloth or wood) or nonporous (such as metal, glass or plastic).

Latent prints are formed when the body’s natural oils and sweat on the skin are
deposited onto another surface. Latent prints can be found on a variety of
surfaces; however, they are not readily visible and detection often requires the
use of fingerprint powders, chemical reagents or alternate light sources.
Generally speaking, the smoother and less porous a surface is, the greater the
potential that any latent prints present can be found and developed.

How Fingerprints are Collected

Collecting Patent Prints

Patent prints are collected using a fairly straightforward method: photography.

These prints are photographed in high resolution with a forensic measurement
scale in the image for reference. Investigators can improve the quality of the
images by using low-angle or alternate light sources and/or certain chemicals or
dyes during photography, but this is usually not necessary.

Collecting Latent Prints

One of the most common methods for discovering and collecting latent
fingerprints is by dusting a smooth or nonporous surface with fingerprint
powder (black granular, aluminum flake, black magnetic, etc.). If any prints
appear, they are photographed as mentioned above and then lifted from the
surface with clear adhesive tape. The lifting tape is then placed on a latent lift
card to preserve the print.
However, fingerprint powders can contaminate the evidence and ruin the
opportunity to perform other techniques that could turn up a hidden print or
additional information. Therefore, investigators may examine the area with an
alternate light source or apply cyanoacrylate (super glue) before using powders.

Alternate Light Source (ALS): It is becoming more commonplace for

investigators to examine any likely surfaces (doors, doorknobs, windows,
railings, etc.) with an alternate light source. These are laser or LED devices that
emit a particular wavelength, or spectrum, of light. Some devices have different
filters to provide a variety of spectra that can be photographed or further
processed with powders or dye stains. For example, investigators may use a blue
light with an orange filter to find latent prints on desks, chairs, computer
equipment or other objects at the scene of a break-in.

Using a fluorescent dye stain and an orange alternate light source helps this latent print appear clearly so that it can
be documented. (Courtesy of Scott Campbell, Ron Smith & Associates)
Use of various alternate light sources may help enhance the appearance of a fingerprint. (Courtesy of Scott
Campbell, Ron Smith & Associates)

Cyanoacrylate: Investigators often perform cyanoacrylate (superglue)

processing, or fuming, of a surface before applying powders or dye stains. This
process, typically performed on non-porous surfaces, involves exposing the
object to cyanoacrylate vapors. The vapors (fumes) will adhere to any prints
present on the object allowing them to be viewed with oblique ambient light or a
white light source.
A chamber specially designed for exposing latent prints to super glue fumes. (Courtesy of Scott Campbell, Ron
Smith & Associates)

Super glue fumes adhere to latent fingerprints on the neck of a glass bottle. (Courtesy of Scott Campbell, Ron Smith
& Associates)

Chemical Developers: Porous surfaces such as paper are typically processed

with chemicals, including ninhydrin and physical developer, to reveal latent
fingerprints. These chemicals react with specific components of latent print
residue, such as amino acids and inorganic salts. Ninhydrin causes prints to turn
a purple color, which makes them easily photographed. DFO (1,2-diazafluoren-9-
one) is another chemical used to locate latent fingerprints on porous surfaces; it
causes fingerprints to fluoresce, or glow, when they are illuminated by blue-
green light.
Paper treated with ninhydrin reagent reveals latent prints after being processed with a household steam iron.
(Courtesy of NFSTC)

Other Collection Methods: In addition to the methods identified above, there

are special techniques for capturing prints from skin, clothing and other difficult
surfaces. Amido Black, a non-specific protein stain that reacts with any protein
present, is typically used for developing or enhancing bloody impressions on
human skin. To reveal prints on clothing, high-tech methods such as vacuum
metal deposition using gold and zinc are showing promise for the investigator.
AccuTrans®, a liquid casting compound, can be used to lift powdered latent
prints from rough, textured or curved surfaces. AccuTrans® is basically a very
thick liquid that fills in the nooks and crannies of rough or textured areas where
conventional print lifting tape encounters difficulty.
Like fingerprint powders, chemical processing can reduce the investigator’s
ability to perform other techniques that could reveal valuable information.
Therefore, any nondestructive investigations are performed before the evidence
is treated with chemicals. For example, a ransom or hold-up note will be
examined by a questioned documents expert before being treated with
ninhydrin, since some formulations of ninhydrin will cause certain inks to run,
thus destroying the writing.

Who Conducts the Analysis

In criminal justice cases, computerized systems are used to search various local,
state and national fingerprint databases for potential matches. Many of these
systems provide a value indicating how close the match is, based on the
algorithm used to perform the search. Fingerprint examiners then review the
potential matches and make a final determination.

Fingerprint examinations may be conducted by forensic scientists, technicians or

police officers; however, the examiner should have the proper training and
experience to perform the task. Currently many agencies require new examiners
to have a four-year degree in science (biology, chemistry or physics). In addition,
agencies may require examiners to become certified by the International
Association for Identification (IAI). IAI’s website provides certification
requirements.
How and Where the Analysis is Performed
Fingerprint analysis is usually performed by law enforcement agencies or crime
laboratories; however, casework may be sent to private companies if there is a
need, such as to reduce backlogs, verify results, or handle high-profile cases.

Fingerprint examination involves looking at the quality and quantity of

information in order to find agreement or disagreement between the unknown
print (from the crime scene) and known prints on file. To conduct the
examination, fingerprint examiners use a small magnifier called a loupe to view
minute details (minutiae) of a print. A pointer called a ridge counter is used to
count the friction ridges.
An examiner uses a loupe to view minute details of a fingerprint. (Courtesy of NFSTC)

The Fingerprint Analysis Process

Fingerprint examiners use the ACE-V (analysis, comparison, evaluation and

verification) method to reach a determination on each print.

Analysis involves assessing a print to determine if it can be used for a

comparison. If the print is not suitable for comparison because of inadequate
quality or quantity of features, the examination ends and the print is reported as
not suitable. If the print is suitable, the analysis indicates the features to be used
in the comparison and their tolerances (the amount of variation that will be
accepted). The analysis may also uncover physical features such as recurves,
deltas, creases and scars that help indicate where to begin the comparison.
Comparisons are performed by an analyst who views the known and suspect
prints side-by-side. The analyst compares minutiae characteristics and locations
to determine if they match. Known prints are often collected from persons of
interest, victims, others present at the scene or through a search of one or more
fingerprint databases such as the FBI’s Integrated Automated Fingerprint
Identification System (IAFIS). IAFIS is the largest fingerprint database in the
world and, as of June 2012, held more than 72 million print records from
criminals, military personnel, government employees and other civilian
employees.
Evaluation is where the examiner ultimately decides if the prints are from the
same source (identification or individualization), different sources (exclusion) or
is inconclusive. Inconclusive results may be due to poor quality samples, lack of
comparable areas, or insufficient number of corresponding or dissimilar features
to be certain.
Verification is when another examiner independently analyzes, compares and
evaluates the prints to either support or refute the conclusions of the original
examiner. The examiner may also verify the suitability of determinations made in
the analysis phase.