Exploring Science Working Scientifically Student Book Year 9
Exploring Science Working Scientifically Student Book Year 9
Exploring Science Working Scientifically Student Book Year 9
Clear learning outcomes are provided for Mark Levesley • Penny Johnson • Iain Brand • Sue Kearsey • Sue Robilliard
every page spread, ensuring students understand their own learning journey.
9
National Curriculum and for progression to Key Stage 4.
Mark Levesley • Penny Johnson • Iain Brand • Sue Kearsey • Sue Robilliard
Exploring Science: Working Scientifically
provides for all your planning, teaching, learning, homework and assessment needs, including:
Visit: www.pearsonschools.co.uk/exploringscienceseries
Activity Pack
9781447959410 Crocodile tears
People who fake being forced through holes prey (when of course,
sad are often said to be in their skulls and out they’re not). Crocodiles
‘crying crocodile tears’. through their eyes causing have their eyes, ears and
A scientific study recently them to weep. This nostrils on the tops of
discovered the reason makes the animals look their heads, so that they
for this metaphor. When as though they feel sorry can lie low in the water as
962-5 crocodiles eat, air is for killing and eating their they wait to attack.
A LW AY S L E A R N I N G
Mark Levesley • Penny Johnson • Iain Brand • Sue Kearsey • Sue Robilliard
A LW AY S L E A R N I N G
CONTENTS
How to use this book 4 9C2 Project 2: Enzyme investigation 49
9C3 Project 3: Teeth 50
Biology
9D Biology transition to GCSE
9A Genetics and evolution
9Da Threat from disease 51
9Aa Monsters and myth 5
9Da Command words (L&C) 52
9Aa Environmental variation 6
9Da Diseases 54
9Ab Inherited variation 8
9Db Control systems 56
9Ab Probability (WS) 10
9Dc Testing medicines 58
9Ac DNA 12
9Dc Median and quartiles (WS) 60
9Ad Genes and extinction 14
9Dd Ecology 62
9Ae Natural selection 16
9De In and out 64
9Ae Convincing arguments (L&C) 18
9De Combatting pandemics 66
9Ae Recreating animals 20
9B Plant growth
9Ba On a farm 21
Chemistry
9Ba Reactions in plants 22 9E Making materials
9Bb Plant adaptations 24 9Ea Materials of the future 67
9Bc Plant products 26 9Ea About ceramics 68
9Bc Clarity and emphasis (L&C) 28 9Eb Polymers 70
9Bd Growing crops 30 9Eb Peer review (WS) 72
9Be Farming problems 32 9Ec Composite materials 74
9Be Bias and validity (WS) 34 9Ed Problems with materials 76
9Be Organic farming 36 9Ed Biased language (L&C) 78
9Ee Recycling materials 80
9C Biology revision and projects 9Ee Material failures? 82
9Ca Revising KS3 Biology 37
9Ca Cells, systems and movement 38 9F Reactivity
9Cb Other organ systems 40 9Fa Demolition 83
9Cc Reproduction and health 42 9Fa Types of explosion 84
9Cd Energy in ecosystems 44 9Fa Active and passive (L&C) 86
9Ce Genetics and evolution 46 9Fb Reactivity 88
9C1 Project 1: Animal smuggling 48 9Fc Energy and reactions 90
2
9Fc Percentage loss or gain (WS) 92 9J Force fields and electromagnets
9Fd Displacement 94 9Ja Mission to Mars 145
9Fe Extracting metals 96 9Ja Force fields 146
9Fe Alfred Nobel 98 9Ja Cohesion in writing (L&C) 148
9Jb Static electricity 150
9G Chemistry revision and projects 9Jc Current electricity 152
9Ga Revising KS3 chemistry 99 9Jd Resistance 154
9Ga Separating substances 100 9Jd Rounding numbers (WS) 156
9Gb Chemical reactions 102 9Je Electromagnets 158
9Gc Physical and chemical 104 9Je Humans in space 160
9Gd The periodic table 106
9Ge Earth and atmosphere 108 9K Physics revision and projects
9G1 Project 1: Carbon capture 110 9Ka Revising KS3 physics 161
9G2 Project 2: Electrolysis investigation 111 9Ka Models in science 162
9G3 Project 3: Nanoparticles 112 9Kb Energy 164
9Kc Forces 166
9H Chemistry transition to GCSE 9Kd Waves and fields 168
9Ha Art and chemistry 113 9Ke Machines 170
9Ha Short answers (L&C) 114 9K1 Project 1: Ears and eyes 172
9Ha Ions 116 9K2 Project 2: Going faster 173
9Hb Energy transfers 118 9K3 Project 3: Speed limits 174
9Hc Rates of reaction 120
9Hd Chemical equations 122 9L Physics transition to GCSE
9Hd Standard form (WS) 124 9La Physicists 175
9He Equilibria 126 9La Differences 176
9He Frescos 128 9Lb Fields 178
9Lb Long answers (L&C) 180
Physics 9Lc Cause and effect 182
9I Forces and motion 9Ld Links between variables 184
9Ld Information from graphs (WS) 186
9Ia Moving things 129
9Le Models 188
9Ia Forces and movement 130
9Le Physics research 190
9Ia Energy for movement 132
9Ib Purpose and audience (L&C) 134 Glossary 191
9Ic Speed 136
Periodic Table 202
9Ic Equations and graphs (WS) 138
9Id Turning forces 140 Index 203
9Ie More machines 142
9Ie Supplying the energy 144
3
HOW TO USE
THIS BOOK
ENVIRONMENTAL You should be able to answer the question
9Aa VARIATION at the top of the page by the time you
WHAT CAUSES ENVIRONMENTAL VARIATION? have finished the page.
The monster pumpkin in photo A did not get
that big by chance. The plant was carefully
looked after and given all the resources it
needed, including additional light, water,
warmth and mineral salts.
An organism’s surroundings are its
environment. In all environments there are
environmental factors that can change the
organism, including other organisms and
non-living factors such as temperature or
A | This pumpkin had to be moved to a festival by the army. It
the amount of light. These non-living factors was grown in Lymington, Hampshire and had a mass of 371.5 kg.
are called physical environmental factors.
6
Continuous and
discontinuous
Pumpkins, such as the one shown in photo
A, can have a large spread of different sizes,
from very small to enormous, and everything
If you are having trouble finding information in between. Variation that can have any value
between two points is continuous variation.
about something, use the Index, on Variation that can only have a value from a limited
set of possible values is discontinuous variation.
5 Explain whether each example of E | Hair length shows continuous variation but
variation in photos B, C and D is having piercings is discontinuous (you cannot have
continuous or discontinuous. half a piercing).
Classification
Classification is sorting organisms into groups. The
smallest group an organism is classified into is its species.
Members of the same species can reproduce with one
another and their offspring will also be able to reproduce.
Sometimes environmental variation makes classification
difficult. In 2003 some ancient human bones were
discovered on Flores Island in Indonesia. The bones were
Questions are spread throughout the page so from adults who were just over 1 m tall − much shorter than
human adults today. Some scientists think that the bones
were from our own species of human but that a shortage of
you can answer them as you go along. a mineral called iodine in the diet meant that the people did
not grow very tall. Other scientists think that these people
were from a different species, which is now extinct.
6 A plant growing on a seashore has pink flowers at F | Professor Mike Morwood explaining why
the top of a stem, which has pairs of oval leaves he thinks the Flores Island people were from
along its 10 cm length. On a nearby island there a different species.
are similar plants but they are over 50 cm tall and
have dark purple flowers. Scientists took seeds
from plants in both areas and grew them in the
I can … boxes help you to reflect on what you laboratory. They all grew to look the same.
a | What does this tell you about the plants from the
I can …
■ identify different types of environmental
have learned. Consider each statement carefully two areas?
b | Use this example to explain how environmental ■
variation and explain their causes
explain how environmental variation can
variation can make it difficult to identify plant cause problems with classification.
and think about how well this applies to you. species.
7
4
MONSTERS
9Aa AND MYTH
The bones in photo A are from a terrible fire-
breathing dragon that roamed southern Poland
long ago. The creature was slain by Krak, a
shoemaker’s apprentice who later became king.
The city of Krakow was built in his honour.
The bones are obviously not from a dragon.
They are probably from a whale and a mammoth.
Myths often originate from people finding the bones
of extinct creatures, which they cannot explain.
The idea of one-eyed giants (Cyclops) from Ancient
Greek mythology probably came from the discovery
of mammoth or elephant skulls, which have a large
central hole for the animal’s trunk. A | These ‘dragon bones’ hang outside Krakow cathedral.
3 What is a species?
5
ENVIRONMENTAL
9Aa VARIATION
WHAT CAUSES ENVIRONMENTAL VARIATION?
B C D
6
Continuous and
discontinuous
Pumpkins, such as the one shown in photo
A, can have a large spread of different sizes,
from very small to enormous, and everything
in between. Variation that can have any value
between two points is continuous variation.
Variation that can only have a value from a limited
set of possible values is discontinuous variation.
5 Explain whether each example of E | Hair length shows continuous variation but
variation in photos B, C and D is having piercings is discontinuous (you cannot have
continuous or discontinuous. half a piercing).
Classification
Classification is sorting organisms into groups. The
smallest group an organism is classified into is its species.
Members of the same species can reproduce with one
another and their offspring will also be able to reproduce.
Sometimes environmental variation makes classification
difficult. In 2003 some ancient human bones were
discovered on Flores Island in Indonesia. The bones were
from adults who were just over 1 m tall − much shorter than
human adults today. Some scientists think that the bones
were from our own species of human but that a shortage of
a mineral called iodine in the diet meant that the people did
not grow very tall. Other scientists think that these people
were from a different species, which is now extinct.
6 A plant growing on a seashore has pink flowers at F | Professor Mike Morwood explaining why
the top of a stem, which has pairs of oval leaves he thinks the Flores Island people were from
along its 10 cm length. On a nearby island there a different species.
are similar plants but they are over 50 cm tall and
have dark purple flowers. Scientists took seeds
from plants in both areas and grew them in the
laboratory. They all grew to look the same.
I can …
a | What does this tell you about the plants from the ■ identify different types of environmental
two areas? variation and explain their causes
b | Use this example to explain how environmental ■ explain how environmental variation can
variation can make it difficult to identify plant cause problems with classification.
species.
7
INHERITED
9Ab VARIATION
HOW IS INHERITED VARIATION CAUSED?
The instructions for inherited characteristics are stored in the genetic information found
inside the nuclei of cells. In sexual reproduction, two gametes (one male and one female)
fuse during fertilisation to produce a zygote. Since the zygote contains genetic information
from two parents, the offspring will have some characteristics of each parent.
Every gamete contains slightly different genetic
information; no two gametes are identical. For example,
in people with dimpled chins, some of their gametes The genetic information in any two
carry the instructions for a dimpled chin and some of humans only differs by about 0.1%.
Humans and chimpanzees share
their gametes may not. Since all gametes are different,
98% of their genetic information.
brothers and sisters do not look exactly the same.
8
Inherited variation can also be continuous or discontinuous. Different blood groups in Scotland
One example of discontinuous inherited variation is blood group. 3000000
Every person has one of four different blood groups, referred to as
2500000
A, B, AB or O. Other examples of discontinuous inherited variation
Number of people
include having a dimpled chin and being able to roll your tongue. 2000000
E | Height and skin colour are both affected by genetic Variation in height of Year 9 students
120
information and environmental factors. Diet can affect
height and sunlight makes skin darker. 100
normal distribution
Number of students
80
Characteristics that show continuous variation
usually give a ‘bell shape’ when plotted on a bar 60
chart. We can make this more obvious if we join
the tops of the bars with a smooth curve. This 40
9
14
15
15
16
16
17
17
18
18
5-
0-
5-
0-
5-
0-
5-
0-
5-
14
15
15
16
16
17
17
18
18
Using statistics
Clothing manufacturers collect measurements from people. They then draw conclusions by calculating
averages and drawing graphs. For example, a company could use graph B to predict how many shirts
with a certain sleeve length they are going to sell. Different sleeve lengths needed by men in a sample
You could also use graph B to work out how likely it is 60
In a normal distribution
that a shopper would need 95 cm long sleeves. You can curve, the mean is the
50
see that there is a much greater chance of a shopper same as the mode (most
common value in a set of
needing a 90 cm sleeve than a 95 cm sleeve. The values) and the median
Number of men
40
chance of something happening is called its probability. (middle value in a set of
values).
30
3 What is probability?
20
sleeves or 94 cm sleeves?
0
B 80 85 90 95 100
Men’s formal shirt sleeve length (cm)
Probabilities are often shown as percentages. This is how often a particular outcome occurs in every
100 times something happens. If you flipped a coin 100 times, and it landed on tails 52 times, the
probability of getting tails was 52/100 or 52%. This is the experimental probability. We can show
probability on a scale, such as diagram C. The probability of an impossible event is 0%. The probability
of an event that is certain to happen is 100%.
10
discovering a getting ‘tails’ on the Sun rising
live dinosaur a coin flip tomorrow
percentage 0% 50% 100%
fraction ¼ ½ ¾
decimal 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
C | a probability scale impossible more unlikely even chance more likely certain
46 46
4 What sex is the person whose chromosomes
are shown in photo D? Explain your reasoning.
b | Explain the effect this may have had on A | The meteorite impact 65 million years ago
animal populations. released more energy than a million nuclear bombs.
Preserving
biodiversity This ‘frozen zoo’ contains gametes from
9000 species of animals.
We lose the opportunity to make use of species that
become extinct. Extinctions also upset ecosystems E
and change food webs. So, we need to preserve the
biodiversity (number of different species) on Earth.
Ways of doing this include banning the hunting
of certain animals, setting up nature reserves and
starting breeding programmes. We can also store
parts of organisms (e.g. seeds, gametes) that can
be used to produce the organisms again if they
become extinct. These materials are stored at low
temperatures in gene banks.
What causes inherited A | The pale peppered moth is B | The black peppered moth is
1
variation? hard to spot. hard to spot.
C | The Salton Sea formed between 1905 and 1907 when a river
flooded a low-lying area. Today the sea is 25% more salty than
the Pacific Ocean.
16
Numbers of tilapia best adapted for different
The only fish still living in the Salton amounts of salt in the water
Sea are of a species called tilapia. 1. The graph shows the number of fish
in the water after it had become a little
They are usually found in fresh or
Evolution
A change over time in the characteristics of organisms is known as evolution.
Charles Darwin (1809–1882) and Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913) both
developed a hypothesis that natural selection causes evolution. This is now usually
called ‘Darwin’s theory of evolution’.
As evolution occurs, a population can become a new species. Many scientists now
think that some dinosaurs evolved into birds over millions and millions of years.
5 a | What is a hypothesis?
b | How does a hypothesis become a theory?
6 What is evolution?
E | Microraptor was a
dinosaur with feathers
I can …
and four wings. ■ recall that individuals in a
Microraptor fossils are population vary genetically
125–120 million years old. ■ explain how natural selection
works on these variations.
17
CONVINCING
9Ae ARGUMENTS
HOW ARE CONVINCING ARGUMENTS MADE?
Scientists use arguments to explain and justify their
ideas or to challenge other scientists’ ideas. A convincing
argument needs a logical order of information. One way of
doing this is shown in the blue panel on the right.
18
2 a | A convincing argument explains an idea.
Which sentence is best for this, L, M or N? Explain your reasoning.
L: Darwin’s idea was that some organisms in a habitat were more likely to survive than others.
M: Darwin said that all organisms varied and that those that by chance had better adaptations
for a habitat would be more likely to survive and pass on those adaptations to their offspring.
N: Darwin said that the organisms that survived were more likely to reproduce and pass on their
adaptations for survival.
Over many generations, the wading birds’ legs become much longer.
D | Lamarck’s idea
I can …
■ construct balanced, convincing arguments.
19
RECREATING
9Ae ANIMALS
CAN WE BRING EXTINCT
tusks help to push snow
out of the way to find food
large size (larger
objects transfer energy
to their surroundings
ANIMALS BACK TO LIFE? less quickly, keeping
them warmer)
Woolly mammoths became extinct about 4000
thick, oily
years ago, probably due to hunting by humans hair to keep
and the Earth getting warmer. We know that they it warm
were hunted because spear marks have been
found in mammoth remains. We also know that large feet to
the Earth started getting warmer about 10 000 stop it sinking
into the snow
years ago. Scientists think that as this happened
the plants that mammoths ate could only be
found further and further north, and so the
mammoths’ habitat got smaller and smaller.
640
Some farmers try to avoid harming the
environment by using very few chemicals. This 620
540
20 5
20 6
20 7
20 8
20 9
20 0
20 1
20 2
20 3
20 4
5
0
/0
/0
/0
/0
/1
/1
/1
/1
/1
/1
4/
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
13
14
0
20
Year
21
REACTIONS
9Ba IN PLANTS
WHAT CHEMICAL REACTIONS HAPPEN IN PLANTS?
willow tree
(mass = 76.74 kg)
The Greek scientist Aristotle (384–322 BCE)
thought that plants ate soil and used their A | Van Helmont planted a small tree
roots to suck it up. Some people believed and gave it only water, as he watched
it grow for 5 years. He measured the
this until Belgian scientist Jan Baptista van masses of the pot, soil and the tree
Helmont (1580–1644) did the experiment in before and after the 5-year period.
diagram A.
small willow tree
(mass = 2.27 kg)
1 How do van Helmont’s results provide evidence
to disprove Aristotle’s theory?
6 Draw a flow chart to show how energy from the Sun becomes
B | You can often see stored in a plant.
bubbles of oxygen being Canadian pondweed produces oxygen bubbles. The more
7
produced by aquatic bubbles, the faster photosynthesis is happening.
plants.
a | State three limiting factors of photosynthesis.
b | Explain how each limiting factor might prevent the number
22 of bubbles increasing.
Aerobic respiration 8 What is the test for carbon dioxide?
Every living cell in a plant needs a supply of glucose for
energy. Energy is needed to help the plant grow and to 9 Graph C shows the levels of oxygen
make new substances. The chemical energy stored in the and carbon dioxide in the water
around a pondweed plant.
glucose is released by aerobic respiration:
How the concentrations of two gases
glucose + oxygen ➝ carbon dioxide + water C dissolved in water vary over a day,
in a beaker containing pondweed
Photosynthesis only happens when there is light but
Concentrations
respiration happens all the time. During the day, a plant X
produces more oxygen from photosynthesis than it needs
for respiration and so oxygen is given off.
of gas
Glucose is carried to all parts of a plant in the form of Y
xylem
vein
phloem
cuticle
upper
epidermis
chloroplast
palisade
cell
xylem vessels
C | In this radial arrangement of leaves the carry water vein
upper ones do not shade the lower ones too phloem vessels
carry food
much.
spongy
cells
lower
epidermis
Carbon dioxide guard cell
Stomata are small holes in a leaf that are carbon stoma
dioxide water
opened and closed by guard cells. Stomata cuticle
vapour
oxygen
are shut at night and open when it is light.
Gases, such as carbon dioxide, enter and D | inside a leaf
leave the leaf by diffusion through open
stomata. Leaves are thin, so the carbon In which cells, in diagram D, will no
5
dioxide does not have to diffuse very far into photosynthesis occur?
a leaf before getting to cells. Plants also lose
water and oxygen through stomata. This 6 Why do you think stomata shut at night?
swapping of different gases is called gas
exchange. 7 What cells control gas exchange?
I can …
■ describe how leaves, roots and stems are adapted
for their functions
■ explain how substances enter and leave plants.
25
PLANT
9Bc PRODUCTS
WHY DO PLANTS MAKE LIPIDS, CARBOHYDRATES AND PROTEINS?
Lipids
Plants make many different lipids. These are a group of
insoluble substances that include fats and oils. A | Rapeseed is grown to produce oil,
which can be used for cooking. Beehives
The cuticle of a plant leaf contains lipids to make it may be brought in to help pollination and
waterproof. Plants also use lipids to make parts of cells, for so increase the number of seeds formed.
example cell membranes. Fats and oils are often found in
plant seeds, where they are used as energy stores. They can
also be found in the flesh of some fruits, such as avocado, to
encourage animals to eat the fruits and so disperse the seeds.
Carbohydrates
The glucose molecules made in photosynthesis can be linked
together to form a polymer called starch. This molecule
stays in the chloroplasts until photosynthesis stops. The
starch is then broken down into small sugar molecules and
transported to phloem vessels (see page 23), in which they
The leaf is treated to remove all
are carried to other parts of the plant. the chlorophyll and then iodine
solution is added.
3 When is starch broken down in chloroplasts, during C | A variegated leaf (it has areas of white)
the day or night? Explain your reasoning. being tested with iodine solution.
7 Give two uses for each of lipids, carbohydrates and proteins in plants.
8 Why do plants not grow well if there is a lack of nitrates in the soil?
Seeds
Seeds contain a store of all the resources that a new seedling will Just five seeds from the
need to grow, until its leaves can open and start to photosynthesise. castor oil plant can be
Diagram E shows what happens during germination. enough to kill an adult
human. The seeds contain
2 The entry of water 3 The enzymes a protein called ricin, one
allows molecules to digest the starch of the most poisonous
move around so starch to glucose.
enzymes that reactions can Enzymes work natural substances.
enzymes
occur. It also faster if it is
triggers the glucose warmer.
release of
enzymes.
4 The glucose
seed 1 Water enters the
coat enters. embryo,
Oxygen allowing
also enters. it to respire
food store
and grow.
containing
starch embryo
28
1 Paragraph Y has been written to answer this question: How are fuels that contain bioethanol made?
Bioethanol
Y Most engines cannot use pure bioethanol. For this reason it is usually mixed with petrol.
Starch or sugar from crops is used to make bioethanol. Fermentation turns the starch or
sugar into ethanol. Examples of crops include maize and sugar cane.
2 Paragraph Z has been written as the opening sentence to a paragraph explaining what biodiesel is.
Biodiesel
Z Biodiesel, the most common biofuel used in Europe, is made from oils in seed crops that
include rapeseed and soy.
Rewrite this sentence so that it forms the opening sentence to a paragraph about:
a | types of common biofuels b | types of plants used to make biofuels.
3 Use the bullet points to write a paragraph explaining why some people are against biofuels.
Make the point of each sentence clear, make the order of your ideas clear and link your
sentences clearly.
■ growing biofuel crops needs
land
■ increased demand for maize
will increase prices
■ maize will become more
expensive
■ poor farmers are attracted by
the money made from growing
biofuel crops
■ rainforests will be cut down by
farmers in poorer countries
■ there will be less land area A
available for growing food
I can …
■ order ideas clearly, using appropriate emphasis.
29
GROWING
9Bd CROPS
HOW DO FARMERS MAKE SURE THEIR CROPS GROW WELL?
30
Wheat variety
grown widely
Varieties today
Fertilisers Pesticides
Fertilisers can wash into rivers and lakes. The Insecticides can kill helpful insects that eat pests or
phosphates and nitrates cause fast growth of pollinate plants. Some insecticides are persistent (do
algae and plants, which block out light causing not break down in the environment). Predators in a food
a lot of them to die. As decomposer bacteria chain may eat many animals containing small amounts
break down the dead material, they use up of insecticide meaning that the top predator gets a large
the oxygen in the water, causing fish to die (as amount of the substance, which may harm it.
shown in photo B). In 2014, the EU banned the use of some ‘neonicotinoid’
insecticides on flowering crops. These insecticides
B | fish killed due to a lack of oxygen made the plants poisonous for most of the growing
season. The ban was based on evidence that the
insecticide made nectar and pollen poisonous to bees.
Selective herbicides only kill plants that have broad
leaves and so a crop, like wheat, is not affected.
However, many plants in hedges have broad leaves
and are killed.
32
4 a | Draw out a food web of the Varieties
following: Sparrowhawks eat
Farmers often plant the same variety of crop. Since all the
blue tits and dormice. Wheat is
eaten by caterpillars and aphids. plants are identical, if one gets a disease then all the others
Caterpillars feed on hazel trees, will. A new disease can wipe out the entire crop.
as do dormice. Blue tits feed on Planting a single crop variety over a large area reduces
aphids and caterpillars.
biodiversity. The food webs become smaller, and if a
b | This food web is from a disaster hits the area it takes much longer to recover than
hedge next to a wheat field. if the area was very biodiverse.
What would happen to the
populations of the organisms if a
6 In 19th century Ireland, most people survived by
farmer sprayed the wheat with:
growing and eating one variety of potato (lumper).
i | a general insecticide Between 1845 and 1852 more than a million people
ii | a selective herbicide? starved. Suggest why.
5 Suggest why neonicotinoids 7 A huge area of land is planted with wheat for many
were banned for use on rapeseed years. The farmer wants to grow rapeseed instead.
crops but not on wheat. Explain why the rapeseed may not give a good yield.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
RESPIRATION RESPIRATION
FEEDING
Some plants carbon compounds carbon compounds
D | This area is all planted with one variety of (e.g. trees) in plants in animals
are burned. In certain conditions
oil palm.
plant and animal
remains become Most dead plants,
fossil fuels. dead animals and
Plants remove carbon dioxide from the animal droppings are
atmosphere when they photosynthesise. broken down by
decomposers (e.g.
Carbon is ‘stored’ in trees but the carbon fungi). Decomposers
in crops is soon released back into the also respire.
coal and oil oil and
atmosphere, when the crops are used power station natural gas
for food or fuel. Due to the destruction
of forests and burning of fossil fuels, the E | the carbon cycle
amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
has been increasing for the last 200 years.
Extra carbon dioxide is thought to be
causing global warming. The carbon cycle I can …
shows the processes by which carbon ■ use models, for example food
dioxide is removed and released. webs and the carbon cycle,
to explain changes in an
8 Farming affects many parts of the carbon cycle. Identify ecosystem
as many of these as you can and explain the effects. ■ recognise the advantages and
disadvantages of different
9 Draw a table to show the advantages and disadvantages
farming methods.
of clearing land, insecticides, herbicides and fertilisers.
33
BIAS AND
9Be VALIDITY
WHAT ARE BIAS AND VALIDITY?
Bias is a shift away from a true meaning or value.
Sometimes it is done on purpose and sometimes
by mistake.
Intentional bias
Herbicide-tolerant (or HT) soybean is a variety that is not
killed by a selective herbicide called glyphosate, which
kills common weeds (such as milkweed). Milkweed
plants are important for monarch butterflies, as they
lay their eggs on them. The bars on graph B show the
numbers of monarch butterflies that migrated from the
USA to Mexico each winter. Some scientists think that
increased planting of HT soybean means that farmers
are getting rid of more milkweed, reducing butterfly
A | HT soybean growing
numbers. Others blame the reduction of butterflies on
deforestation in Mexico and new weather patterns.
Sometimes people do not
HT soybean growing and monarch butterflies in Mexico 1996 – 2013
present all the data from
Number of monarch butterflies in Mexico
B 100 1200
90 investigations and only
Percentage of soybean crop
80
HT soybean % their ideas. Graph C shows
in winter (millions)
70 800
60 how data could be selected
50 600 from graph B to show bias.
butterfly
40 numbers
400
30
1 a | What is graph C
20 200 trying to get you
10
to believe?
0 0
b | Explain how this
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
graph is biased.
Year
c | Suggest who
How growing HT soybean affected monarch butterflies might create a
C in Mexico 1997 – 2003
90 600 graph like this.
HT soybean %
Number of monarch butterflies
Explain your
Percentage of soybean crop
80
that was HT soybean (%)
36
REVISING KS3
9Ca BIOLOGY In 1982, Robin Warren
HOW DO SCIENTISTS WORK? Question
and Barry Marshall
asked: Why is a bacte-
The scientific method is a process in which an idea is rium called Helicobacter
developed and tested. The results are used as evidence. pylori found in people
Hypothesis with stomach ulcers?
Diagram A shows a common way to carry out the
scientific method. A hypothesis is an idea about why Stomach ulcers depend
something happens, and is usually based on scientific Prediction
on having Helicobacter
understanding. A prediction is then made. This is pylori in the stomach.
a statement that describes what will happen in an
New
If the bacteria are killed,
experiment if a hypothesis is correct. then the ulcers will heal.
hypothesis Experiment
needed
Experiments are carried out to test predictions,
Warren and Marshall
and the predictions are compared to the results. used antibiotics to kill
If the results match the prediction, this provides Data Helicobacter pylori in
evidence to support the hypothesis. people with
stomach ulcers.
After making a discovery, scientists write about it in
a scientific paper. The paper is sent to a journal The ulcers healed.
to be published. Most journals ask other scientists Data match
No
prediction?
who work in the same area of science to check the
papers. This is called peer review. Only if the other Warren and Marshall
scientists agree that the experiments were done Yes wrote about their
experiments, which
properly and that the conclusions are correct will the Hypothesis were published in a
paper be published. Peer review helps to make sure looks correct
peer-reviewed journal.
that we can trust scientific findings.
A | a common form of the scientific method
Sampling
Scientists often need to count large numbers of
things, such as the number of bacteria colonies
growing on agar in a Petri dish. Rather than
counting everything, they count the things in a
smaller sample. They then use the sample to
estimate how many things there are in the whole.
This can save a lot of time but if a sample is too
small the results may not be very accurate.
2 squares in the
B | To estimate the number of
Petri dish grid contain 8 colonies
bacteria colonies, we can place
× 50 × 50 a grid underneath the Petri dish.
100 squares in the dish contain 400 colonies We count the number of colonies
in several squares and multiply
the result.
37
CELLS, SYSTEMS
9Ca AND MOVEMENT
WHAT ARE CELLS AND HOW ARE THEY ORGANISED?
All organisms are made of cells, which we Living things from the plant and animal kingdoms
7A
can observe using a microscope. have different cell structures.
8D C | different cell parts of a unicellular (one-celled) D | Prokaryotes, such as this bacterium, never have
protoctist nuclei, mitochondria or chloroplasts in their cells.
38
Materials move into, out of and within cells cell surface membrane
7G by diffusion. All particles of all materials
8D are in a constant state of random motion.
In fluids, particles can move past each
other and so there is a gradual overall
movement of particles from a place where
there are more of them to a place where time
there are fewer of them.
Diffusion would be too slow to get materials
to all cells in a multicellular organism
(because materials would have to pass
through other cells). So, multicellular
organisms have efficient transport systems
to carry materials to (and wastes from) all outside cell inside cell outside cell inside cell
cells. Diffusion is too slow if cells are above
E | Diffusion allows substances to move into cells.
a certain size, and so most cells do not get
very big.
F | functions of the skeleton
Most animals have a circulatory system
7C Some bones
containing blood to transport materials (e.g. skull) are
around their bodies. for protection.
Too much or too little of a nutrient can cause malnutrition, including obesity and
deficiency diseases such as scurvy. Active people and those who are growing need
more energy than less active people. Energy is measured in kilojoules.
Most nutrients in food must be digested. The digestive system is made up of lots of
different organs including those in the gut as well as organs such as salivary glands
and the liver. Muscles in the gut contract behind the food, squeezing it along. As it
moves, nutrients are broken down into small soluble molecules by biological catalysts
called enzymes. Soluble nutrients are then absorbed into the blood.
Gut bacteria help to break down some foods and can also produce useful substances,
such as vitamins.
A
Starch is partly digested
by enzymes in a digestive
Cereals, bread, rice juice called saliva.
and pasta contain
a lot of starch. Meat, fish, nuts and dairy
produce contain a lot of salivary gland
Cereals also
contain protein, and fat; they also
contain some minerals. teeth grind up food
fibre.
Proteins are digested by Muscles in the
enzymes in the stomach wall of the gullet
and small intestine. push food along.
Fruit and vegetables
contain a lot of vitamins,
minerals and fibre. Digested food is
absorbed through
the walls of the
Vitamins and minerals small intestine,
do not need to be which has folds,
digested since they villi and microvilli
are already soluble. to increase its
surface area.
40
7A Plant nutrition
9B Plants use photosynthesis (mainly in their leaves) to produce glucose.
Photosynthesis needs carbon dioxide (from the air) and water (which plants take
in through their roots, using specialised root hair cells). The roots also absorb
mineral salts (e.g. nitrates), which plants need to make certain substances.
41
REPRODUCTION
9Cc AND HEALTH
HOW DO MAMMALS AND FLOWERING PLANTS REPRODUCE?
adult adolescent
child
The side-effects of Stimulants increase the speed These are all recreational
alcohol can include with which impulses travel drugs but these last two
vomiting. through the nervous system. are illegal.
E | different drugs
8B Plant reproduction
Flowering plants also Pollen is carried from the anthers of one flower to the
stigma of another in pollination. Pollination is carried
reproduce sexually out by animals (usually insects) or the wind.
and use fruits for
seed dispersal, by pollen grain
water, wind, animals The dandelion stigma
‘flower’ is actually pollen tube
or explosions. Some many flowers. A style
plants also use asexual pollen tube grows ovary
down the style of ovule
reproduction (e.g. each flower and into egg cell
runners in strawberries the ovule, where the
and tubers in potato male gamete (inside
the pollen grain)
plants). fertilises an egg cell.
43
ENERGY IN
9Cd ECOSYSTEMS
HOW DO ANIMALS AND PLANTS DEPEND ON ONE ANOTHER?
A lot of energy from the Sun is transferred by light.
9B
Plants use chlorophyll to trap this energy. During
Adaptations for 9B
photosynthesis, the energy is transferred to a photosynthesis
sugar called glucose. Oxygen is a by-product.
This can be summarised as: Plant leaves are adapted for photosynthesis.
carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen leaf is flat to give a large surface area to trap light
8C Cellular respiration
Organisms need energy for all the processes ■ releases less energy from each glucose
that happen in them (e.g. moving, making new molecule than aerobic respiration
substances). Plant and animal cells release energy ■ produces lactic acid, which must then be
from glucose using aerobic respiration: broken down (e.g. by the liver)
glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water ■ makes muscles get tired quickly.
If an animal needs a sudden burst of energy (e.g. Anaerobic respiration can also take place in
to sprint away from a predator), muscle cells may microorganisms, where it is called fermentation.
not have enough oxygen to release all the energy There are different types, for example:
using aerobic respiration. The cells then also use
anaerobic respiration: ■ in yeast:
ethanol carbon
glucose lactic acid glucose +
(alcohol) dioxide
This type of respiration: ■ in yoghurt bacteria: glucose lactic acid
■ does not need oxygen
44
7D Interdependence
Organisms in an ecosystem depend on one another – they are interdependent.
Animals depend on plants for food. Food chains start with producers
(organisms that can photosynthesise). The energy in producers passes to
consumers. However, energy is ‘lost’ by each consumer (e.g. by moving,
keeping warm). So, there are fewer organisms further along a food chain.
This can be shown using a pyramid of numbers (such as diagram C).
B | A food chain: many food chains can be combined to create a food web.
Many insects feed on nectar or pollen. Many plants depend on insect pollination to produce
8B
seeds. So, in turn, humans depend on insects to help produce some seeds and fruits to eat. If
pollinator populations decrease, it may be hard to feed the growing world population.
Organisms can affect physical environmental factors in their habitats. For example, trees
7D
keep temperatures low in woods in summer. Changes in physical environmental factors can
affect organisms. Seasonal changes are changes in environmental factors that happen every
year. They cause some animals to hibernate or migrate, and cause deciduous plants to lose
their leaves. Daily changes, such as changes in light, cause some animals to be active during
the day and others at night (nocturnal).
Some changes in habitats
killer whale
are caused by humans. For
example, poisons such as leopard seal
pesticides may kill organisms gentoo penguin
directly. Some poisons are
persistent and do not break krill
down, and accumulate in algae
greater and greater amounts
in organisms along a food C | The red dots on this pyramid of numbers show how a pesticide can
chain. These poisons may become more and more concentrated in animals further along a food chain.
affect organisms at the ends
of food chains.
45
GENETICS AND
9Ce EVOLUTION
WHY DO SOME SPECIES BECOME EXTINCT AND OTHERS EVOLVE?
46
Organisms compete for
C | Natural selection often takes place as a result of environmental
resources. If resources
change.
become scarce, species that
are better adapted to a habitat Numbers of organisms in a population best adapted
are more likely to survive. Other for different levels of moisture
species may die out in that Members of a The moisture level is currently ‘medium’
population naturally and most organisms are best adapted
area, or become extinct.
7D Biodiversity
9A Habitats with greater numbers of different species have greater
biodiversity. We need to preserve biodiversity because:
9B
■ organisms depend on one another
■ areas with greater biodiversity recover faster from disasters
■ there are many undiscovered substances in organisms that
could be useful to us (for food, medicines)
■ it preserves organisms with different genetic variations, which
may be useful if conditions change in the future.
Ways of preserving biodiversity include:
■ protecting habitats
■ cutting down pollution
■ encouraging farmers to plant a wide variety of crops.
In the future, genetic material from organisms could be used
to re-create extinct organisms or use their genes. So, genetic
material is saved in gene banks. Gene banks use very low D | The ‘seed bank’ at Kew Gardens,
near London, is kept at –20 ºC.
temperatures to preserve cells and tissues, such as plant seeds,
plant cuttings, pollen grains, and sperm and egg cells.
47
ANIMAL
9C1 SMUGGLING
It’s not every day that you sit next to an iguana on In airports, animals are found in luggage using
an aeroplane, but passengers on a recent flight to the X-rays and dogs that have been trained to
Bahamas had some rare reptilian company. sniff out other animals. But animals are also
smuggled through ports in shipping containers
Thirteen Bahamian rock iguanas had arrived in the UK
and these are more difficult to detect due to the
from the Bahamas in February, in less comfortable
large sizes of the containers. Various detection
circumstances. Wrapped in socks and shoved into
methods are used, including sensors that detect
suitcases, they had then been loaded into an aircraft hold
temperature and carbon dioxide levels inside
for a nine-hour flight. Staff carrying out customs checks at
the containers.
Heathrow discovered the animals. One had already died.
Bahamian rock iguanas (Cyclura rileyi) are critically B | This dog was found, using an X-ray
endangered and trading them is banned under the CITES machine, in hand luggage at Dublin airport.
agreement. Grant Miller, head of the UK Border Force
CITES team, said: “Not only has Border Force made sure According to the World Wide Fund for Nature, the
that the criminals responsible for smuggling these animals illegal trafficking of live animals is worth about
are behind bars, we’re also proud to have been able to £12 billion per year, so continued hard work is
play a part in safeguarding the future of this species.” needed to bring the problem under control.
1 This story is from an online news site. The editor wants readers’ questions to be answered,
explaining the science. Choose one of the questions below and write a detailed answer for the site.
a | Why is it important that the Bahamian rock iguanas are returned to where they came from?
b | Why are temperature and carbon dioxide detectors useful in detecting concealed animals?
c | How do animals become critically endangered?
d | How do animals, such as iguanas, become different species over time?
2 Find out about CITES. Write a paragraph describing its purpose and how it works.
3 When writing a story, science journalists use ‘press releases’, information from online resources
(such as encyclopaedias) and their own scientific knowledge. Search for a ‘press release’ about
‘animal smuggling’ or ‘animal trafficking’ and write an article for an online newspaper. Use a variety
of sources and show where you have got all your information from. Use no more than 350 words.
48
ENZYME
9C2 INVESTIGATION
Some tougher meats are often cooked or served with
certain fruits. This is not just to make them taste nice
but because the fruits contain substances that help
to make the meat more tender; they tenderise it.
These fruits contain enzymes. Enzymes are
molecules that act as catalysts; they speed up
chemical reactions. Many enzymes break down large
molecules into smaller molecules. There are lots of
enzymes of this type in your digestive system.
The enzymes in some fruits can break down the
proteins in the meat. This means that long strands
of protein are broken down into shorter ones, and
the meat is easier to chew.
Gelatine is a ‘gelling agent’. It is often used in A | Pineapple can be used to tenderise chicken.
cooking to make jellies, and is made from an animal
protein called collagen. There is a lot of collagen in tendons,
ligaments and skin. When gelatine is cooked, its long strands of
protein form a tangled mesh. As it cools, the long protein strands People who work in
trap water and the gelatine forms a jelly. If enzymes are added to pineapple-canning factories
break down the protein in gelatine, the protein strands become must wear protective
too short to become tangled up. This means that the mesh does clothing to stop the fruits
not form and the jelly will not ‘set’. causing skin damage.
49
9C3 TEETH
COMMUNICATING WITH THE PUBLIC gingival crevice
enamel
Animals use their teeth to chop and grind up their food, making it dentine
gum
easier to swallow and starting the process of digestion. Predators
pulp cavity
may also use their teeth to kill their prey. Animals that lose their teeth
periodontal
often die of starvation. ligament
cementum
The enamel on your teeth is the hardest material in your body.
root canal
It cannot be replaced naturally and is gradually worn away by
chewing. Enamel is destroyed more quickly by acids in your food and
by acids produced by bacteria. The bacteria form a layer of plaque,
which needs to be removed by regular brushing. Bacteria can also
blood vessels bone
infect your gums and cause gum disease. Sometimes they can infect and nerves
the tissue under a tooth or in your jaw, causing a pus-filled abscess.
A | the parts of a human tooth
Fluoride helps to strengthen the enamel, making it more resistant to
wearing away. Fluoride is found in toothpastes and in tap water in some
areas. However, dentists recommend that your teeth are checked every
six months. Problems can then be spotted and dealt with early, and
hardened plaque can be removed.
Destruction of the enamel results in holes (cavities) and, if a dentist cavity abscess
does not fill them, they can cause toothache. In severe cases, the
tooth can become infected with bacteria and can die and fall out.
51
COMMAND
9Da WORDS
HOW DO COMMAND WORDS HELP WITH ANSWERING A QUESTION?
Questions in test and exam papers contain command words, which indicate how you should
answer the question. Table A shows some command words and what is needed in the answers.
When you write your answer, make sure you respond correctly to the command word. Make sure
you also check the number of marks for each question and that you give one good point in your
answer for each mark.
52
Look at these questions. Use information on the previous pages and
the guidance in the boxes to help you give the right kind of answer.
This answer needs two good This answer needs one example for 1 mark.
points. These need to be in a
logical order, such as saying
what life expectancy was in 1880
(1 mark) and by how much it has
1 Name one childhood disease. 1 mark
changed since then (1 mark).
Just saying ‘it has increased’ is
not really enough to score even 2 Describe how life expectancy has changed since 1880. 2 marks
1 mark.
3 Explain why a good diet can help people to survive
infections. 3 marks
This answer needs three good
points that link a good diet to 4 Compare the main causes of death in 1880 and 1997
being able to survive infection. shown in B. 3 marks
Here are two points that you
could use. Think of a third, B
then put them in a good order.
Causes of death in England and Wales in 1880 and 1997
■ Being healthy makes your
A disease is something that makes you ill. Diseases have many causes, as shown in Table A.
54
protein coat
Viruses of the virus virus
E
4 Name two life processes that viruses cannot
carry out.
I can …
■ give examples of different kinds of diseases and describe
how they are caused
■ explain why there is no virus kingdom.
55
CONTROL
9Db SYSTEMS
HOW ARE THE BODY’S RESPONSES CONTROLLED?
Nervous system
The nervous system is the organ system that helps us to sense
changes in our surroundings and inside our bodies. It also
allows our bodies to respond to those changes. The organs of
A | Symptoms of shingles include headache, fever and a painful
the nervous system are the brain, spinal cord and nerves, all rash on an area of skin linked to a single large nerve.
of which contain nerve tissue formed from nerve cells.
brain Changes that we sense are called stimuli. Stimuli are detected by
B | some organs of
receptor cells in sense organs, such as the eyes, ears and skin.
the human nervous
system When a stimulus is detected, a receptor cell produces electrical
spinal cord
signals. These signals are called impulses and travel along
nerves, usually to the brain via the spinal cord. The brain
processes the information from receptor cells and sends electrical
nerves impulses back out along other nerve cells to effectors, such as
muscles and glands. Cells in muscles respond to these impulses
by contracting. Cells in some glands respond by releasing
hormones into the blood.
56
Hormonal system
Hormones are substances that act as chemical messengers in the body. They are
In 2014 the world’s tallest
made in organs called glands, which release them into the blood. Target cells
and smallest men met. Sultan
or target organs respond to hormones in the blood by changing what they are Kosen is 2.51 m tall, and
doing. For example, the hormone adrenaline increases the pulse rate. Chandra Dangi is 0.55 m tall.
Sometimes a hormone from one gland causes the release of a different hormone Both heights have been caused
from another gland. For example, a hormone from the ovaries (oestrogen) causes by problems with the amount of
the pituitary gland to release a hormone that triggers ovulation. hormones their bodies make.
gland: adrenal
hormone: adrenaline gland: pancreas
target organs: many hormone: insulin
including heart and lungs target cells: muscle and
response: increases liver cells
heart rate and response: cells take up
breathing rate sugar from blood
gland: ovary
hormone: oestrogen gland: testis
target organs: many hormone: testosterone
response: controls target organs: many
changes in a girl’s body response: controls
during puberty, and some changes in a boy’s body
changes in the menstrual cycle during puberty
D | the positions of important glands, and some of the effects of the hormones they produce
b | The patient reads the information about the A | Matthias Berg was born with very short arms
antibiotic. The information says that the due to a side effect of the drug thalidomide,
antibiotic might cause a rash, loss of appetite which his mother took during pregnancy. He won
or a feeling of sickness. State the name given to 27 athletics and skiing medals and received the
these problems. Paralympic Order medal in 2011.
58
C | the stages in testing medicines for treating infections 3 Why do new medicines
need to be tested
Stage What is done Why it is done before doctors can give
1 tests on diseased cells, to see how much the medicine affects the them to patients?
tissues or organs in the pathogen inside cells, and to see if it harms
4 Suggest why testing of
lab the cells
new medicines has so
2 tests on animals (not to see how all the systems in a body react to many stages.
always done) the medicine without risk of harm to humans
3 tests on a few healthy to make sure the drug is safe for humans to 5 It may take 10 years
people use and to check for general side effects for a medicine to go
through all the testing
4 tests on many people to make sure the drug works well in humans,
who have the disease to find the right amount to give (dose) and to stages. Suggest at least
check for side effects in different people one problem with this.
1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 7 8 9 interquartile range = UQ – LQ
B | The median and quartiles in a set of
¼ ½ ¾
values. (Remember, the values must be
lower median upper put in order first.)
quartile value quartile
LQ Median UQ
The interquartile range is the difference between the upper
quartile (UQ) and lower quartile (LQ) values in a dataset. For the
smallest largest
example shown in diagram B, it is:
value value
7–3=4
C | the interquartile range of a dataset
15
15
16
16
17
17
18
18
5-
0-
5-
0-
5-
0-
5-
0-
5-
14
15
15
16
16
17
17
18
18
60
The interquartile range ignores extreme values in a data set, and shows
3 If you looked at the two trees in E,
the range of the middle 50 per cent of the data. This is a more useful
on which tree would you see leaves
measure for comparing the variation in two different groups, because
that are much shorter or longer
extreme values can bias a comparison if the ranges of all the data
than others? Explain your answer.
are compared. A small interquartile range shows that the individuals
in a population show
little variation, while a narrow interquartile range wide interquartile range
large interquartile range 15 15
means there is a lot of
Number of leaves
Number of leaves
variation.
10 10
5 5
In drug testing, data about features that might affect how well the drug works are collected.
The graph and chart in F show the results of a test to see how a statin affected the risk of heart
disease. Splitting the results into quartiles makes it easier to see how the drug worked well for
many people but not for everyone.
4 Look at F.
a | Explain why the data for cholesterol absorption were
split into quartiles.
b | Calculate the interquartile range for the data on I can …
cholesterol absorption. ■ calculate the median, quartiles and
c | Explain what the charts show about the effect of interquartile range of a simple dataset
cholesterol absorption on the success of reducing ■ interpret the use of quartiles in comparing
heart attack risk after using statins. variation in a large continuous dataset.
61
9Dd ECOLOGY
HOW CAN WE ESTIMATE ABUNDANCE?
Near the end of 2014 there were over 13 000 reported cases of
people infected with deadly Ebola in West Africa. However, it
was impossible to measure the exact number of Ebola infections
because it was difficult to collect data in many areas. Scientists
needed to estimate the number of cases.
One measure of abundance is population size. It is rare that you can find all the
organisms in a population, or have time to count them all. Therefore, we take
samples to estimate the population size.
For the estimate, you must know the number of organisms in a sample, the size of
the sample area and the size of the whole area:
62
The accuracy of the estimate is how close it is to the true value
if every organism had been counted. Accuracy depends on:
Estimating the number of tigers in the wild is
■ sample size: the larger the sample, the more accurate the
difficult because small numbers are spread over
estimate (but the longer it takes to collect)
large areas. Sampling by taking photographs
■ ease of recording: if it is easy to find organisms in the and analysing faeces suggest there are only
sample area, the estimate should be more accurate 3000 – 4000 tigers left.
■ distribution: the estimate should be more accurate if the
organisms are spread evenly or randomly over an area
4 a | On a rocky shore there were three crabs
(rather than being clumped).
in a 0.5 m × 0.5 m quadrat. Estimate the
total crab population on the rocks, which
Distribution covered an area of 60 m long by 10 m wide.
Distribution is how organisms are spread out in the area. b | There are an estimated 7000 limpets living
Diagram C shows the three main types. in the same area. Which organism is more
abundant?
Random Regular Clumped
During the Second World War, one-sixth of the deaths of A | Diseases such as tropical sprue and coeliac disease reduce
Allied soldiers in tropical areas were caused by a disease the surface area for absorbing digested food substances.
called tropical sprue.
a | Explain how vitamin B12 can diffuse into the Normal healthy villi increase
body. the surface area of the small
intestine for absorption of
b | Explain how tropical sprue could cause digested food substances.
anaemia.
64
The SA:V ratio is also important when organisms lose
4 a | Calculate the SA:V ratio of a cuboid where
substances and energy. For example, mammals and birds
l is 3 cm, w is 2 cm and h is 1 cm. Show all
use energy to keep their bodies warm. This energy is
your working.
transferred to the environment across their surfaces. The
rate (speed) of transfer is faster for small animals than b | Compare the SA:V ratio for the cuboid in
bigger ones because small animals have a larger SA:V ratio. part a with the SA:V ratio of a cuboid that
Smaller animals cool faster than larger ones. has l = 6 cm, w = 4 cm and h = 2 cm.
b | Suggest a reason
for the difference in
these values.
6 Look at diagram D.
a | Which liquid (X or Y) contains more water molecules?
b | In which direction will there be an overall movement of water
molecules?
D | Osmosis occurs if solutions on each side
c | What is the name of this process? of a partially permeable membrane contain
d | Explain how this process occurs. different amounts of water molecules.
7 Use ideas
Normal red blood cells
E about osmosis
have a dimpled disc
to explain the
shape. People with kidney
shape of the
I can …
disease may have lumpy
cells in photo E. ■ give examples
or spiky red blood cells
of how surface
because the liquid plasma
8 Look at photo A. area:volume ratio
around them contains
Explain how affects organisms
more urea than normal
tropical sprue can ■ describe how
and draws water out of
cause diarrhoea osmosis happens.
the cells by osmosis.
by osmosis.
65
COMBATTING
9De PANDEMICS
HOW CAN INFECTIOUS DISEASES CAUSE DEATHS ACROSS THE WORLD?
An infectious disease that infects many people over a short
time across several countries is called a pandemic. Many
people thought that with vaccination, antibiotics and better
hygiene, new dangerous infectious diseases were unlikely to
become pandemics. However, in 2014 an outbreak of Ebola
disease spread through several West African countries and
to other parts of the world.
Scientists are also concerned about the risk of a pandemic
of other viral diseases such as SARS, bird flu and swine
flu. Like Ebola, these diseases cannot be treated with
antibiotics because they are caused by viruses. An
infected person can pass on the virus to others before
they show symptoms of the disease. An outbreak of
A | ‘Spanish flu’ killed between 50 and 100 million people across the
SARS started in China in 2002 and rapidly spread to 37
world in 1918–19. Emergency treatment centres were needed to care
countries. It was controlled by isolating infected people for millions of patients.
and anyone they had been in contact with.
3 Explain why isolation can be used to prevent Should all countries contribute money to
a pandemic. pay for developing vaccines or medicines
Explain why some countries are more able to to treat new infectious diseases as soon
4 as they are identified?
control a highly infectious disease than others.
66
MATERIALS OF
9Ea THE FUTURE
Throughout time we have used chemical reactions to produce
new materials to help improve our lives. Today, scientists
continue to discover and invent new materials with special
properties and uses. Recently scientists have produced carbon
nanotubes that are 100 times stronger than steel, and flexible
aerogels that are lighter (less dense) than any other known solid.
The discovery and development of any new material is
extremely expensive, and teams of scientists compete with each
other to get money for research from governments and large
corporations. Great care is taken in examining ideas for research
before any money is given out.
67
ABOUT
9Ea CERAMICS
WHAT MAKES CERAMICS USEFUL?
i ii
Ceramics are a range of hard, durable,
non-metallic materials, which are generally
unaffected by heat. Often formed by
heating and then cooling, ceramics include
traditional bricks, china and glass as well
as more modern materials used to make
artificial bones and protective coverings
iii
for spacecraft.
Ceramics all have similar physical properties,
which make them useful:
■ hard, stiff, strong when compressed,
and brittle
■ high melting points and heat resistant
■ good insulators of heat and electricity A | Different ceramics and their uses. (i) Glass is hard, rigid,
■ very unreactive. unreactive and can be transparent, making it ideal for windows,
bottles and jars. (ii) Porcelain is rigid, strong when compressed
and an electrical insulator; it is used to support the electrical
Porcelain is an electrical insulator. cables on pylons and stop electricity flowing through the
1 pylons. (iii) Ceramics are heat resistant and so used for the
a | Explain what this means. brakes in high-performance cars.
b | Why does this make porcelain a
useful material for use in metal
electricity pylons?
c | Give the name of another
electrical insulator. B
68
Making ceramics
The raw materials for traditional ceramics are clays (for making pottery) and sand (to make glass).
1 What is a polymer?
Silly Putty®, a polymer based on silicon chains, can flow, stretch, bounce,
snap and take imprints. Apollo 8 astronauts used it to stop their tools
floating about inside the spacecraft. C | Natural rubber
is produced from
rubber trees.
70
cross-links
D | When natural rubber is warmed its molecules In vulcanised rubber, the cross-links stop the molecules
can slide over each other, so the rubber does not go sliding past each other, so the rubber goes back to its
back to its original shape after stretching. A material original shape when the stretching force is removed.
that keeps a new shape is said to be plastic. A material that does this is said to be elastic.
polymerisation
lots of small molecules called monomers join together in chains. Diagram E
shows how poly(ethene) or polythene is formed from ethene.
Polymerisation reactions like this transfer energy to the surroundings,
making them warmer. Reactions that transfer energy to the surroundings
are exothermic. Reactions that absorb energy from the surroundings,
making them cooler, are endothermic.
72
Scientists carry out investigations
B | The purpose of peer review to test an idea (hypothesis).
is to check the methods, results, Then they write a paper
conclusions and originality of a describing what they have done,
their results and conclusions.
scientific paper.
In 2012, it was discovered that scientist Hyung-In Moon 5 Suggest reasons why some
had found a way of peer reviewing his own papers. He papers are never properly peer
had given them glowing reviews! The papers were later reviewed.
retracted (withdrawn) when his deception was discovered. Why might scientists write
6
papers containing made-up
C | John Dalton published data?
his ideas on the way
elements combine in 7 Draw a table to compare the
the early 1800s, before benefits and drawbacks of peer
peer review was used. review.
Scientists have now shown
that Dalton’s data cannot
be reproduced using his
methods. Some think that
Dalton did not record his I can ...
methods accurately but
others think that he cheated ■ describe the process of peer review
and made his results fit his ■ describe the advantages and
theory on atoms. disadvantages of peer review.
73
COMPOSITE
9Ec MATERIALS
HOW ARE COMPOSITE MATERIALS USED?
polyester resin
glass fibres
B | Glass-reinforced plastic (GRP), a composite of glass C | Kevlar®, one of the strongest known polymer
fibres in a polyester resin, is often used in boatbuilding fibres, can be combined with polymer resins to
because it is strong, light and slightly flexible. The glass form extremely strong and light materials. Kevlar®
fibres are easily moulded into complex shapes, which set composites are often used for racing car and
hard with the resin. speedboat bodies, such as this wave-piercing trimaran.
74
Concrete
Concrete is a composite material that has been used
for thousands of years. It is made from a mixture of
cement, sand, aggregate (crushed rocks) and water.
The cement powder and water form a material that can
be moulded into shapes and then sets hard. However,
hardened cement is not very strong and so aggregate is
added to give concrete its strength. In building projects,
steel rods are also added; this reinforced concrete is
even stronger, so will not crack under pressure.
When water is added to the concrete mixture it reacts with the calcium
oxide in an exothermic reaction. During exothermic changes energy
is transferred to the surroundings, so their temperature rises.
8 When GRP resin is setting, it gets hot. E | As concrete sets it gets warmer
a | What type of reaction is happening? due to exothermic reactions.
The heat can cause the concrete
b | Explain what has happened in terms of energy transfer. to expand and crack.
carbon carbon
B | Carbon capture involves dioxide dioxide
removing carbon dioxide from
waste gases in power stations
and storing it underground.
carbon
dioxide
2 Suggest reasons
why the stonework in
photo A has become
both blackened and
The carbon dioxide
worn away. is trapped in old oil
and gas fields.
3 Explain how carbon
capture technology
could help protect
our Earth.
76
H Toxic substances
Factories can release toxic substances into the
polymer factory produces
waste containing mercury
environment. In 1956 doctors in Minamata, Japan, saw
an increase in people with serious nervous system
problems. This was traced to a factory producing eaten by
humans
chemicals for the polymer industry, which was releasing waste released
into the sea
mercury compounds into the sea. These were absorbed
by microorganisms and passed up the food chain. The mercury level
indicator
toxins did not break down and, because the larger eaten by
larger fish
animals ate many smaller animals, the concentration of Eaten by
the compounds increased in animals further up the food shellfish
chain. This process is called biomagnification. mercury
gets into
plankton eaten by small fish
4 a | Explain how water pollutants from factories
can get into humans.
C | Humans that ate the local fish in Minamata
b | Why do the levels of poisons increase up a accumulated very high levels of mercury.
food chain?
77
BIASED
9Ed LANGUAGE
HOW CAN YOU RECOGNISE BIASED LANGUAGE?
Many texts are written to promote a particular point of view
or preference. Newspaper articles, political leaflets or adverts “There are two ways to be
often select facts and use language to persuade us to believe fooled. One is to believe
a particular idea. Even scientific reports based on facts can be what isn’t true, the other
biased. For example, if the research is funded by a company is to refuse to accept
looking for a particular answer, the conclusions might reflect what what is true.”
the company wants to promote. Søren Kierkegaard
78
Here are some questions you could ask 3 Read the statements in the debate
yourself when evaluating a text. shown in figure C.
■ Do the facts and the data used support the a | Which three people are biased
conclusions drawn? against the idea that climate change
is linked to the burning of fossil fuels?
■ Are there any important facts omitted or
have the data been selected carefully? b | Which person’s statement is biased
because the data used have been
■ Are any of the statements vague or unclear? selected carefully? Explain your
choice.
■ Will there be any personal benefit to the
writer or to their employer if people believe c | Why is the word ‘natural’ used in
what they have written? person 5’s statement?
If the answer to any of these questions is yes, d | Suggest a reason why person 3 and
then the writing may be biased. person 5 might be biased.
3 2
5 Burning coal
produces natural 6
substances that 6
are already in the
atmosphere.
79
RECYCLING
9Ee MATERIALS
WHICH MATERIALS SHOULD BE RECYCLED?
The more materials we manufacture, the faster we Estimated years left of some finite resources
use up our Earth’s finite resources. Some of these 120
resources could even run out this century. In addition,
the more materials we use, the greater the amount of 100
waste we create.
80
Recycling means using the same materials again.
Years left
By recycling materials we reduce our use of limited 60
resources, save fuel and energy costs and reduce
the use of landfill sites. 40
20
0
coal oil natural gold silver copper
gas
Recycling glass
Many ceramics are not easy to recycle, but
1 Explain why metal ores are a finite resource. glass is different. Once it has been collected and
How much longer are our reserves of fossil separated by colour, it can be crushed and easily
2
fuels expected to last? melted to be moulded into new glass objects.
Although the raw materials for making glass
3 a | Suggest one way we can reduce our use are fairly cheap and plentiful, it takes much less
of landfill. energy to make recycled glass, so it reduces the
b | Describe two problems of using landfill sites. amount of fossil fuel used.
80
Recycling polymers 4 Describe two advantages of recycling
materials.
A symbol is stamped on objects made from
polymers to make recycling easier. Even with the 5 Suggest why glass is separated into
symbols it is difficult and expensive to separate different colours for recycling.
the different polymers, so recycling levels are still
quite low. 6 a | Suggest one reason why the amounts
of polymers recycled are low.
C | symbols for recycling b | It has been suggested that, instead
of using recycle labels, each kind of
Symbol Polymer Commonly found in ...
polymer is made in a particular colour.
polyethylene bottles for water, Suggest one advantage and one
01 terephthalate soft drinks and disadvantage of this idea.
cooking oil
PET
polyvinyl food packets, wire
03 chloride insulation and water Recycling concrete
pipes Concrete from demolished buildings was often
PVC
dumped in landfill sites. Now much of it is
polypropylene bottle caps, straws recycled using large crushing machines. The
05 and medicine bottles aggregate produced by these machines is used
for the foundations of roads and buildings.
PP
Recycling paper
Wood is a composite containing fibres of cellulose
and a natural adhesive called lignin. Paper is made
by boiling wood chips with water to form a pulp,
which is spread out on grids to dry. This forms a
new arrangement of cellulose and lignin, in sheets.
Paper is printed.
Pulp is squeezed
and dried to
remove water Waste paper
and form paper. is collected.
A | The three cooling towers at Didcot power station were demolished in 2014. The explosives were arranged so
that the towers imploded (collapsed in on themselves).
83
TYPES OF
9Fa EXPLOSION
HOW DOES AN EXPLOSION HAPPEN?
84
2 State whether the following changes are physical or chemical, giving a reason for
each answer:
a | heating solid wax until it changes to a liquid b | burning coal c | frying an egg.
5 What happened to the temperature of the surroundings when energy was transferred
to them during the Buncefield explosion?
■ increasing the number of gas particles (so more particles hit a surface)
■ decreasing the size of the container (so particles hit a surface more often)
■ increasing the temperature (so the particles move faster and hit more
often and with more force).
I can …
gas particles in a container gas particles in a higher temperature ■ identify and explain
at room temperature smaller container the differences
between physical
E | increasing the pressure of a gas changes and
chemical reactions
■ use particle theory
7 Explain how pressure builds up in the trashcano (photo A). to explain gas
pressure and how it
8 Draw a diagram and use it to explain how an increase in the number can be changed.
of particles in a container increases the pressure.
85
ACTIVE AND
9Fa PASSIVE
WHAT ARE ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICES?
Science reports can be written in either the active or passive voice.
The active voice emphasises the subject or performer of the action
so the reader knows who or what is responsible for the action.
We have analysed the results.
thermometer
The passive voice, in contrast, emphasises the object
or receiver of the action. stirrer
The results have been analysed.
Look at these two versions of a report of part of a science
experiment. The subject or performer of the action and
the object or receiver of the action have been highlighted. clamp
spirit burner
1 Using the highlighting to help you, explain the differences
between X and Y. ethanol
The active voice: The passive voice makes it less clear who
■ is clearer to follow or what is responsible for the action. The
■ emphasises who the subject or performer is
subject or performer of the action may be
hidden because:
■ is now preferred for writing science reports.
■ we don’t know what it is or it is unimportant
For example:
■ the object or receiver of the action is
We designed an experiment.
more important or needs emphasising.
Wind disperses plant seeds.
For example:
Bubbles were produced - it may not be
important to say what produced the bubbles
An experiment was designed - we may not
know who designed it.
86
After a storage tank at the Buncefield oil depot exploded
3 Is version P of the report written in the
on the 11th of December 2005, the depot caught fire. active or passive voice? How do you
There were a lot of news reports about the event. Parts know?
of two different reports are shown in P and Q.
4 Which version (P or Q) emphasises:
P Q a | the fire itself
People over 70 miles The explosion was b | the effects of the fire on local residents?
away heard the heard by people 5 This sentence is from a report about
explosion. Residents in over 70 miles away. conserving energy in the home.
nearby streets saw dense Dense black smoke Energy is wasted in our homes.
black smoke pouring was seen pouring
from the oil depot. from the oil depot. Explain why the writer has used the
passive voice.
I can …
■ present ideas and
opinions in the
active and passive
heat heat voices
■ evaluate different
ways of presenting
C | The steps needed to obtain a sample of pure salt from rock salt. the same
information.
87
9Fb REACTIVITY
HOW DO YOU COMPARE THE REACTIVITY OF METALS?
Reaction
Reaction Reaction
with
Metal with cold with dilute
oxygen in
water acid
air
potassium A | Caesium reacts violently with water.
sodium
tin
To decide where to place a metal in the reactivity
lead series, we can look at how vigorously it reacts
copper with water, acids and oxygen. For example, the
reactions with water and acids can produce
mercury
bubbles of hydrogen gas, and the more bubbles
silver formed the more reactive the metal is.
gold
The metals that react with water form a metal
platinum hydroxide and hydrogen:
Key
metal + water ➝ metal hydroxide + hydrogen
explosive
can catch reacts very The metals that react with dilute acids form a salt
fire quickly
and hydrogen:
reacts slow or partial
reacts
quickly reaction metal + acid ➝ salt + hydrogen
no
reaction The salts formed depend on which acid is
used. Chlorides are formed from hydrochloric
B | the reactivity series acid. Sulfates are formed from sulfuric acid.
Nitrates are formed from nitric acid.
88
The metals that react with oxygen form metal oxides:
3 Write the word equations
metal + oxygen ➝ metal oxide for these reactions:
This is an oxidation reaction as the metal has gained oxygen. a | sodium reacting with
water
b | magnesium reacting
Rusting with sulfuric acid
Iron and steel rust slowly when they are in contact with air and c | zinc reacting with oxygen.
water. They form brown flakes that gradually crumble and break
4 Barium reacts steadily with
away. Eventually all the metal corrodes away.
water.
Rusting can be prevented by using a physical barrier on the metal, Rubidium reacts explosively
such as paint or oil, to keep out the air and water. This is relatively with water.
cheap but is not suitable in all situations. Cobalt does not react with
Another way to prevent rusting is to attach blocks of a more water.
reactive metal (such as zinc or magnesium) to the iron or steel. The Put these three metals in
more reactive metal reacts with the water and oxygen instead of order of reactivity, with the
the iron. The metal is ‘sacrificed’ to protect the iron and so this is most reactive first.
called sacrificial protection. This method is often used for items in
contact with the sea because salt speeds up rusting. However, the
blocks need to be replaced regularly and this is expensive. C | Zinc blocks stop this steel hull
from rusting.
Explosives also react more quickly if the solid fuel is C | testing for oxygen using a glowing splint
broken down into tiny pieces. Chemical reactions take
larger piece smaller pieces
place on the surface of a solid. Small pieces of a solid
have a greater surface area than one large piece, so
there will be more particles exposed at the surface and
more reactions can take place.
90
Exothermic or endothermic?
Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be
transferred and stored in different ways.
A cold pack uses an
A reaction in which energy stored in the reactants is transferred to
endothermic reaction.
the surroundings is an exothermic reaction. In the surroundings, Energy is transferred to
the addition of energy causes the temperature to increase. the reactants from the
Combustion and neutralisation reactions are exothermic. surroundings (the air and
A reaction in which energy is transferred from the surroundings skin). The loss of energy
to the reactants is an endothermic reaction. Thermal from the surroundings
reduces their temperature.
decomposition is endothermic.
H H
Many exothermic reactions need O O H O
H C H O C O
energy to start them off. Methane O
O O H
is a hydrocarbon. As it burns, the H H
hydrogen and carbon atoms are both fuel
oxygen carbon dioxide water
oxidised. A lot of energy is transferred (methane)
to the surroundings during the reaction,
F | Methane burns to produce carbon dioxide and water.
so methane is used as a fuel.
However, a mixture of methane and oxygen does not burn without some energy to
start the reaction (for example, from a flame or spark). This input of energy is needed
to break some bonds in the reactants to separate some atoms. The reaction can then
start: atoms are rearranged, new bonds are formed and energy is transferred.
Some reactions, such as thermal decomposition, are endothermic and need a
continuous input of energy to keep them going.
Example 1
10.0 g of magnesium carbonate was heated and lost 52% of its mass. What mass of solid was left?
First find the mass lost:
52
mass lost is 52% of 10 g = × 10 = 5.2 g
100
Then find the mass of solid left:
mass of solid left = initial mass – mass lost = 10.0 – 5.2 = 4.8 g
Remember that if the solid loses mass, the final mass will be less than the initial mass.
Example 2
5.00 g of copper was heated and increased in mass by 25%. What is the mass of solid after heating?
25
mass gained is 25% of 5.00 g = × 5.00 = 1.25 g
100
final mass of solid = initial mass + mass gained = 5.00 + 1.25 = 6.25 g
Remember that if the solid gains mass, the final mass will be more than the initial mass.
92
4 100 g of calcium carbonate was heated.
It lost 44% of its mass. What is the mass
of solid left?
Percentage change
When heated, copper carbonate decomposes:
copper carbonate ➝ copper oxide + carbon
dioxide
Calculate the percentage change in mass when: B | When green copper carbonate is heated, black
copper oxide is left behind. Carbon dioxide has escaped
■ mass of copper carbonate used = 12.4 g from the tube.
■ mass of copper oxide left = 8.0 g
First find the change in mass:
initial mass – final mass = 12.4 – 8.0 = 4.4 g
Then find the percentage change:
mass change 4.4
× 100 = × 100 = 35.5%
initial mass 12.4 (to 1 decimal
place)
When magnesium burns in air, it is oxidised and
gains mass as magnesium oxide forms:
magnesium + oxygen ➝ magnesium oxide
Calculate the percentage change in mass when:
■ mass of magnesium used = 2.4 g
■ mass of magnesium oxide formed = 4.0 g
Change in mass: = 1.6 g
1.6
Percentage change: = × 100 = 66.7%
2.4 (to 1 decimal
place)
C | Magnesium oxide is the white powder left in the
crucible when magnesium burns in air.
6 What is the percentage loss in mass when
8.4 g of magnesium carbonate is heated if
the mass of magnesium oxide left is 4.0 g?
Give your answer to 1 decimal place.
I can …
7 What is the percentage gain in mass
■ express one number as a percentage of another
when 4.0 g of calcium is heated in air
and forms 5.6 g of calcium oxide? ■ calculate percentage change.
93
9Fd DISPLACEMENT
HOW CAN WE USE THE REACTIVITY SERIES?
94
3 Use the reactivity series on page 88 to suggest the — zinc strip
name of a metal that:
iron ore
carbon limestone
96
Aluminium positive graphite electrodes
Iron could also be extracted using electrolysis but D | Electrolysis is used to extract aluminium from aluminium
it is too expensive. A lot of electricity would be oxide.
needed to heat the iron oxide to keep it molten,
and the process of electrolysis also requires vast
amounts of electricity. Electrolysis is only used to Metal Method of Ease of Date of first
extract the very reactive metals that cannot be extraction extraction isolation
obtained by heating their oxides with carbon. Potassium hard to 1807
Sodium extract 1807
4 a | Name two metals, other than iron, Lithium 1817
that can be extracted from their ores electrolysis
Calcium 1808
by heating with carbon
Magnesium 1808
b | Name two metals that are extracted
Aluminium 1825
from their ores by electrolysis.
(Carbon) getting before 3000 BCE
5 Suggest why carbon is shown: Zinc harder to about 500 BCE
a | between aluminium and zinc in the extract
Iron ores are
reactivity series in table E
Tin heated with
b | in brackets.
Lead carbon
6 Suggest why the most reactive metals Copper
were not extracted from their ores before 3000 BCE
Silver
before the 19th century.
Gold found in
Platinum native state easy to
Metals that occur in the native state and those
extract
that can be extracted by heating their oxides
with carbon have been known for a long time. E | The method of extraction of a metal depends on its
Metals that can only be extracted from their ores position in the reactivity series.
by electrolysis have been obtained much more
recently.
I can …
■ explain why the method used to extract a metal is
In the mid-1800s, aluminium was very related to cost and the metal’s reactivity
expensive to produce and was more ■ describe how metals are extracted from their ores
valuable than gold. Emperor Napoleon III by heating with carbon or by electrolysis
of France used aluminium plates and ■ explain what happens in oxidation and reduction
cutlery for his most honoured guests. reactions.
97
9Fe ALFRED NOBEL
SHOULD EXPLOSIVES BE BANNED?
Alfred Nobel was born into a family that manufactured tools and explosives,
including iron for cannons used in the Crimean War. He devoted himself to
the study of explosives, especially the manufacture of nitroglycerin.
In 1864 a shed used for the manufacture of nitroglycerin exploded, killing five
people, including Alfred’s youngest brother, Emil. Alfred continued to build further
factories, but he concentrated on improving the stability of the substances he
was developing so they would be safer and not explode unexpectedly.
A | Alfred Nobel (1833−1896)
Nobel invented dynamite in 1866; it was
was a Swedish chemist.
patented in 1867. This explosive is easier
and safer to handle than nitroglycerin as it
needs a detonator to start the reaction. Dynamite is still in daily use for
constructive purposes, such as quarrying, mining, road building and
demolition.
When another of Alfred’s brothers died in 1888, a French newspaper
published an obituary for Alfred by mistake.
‘Alfred Nobel, who became rich by finding ways to kill more people
faster than ever before, died yesterday.’
This shocked him and he decided to leave the majority of his money to
establish the Nobel Prizes. Since 1901, these prizes have been awarded
to individuals or groups of people from around the world for outstanding
achievements in physics, chemistry, medicine and literature, and for work
to promote peace.
B | Dynamite is used as
the explosive in quarrying, Svante Arrhenius was awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1903
which provides us with for his discovery of how compounds can carry electric currents. We can
building materials. now explain what happens when metals are extracted using electrolysis.
In 1997 a group called International Campaign
1 Many metal ores are obtained by the use of to Ban Landmines was awarded the Nobel
explosives in mining. Describe the energy Prize for Peace for their work in the banning
changes that occur in this process.
and clearing of anti-personnel mines.
2 Summarise how iron is extracted from iron
oxide.
98
REVISING KS3
9Ga CHEMISTRY
WHY IS SCIENTIFIC LANGUAGE NEEDED?
99
SEPARATING
9Ga SUBSTANCES
HOW DO THE DIFFERENT WAYS OF SEPARATING MIXTURES WORK?
means that solids have fixed shapes and volumes A | changes of state
and do not flow. Particles in liquids and gases are
moving around all the time. Particles in liquids are close together but can move past each
other. Gas particles are far apart, and cause pressure when they bounce off objects.
If a solid is heated, the particles gain energy and start to move around more. The
solid melts to become a liquid. Changes of state are reversible changes (they can
easily be reversed, by changing the temperature, in this case). They are also physical
changes (because no new substances are created). New substances are formed in
chemical reactions, but remember that in both these types of change there is no
change in overall mass because particles are not created or destroyed.
100
7G Diffusion
We can use the particle model to explain diffusion; substances
spread out and mix together even if we do not stir them up
because particles in liquids and gases are always moving and
bumping into each other.
7E Filtration
Insoluble solids can be separated from a liquid using a process called filtration
(or filtering). Diagram C shows how pure sugar is made from sugar cane by
separating the sugar from the insoluble substances in the plant.
The cane is chopped into The mixture is then filtered. The The solution is then heated
small pieces, and mixed sugar solution passes through so that most of the water
with the solvent (water, the filter, because both water evaporates. As the hot syrup
shown in blue). The sugar particles and dissolved sugar cools down, sugar crystals
(grey) dissolves in the particles can fit through the tiny form.
water, but the rest of the holes in the filter paper. The
stem (green) is insoluble. insoluble solids are trapped.
7E Chromatography Distillation 7E
Many coloured dyes are mixtures of Distillation can be used to separate a solvent
different colours. Such mixtures can be from a solution. The solution is heated and
separated using chromatography. the solvent evaporates. The vapour rises and
condenses as it cools down, turning back
into a liquid. In this way, the liquid solvent is
Water particles travel up the paper. They separated from the solution.
carry the particles of the dyes with them. water out
condenser
cold
water
in distilled
solution
This dye is not very solvent
soluble in water.
heat
D E resistant
mat
heat
101
CHEMICAL
9Gb REACTIONS
WHAT HAPPENS IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS?
Oxygen is an element. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a Nitrogen (N2) is an element. Water (H2O) is another
A molecule of oxygen compound made of two compound. In the air, water
contains two identical elements. A molecule of can be in the form of a gas
atoms. The formula of an carbon dioxide contains (water vapour), or drops of
oxygen molecule is O2. three atoms. liquid water (clouds).
8E Different reactions
There are millions of different chemical reactions, but they can be grouped into certain types.
■ In an oxidation reaction, a substance combines with oxygen. Example: metals oxidise
to form metal oxides.
■ Combustion is a specific type of oxidation reaction. Example: the combustion of
carbon, shown above.
102
■ In a thermal decomposition reaction, a substance breaks up into simpler
substances when it is heated. Example: calcium carbonate decomposes when
it is heated to give calcium oxide and carbon dioxide.
calcium carbonate ➝ calcium oxide + carbon dioxide
CaCO3 ➝ CaO + CO2
■ In a displacement reaction, a more reactive metal displaces a less reactive
metal from a compound. Example: magnesium is more reactive than copper, so
when magnesium is mixed with copper chloride solution, it displaces the copper
from its compound.
magnesium + copper chloride ➝ magnesium chloride + copper
Mg + CuCl2 ➝ MgCl2 + Cu
■ In a neutralisation reaction an acid reacts with a base (see page 105).
Some combustion fuels, including
reactions fossil fuels
can be linked respiration
together,
such as in CO2 in atmosphere photosynthesis
green plants
the carbon and dissolved in water
cycle.
respiration by
death
decay organisms
C respiration
animals
8E Energy in reactions
9F In many reactions, energy is released. This makes the things immediately around
the reacting substances get hotter. This is called an exothermic reaction.
Combustion reactions are exothermic. Some reactions need some energy supplied
to start the reaction off, but an exothermic reaction releases far more energy than
this initial amount.
In other reactions energy is taken into the reacting substances. This makes
the things around them get colder. This is an endothermic reaction. Thermal
decomposition reactions are endothermic. For example, in the thermal
decomposition of calcium carbonate, energy must constantly be supplied (by
heating) to decompose it.
8G Speeding up reactions
Some reactions (such as explosions) happen very fast, and some (such as rusting)
happen quite slowly. A catalyst is a substance that changes the speed of a reaction
without being permanently changed itself. Catalysts are important in the chemical
industries and in catalytic converters that are used to clean up car exhausts.
103
PHYSICAL AND
9Gc CHEMICAL
WHAT ARE THE PROPERTIES OF DIFFERENT MATERIALS?
2
vinegar
a soapy feel. Very acidic or alkaline solutions are often 6 pure water
105
THE PERIODIC
9Gd TABLE
WHY IS THE PERIODIC TABLE USEFUL?
8.5% other
elements
3.5% calcium
5% iron 28% silicon 1% other gases,
8% aluminium mainly argon 21% oxygen
A | the most common elements found in the Earth's crust B | the most common elements in the atmosphere
106
8F Grouping the elements
In 1869 Mendeleev published a table of all the elements that were known at the
time, arranged so that patterns could be seen in their properties. He placed the
elements in order of increasing masses of their atoms, but he swapped a few of
them around so that they lined up in groups with similar chemical properties.
The modern form of this table is called the periodic table (most of which is
shown below). The metals are on the left and the non-metals on the right.
1 0
H He
2 3 4 5 6 7
metal
Li Be semi-metal B C N O F Ne
non-metal
Na Mg transition metals Al Si P S Cl Ar
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Horizontal rows are called periods, and vertical rows are called groups.
Elements in a group have similar properties.
8F Trends in properties
The periodic table can be used to predict the physical and chemical
D Li
properties of certain elements.
increasing reactivity
Na
For example, in group 1:
■ all the metals react with oxygen to form oxides with similar formulae, so if K
you know the formula for lithium oxide it is very easy to work out the formula Rb
for sodium oxide
Cs
■ the melting point gets lower as you go down the group
Fr
■ the reactivity increases as you go down the group, so if you know how fast a
reaction happens with sodium, you know it will happen faster with potassium.
There are also trends across the periods.
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 Group 6
E | There is a trend in acidity (pH) of element oxides across the periods in the periodic table.
107
EARTH AND
9Ge ATMOSPHERE
HOW DO THE EARTH AND THE ATMOSPHERE CHANGE?
outer core
(liquid)
inner core
(solid)
108
8H Earth resources
Metal ores are extracted from the Earth by mining, and building stone comes from
quarries. Mining and quarrying can harm the environment by destroying habitats and
causing pollution. Some metals are quite rare and expensive to find and extract.
Recycling metals:
■ cuts down on pollution caused by mining
■ reduces pollution from landfill sites
■ allows supplies of metals to last longer
■ often needs less energy than obtaining the metal from an ore.
an
d rock at fr e e z i n g
ion surface
r os t
, e por
tra g
s new
in
n
magma
at h
pushed up towards
the surface.
Molten magma from inside the
sediment Earth forms igneous rocks when
uplift
t
he g and
pre s s u
lti n g
g
a tin
in
e lt
me
m
sedimentary metamorphic
rock rock
rock in the
press t
ure and hea mantle
1 This story is from an online news site. The editor wants readers’ questions to be answered,
explaining the science. Choose one of the questions below and write a detailed answer for
the site.
a | Coal consists mainly of carbon. How is coal formed and why is it a non-renewable resource?
b | What is the carbon cycle? (Hint: It may be easier to answer this question using a labelled
diagram.)
c | Why is the amount of carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere increasing and why is this
likely to cause environmental problems?
2 Carbon dioxide captured from power stations is often pumped into the rocks in oil fields. This
process is called ‘enhanced oil recovery’. Find out what this is, and explain why using carbon
dioxide in this way may not help to reduce the amount put into the atmosphere.
3 Newspaper or magazine editors often write ‘editorials’ in which they give their own balanced
opinions on things discussed in their publication. Find out more about the benefits and
drawbacks of CCS plants, and use the results of your research to write a balanced editorial
that shows both sides of the argument. The final part of your editorial should give your own
conclusion about whether or not new CCS plants are a good thing.
110
ELECTROLYSIS
9G2 INVESTIGATION
When a salt such as copper sulfate dissolves in
water, the crystals break up and form positively
charged particles of copper (called copper ions)
and negatively charged sulfate ions in the water.
In electrolysis, two electrodes are placed into the
solution and connected to an electricity supply and
the charged particles are attracted to the electrodes.
Copper metal forms at the electrode connected to
the negative terminal of the power supply.
Metals can be extracted from their ores using
electrolysis. However, for fairly unreactive metals
such as copper there are also other, cheaper,
methods that can be used.
A | Copper-coated electrodes are being lifted
Many uses of copper require the copper to be pure. from an ‘electrolysis’ bath. Pure copper has been
Electrolysis can be used to purify copper, by making deposited on the electrodes.
the impure copper the positive electrode. Copper
from this electrode turns into copper ions in solution,
and these are deposited on the negative electrode
as pure copper.
Copper is easy to recycle, and is the
third most recycled metal (after iron and
B | You can extract copper from copper aluminium). The copper collected to be
sulfate solution in a school laboratory. recycled is often mixed with other metals
What variables affect the amount of but it can be purified by electrolysis.
copper produced?
Planning
You are going to plan and carry out an investigation of your
choice to find out how different variables affect the amount
of copper produced during the electrolysis of copper sulfate
solution. Here are some variables you could investigate:
■ the volume of copper sulfate solution
■ the concentration of copper sulfate solution
■ the size of the current
■ the time for which the current flows
■ the size (or surface area) of the electrodes.
111
9G3 NANOPARTICLES
COMMUNICATING WITH THE PUBLIC
Titanium dioxide is widely used as a white pigment,
in paint and things such as toothpaste. Since
titanium dioxide particles are good at reflecting all
wavelengths of light, it is used in sunscreens.
Titanium dioxide crystals can be made that are
much smaller than usual – only about 20 nanometres
across. These are examples of nanoparticles
(particles of 1 nm to 100 nm in diameter). Titanium
dioxide nanoparticles have different properties to the
larger crystals. They do not reflect all colours of light
but still absorb UV light from the Sun.
Making a material into nanoparticles often changes its A | This white sunblock contains titanium dioxide
crystals that are about 300 nm across. 'Invisible'
properties. This is mainly because the surface area of sunscreens contain titanium dioxide nanoparticles.
the material is greatly increased for the same mass. 1 nanometre = 1 millionth of a metre.
Nanoparticles made of various materials have many
uses. For instance, vehicle catalytic converters
can now be made using less platinum if this metal
is made into nanoparticles. Catalytic converters
have a mesh with a large surface area, through
which exhaust gases pass. For small engines, this
mesh is often made of an alloy of iron, chromium
and aluminium. This is coated with a layer of
large titanium dioxide crystals, to give the mesh a
rough surface (and more surface area), and this is
covered in a fine layer of platinum nanoparticles
(the catalyst). B | This catalytic converter is designed for use
on petrol-powered lawn mowers.
112
ART AND
9Ha CHEMISTRY
Artists need to know about the properties of the different
materials they use. Today, they can choose from a
greater range of materials than ever before and they
can experiment with using old materials in new ways.
B | The red colour on this 2000-year-old wall painting 1 Identify two reactions on this page that occur at
(fresco) from Pompeii is mercury sulfide. different rates, and describe how the rates are different.
113
SHORT
9Ha ANSWERS
HOW DO YOU WRITE 'SHORT ANSWER' EXAM QUESTIONS?
One mark answers A The keel of a boat is made out of a composite material.
One mark answers need you to recall a word or a State what is meant by the term COMPOSITE MATERIAL. (1)
piece of information. Your answer does not need to
be a full sentence, so make it as clear and as short
as you can.
Mark Scheme
The question in example A contains the command
Question Answer Notes Marks
words ‘State the meaning of…’. The word ‘define’
A a material made by do not allow ‘made (1)
can also be used for questions of this type. There is using two different of materials’ or an
more about command words on pages 52–53. materials together example
Two or three mark short B Air is passed over heated copper by using two gas syringes.
As this is done, the volume of air inside the syringes decreases.
answers gas syringe A air
copper
gas syringe B
1 Write a mark scheme for this question: Define the term ‘oxide’.
2 Here are some students’ answers to question B. The mark they scored is also shown.
P The copper reacts with air and becomes copper oxide. (1)
Q Copper attracts oxygen when heated. (0)
R The copper causes the volume of air in the two syringes to be reduced because it
reacts with oxygen in the air and becomes copper oxide. (2)
a | Explain why each of the answers has been given those number of marks.
b | Write out corrected or better versions of each answer.
114
Two or three mark short answer questions usually C Barium sulfate can be prepared as a white precipitate.
fall into three main categories: describe, explain and Describe how you could prepare a pure, dry sample of barium
sulfate from barium hydroxide solution and sulfuric acid. (3)
compare.
To ‘describe’ you need to link pieces of information.
You need to plan an order, and to think about which
descriptive words and which linking words to use.
■ Try drawing a flow chart or concept map to
help you order your information (but cross it out
afterwards).
■ Show place, position or time using prepositional
phrases (e.g. after an hour, during an eclipse, from
C | a ‘describe’ question
the results, in the solution, within the cell wall).
■ Use adjectives to describe things in detail (e.g. grey metal, lightweight fabric, strong polymer).
■ Use adverbs to give precise information about how, when and where things happen (e.g. place
the tube here, work quickly, only after the reaction is completed, sometimes the mixture spits,
the owl flies silently, it is usually necessary to clean the magnesium strip).
■ Link facts together with coordinating conjunctions (e.g. and, but, or).
■ Add information about a fact using a subordinating conjunction (e.g. as, because, when,
which).
To ‘explain’ you need to say how or why D Iron corrodes when it is left in moist air.
something happens. You may need to state what The reactivity series below shows iron and three other metals.
happens first and then explain the reason for it.
most reactive magnesium
■ Words that show cause and effect are often iron
useful (e.g. as a result, because, due to, for copper
this reason, since, so, the effect of which is).
least reactive gold
To ‘compare’ you need to say how one thing is (a) Explain which metal in the list will corrode
faster than iron. (2)
similar and/or different to another.
■ Comparative adjectives (e.g. faster, more acidic,
smaller) are very useful in these questions.
■ Some subordinating conjunctions (e.g.
whereas, although, despite) will also be helpful. D | an ‘explain’ question
Some questions can be worth up to 6 marks. For details on these longer answer questions see pages 182–183.
115
9Ha IONS
WHY ARE IONS IMPORTANT IN CHEMISTRY?
electron
gain
B | Ions are atoms that have lost or gained electrons, and so have a charge.
3 What is an ion?
116
potential difference
5 a | Look back at photo A. Suggest what the tubes
(voltage)
in the building represent.
Metal conductivity
Knowing about metallic bonding allows us to understand why
metals conduct electricity. If you apply a voltage (a potential
difference) between two points on a piece of metal, electrons will
flow in the same direction. This flow of electrons transfers energy
and forms an electrical current.
Compounds held together with ionic bonds are ionic compounds. Different ions can
Many metals in the middle of the periodic table form ionic 2+ 2- 2+ 2- have different
Mg S Fe O
amounts of charge,
compounds with intense colours, which are used in artists’ colours.
as shown by the
Like electrons, ions can also carry an magnesium sulfide iron oxide numbers.
I can
■ explain how ions are formed
■ describe metallic and ionic bonding
■ explain how metals and ionic compounds can conduct electricity.
117
ENERGY
9Hb TRANSFERS
WHAT HAPPENS TO ENERGY IN PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES?
1 Potassium atoms contribute one electron to A | sodium – melting point: 98 °C; boiling point: 883 °C
metallic bonding, but calcium atoms contribute two
electrons. Explain which metal is likely to be harder.
Physical changes
To melt or evaporate a substance, energy must be supplied. The
energy breaks some of the bonds between particles. The stronger
the bonds, the more energy is needed to break them.
118
3 Why is sodium used in some street lights but
magnesium is not?
Chemical reactions
Unlike in physical changes, in chemical reactions new bonds form between For sweat to evaporate, an input of
different types of atoms. This produces new substances. When bonds are energy is needed. This energy comes
broken and made, energy is taken in and released. If a chemical reaction from your skin. As it loses energy to
gives out more energy than it takes in then it is an exothermic reaction. your sweat, your skin cools down.
These reactions cause a rise in temperature of things immediately around
them. Endothermic reactions lower the temperature of their surroundings.
We can show the differences in energy between the P Q
reactants and products in a reaction profile.
Energy within the
products
substances
substances
9 When barium hydroxide is mixed with F | reaction profiles for endothermic and exothermic changes
ammonium thiocyanate in a test tube, ice
forms on the outside of the tube.
a | Explain whether the reaction inside the
test tube is exothermic or endothermic. I can
b | The ice is formed from water vapour in
■ interpret and sketch reaction profiles
the air. Is this a chemical reaction or a ■ explain why changes are described as being exothermic
physical change? or endothermic
■ explain how bonding affects the properties of some
c | Describe the changes that occur to
substances.
water molecules as this process occurs.
119
RATES OF
9Hc REACTION
WHAT CONTROLS THE RATE OF A REACTION?
1 Compare the
rates of the
reactions in
photos A and B.
To measure the rate of reaction, we either measure how quickly the reactants
are used up or how quickly the products are formed. For example, photo
C shows the reaction between calcium carbonate (marble chips) and
hydrochloric acid. Carbon dioxide gas is produced by the reaction. Some
results from the reaction are shown in table D and graph E.
C thistle funnel
D
Time (s) Volume of carbon dioxide
collected (cm3)
0 0
10 36
20 55
30 66
40 72
50 73
marble chips and hydrochloric acid 60 73
120
The mean rate of reaction is calculated by dividing the total How the amount of gas produced by the reaction
volume of gas by the time taken to collect it. changes with time
Changing rates
For particles to react, they need to collide with each other.
■ The harder two particles collide, the more likely they
are to react.
■ The more often particles collide, the more particles will
react.
One way of increasing the number of particles colliding
with each other is to increase the surface area of a
F | Increasing the surface area of a reactant increases the rate of
reactant. Diagram F shows that only the blue particles on reaction.
the surface of the block on the left can react with the red
particles. If you split up the blue block, then more of the
blue particles are on a surface and so can react.
The ratio between the surface area and volume is an important concept. We call this the surface area:volume
ratio or SA:V ratio. We calculate it by dividing the total surface area of something by its volume (see page 64).
When a substance is split into smaller pieces, its volume does not change but its surface area increases.
So, its SA:V ratio is greater. The greater the SA:V ratio, the faster the rate of reaction.
a | Calculate the SA:V ratio of a cube of side 3 cm. On the morning of 14 October 1913, in a
4
coalmine in Senghenydd, Wales a spark ignited
b | The cube is now split into 27 cubes of side 1 cm.
a pocket of methane gas. This explosion caused
Calculate the total SA:V ratio for the 27 cubes.
coal dust to be swept into the air. Coal dust has
c | How would splitting a large cube of calcium a large surface area. The dust then exploded and
into smaller cubes affect its rate of reaction this resulted in the deaths of 440 men and boys.
with water? The mine’s owner was fined £10.
1 State the names of the salts found in the word equations above.
Symbol equations
We use symbols to represent the formulae of elements and compounds.
The formula for a compound clearly shows the elements it contains (which is A | Limestone is mainly calcium
not always obvious from a substance’s name). For example: carbonate, which reacts with acids in
rainwater. This is a neutralisation reaction.
hydrogen oxygen
We can add state symbols to show the state different substances are in.
5 Explain whether sodium
State symbols are in brackets after each substance in a symbol equation:
nitrate is soluble in water
(s) for ‘solid’, (l) for ‘liquid’, (g) for ‘gas’ and (aq) for ‘aqueous’ (dissolved in water).
or not.
For example:
6 Re-write your answer to
nitric acid + sodium hydroxide sodium nitrate + water question 4 adding in state
HNO3(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l) symbols.
122
Balancing equations
In a chemical reaction, the total mass of the reactants is always exactly the same as the total mass of
the products. This is because atoms cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction. So, when
we write out symbol equations we must have the same number of each atom on both sides of the
arrow. Doing this produces a balanced equation.
For example, this equation is balanced:
HNO3(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l)
1 + 1 = 2 hydrogen 2 hydrogen
HNO3 + NaOH NaNO3 + H2O
1 nitrogen 1 nitrogen
3 + 1 = 4 oxygen 3 + 1 = 4 oxygen
1 sodium 1 sodium B
Balanced
7 Write out a balanced equation, using state 8 What are the names of the products
symbols, for: and reactants in the two reactions
shown on this page?
a | magnesium burning in oxygen (O2)
b | methane (CH4) reacting with oxygen
c | sulfuric acid reacting with sodium hydroxide I can
to produce Na2SO4(aq).
■ write balanced symbol equations with state
symbols.
123
STANDARD
9Hd FORM
HOW IS STANDARD FORM USED?
The standard SI unit of length is the pea influenza virus iron atom
metre. We often want to measure things width: 8 mm width: 80 nm width: 0.14 nm
that are smaller than a metre and so we in metres: 0.008 m in metres: 0.000 000 08 m in metres: 0.000 000 000 14 m
use centimetres (cm), millimetres (mm),
micrometres (µm) and nanometres (nm).
Using these smaller units means that we
don’t end up with so many 0s in the numbers.
Index numbers
To measure areas we use square units, such as square metres (m2) or square millimetres (mm2). To measure
volumes we use cubic units, such as cubic centimetres (cm3). The small raised number is the index (or power).
width
B | index numbers in common units
height
width
length
length length
124
When you multiply a number by 10, the digits move one place
2 Write out these multiplications in full.
value to the left and you fill in the gaps with zeros:
a | 66 b | 103 c | 28
1
1 × 10 = 10 3 Write these multiplications using an
10 × 10 = 100 index number:
a| 4 × 4 × 4
In positive powers of 10, the index tells you how many place
values to move 1 to the left. b | 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10
5 4 3 2 1
c| 2 × 2 × 2 × 2
105 = 1 0 0 0 0 0 d | 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10
109 = 1 000 000 000 Write these as ‘ordinary’ numbers:
4
In negative powers of 10, the index tells you how many place a | 103 = 10 × 10 × 10 = …..
values to move 1 to the right. b | 104
1 c | 106
10-1 = 0.1 d | 10-2
10-5 = 0.000 01 e | 10-4
Standard form
We can write very large or very small numbers as a number between 1 and 10 multiplied by a
power of 10. This is called standard form:
A × 10n where A is between 1 and 10 and n is the power of 10.
Standard form is another way of writing numbers without having too many zeros to deal with.
For example, the beaker in photo C contains 602 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 copper atoms.
We can write this in standard form:
number between 1 and 10
602 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 = 6.02 × 1023
power of 10
Very small numbers are shown using standard form with a negative index number.
For example, the width of a carbon atom is 0.000 000 000 07 m.
In standard form: C | This beaker contains
0.000 000 000 07 = 7 × 10-11 m 6 × 1023 atoms.
5 The Earth is about 4 600 000 000 years old. 9 Light takes about 3 × 10-9 s to travel 1 m.
Write the number of years in standard form. Write this time as an ordinary number.
6 The Moon has a diameter of 3.474 × 106 m. Use standard form to show the widths of
10
Write this distance as an ordinary number. each of the items in diagram A in metres.
125
9He EQUILIBRIA
WHAT IS A DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM?
reactants products
Sometimes there is only one product and sometimes there
is only one reactant (such as in decomposition reactions).
The equation below shows the decomposition of hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2). A weak aqueous solution of hydrogen
peroxide is used to remove stains from paintings.
2H2O2(aq) 2H2O(l) + O2(g) A | The decomposition of hydrogen peroxide has been speeded up
using a catalyst and detergent has been added to form a bubbly foam.
In some reactions, the products react together and form
the reactants again. For example, if ammonium chloride is
heated it will decompose to form ammonia and hydrogen
chloride. However, some of the ammonia and hydrogen State the names of the products
1
chloride will react together again to form ammonium and reactants when hydrogen
chloride. There are two reactions going on at the same time: peroxide decomposes.
NH4Cl(s) NH3(g) + HCl(g)
NH3(g) + HCl(g) NH4Cl(s)
A reaction that can go both backwards and forwards is called a reversible B | The decomposition
reaction. We show this in equations using half arrows that point in both of ammonium chloride
is reversible.
directions.
NH4Cl(s) s NH3(g) + HCl(g)
When we read an equation like this, we say that the reaction going from left
to right is the ‘forward reaction’, and the reaction going from right to left is the
‘backward reaction’. ammonium
chloride At the cooler
2 a | What is produced by the forward reaction when temperatures
ammonium chloride decomposes? further up the
test tube, the
b | What is produced by the backward reaction? ammonia and
hydrogen chloride
Nitrogen (N2) can be made to react with hydrogen (H2) to form react together
3 again, forming
ammonia in a reversible reaction. Write a balanced symbol
ammonium
equation, including state symbols, for this reaction. chloride.
4 Sulfur dioxide (SO2) can react with oxygen to form sulfur When heated, ammonium
trioxide (SO3) gas in a reversible reaction. Write a balanced chloride decomposes to
symbol equation, including state symbols, for this reaction. form two colourless gases
(ammonia and hydrogen
chloride).
126
Equilibrium How the percentages of reactants and products
change in a reversible reaction
100
In a reversible reaction the reactants are never totally converted
into products because some of the products will always react 90
equilibrium
to form the reactants again. 80
5 Look at graph C. Describe what line P tells you about the forward
reaction.
5 Calcium oxide is an ionic compound. Should we restore art? Write an argument for
Describe the bonding in this compound.
or against.
128
9Ia MOVING THINGS
Photo A shows a lighthouse being moved in the United States.
Modern equipment and machinery are needed to move large
buildings like this. Smaller houses are sometimes moved
using lorries.
Machines such as those used to move the Cape Hatteras
lighthouse have only existed for a few centuries. Before then,
moving and lifting things had to be done using only human or
animal power, or by using energy from the wind or moving water.
C | We do not know how ancient peoples built 1 Look at photo A. Name the forces acting
their large structures. This photo shows students on the building as it is being moved, and
testing a possible way in which the 50 tonne describe what they are doing.
stones in Stonehenge might have been moved.
2 Look at photo C. The students are using
rollers beneath the stone they are pulling to
reduce friction.
a | How does friction affect the movement of
an object?
b | Describe two ways of reducing the friction
between two surfaces without using rollers
or wheels.
129
FORCES AND
9Ia MOVEMENT
HOW DO FORCES AFFECT OBJECTS AND THE WAY THEY MOVE?
B | The shape of this horseshoe is being C | Forces on a moving boat. Longer arrows represent
changed so that it fits the horse's hoof. larger forces.
130 weight
2 Look at photo C. Write down the force that:
a | is caused by gravity
Water resistance and air
resistance are forms of b | is helping to make the boat go forwards
drag. Drag forces act to c | will increase if the speed of the boat increases.
slow down objects moving The weight of the boat in photo C is 2000 N. How big is the
3
through fluids. The size of the upthrust? Explain your answer.
drag force increases as the
4 Explain what will happen to the speed of the boat if the wind
speed of the object increases, gets stronger.
because more of the fluid has
to be pushed out of the way 5 Explain why a sailing boat will slow down if the wind speed gets less.
each second.
Top speed
The top speed of a ship or other vehicle depends on the maximum force that
can move it forwards and on the friction or drag acting to slow it down. As a ship
gets faster, the water resistance increases. Eventually the water resistance is as
large as the force from the sails and this means that the ship cannot accelerate
any more. It is now at its top speed for that amount of wind.
force force
from sails from sails
water
water resistance
resistance
D | The top speed of the ship is when the water resistance is equal to the maximum force from the sails.
I can …
The Cutty Sark was one of the fastest
■ recall the names of different types of force
sailing ships, with a maximum speed of
over 30 km/h. It brought cargoes of tea from ■ explain the effects of balanced and unbalanced
China, and the first tea to arrive in England forces
each year sold for the highest prices. ■ explain why moving objects have a top speed.
131
ENERGY FOR
9Ib MOVEMENT
WHICH ENERGY RESOURCES CAN BE USED TO MOVE THINGS?
The earliest forms of transport often used animals to carry things, or to pull sleds
or carts with wheels. The energy needed by humans and animals comes from their
food. The energy in the food originally came from the Sun. Today we also directly
use energy from the Sun (solar energy) to heat water and to produce electricity.
energy transferred
from the Sun by light
132
Other energy stores
Smaller amounts of energy can be stored using weights and springs.
The clock in photo D uses weights to keep it going. A weight on a chain
gradually falls and transfers energy to the clock. Energy stored in raised
objects is called gravitational potential energy. Some clocks use elastic
potential energy (or strain energy) stored in a wound-up spring. Elastic
materials can store energy when they are deformed (change shape).
Internal (or thermal) energy is the energy stored in the movement of
particles. There is more of this energy in things that are hot. Energy is
transferred from hot objects to cooler objects by heating. pendulum
Transferring energy
Many modern devices use energy transferred by electricity. Electricity
cannot be stored, but has to be generated using renewable resources
such as wind, moving water or solar energy, or from non-renewable Uranium nuclear
resources such as fossil fuels or nuclear energy. fuel can release over
80 million million
Energy is never created or destroyed, but only transferred. This is the law of joules of energy
conservation of energy. However energy is not always transferred usefully. per kilogram. Petrol
The efficiency of an energy transfer compares the useful energy transferred only releases about
to the total energy transferred. Wasted energy is usually transferred to 46 million joules per
the surroundings by heating, and often by sound as well. This energy is kilogram when it
dissipated (spread out). The greater the efficiency, the less energy is wasted. burns.
Choosing a format
Heyerdahl made other expeditions. He had to B | One of Heyerdahl's other expeditions was to
write for many different audiences and purposes Easter Island, to try to work out how the huge
connected with his voyages of exploration. statues had been erected.
134
Writing for different purposes and audiences
The same information can be written in different ways depending on the purpose and audience.
You need to think about:
■ what information to include and what to miss out
■ the order in which your material should be presented
■ whether or not you need illustrations
■ the kind of vocabulary to use
■ the best format to present the information.
D
■ pre-packed combat ration packs for a crew of six E but however much you can
for 3 months contribute to the total required
■ survival equipment for emergency use, to include will be gratefully received.
By contributing to this expedition
you will be participating in the
development of archaeological
F We were now a month into the voyage and we
knowledge. Full recognition for all
had got used to sleeping with the creaking of
our contributors will be given in
the vessel in our ears, but we were ever mindful
of the need to remain alert for changes in the
weather. There was always someone keeping
watch, but sudden squalls such as the one
G Pollen was extracted from
sediment cores in the
Look at extracts D to G. Which extract(s): crater lakes and analysed.
1
This showed that the island
a | is asking for something was originally covered in a
b | presents information in a list rich variety of vegetation
c | is written in scientific language?
80
c | During which part of the journey was the
coach moving fastest?
Distance (km)
coach stops to
60 change horses mostly downhill 5 Calculate the speed of the coach for the first
on a good road 4 hours of the journey.
7 Look at photo D.
a | How fast is the boat moving relative to
the riverbank?
b | If the river was flowing in the opposite
direction to that shown, how fast would the
boat moving at
boat be moving relative to the riverbank?
5 m/s through
the water
I can …
■ describe the meanings of speed and mean (average)
speed
■ use the formula relating speed, distance and time
river flowing at 2 m/s ■ represent simple journeys on a distance–time graph.
137
EQUATIONS
9Ic AND GRAPHS
HOW DO WE DRAW AND INTERPRET DISTANCE–TIME GRAPHS?
hour,
Sam cycled at 16 km/h for half an
r.
then at 8 km/h for the next half hou
/h.
He covered the last 6 km at 24 km
C D
60 Vertical difference (distance) = 60 m – 20 m
vertical
change = 40 m
40 (distance
moved) Start with the end of the section of the line you are
B interested in and read its value from the vertical
20
scale, then subtract the value for the beginning of
A that section of line.
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
C
Time (s)
Horizontal difference (time) = 6 s – 4 s
=2s
Find the value on the horizontal axis for the end
of the section you are looking at, and subtract the
value for the beginning of that section of the line.
40 m
gradient = Remember that the units
D | These radio-controlled cars can cover 100 metres 2s
in around 5 seconds. for speed depend on the
= 20 m/s units used to measure the
distance and the time.
4 Calculate the gradient of the following lines
on graph C:
a | A–B b | D–E.
I can …
5 Look at graph B on page 137. Calculate the
■ use the formula relating speed, distance and time
speed of the coach during the following
parts of the journey: ■ draw and interpret distance–time graphs
■ calculate the gradient of a line on a graph.
a | the downhill section starting at 5 hours
b | the uphill section starting at 7 hours. 139
TURNING
9Id FORCES
HOW CAN YOU INCREASE THE SIZE OF A FORCE?
You can move heavy objects using a lever. A lever is a long bar
that turns around a pivot or fulcrum. When you push down on 1 What is a lever?
one side you are applying an effort and the object on the other
end moves up. This object is called the load. The longer the 2 Explain what a fulcrum is.
lever, the easier it is to move the load.
effort
A | The effort force moves further than the load. B | The effort is smaller than the force needed to lift the
weight of the load directly.
There are many simple levers in the home. Most levers work by changing
3 Suggest one other
a smaller force into a larger one. The lever acts as a force multiplier if object that has a
the effort distance is greater than the load distance. When the load is lever as a:
lifted, the effort force is smaller than the force at the other end of the lever
a | force multiplier
pushing up on the load. The force has been multiplied. However, the effort
b | distance multiplier.
force has to move through a greater distance than the load.
Some levers can act as distance multipliers instead.
In this case a large effort force moves a small distance,
and the load you are moving moves a greater distance.
pivot
140
distance force
Turning forces
The spanner in diagram E is being used to turn the nut.
The turning effect of a force is called a moment. The
size of the moment depends on the size of the force and
the distance between the force and the pivot. Moments pivot The distance is always
E measured at right angles
are measured in units called newton metres (N m). (perpendicular) to the force.
pivot 600 N
I can …
■ describe how a simple lever can multiply
forces or distances
■ identify the load, effort and pivot on a
diagram of a lever
■ describe the factors that affect the size of
1800 N
a moment
anticlockwise moment clockwise moment
= 1800 N × 1 m = 600 N × 3 m
■ explain why something will balance if the
= 1800 N m = 1800 N m moments are equal and opposite.
141
9Ie MORE MACHINES
WHAT OTHER SIMPLE MACHINES MAKE IT EASIER TO MOVE THINGS?
2m 4m
Weight
1000 N A | No-one knows how the Ancient Egyptians
built the pyramids. Some archaeologists think
Weight that ramps were used to help move the huge
1000 N blocks of stone up to the top.
rudder
Work
In physics, work means the amount of 25 N
energy transferred when a force moves 50 N
something. Work is measured in joules (J).
The formula for calculating work done is: 100 N
Example
Look at pulley Y in diagram D. The force on the rope is
50 N, and the rope is pulled through a distance of 2 m.
How much work is done? 100 N 100 N 100 N
In pulley Y, the force from the rope lifts the weight upwards, and the weight moves up by
1 m. The energy transferred (work done) by pulling on the rope is all transferred to the
weight. The weight has 100 J more gravitational potential energy than before it was lifted.
In a similar way, energy is transferred (work is done) when a force is used to stretch a
spring. This energy is stored as elastic potential energy in the stretched spring.
Conservation of energy
In diagram D, pulley Z allows the weight to be lifted using a force of 25 N, but the rope
has to be pulled for 4 m to lift the weight by 1 m. The same is true of all machines – if
a smaller force is needed to move something, the force has to move through a greater
distance.
You would expect that the same work is done to lift the weight even when the pulley
allows you to use a smaller force. However, friction causes a little more work to be done
when smaller forces are used.
145
9Ja FORCE FIELDS
WHAT KINDS OF FORCE FIELD ARE THERE?
Magnetic fields
The space around a magnet where it can attract
magnetic materials is called a magnetic field. A bar
magnet has two ends, called the north pole and the
south pole. Two north poles or two south poles will
repel each other. A north pole and a south pole will
attract each other. A | This imaginary ‘force field’ is protecting the
woman from attack.
1 Draw two bar magnets in an arrangement
where they will:
B
a | attract each other
2 State where the magnetic field of a bar C | The shape of the Earth’s magnetic field is
magnet is: distorted by the charged particles coming from the
a | strongest Sun. Astronauts travelling to Mars or beyond will
need to be protected against these particles.
b | weakest.
not to scale
The Earth’s magnetic field helps to protect it from
charged particles emitted by the Sun. However,
the shape of this field is altered by the Sun.
146
Gravitational fields All objects attract
each other.
Any object that has mass has a gravitational field around it. If one or both of the
When two objects are in each other’s gravitational field, they objects has more mass,
the force is bigger.
attract each other.
If the objects are
The gravitational field strength ( g) of the Earth is further apart, the
force is smaller.
approximately 10 N/kg. This means that the force of attraction
between the Earth and a 1 kg mass is 10 N. We call this force D | The force of gravity between two masses
the weight of the object: depends on the strength of their gravitational
fields, and on how far apart they are.
weight (N) = mass (kg) x g (N/kg)
5 Rhea is a moon of Saturn and Oberon is a moon of Uranus. They have similar
diameters, but the mass of Oberon is approximately 1.3 times the mass of Rhea.
a | Explain which moon will have the greater force of gravity on its surface.
b | Suggest why two moons of similar diameter were chosen for this question.
Storing energy
It takes energy to move an object away from the Earth, because of the The idea of a space
forces of attraction between the two objects. The energy needed to move elevator was first
the object is stored in its mass as gravitational potential energy (GPE). suggested in 1895.
The greater the mass, or the higher it is moved, the more gravitational We do not yet have the
potential energy it stores. technology to build one.
I can …
■ state what is meant by a force field
■ describe the shape of a magnetic field
■ recall the factors that affect the strength of gravity
■ calculate the weight of a mass.
147
COHESION IN
9Ja WRITING
HOW CAN WE WRITE COHESIVE TEXT?
Cohesion in writing refers to how well ideas are linked together so we can understand them clearly.
Cohesive devices are words and phrases that provide these links.
Extract 1
The Sun emits streams of charged particles all the
time. The charged particles can harm humans by
damaging their DNA. The DNA damage can lead to
cancer and other illnesses. The magnetic field of the
Earth changes the path of the charged particles from
the Sun so that the particles only enter the Earth’s
atmosphere at the poles. Most people living on the
Earth are protected from the charged particles.
148
Other cohesive devices Extract 3
Synonyms are words that have The gravitational field strength on Mars is about a third of the
the same meaning, or very similar gravitational field strength on Earth. The weaker gravitational
meanings. Use synonyms to avoid field is one reason why the atmosphere of Mars is thinner
repeating words or phrases too than the atmosphere of Earth. Astronauts will need to live in
many times in the same paragraph. pressurised domes. The pressurised domes will allow the
For instance ‘harm’ and ‘damage’ astronauts to breathe without needing to wear face masks.
have similar meanings. The magnetic field of Mars is much weaker than the magnetic
Ellipsis: You can miss out words field of the Earth. The material of the domes must help to protect
to avoid repetition as long as the the astronauts against charged particles coming from the Sun,
meaning is clear. In Extract 2 we as the magnetic field of Mars is not strong enough to deflect
know that ‘the atmosphere’ refers the charged particles in the way that the Earth's magnetic field
to ‘the Earth’s atmosphere’. deflects charged particles from the Sun that reach the Earth.
B | A Mars base
might look like this.
Separating charges
Atoms consist of a central electrons
nucleus with small particles
called electrons moving –
– –
around it. The nucleus has + nucleus
a positive charge and each + +
electron has a negative + +
charge. The total positive and
negative charges in an atom –
–
are usually the same, so they
balance each other and the B | a model of an atom
atom has no overall charge.
A | Artist's impression of a dust storm
on Mars. These can last for months, and
1 Where are electrons found in an atom? can generate a lot of static electricity
that could interfere with electronic
2 Why do most atoms have no overall charge? systems in spacecraft.
When you rub two insulating materials together some electrons may be transferred
from one object to the other. The positive charges cannot be transferred because
they are fixed in the nuclei of the atoms. The object that ends up with more electrons
has an overall negative charge. The object that has lost electrons has an overall
positive charge.
152
Measuring electricity 6V
V
We use an ammeter connected in series to measure the current flowing
through a circuit. The units for current are amperes (A).
The voltage across a cell is a measure of the energy provided by the
cell. We measure voltage using a voltmeter connected in parallel to a
component; we say that a voltmeter is connected across a component.
The units for voltage are volts (V).
A
V V
4V 2V
1 What are the units for measuring: A | Hot food in the International Space Station is prepared
a | current b | voltage? using an electrical food warmer.
The resistance of a component is a way of saying how easy or difficult it is for current to
flow through it. The current in a circuit can be controlled by changing the resistance of the
components. Resistance can be added to a circuit using components called resistors.
Factors affecting
resistance
The resistance of a wire depends on how long it
is, how thick it is and on the metal it is made from.
■ Longer wires have a higher resistance than
shorter wires.
■ Thin wires have a higher resistance than thick B | This electric fence will give a small shock to
wires. anyone touching the wire.
154
Calculating resistance
The units for measuring resistance are ohms, and the symbol is Some materials become
the Greek letter omega (Ω). superconductors when they
are very cold, effectively
Voltage, resistance and current are related by this formula:
having zero resistance at these
voltage (V) = current (A) × resistance (Ω) temperatures. The photo shows
an MRI scan of a head. MRI
The voltage of a cell is what helps to 'push' scanners need superconducting
charges around a circuit. This formula shows materials to work, which have to
that the voltage you need to supply to a circuit
increases if you need a large current or if the
V be cooled to nearly −270 °C.
Decimal places
The gravitational field strength can be rounded
to different numbers of decimal places.
When you have rounded a number, it is useful to
show how many decimal places it is rounded to.
Otherwise someone reading it does not know if
9.8 is the exact value, or if it was rounded from
a higher or lower number, such as 9.84 or 9.75.
156
The number of digits after the decimal point in the
4 The answer to the exam calculation
exam answer makes it appear that the value for should be rounded to one decimal
the resistance is far more accurate than it really is. place. What should the answer be?
The answer to a calculation should always be
rounded to an appropriate number of decimal 5 In a different version of the exam paper
the voltage and current were given as
places. This is usually the same number of decimal
1.50 V and 0.70 A. Explain what the
places as the numbers given in the question. answer should be in this case.
Significant figures C
Small numbers Large numbers
D | a Falcon 9
rocket taking off
6 A Falcon 9 rocket had a launch mass of 505 846 kg.
a | What is the mass to 1 s.f.?
b | What is the mass to 2 s.f.?
c | Suggest who would use the accurate value in the
question, and who might use one of the rounded
values you worked out in your answers.
I can …
■ round numbers to a given number of decimal places
■ round numbers to a given number of significant figures.
157
ELECTRO-
9Je MAGNETS
HOW CAN ELECTRICITY PRODUCE MAGNETISM?
Electromagnets
A wire with an electric current flowing through it has
a magnetic field around it. The strength of the field
increases if the current increases. The direction of the
field changes if the direction of the current changes.
When the wire is wrapped into a coil, the magnetic
field is a similar shape to the magnetic field of a
bar magnet. The directions of the north and south
poles of an electromagnet depend on which way the
current is flowing through the wires.
You can increase the strength of an electromagnet by:
A | Only six people have driven a vehicle on the Moon.
■ increasing the number of coils of wire
■ increasing the current in the wire Key
■ using a magnetic material as a ‘core’ inside the electric current
coil of wire. magnetic field
158
low-current
circuit
contacts spring
Electric motors
A current flowing through a wire creates a magnetic field metal bar attached coil of wire iron block
to iron block that can slide
around it. If the wire carrying the current is placed in
the magnetic field of a magnet, the two magnetic fields C | an electromagnetic relay
affect each other and the wire experiences a force.
This is known as the motor effect. The direction of the wire moves
force depends on the directions of the current and the upwards
magnetic field. This only happens when the wire cuts magnetic
field
across the magnetic field.
160
REVISING KS3
9Ka PHYSICS
Scientists gather information to test hypotheses.
In 1827 Georg Ohm (1789−1854) published
They do this by making observations (such as the results of his experiments measuring
the positions of the planets in the sky) or from voltage and current in wires of different
experiments. The data are presented in scientific lengths and diameters.
papers for peer review. Data are usually presented
in tables to be easier to understand. How current depends on voltage
0.7
The data need to be interpreted to find
out the meaning. Sometimes calculations 0.6
must be performed before the data can
be interpreted. For example, if you were 0.5
Current (A)
investigating factors affecting speed,
0.4
you might need to calculate speeds from
measurements of distances and times. 0.3
Interpreting data is often easier to do
if the data are presented in a chart or 0.2
graph. For example, scatter graphs are
0.1
used to try to find relationships between
two variables (particularly continuous 0
variables). 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Voltage (V)
Patterns in the data can be used to draw
conclusions. A conclusion may describe A | A scatter graph (with a line of best fit) produced by
the relationship between two factors. someone repeating Ohm’s measurements on a single wire.
This can be in the form of an equation. This graph shows a linear relationship in which the current
is directly proportional to the voltage.
Georg Ohm used his results to work out a formula linking voltage and
current to the resistance of a wire. The version of the equation we use
today is voltage = current × resistance.
Scientists also need to evaluate their data, to check the accuracy and
precision. They can do this by repeating measurements. Graphs can
also be used to evaluate data. Graph A shows that the measurement
at 2 volts might be caused by a random error. The data in the graph
is generally of good quality because most of the points lie very close to
the line of best fit.
161
MODELS IN
9Ka SCIENCE
HOW ARE MODELS USED IN SCIENCE?
When the northern hemisphere is tilted When the northern hemisphere is tilted
towards the Sun it is summer in Europe. away from the Sun it is winter in Europe.
The Earth
spins on
its axis A | This is the
summer winter once every model we use
Sun 24 hours.
in UK in UK to explain the
seasons.
It is night on the
side of the Earth facing
away from the Sun. It is day on the side of the Earth facing the Sun. not to scale
The Sun’s rays are concentrated in the summer. The Sun’s rays are spread out in the winter.
N
UK UK N
Sun’s Sun’s
rays rays
B | summer
and winter in
the Northern
Hemisphere
Equator Equator
S
S
days are longer than nights nights are longer than days
162
8I The particle model
The particle model helps us to explain why solids, liquids and gases have
different properties. It also allows us to explain what happens when matter
changes from one state to another.
In solids, particles are held In liquids, particles are held close In gases, particles are far apart with
close together by strong bonds together by fairly strong bonds. only weak bonds between them.
and vibrate in fixed positions. The particles can move around. They move about in all directions.
This explains why solids keep This explains why liquids This explains why gases can flow
their shape and volume (they can flow but are difficult to and expand to fill their containers,
are difficult to compress). compress. and why they are easy to compress.
When a solid is heated the particles move around faster and the solid expands.
It becomes less dense because the same mass now occupies a greater volume.
If heating continues, the particles eventually get enough energy to break apart
and form a liquid. The temperature stops rising while the solid is melting. This a
physical change, because no new chemical substances are formed.
The units for density are g/cm3 or kg/m3. Density is worked out using this formula:
mass
density =
volume
The air pressure here is less than at sea level,
8I Moving particles because there is less air above pressing down.
7I Energy resources
A | There is a group
of scientific research
The wind turbine stations on the Arctic
generates electricity island of Spitsbergen.
when it is windy.
Solar cells produce
electricity when it is
light.
A diesel generator
provides electricity when
the renewable resources
are not available.
In a research station several different energy resources are used to generate electricity.
Diesel is made from crude oil, which is a fossil fuel. Coal and natural gas are also fossil
fuels. Most electricity that people use is generated in power stations. Power stations burn
fossil fuels such as coal or natural gas. All fossil fuels release carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere when they burn. Most scientists now agree that carbon dioxide added to the
atmosphere is causing climate change.
We must try to reduce the amount of carbon dioxide we put into the atmosphere. One way
this can be done is to use renewable resources such as hydroelectricity, tides or waves
to generate electricity.
164
8I Transferring energy by heating
The higher the temperature of an object, the more thermal (internal) energy
it stores. An object with a large mass can store more thermal energy than an
object with a smaller mass.
The walls are lined with insulating Energy from the radiator warms the air
material. This reduces the amount near it.The warmer air has a lower
of energy transferred density so it rises and forms a
through the walls. convection current.
Convection happens
in liquids and
gases.
B | Energy is transferred from warmer materials to cooler ones. We can use the particle model of matter to
help us to think about some of the ways in which energy can be transferred by heating.
7K Forces around us
Forces act on everything around us. Forces can change the shape of things and
the speed or direction they are moving. Forces are measured in newtons (N).
A The people feel Upthrust keeps the Forces of friction and air
weightless as the balloon floating in the air. resistance are slowing
carriages start to fall. the carriages down.
They do have weight, These are contact forces.
but they cannot feel it The weight of the
because they are falling. balloon is the force
of gravity pulling on it.
Its mass is the amount
Upthrust keeps the boat of matter in it, and is
floating on the water. measured in kilograms (kg).
Gravity pulls
everything towards
the centre of the
Earth. Gravity is a
non-contact force.
force from friction force from force from friction force from
and air resistance engine and air resistance engine
The snowmobile is moving at a constant speed because The snowmobile is accelerating because the forwards force is
the forward and backward forces on it are balanced. bigger than the backward force. The forces are unbalanced.
166
7K Controlling C
forces The area of the bottom of the pole is small.
The force under it is concentrated, so it does
Forces affect us all the time. not need a very big force to push it into the snow.
Sometimes we need to change
the size of a force, or change the The skier is bending down to
effect a force has on things. make his air resistance smaller.
This allows him to go faster.
The large area of the skis
In science, pressure is a way spreads out the weight of
of describing how spread out or the skier so he does not
concentrated a force is. sink into the snow. There
is low pressure under
You can calculate the pressure the skis.
using this formula:
force (N) The skis are very smooth
pressure (N/m2) = underneath, to reduce friction.
area (m2)
The bulldozer has
The units for pressure are N/m2 caterpillar tracks,
or pascals (Pa). so its weight is
spread out.
1 Pa = 1 N/m2
There is a thin layer of water on top of the ice.
This acts as a lubricant, and makes the ice
very slippery. There is not much friction
between the ice and the skates.
9I Speed
Distance–time graph for a ski run
The units for speed are metres per second, miles
per hour or kilometres per hour. The speed is going fast downhill
worked out using this formula:
distance
speed =
time
Distance
167
WAVES AND
9Kd FIELDS
WHAT ARE WAVES AND FORCE FIELDS?
7L Describing waves
Waves are a way of transferring energy. Waves on water are transverse waves.
Sound waves are longitudinal waves, where the particles The particles move at right angles to
vibrate in the same direction as the wave is travelling. the direction the wave is travelling.
The number of waves
passing each second is
Each particle moves this far as the wave passes. the frequency, and is
particle crest measured in hertz (Hz).
movement
7L Sound
Sound is caused by vibrations. Sound travels fastest through solids and
slowest through gases. It cannot travel in a vacuum.
Sound waves are detected by microphones and ears. The auditory range
of humans is approximately 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz. Sounds with higher
frequencies than this are called ultrasounds. These can be used for
cleaning and physiotherapy.
168
Light rays are reflected
8J Light by the mirror. image of
candle
Light waves can travel through a vacuum
and through transparent materials. When it
meets a surface, light can be transmitted,
absorbed or reflected. The angle of
reflection of each reflected light ray is The rays seem to
come from a position
equal to the angle of incidence. Rough behind the mirror.
surfaces produce diffuse reflection, where
D | This ray diagram helps us to understand how we can
the reflected rays are scattered. Mirrors see images in mirrors.
produce specular reflection.
Refraction happens when a wave changes speed as it goes from one material to another. Light
travels more slowly in glass than in air, so light rays bend towards the normal when they go into glass
from air. A lens can make light rays converge because light refracts as it enters and leaves the lens.
White light can be split up into different frequencies using a prism. We see the different frequencies
as different colours. We can make coloured light using filters, which let some frequencies through
and absorb the rest. Coloured objects appear coloured because they only reflect some frequencies
and absorb the rest.
9J Electric fields
There is an electric field around objects charged with static electricity.
Atoms consist of a central, positively charged nucleus, surrounded by
negatively charged electrons. When objects are rubbed together, electrons
can be transferred from one to the other. If the objects are made of insulating
materials, they will then have a charge of static electricity.
Objects with the same charge (both positive or both negative) will repel each
other. Objects with opposite charges will attract each other. 169
9Ke MACHINES
HOW CAN MACHINES MAKE IT EASIER TO MOVE THINGS?
9I Work
Work is the amount of energy transferred
when a force moves something. Work is
calculated using this formula:
work done = force × distance moved in
(J) (N) the direction of the
force (m)
Pulleys act as force multipliers.
the force must move further. A | Simple machines allow us to use a smaller force to move an object.
9I Moments
The turning effect of a force is called 2.5 m 0.25 m
the moment. The units used are pivot
newton metres (N m). We use this
formula to calculate moments:
200 N counter-
moment of = force × perpendicular weight
the force (N) distance from
(N m) the pivot (m)
1920 N
170
7J Electricity
Many machines use energy transferred to them by electricity. Electricity is also used
to control many machines. An electric current is a flow of charges called electrons.
The units for current are amperes (A). The potential difference (or voltage) is a
measure of the energy given to the electrons. It is measured in volts (V).
171
9K1 EARS AND EYES
Bionic ears and eyes
Today hundreds of thousands of people have
cochlear implants. A tiny microphone in the patient’s
ear transmits signals to a receiver implanted in their
head. The receiver converts the signals to impulses
in the patient’s auditory nerve. A cochlear implant
can give some completely deaf patients the ability
to hear.
1 The story above is from an online news site. The editor wants Think about how you
readers’ questions to be answered, explaining the science. Here are are going to structure
two of the questions: your answer before you
a | Do microphones and ears hear sounds in the same way? start to write. You could
b | Are eyes and cameras the same thing but just one is electronic? describe how each
one works and then
2 There are many different ways in which eyes can fail or be point out similarities
damaged. Sometimes people cannot see clearly because they
and differences, or you
cannot focus on objects at different distances. Find out how ‘short
could make a table to
sight’ and ‘long sight’ are caused, how they affect people, and how
lenses can be used to help people with these conditions to see help you to compare
clearly. Present your findings in two concise paragraphs. the two.
3 Find out more about cochlear implants. Write a story of 350 words
for an online newspaper, describing what cochlear implants are,
how they work and the kinds of people who can be helped by them.
Make a list that records all the sources of information you used.
172
9K2 GOING FASTER
INVESTIGATION
Unbalanced forces on an object
can make it change speed.
Acceleration is the change in
speed over a particular time.
Acceleration is important
for animals as well. The
cheetah is the world’s
fastest accelerating
animal. This helps it to
catch its prey.
Planning
You are going to plan and carry out
an investigation of your choice to find
out how different variables affect the
acceleration of an object. Here are some
questions you could investigate.
■ How does the steepness of a ramp affect
the time it takes for a trolley to run down it?
■ Does the mass of a trolley affect how
long it takes to run down a ramp?
■ You can pull a trolley along a flat
surface. Does the mass of the trolley
affect how fast it accelerates?
■ How does the size of the force affect the
acceleration of a trolley?
■ The force of gravity accelerates objects
B | Drag racers use a short, straight track. The winning car downwards. Does the acceleration
is usually the one with the best acceleration. What variables caused by gravity depend on the mass of
affect the acceleration of the car? the object? Does it depend on its size?
173
9K3 SPEED LIMITS
COMMUNICATING WITH THE PUBLIC
Speed limits are lower in towns than on open roads or A | some speed limits in the UK
motorways because vehicles are more likely to need to stop Type of road Speed limit (mph)
quickly in towns, to avoid hitting other traffic or pedestrians.
Motorways, dual 70
Also, if a car does hit someone, the person’s injuries are usually carriageways
not as severe if the car is going more slowly. Roads in the 60
countryside
The distance a car travels from the time the driver notices
Roads in towns 30
an obstacle to when they press the brakes is the thinking
Some roads near 20
distance. The distance the car travels while the brakes are
schools or in
slowing it to a stop is the braking distance. The stopping housing estates
distance is the sum of these two distances.
The distances in the chart are typical distances. Typical stopping distances
The thinking distances will be longer if the driver 20
is tired or has been drinking. The stopping mph
6 metres 6 metres = 12 metres or 3 car lengths
distances will be longer if the road is wet, or the
30
car’s tyres or brakes are not in good condition. mph
9 metres 14 metres = 23 metres or 6 car lengths
A road safety organisation wants 40
1
leaflets to be given out with new mph
cars, to encourage drivers to stick 12 metres 24 metres = 36 metres or 9 car lengths
to the speed limits. Design and write 50
a leaflet, using information from this mph
page and from further research. You 15 metres 38 metres = 53 metres or 13 car lengths
need to include: 60
mph
■ what the speed limits are 18 metres 55 metres = 73 metres or 18 car lengths
■ why the speed limits are different 70
on different roads mph
21 metres 75 metres = 96 metres or 24 car lengths
■ when drivers should stick to
speeds below the speed limits. Thinking distance
Braking distance average car length = 4 metres
2 The thinking distance depends on
the driver’s reaction time. Find out B | typical stopping distances from the Highway Code
how reaction times are measured and
what typical reaction times are. You
could also find out how much longer
reaction times are when people are
tired or have been drinking alcohol.
Use the information you find to write a A road safety organisation is campaigning
script for a one minute TV advert with to have the speed limit set at 20 mph in all
the slogan ‘Think before you drive’. towns. Research and prepare an argument
either in favour of this change, or against it.
174
9La PHYSICISTS
WHAT DO PHYSICISTS DO?
A physicist is a scientist who researches questions
connected with the properties of matter and energy.
Questions vary from what is inside atoms to working
out what happened when the Universe began.
Like all scientists, physicists make observations that
lead to asking questions. Then they make a hypothesis
and use it to make a prediction. The ways they gather
data to test their predictions can be very different.
175
9La DIFFERENCES
HOW DO DIFFERENCES MAKE THINGS HAPPEN?
Potential difference
Lightning can strike between a cloud and the Earth or between
two clouds. Clouds become charged with static electricity because
hailstones and ice crystals rub against each other as they move inside
the cloud. If the difference in the charges (the potential difference)
between two places is large enough, the air between them can conduct
electricity and we see a lightning strike.
Temperature differences
Temperature differences cause energy transfers by heating, such as when
2 Explain why a cold drink taken
a hot drink cools down because it is warmer than the surrounding air.
from the fridge will warm up.
Temperature changes can cause substances to change state. An ice cube
taken out of a freezer is at a temperature below its melting point. As energy
How the temperature of water
is transferred to it from its surroundings its temperature will rise until it changes as it cools down
reaches 0 °C. Its temperature will remain at 0 °C while it is melting.
Energy is still being transferred to the ice cube while it is melting, but
Temperature
does not cause a temperature rise. Instead, this energy breaks the bonds
between the particles in the solid. This bond-breaking energy is called the
latent heat. When water freezes, the latent heat is given out again. There
are also transfers of latent heat during evaporation and condensation.
0 °C
176
Density and pressure differences
Changes in temperature cause materials to
expand or contract. When fluids (liquids or gases) The air above the sea is The air above the land
warm up they expand and become less dense. cooler and so more dense warms up more than
than the air above the land. the air above the sea.
If parts of a fluid have different densities, the less It becomes less dense
dense part will rise. These density changes can and rises. The air
The air pressure is higher pressure drops where
cause convection currents to form. than the air above the land, the air is rising.
so a breeze blows from
The Earth is warmed by energy from the Sun the sea to the land.
during the day, and cools down at night. But
the temperature of the land increases more than The sea has a higher specific
heat capacity than the land,so Land has a lower specific
the temperature of the sea for the same amount heat capacity than the sea,
it does not warm up as much.
of energy transferred. The energy needed to so it gets hotter more
raise the temperature of 1 kg of a substance by quickly than the sea.
1 °C is its specific heat capacity. Water has a
higher specific heat capacity than soil or rock. D | ‘Sea breezes’ occur during the day because differences in temperature
The resulting difference in temperature causes cause differences in density. The density differences cause convection currents.
breezes that flow from the sea towards the land
during the day.
I can …
■ describe how temperature differences can cause convection
currents
■ state the meanings of latent heat and specific heat capacity.
177
9Lb FIELDS
HOW IS THE IDEA OF A FIELD USED IN PHYSICS?
Storing energy in
fields
Gravitational potential energy is the name for energy stored
because of an object’s position in a gravitational field. If an object
is moved away from the Earth it stores energy. The raised object can
transfer this energy when it is allowed to fall.
Hailstones are small lumps of ice that form inside large clouds. As they
fall, their gravitational potential energy is transferred to kinetic energy.
1 Look at photo B.
a | How did the gravitational
potential energy become stored
in the skydiver?
b | How will this store of energy be
B | The skydiver has a store of gravitational potential energy. transferred as he falls?
178
The amount of gravitational potential energy stored in an object depends
2 a | Calculate the energy stored in a
on its mass, how high it has been raised, and on the gravitational field
skydiver with a mass of 80 kg at a
strength (approximately 10 N/kg on Earth). The formula is:
height of 1500 m.
gravitational = mass × height × gravitational
potential energy (kg) (m) field strength b | Explain how your answer to part
(J) (N/kg) a will compare to the energy of an
astronaut with a mass of 80 kg at a
height of 1500 m above the Moon.
Example
2000 m. How much
A 65 kg skydiver is at a height of
s the skydiver store?
gravitational potential energy doe
kg × 2000 m × 10 N/kg
gravitational potential energy = 65
= 1 300 000 J
Energy can also be stored in electric fields and magnetic fields. You need to use
a force to pull two magnets apart. The work done by moving the magnets stores
the same amount of energy in the separated magnets. If you let them go, the
stored energy is released as they move back together.
Modelling fields
Diagram C shows how the gravitational field of the Earth can be represented.
It shows the direction in which a small mass will move if it is released in the
Earth’s gravitational field. C | A model of the Earth’s gravitational field.
All the lines in diagram C point towards the centre of the Earth. The Earth’s
gravitational field is strongest close to the Earth, and this is where the lines are Look at diagram C. Write down:
3
closer together.
a | two things that the diagram
Field diagrams such as this: field lines tells you about the Earth’s
gravitational field
■ are two-dimensional representations of
three-dimensional fields b | one thing that it does not
tell you.
■ indicate (by the closeness of the lines)
+
qualitatively where the field is strongest
■ have lines that do not cross.
179
LONG
9Lb ANSWERS
HOW DO YOU WRITE ‘LONG ANSWERS’ TO EXAM QUESTIONS?
GCSE question papers all include at least one question that asks you to write a paragraph of text in answer to a question.
Each of these ‘long answer’ questions is worth many marks.
To get full marks on these questions you need to:
■ include the scientific information the question asks for
■ write your answer clearly and concisely
■ use correct scientific words
■ use correct spelling, punctuation and grammar (correct spelling of scientific words is particularly important).
Extract A is a real question from a GCSE exam paper:
lid lid
Extract B
These are some of the scientific ideas
oxygen gas you need to include in your answer.
solid
copper Particles in a gas:
move rapidly
The oxygen exerts a pressure on the lid of its container.
throughout the container
The copper does not exert a pressure on the lid of its collide with each other
container.
collide with walls/lid of container
Explain, using particle theory, why the oxygen exerts a
pressure on the lid but the copper does not. exert a force
Think about a sensible order for your ideas and think about words that you can use to signify time or location
(for example: at first, eventually, inside). This will help you to write a coherent paragraph. As you are comparing
two situations, try to use some words that signal a comparison (for example: whereas, while, but).
1 The answer to the exam question needs to say how the particles in
a solid behave compared to the particles in a gas. Make notes like
the ones in extract B to describe how particles behave in a solid.
180
Examiners use a ‘mark scheme’ to make sure that all answers to the question are
marked in the same way. Extract C shows the mark scheme for this question.
Extract C
Marks Content
1 or 2 marks ■ a limited explanation e.g. particles in the copper do not touch the
lid / particles in the oxygen do touch the lid
■ simple language without many scientific words
■ poor spelling and grammar
3 or 4 marks ■ a simple explanation e.g. particles in a gas can move freely and
collide with the lid
■ clear explanation with some appropriate scientific words
■ spelling and grammar mostly correct but there are some mistakes
An answer that only just 5 or 6 marks ■ a detailed explanation e.g. particles in a gas can move freely
met these requirements and collide with the lid but particles in a solid vibrate about fixed
would get 5 marks. positions so cannot reach the lid
An answer that met
■ clearly written with good use of scientific terminology
them all easily would
get 6 marks.
■ excellent spelling, punctuation and grammar
Extract D
2 Extract D shows one student’s answer to this question. Explain which row of
the mark scheme applies to this answer for:
a | the scientific content of their answer
b | their use of scientific words and their spelling and grammar.
I can …
■ write clear and concise answers to ‘long answer’ exam questions.
181
CAUSE AND
9Lc EFFECT
HOW ARE CAUSES LINKED TO EFFECTS?
Many people ask themselves what causes the changes they observe around
them. Many myths and legends are about explaining things around us. A | Some cultures explained that winds were
caused when the gods blew. Our modern
Scientists also think up explanations (causes) for the changes (effects) they explanation is that winds are caused by
see around them, but then they test the explanations. In this way, science temperature differences between different
places on the Earth.
tries to find the best explanations for why things happen.
B My experiments
show that lighter and
heavier objects of
the same size and shape
Stones fall because their
fall at the same speed.
natural place is in the Earth.
Light objects fall slower than There is a force
heavy ones because their between masses that
natural place is above acts to pull them
the heavy ones. together.
182
How world temperature and the number Correlation between ice cream sales
of pirates have changed over time and deaths by drowning
Deaths by drowning
Mean temperature
Number of pirates
each month
Time Ice cream sales each month
C | The average world temperature has increased as the D | The number of deaths by drowning
number of pirates has gone down. increases when sales of ice cream increase.
a | How has putting the mass on the spring The Earth’s gravity keeps the Moon in its orbit. The
made it stretch? Moon’s gravity also affects the Earth, causing the tides.
b | How do you know there must be a force
from the spring on the mass?
c | Sketch a diagram of the mass attached to
the spring. Use arrows to show the force I can …
from the mass on the spring, and the force ■ describe some examples of cause and effect in science
from the spring on the mass. ■ describe the difference between correlation and cause.
183
LINKS BETWEEN
9Ld VARIABLES
HOW CAN VARIABLES BE RELATED MATHEMATICALLY?
75 air temperature
The boiling point of water gets lower as air
Altitude (km)
Proportional and
linear relationships 0
0 Force
Graph C shows how the length of a spring changes when the
force on it changes. This is a linear relationship, because the
points on the graph fall on a straight line, but the line does not C | The stretched length of the spring can be worked out
using this formula:
go through the (0,0) point on the graph.
stretched length = original length
+ (spring factor (a constant) × force)
184
Graph D shows how water pressure changes with Pressure (kPa)
depth. The graph is a straight line that goes through
0 50 000 100 000
the origin (0,0). This shows that the pressure is directly
0
proportional to depth, and the relationship can be
described by the equation shown in the caption. 1
Depth (km)
■ if the value of one variable doubles, the other also 4
doubles. 5
6
2 Explain why the relationship shown in
graph C is not showing direct proportion. 7
8 D | the relationship between pressure
3 The weight of an object is directly
and depth can be described by:
proportional to its mass. Sketch a graph 9 pressure = depth × density of fluid × g
of weight against mass that shows this.
10
Inverse proportion
The resistance of a wire depends on the material it is made from, its length and its cross-sectional
area. If the cross-sectional area of the wire is doubled, its resistance halves. This is an inversely
proportional relationship. Graph E shows an example of an inversely proportional relationship.
proportional one.
y = mx + c
Using a graph to work out the values of m and c can tell us
about the relationship shown by the graph.
When a gas is heated the particles move faster. If the gas is
inside a sealed container the particles hit the walls harder
and more often, so the pressure increases. If the pressure
increases enough it can cause an explosion.
A | This gas cylinder exploded because the gas pressure inside
Graph B shows that there is a linear relationship between it increased as it was heated.
the pressure inside a container of gas and its temperature.
0 °C Temperature
x y = mx + c
Look at graph C on page 184. x is the temperature c is the point at which the
1
line crosses the vertical
a | What kind of relationship is shown in this graph?
axis, so it tells you what
b | The line on the graph can be described in the the pressure is at 0 °C
form y = mx + c. Explain what the values of m
and c in this equation tell us about the spring.
125 50 km in
of each part of the line shows how fast the car was going for 0.5 hours.
100
each part of its journey – the steeper the line, the faster the It is travelling
75 at 100 km/h.
speed. A horizontal line shows the car was stationary.
50 The gradient
25 tells you
the speed.
2 Look at graph C. At what speed is the car 0
C 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0
travelling for the first hour of its journey?
Time (hours)
186
A journey can also be shown on a speed–time graph. Graph D Speed–time graph for a new car journey
shows a different car journey. Horizontal lines show the car 60
travelling at constant speeds, and sloping lines show when the
50
Speed (km/h)
car is accelerating.
40
Acceleration is a way of saying how quickly a moving object is
30
speeding up or slowing down. The units for acceleration are
20
metres per second per second (m/s2). An acceleration of 5 m/s2
means that the object is going 5 m/s faster every second. The 10
steeper the line on a speed–time graph, the faster the car 0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
is accelerating.
Time (minutes)
D
3 Look at graph D.
a | What was the top speed of the car during this
journey?
b | When was the car slowing down fastest?
c | Sketch a speed–time graph that shows a car
accelerating for 1 minute to 90 km/h, travelling
at a constant speed for 5 minutes, then
accelerating for 1 minute to 110 km/h.
This is the same value you would get from working out 0
the area of the orange rectangle on the graph. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s)
For the first 10 seconds of the journey the vehicle is E
accelerating. The distance it covers during this time is
the area of the yellow triangle on the graph.
188
electrons
nucleus
d d
u u u u
solid ball
(particle theory) protons and neutrons
made of even smaller
nucleus surrounded by nucleus contains protons and neutrons, particles (used when
electrons (used when with electrons at different distances from explaining radioactivity)
learning about static the nucleus (used when learning how
electricity) chemical bonds form)
C | how the abstract model of an atom changes as you learn more science
Wave models
Waves transfer energy without transferring matter. We can see
waves on the surface of water, and we can see how they are
reflected and refracted.
We cannot see sound being reflected, but we can hear echoes.
We can carry out experiments to show that sound is also
refracted. We use a wave model to help us to think about how
sound travels. Light can also be reflected and refracted. We can
explain many of the properties of light by thinking of it travelling
as a wave, but the wave model does not explain all of the D | When water is disturbed, waves transfer energy outwards.
properties of light.
I can …
The tsunami stripped all the
trees and soil off this land. ■ explain the difference between physical and
abstract models
■ describe some ways in which models are used
in science.
189
PHYSICS
9Le RESEARCH
WHAT IS BEING RESEARCHED IN PHYSICS?
Research in physics can be classified into different types:
■ applied research is often aimed at improving a particular technology,
such as designing materials that are more efficient at converting
sunlight into electricity
■ basic research is investigating things that may not have an application,
but that scientists are curious about.
All scientific research needs money to pay for equipment and to pay the
scientists. Applied research is often funded by technology companies. Basic
research is usually funded by the government.
190
GLOSSARY
Pronunciation note: A capital ‘O’ is said as in ‘so’
absorbed ’Soaked up’ or ‘taken in’. angle of reflection The angle between the normal and the ray of light leaving a
mirror.
abstract model A model that only exists in your thoughts or as a computer
program, formula or diagrams (such as ray diagrams). anther A male reproductive organ in plants that produces pollen grains.
abundance The number of organisms in an area. Also called ‘population size’. antibiotic Medicine that helps people recover from bacterial infection by
killing the pathogen.
accelerate To change speed.
antiviral A medicine given to people with viral diseases to help them get
accuracy A measure of how close a value is to its real value. better.
(ack-U-rass-ee)
asexual Producing new organisms from one parent only.
acid A substance that reacts with alkalis, turns litmus red and has a reproduction
pH of less than 7 is acidic.
atmosphere The mixture of gases that surrounds the Earth.
acid rain Rainwater that is more acidic than usual due to air pollution,
usually caused by sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides dissolved atmospheric Pressure of the atmosphere.
in it. pressure
active voice When a verb is in the active voice, the subject is doing atomic energy A name used to describe energy when it is stored inside
something. materials. Another name for ‘nuclear energy’.
adaptation The features that something has to enable it to do a certain job auditory range The range of frequencies that an animal can hear.
(add-app-tay-shun) or survive in a particular place. (ord-it-orry)
addictive If something makes you feel that you need to have more of it, it backbone A series of small bones (vertebrae) that form a chain to support
is said to be addictive. the main part of some animals’ bodies.
aerobic respiration A type of respiration in which oxygen is used to release energy balanced equation A symbol equation in which the numbers of atoms or ions of
(air-O-bick) from substances, such as glucose. (eck-way-shun) different types are the same on both sides of the arrow.
aggregate Gravel, small stones or pieces of crushed rocks used in building. balanced (force) When two forces on an object are the same strength but in
opposite directions.
aim What you are trying to find out or do.
base Any substance, soluble or insoluble, that neutralises an acid
air resistance A force that tries to slow things down that are moving through forming a salt and water only.
air. It is caused by friction and by the object pushing the air out
of the way. bias (bye-as) A shift away from a correct meaning or value.
algae Types of protoctists that can photosynthesise. biodegradable Capable of being decomposed (broken down) by organisms in
the soil.
alkali A substance that reacts with acids, turns litmus blue and has a
pH of more than 7 is alkaline. biodiversity The range of different species of organisms in an area.
(bI-O-die-ver-sit-ee)
amino acid Substance used to make proteins.
biomechanics The study of how muscles and bones work together.
ammeter A piece of equipment that measures how much electricity is
flowing around a circuit. bladder The organ that stores urine.
amnion (am-nee-on) A bag containing amniotic fluid. blood Organ consisting of a liquid plasma and cells, including red
blood cells (that carry oxygen) and white blood cells (that fight
amniotic fluid The liquid surrounding the growing embryo and protecting it. infections).
(am-nee-ot-ick)
(floo-id) bond A force that holds some atoms tightly together.
ampere (A) The unit for measuring current. brain The organ of the nervous system that controls the body and
coordinates responses to changes inside and outside the body.
amplitude The size of vibrations or the distance a particle vibrates when a
wave passes. breathing The movement of muscles that make the lungs expand and
contract.
analogy A model that compares something complicated to something
(an-al-O-jee) that is easier to understand. brittle Hard but easily broken or cracked.
angle of incidence The angle between an incoming light ray and the normal. Brownian motion An erratic movement of small specks of matter caused by being
(in-sid-dense) (mO-shun) hit by the moving particles that make up liquids or gases.
191
carbon capture Technology that can be used to remove carbon dioxide from component Something in a circuit, such as a bulb, switch or motor.
technology the waste gases produced by power stations and industrial (com-po-nent)
processes preventing it from entering the atmosphere.
composite material A material made up of two or more other materials. The
carbon cycle A model used to show how carbon compounds are recycled in (kuh m-poz-it) separate materials do not react together.
an ecosystem.
compound A substance that can be split up into simpler substances, since it
carnivore Organism that only eats other animals. contains the atoms of two or more elements joined together.
causal link When a change in one variable causes a change in another (this compressed Squeezed into a smaller volume.
is not the same as correlation).
conclusion What the results of an investigation show.
cell division (sell) The splitting of a parent cell to form two identical daughter cells.
The daughter cells both contain the same genetic information concrete Artificial stone made from a mixture of sand, cement, water
as the parent cell. and larger pieces of material such as gravel or small stones
(aggregate).
cell wall The tough wall around some cells. It helps to support and
protect the cell. condense When a gas turns into a liquid.
cell surface The membrane that controls what goes into and out of a cell. conduction The way energy is transferred through solids by heating.
membrane (con-duck-shun)
cellulose A strong plant material used to make cell walls. conductor A substance that allows something to pass through it (e.g. heat,
(sell-you-IOhs) electricity).
cement A substance that binds materials together. In building it refers to consumer Organism that eats other organisms.
a mixture of clay and lime (calcium oxide).
contact force A force where there needs to be contact between objects
ceramic A range of hard, durable, non-metallic materials, which are before the force can have an effect (e.g. friction).
(ser-am-ick) generally unaffected by heat. E.g. china and glass.
continuous Continuous data can take any value between two limits.
cervix (sir-vicks) The ring of muscle at the bottom of the uterus in females. Examples include length, mass, time.
characteristic A feature of an organism. continuous variation When the value of a variable, such as height, can take any value
(kar-ack-ter-iss-tick) and shows continuous variation.
clay Very fine particles of rock. cross-breeding When sexual reproduction occurs between different varieties
or breeds.
climate change Changes that will happen to the weather as a result of global
warming. crude oil A fossil fuel formed from the decay of sea creatures over millions
of years under the conditions of high heat and pressure and in
combustion Burning, usually in air. The reaction gives out energy, which is the absence of air.
transferred to the surroundings by heating or light.
crust The solid rocks at the surface of the Earth.
communicable A disease that can be passed from an infected person to an
disease uninfected person. Also called ‘infectious disease’. crystals Pieces of a mineral with sharp edges. A solid with a regular
(kris-tal) shape and flat surfaces which reflect light.
competition There is competition between organisms that need the same
(com-pet-ish-un) things as each other. We say that they ‘compete’ for those things. current The flow of electricity around a circuit.
192
cuticle (cyou-tick-ul) The waxy covering on the outside of many leaves. distribution How the organisms are spread throughout an area, such as
evenly, randomly or clumped.
cytoplasm The watery jelly inside a cell where the cell’s activities take place.
(site-O-plaz-m) DNA A substance that contains genetic information. Short for
deoxyribonucleic acid.
data Observations or measurements collected in investigations.
dose The amount of medicine in the pill or treatment given to a
deciduous Plants that lose their leaves in winter. patient.
(des-sid-yoo-us)
double helix Two helices joined so that they are in parallel.
decimal place The position of a digit to the right of the decimal point in a
number. The number of decimal places in a number is the drag Another name for air resistance or water resistance.
number of digits after the decimal point.
drug A substance that affects the way your body works.
decomposer An organism that feeds on dead organisms or animal wastes,
causing them to decay. dynamic equilibrium When there are constant changes going on but these changes
(dy-nam-ick) are equal and opposite and so do not effect the overall levels of
deform Change shape. (ek-will-ib-bree-um) something.
density A measure of a substance’s mass per unit volume (e.g. the mass ecosystem All the physical environmental factors and all the organisms that
of 1 cubic centimetre (cm3) of a substance measured in grams are found in a habitat.
per cubic centimetre (g/cm3)).
effectors Organs that bring about responses to changes inside the body
dependent variable The variable that is measured in an investigation. The values of and in the surroundings, such as muscles that cause movement
(dee-pend-ent) the dependent variable depend on those of the independent and glands that produce hormones.
(var-ee-able) variable.
efficiency A way of saying how much energy something wastes.
deposited When moving water, ice or wind drops rock fragments or grains. (e-fish-en-see)
depressant A drug that decreases the speed at which nerves carry impulses. effort The force put on something, especially a lever or other simple
machine.
diaphragm (biology) An organ containing a lot of muscle tissue, which contracts and
(dye-a-fram) moves downwards to increase the volume of the chest when egested (ee-jes-ted) When faeces are pushed out of the anus.
inhaling. This then causes the lungs to expand.
egg cell The female sex cell (gamete).
diet The food that you eat.
elastic Any substance that will return to its original shape and size after
diffusion When particles spread and mix with each other without it has been stretched or squashed.
(diff-you-zshun) anything moving them. Diffusion into and out of cells occurs for
elastic potential A name used to describe energy when it is stored in stretched or
particles that are small enough to pass through the cell surface
energy squashed things that can change back to their original shapes.
membrane.
(po-ten-shall) Another name for ‘strain energy’.
digested When food has been broken down it has been ‘digested’.
electric current A flow of electrons around a circuit.
direct proportion A relationship between two variables where one variable electric field The space around an object with a charge of static electricity
doubles when the other doubles. The graph is a straight line where it can affect other objects.
through (0,0). We say that one variable is directly proportional
to the other. electricity A way of transferring energy through wires.
discontinuous Data values that can only have one of a set number of options electric motor A machine consisting of a coil of wire in a magnetic field. The coil
are discontinuous. Examples include shoe sizes and blood spins when a current flows through it.
groups.
electrolysis Breaking down a substance using electricity.
discontinuous When the value of a variable is discontinuous, it shows (ell-ek-troll-e-sis)
variation ‘discontinuous variation’.
electromagnet A coil of wire with electricity flowing in it. An electromagnet has
disease Something that makes you ill, such as infection by a pathogen a magnetic field like a bar magnet.
or not having a healthy diet.
electron Tiny particle with a negative charge that is found within atoms.
displacement The distance in a straight line between an object and its starting
point. element A simple substance, made up of only one type of atom.
displacement A reaction where a more reactive element takes the place of a endangered When a type of organism is in danger of ceasing to exist.
reaction less reactive element in a compound. (en-dayn-jerd)
dissipate Spread out. endothermic A change or reaction that absorbs energy from the
(end-O-ther-mik) surroundings making the temperature of the surroundings fall.
dissolve When a substance breaks up into such tiny pieces in a liquid that
it can no longer be seen and forms a solution. energy resource A store of energy that we can use for heating, transport, and to
keep our bodies working.
distance multiplier A lever or other machine where the load moves further than
the effort. environment The conditions in a habitat caused by physical environmental
factors and living organisms.
distance-time graph A graph that shows how far and how fast something travels
during a journey. Steeper lines on the graph show faster speeds. environmental Anything that can change the conditions in a habitat or the
factor organisms that live there.
distillation The process of separating a liquid from a mixture by
(dis-till-ay-shun) evaporating the liquid and then condensing it (so that it can be environmental Differences between organisms caused by environmental
collected). variation factors.
193
epidermis cell Cell that forms tissue covering the surface of an organ. force field The volume around something where a non-contact force can
affect things. Examples are electric, magnetic and gravitational
equilibrium When things are balanced and not changing they are ‘in fields.
(ek-will-ib-bree-um) equilibrium’.
force multiplier A lever or other machine where the load is bigger than the
estimate An approximate answer, often calculated from a sample or effort.
using rounded values.
formula (chemical) A combination of symbols and numbers that shows how
evidence Data used to support an idea or show that it is wrong. many atoms of different kinds are in a particular molecule. In
compounds that do not form molecules, it shows the ratio of
evolution A change in one or more characteristics of a population over a elements in the compound. Plural is formulae.
long period of time.
fossil fuel A fuel formed from the dead remains of organisms over millions
exhalation Breathing out. of years (e.g. coal, oil or natural gas).
exothermic A change or reaction that transfers energy into the surroundings Franklin, Rosalind Scientist whose experiments produced evidence that helped
(ex-O-therm-ic) making the temperature of the surroundings rise. Watson and Crick work out the structure of DNA.
expand To get bigger. friction A force between two objects that are touching. It usually acts to
slow things down or prevent movement.
explosive An explosive substance reacts very fast, releasing a lot of energy
(ex-plO-siv) and gas. fruit (froot) Something used to carry the seeds of flowering plants. Can be
fleshy or dry.
extension The amount by which a spring or other stretchy material has
(ex-ten-shun) stretched. It is the stretched length minus the original length. fulcrum A point about which something turns. Another name for a pivot.
extinct An organism that no longer exists is extinct. fungicide Pesticide that kills fungi.
(fung-giss-ide)
eyepiece lens The part of the microscope you look down.
fuse (fewz) When two things join together to become one.
faeces (fee-sees) Waste food material produced by the intestines.
galaxy Millions of stars grouped together.
fair test An experiment in which all the control variables are controlled
and only changes in the independent variable cause changes in gamete (gam-meet) A cell used for sexual reproduction.
the dependent variable.
gas exchange When one gas is swapped for another.
fat A substance that is often used to store energy.
gene (jeen) Section of the long strand of DNA found in a chromosome,
fermentation Anaerobic respiration occurring in microorganisms. which contains instructions for a characteristic.
(fer-ment-ay-shun)
gene bank Any facility that stores genetic material from different organisms
fertile Able to produce offspring. (e.g. seeds, gametes, tissue samples).
fertilisation Fusing of a male gamete with a female gamete. genetic information The inherited instructions that control your characteristics.
(fert-ill-I-zay-shun) (jen-et-tick)
fertilised egg cell What is produced when two gametes fuse. Another term for genetic variation Another term for ‘inherited variation’.
(fert-ill-I-zed) ‘zygote’.
genus (jeen-ous) A group of similar organisms. The genus name is the first word
fibre (fY-ber) A long thin continuous strand or thread. in the scientific name for a species (the second word is the
‘species name’). Different closely-related species belong to the
Filtration/filtering Passing a mixture through a filter to separate particles of same genus.
different sizes.
germination When a seed starts to grow.
finite Something that is a limited resource and will eventually run (jer-min-ay-shun)
out.
gland Tissue that makes and releases substances. Glands in the
flagellum A tail-like structure that rotates, allowing a unicellular organism hormonal system produce hormones that are released into the
to move. Plural is flagella. blood.
flammable A flammable substance catches fire easily. global warming Increased warming of the Earth’s surface as a result of increased
amounts of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the
flower Part of the plant that contains sexual reproductive organs. air.
fluid A gas or a liquid. glucose An important sugar, which is used as a reactant in respiration. It
is also a product of photosynthesis.
focusing wheels Wheel on a microscope that moves parts of the microscope to
get the image into focus. gradient A way of describing the steepness of a line on a graph in
numbers. It is calculated by taking the vertical distance between
foetus (fee-tus) An embryo is known as a foetus once it has developed a full set two points and dividing by the horizontal distance between the
of organs. same two points.
food chain A way of showing what eats what in a habitat. gravitational field The space around any object with mass where its gravity
attracts other masses.
food web Many food chains linked together, showing the flow of energy
through organisms in a habitat. gravitational field The force with which a gravitational field pulls on each
strength kilogram of mass. The gravitational field strength (g) on Earth is
force A push, pull or twist. approximately 10 newtons per kilogram (N/kg).
194
gravitational A name used to describe energy when it is stored in objects in independent The variable that you chose the values of in an investigation.
potential energy high places that can fall down. variable
(grav-it-ay-shon-al) (in-dee-pend-ent)
(po-ten-shall) (var-ee-able)
gravity The force of attraction between any two objects. The Earth is index A small raised number after a unit or another number to show
very big and so has strong gravity that pulls everything down you how many times to multiply it by itself. For example 103
towards it. means multiply 10 together 3 times (10 x 10 x 10).
greenhouse effect The warming effect on the Earth’s surface caused by indicator A substance that changes colour in solutions of different acidity
greenhouse gases absorbing energy emitted from the warm and alkalinity.
surface of the Earth and re-emitting it back to the surface.
infectious disease Another term for ‘communicable disease’.
greenhouse gas A gas, such as carbon dioxide, water vapour or methane, in the
Earth’s atmosphere, which absorbs energy emitted from the infrared radiation A way of transferring energy by heating that does not need
Earth’s surface and then emits it back to the surface. (ray-dee-ay-shun) a medium (material). Infrared radiation can travel through
transparent things and a vacuum (empty space).
guard cell One of a pair of cells that help to open and close a stoma.
inhalation Breathing in.
gullet Another term for ‘oesophagus’.
inherit A feature that an organism gets from a parent is inherited.
habitat The place where an organism lives (e.g. woodland).
inherited variation Differences between organisms passed on to offspring by their
halogen An element in group 7 of the periodic table: fluorine, chlorine. parents in reproduction.
heating A way of transferring energy from hot substances to cooler inner core The middle of the Earth.
ones.
insecticide Pesticide that kills insects.
heat resistant A substance that is not easily damaged by heat. (in-sect-iss-ide)
herbicide Pesticide that kills plants. Also called a ‘weedkiller’. insoluble Describes a substance that cannot be dissolved in a certain
(herb-iss-ide) (in-sol-you-bul) liquid.
herbivore Organism that only eats plants. insulator A material that does not allow something to pass through it (e.g.
heat, electricity).
heredity The passing on of genetic information from parents to offspring.
interdependent Organisms that depend on one another are said to be
hertz (Hz) (hurts) The unit for measuring frequency. interdependent.
hibernate When animals hide away during the winter and become very internal energy The energy stored in the movement of particles. Sometimes
(hy-ber-nate) inactive. called ‘thermal energy’.
hormone A chemical messenger that is released from a gland into the interquartile range The difference between the lower quartile and the upper
blood and carried around the body. quartile in a data set: interquartile range = upper quartile –
lower quartile.
hydrocarbon A compound containing hydrogen and carbon only.
(hi-drO-car-bon) inverse proportion A relationship between two variables where one variable
doubles when the other halves. We say that one variable is
hydroelectricity Electricity generated by moving water (usually falling from a inversely proportional to the other.
(hy-drO-el-eck-tri-city) reservoir) turning turbines and generators.
ion (i-on) An atom that has a tiny electrical charge.
hygiene Keeping things clean, and killing microorganisms to reduce risk
(hi-jean) of infection. ionic bond (i-on-ick) A strong force between oppositely-charged ions.
hypothesis An idea about how something works that can be tested using ionic compound A substance containing ions from two or more elements.
(hy-poth-uh-sis) experiments. Plural is hypotheses. (i-on-ick)
igneous rock A rock made from interlocking crystals that are not in layers. joint Place where two or more bones meet.
(igg-nee-us) Formed when magma or lava cooled down and solidified.
journal (scientific) A scientific magazine in which scientists publish their findings
immunisation Protecting a person from a particular disease by getting their by writing articles called scientific papers.
(imm-you-ny-say- body to recognise and attack the pathogen that causes the
shun) disease. kilometres per hour Unit for speed when the distance is measured in kilometres and
(km/h) the time is measured in hours.
implantation When an embryo sinks into the lining of the uterus.
(im-plant-ay-shun) kinetic energy A name used to describe energy when it is stored in moving
(kin-et-ick) things.
implosion An object is destroyed by collapsing in on itself.
(im-plo-shun) lactic acid Substance produced by anaerobic respiration in humans and
some bacteria.
impulse An electrical signal that travels in the nervous system along
nerve cells (neurons). landfill site Large area in which rubbish is left.
impurity An unwanted substance that is found mixed into a useful large intestine An organ in which water is removed from undigested food.
substance. (in-test-in)
incomplete When a substance reacts only partially with oxygen, such as latent heat The energy needed to break the bonds between particles in
combustion when carbon burns in air producing carbon dioxide, carbon melting or evaporating, or the energy released when these
monoxide and soot (unburnt carbon). bonds form in condensing or freezing.
195
lattice structure An arrangement of many atoms or other particles, which are menstrual cycle A series of events lasting about a month, happening in the
(latt-iss) bonded together in a fixed regular (grid-like) pattern. (men-strew-al) female reproductive system. The cycle causes ovulation and the
lining of the uterus is replaced.
lava (lar-va) Molten rock that runs out of volcanoes.
metal Any element that is shiny when polished, conducts heat and
law of conservation The idea that energy can never be created or destroyed. Only electricity well, is malleable and flexible and often has a high
of energy transferred from one store to another. melting point.
lever A simple machine that consists of a long bar and a pivot. It can metallic bonding The type of bonding found in metals. We can think if it as
increase the size of a force or increase the distance the force positively charged ions in a sea of negatively charged electrons.
moves.
metamorphic rock A rock formed from interlocking crystals that are often lined
ligament A band of tissue that connects bones together. up in layers. It is formed when existing rocks are heated or
compressed.
light A way of transferring energy waves. Light waves can travel
through transparent materials and through empty space. method A description of how an experiment is carried out, written in
simple, well-organised steps.
light ray A narrow beam of light, or an arrow on a diagram representing
the path of light and the direction in which it is travelling. microorganism An organism too small to be seen with the naked eye.
light year The distance that light travels in one year. microscope Piece of apparatus used to magnify very small specimens.
limiting factor A variable that prevents the rate (speed) of a process from microvillus A fold on the surface of a villus cell. These folds increase the
becoming any faster. surface area so that digested food is absorbed more quickly.
Plural is microvilli.
limit of The extension of a spring is proportional to the force on it, up
proportionality to a certain point called the limit of proportionality. If you apply migration When animals move to different areas depending on the
(prO-por-shun-al-it-ee) more force the extension is no longer proportional to the force. (my-gray-shun) season.
linear relationship A relationship between variables that produces a straight line mineral/mineral salt A compound containing an important element (e.g. calcium)
when plotted on a scatter graph. The line does not have to go that is needed in small quantities for health. Plants get their
through the (0,0) point. mineral salts from the soil, animals get them from food.
lipid Fats (and oils) are part of a large group of similar substances mixture Two or more substances jumbled together but not joined to
called lipids. each other. The substances in mixtures can often be separated
from each other.
litmus An indicator that is red in acids and blue in alkalis.
model A way of showing or representing something that helps you to
load The weight or force on something. For a machine, the load is the
think about it or to find out about it.
weight that is being moved.
moment The turning effect of a force. It is calculated by multiplying the
locomotor system An organ system that contains all your muscles and bones and
force by the perpendicular distance of the force from the pivot.
(low-cO-mow-ter) allows you to move.
monomer A small molecule that can join with other molecules like itself to
longitudinal wave A wave where the particles vibrate in the same direction as the
form a polymer.
(long-it-tyewd-in-al) wave is travelling.
lubricant A substance (usually a liquid) used to reduce friction. motor effect The force produced when a wire carrying a current is placed in a
(loo-brick-ant) magnetic field.
lung An organ used to take oxygen out of the air and into the blood. nanoparticle A particle of substance with a diameter of 1 - 100 nanometres.
Lungs also put waste carbon dioxide into the air.
native Naturally found in a certain area.
machine A device, such as a lever or ramp, which makes it easier to move
something by multiplying a force or a distance. native state When a metal is found in the Earth as an element.
magma Molten rock beneath the surface of the Earth. natural polymer A substance found in nature that is made up of very long
molecules containing repeating groups of atoms.
magnetic field The space around a magnet where it can affect magnetic
materials or other magnets. natural satellite A satellite that has not been made by humans. The Moon is a
natural satellite of the Earth.
magnification How much bigger something appears compared with its actual
(mag-nif-ick-ay-shun) size. natural selection A process in which an organism is more likely to survive and
reproduce than other members of the species because it
mammal Animal that has hair and produces milk to feed its offspring. possesses a certain inherited variation.
mantle (man-tel) The part of the Earth below the crust. nectar Sugary liquid produced by plant flowers to attract insects.
mass The amount of matter that something is made from. Mass is negative charge The type of electric charge on electrons.
measured in grams (g) and kilograms (kg). Your mass does not
change if you go into space or to another planet. nerve An organ that is made of nerve cells (neurons) that carry
impulses between the spinal cord and all other parts of the
mean speed The total distance something travels divided by the total time body (not the brain).
taken is the mean (or average) speed for a journey.
nervous system An organ system that contains the brain, spinal cord and nerves,
median The middle value in a set of numbers that has been written in and carries impulses around the body. This system helps us to
order. sense and respond quickly to changes inside and outside the
body.
medicine A drug that helps the body to ease the symptoms of a disease or
(med-iss-in) cure the disease. neutral (new-tral) A substance that is neither an acid nor an alkali. It has a pH of 7.
196
neutralisation A reaction in which an acid reacts with an alkali or a base to oviduct A tube that carries egg cells from the ovaries to the uterus in
reaction produce a salt and water. females. Fertilisation happens here.
newton (N) The unit for force. ovulation Release of an egg cell from an ovary.
newton metre (N m) The unit for the moment of a force. ovule Container for an egg cell found inside plant ovaries.
nicotine An addictive drug found in tobacco smoke. oxidation Reaction in which a substance gains oxygen.
(ox-i-day-shun)
nitrate (ny-trait) Mineral salt needed by plants to make proteins.
oxidising agent A substance that provides oxygen to oxidise another substance.
nocturnal Organisms that are active at night are nocturnal. (ox-id-eyes-ing)
(nock-ter-nal)
oxygen debt An older term for ‘EPOC’.
non-biodegradable Not decomposed (broken down) by organisms in the soil.
palisade cell Tall cell found in leaves that contains many chloroplasts.
non-communicable A disease that cannot be passed by the person who has it to
disease other people around them, such as diseases caused by poor diet pandemic An infectious disease that spreads to many people in more than
or unhealthy lifestyle, or diseases that are inherited. one country in a short time.
non-contact force A force that can affect something from a distance. Examples are parallel circuit A circuit with branches that split apart and join up again.
static electricity, gravity and magnetism.
parent An organism that has produced offspring.
non-metal Any element that is not shiny, and does not conduct heat and
electricity well. partially permeable A membrane, such as the cell surface membrane, that lets some
membrane particles cross through it but not others.
non-renewable Any energy resource that will run out because we cannot renew
resource our supplies of it (e.g. oil). particle (part-ick-al) A tiny piece of matter that everything is made out of.
normal An imaginary line at right angles to the surface of a mirror or particle model Another term for particle theory.
other object where a ray of light hits it. (part-ick-al)
normal distribution When many individuals have a middle value for a feature, with particle theory A theory used to explain the different properties and
fewer things having greater or lesser values. This sort of data (part-ick-al) observations of solids, liquids and gases.
forms a bell shape on charts and graphs.
passive voice When a verb is in the passive voice, something is being done to
north pole The name for one end of a magnet – the north pole of a magnet the subject.
will point to the Earth’s north magnetic pole if the magnet is
allowed to swing freely. pathogen A microbe that causes disease, such as polio virus, cholera
(path-o-jen) bacterium, malaria protoctist, mould fungus.
nuclear energy A name used to describe energy when it is stored inside
materials. peer review An evaluation of the quality of a scientific paper carried out by
other scientists who work in the same area of science.
nucleus (new-clee-us) The central part of an atom. The nucleus has a positive charge.
persistent A chemical substance that does not get broken down in nature
nutrient A substance needed in the diet to provide raw materials for
very quickly is persistent. It stays around for a long time.
(new-tree-ent) making new substances and for energy release.
pest Any organism that damages a crop.
objective lens The part of the microscope that is closest to the specimen.
offspring The new organisms produced by reproduction. pesticide Chemical substance that kills pests.
(pest-iss-ide)
ohm (Ω) The unit for measuring resistance.
pH scale A numerical scale from 1 to 14 showing how acidic or alkaline a
oil (biology) A liquid fat. substance is. Acids have a pH below 7, neutral substances have a
pH of 7 and alkalis have a pH greater than 7.
orbit The path that one body in space takes around another.
phloem tissue/vessel Tube made of living phloem cells that transports dissolved
ore A rock that contains enough of a certain mineral to make it (flow-em) substances (e.g. sugars) around the plant.
worth mining.
photosynthesis A process that plants use to make their own food. It needs light
organ A large part of a plant or animal that does an important job. (fO-tow-sinth-e-sis) to work.
Organs are made of different tissues working together.
physical change A change in which no new substances are formed (e.g. changes
organic farming Producing foods without the use of lots of artificial chemical (fi-zi-kal) of state).
substances.
physical model A model that you can touch or a model that you could build.
organic molecule A molecule that is built using a chain of carbon atoms. (fi-zi-kal)
organism A living thing. physical property A description of how a material behaves and responds to forces
(fi-zi-kal) and energy. Hardness is a physical property.
organ system A collection of organs working together to do an important job.
physical weathering When rocks are worn away or broken up by physical processes
osmosis The type of diffusion that describes the overall movement of (fi-zi-kal) such as changes in temperature.
(os-mo-sis) solvent molecules in a solution across a partially permeable
membrane. pinhole camera A piece of apparatus that forms an image of an object on a
screen when light rays travel through a tiny hole in the front.
outer core The middle of the Earth.
pivot A point about which something turns. Another name for
ovary (O-very) A female reproductive organ. Produces egg cells. fulcrum.
197
placebo Something that looks like the real medicine but contains no ramp A sloping surface. A ramp is a force multiplier: it needs less force
(pla-see-bo) drug. to pull something up a ramp than it does to lift it directly.
placebo effect Natural changes in the body that help you recover from disease random When there is an equal chance for one event occurring as there
just because you believe you will get better. is for any other events in the same set.
placenta This is attached to the uterus wall. It transfers oxygen and food random error An error that can be different for every reading.
(plas-en-ta) out of the mother’s blood into the foetus and transfers waste
materials from the foetus into the mother’s blood. rate The rate at which something happens is its speed.
planet A large body in space that orbits a star. The Earth is a planet. rate of reaction How quickly a reaction occurs.
plant kingdom A group of organisms that have cells with cell walls made of raw material A substance used to make other substances.
cellulose and that are able to photosynthesise.
reactant (ree-act-ant) A substance that takes part in a chemical reaction. Reactants are
plastic A description of a substance that can be moulded into different written on the left side, before the arrow, in a word equation.
shapes.
reaction profile Graph showing the changes in energy of reactants and
pollen tube A tube that grows from a pollen grain down through the stigma products during a reaction.
and style and into the ovary.
reactive A substance that reacts with many other substances or reacts
pollination The transfer of pollen from an anther to a stigma.
(ree-ak-tiv) very easily is reactive.
(poll-in-ay-shun)
reactivity series A list of metals that shows them in order of their reactivity, with
pollinator An animal that pollinates plants
the most reactive at the top.
polymer A substance made up of very long molecules containing
repeating groups of atoms. (Formed by joining monomer receptor cells Cells that detect stimuli, such as cells in the eye that detect
molecules together). (re-sep-tor) changes in light.
polymerisation The reaction that joins monomer molecules together to form a recreational drug A drug used for its mind-altering effect and not as a medicine.
polymer. (reck-ree-ay-shun-al)
population The number of a certain organism found in a certain area. rectum An organ that stores faeces before they are egested.
(pop-U-lay-shun)
recycling Using a material again, often by melting it and using it to
positive charge The type of electric charge on the nucleus of atoms. (ree-sy-cling) make new objects.
potential difference A way of saying how much energy is transferred by electricity. reduced If a substance has lost oxygen then it has been reduced.
(po-ten-shall) Energy will only be transferred if there is enough difference
between the charges in two places to make the charges move reducing agent A substance that removes oxygen from another substance.
from one place to the other as a current. Another term for
‘voltage’. references Acknowledgement of any outside sources of information used
when writing a scientific paper.
power rating The number of joules of energy an appliance uses every second.
reflect To bounce off a surface instead of passing through it or being
precise Measurements that are close to one another. absorbed.
precision A measure of how close measurements are to one another; the refracted A light ray that has changed direction as it passed from one
closer they are the more precision there is. medium to another.
predator (pred-att-er) An animal that catches and eats other animals. relationship A link between two variables, so that when one thing changes
so does the other. Best seen by using a scatter graph. Also called
premature When a baby is born much earlier than expected, it is premature. a ‘correlation’.
pressure The amount of force pushing on a certain area. It is a way of relative (speed) The speed of one object compared to another – both objects
saying how spread out a force is. could be moving.
prey (pray) An animal that is caught and eaten by another animal. relay A switch that is turned on and off without a person touching it.
One type of relay uses a small current to make an electromagnet
prism A block of clear, colourless glass or plastic. Usually triangular. close the contacts in a circuit that carries a much larger current.
probability The likelihood of something happening.
relax When a muscle relaxes it stops exerting a force and becomes
product A new substance made in a chemical reaction. In a word thinner and longer.
(prod-uct) equation, products are written on the right side, after the arrow.
reliable Results that are repeatable and reproducible.
property A description of how a material behaves and what it is like. (ri-lahy-uh-buh l)
Hardness is a property of some solids.
renewable resource An energy resource that will never run out (e.g. solar power).
puberty (pew-bert-ty) A time during which big physical changes happen in the body.
repeatable Results that are similar when repeated by the same
pulley A simple machine consisting of a wheel that can turn on an axis experimenter.
with a rope running around it. Using more than one pulley with
a rope allows a force to be multiplied. reproducible Results that are similar when repeated by different
experimenters.
pure A single substance that does not have anything else in it.
reproductive system All the reproductive organs.
quartile The values of one-quarter (lower quartile) and three-quarters
(upper quartile) through a set of values that have been resistance A way of saying how difficult it is for electricity to flow through
written in order. something.
198
resistor A component that makes it difficult for electricity to flow. sexual reproduction Reproduction that needs two individuals to produce a new
Resistors are used to reduce the size of the current in a circuit. (ree-prod-uck-shun) organism of the same type.
resource Something needed by an organism. For example, plants need side-effect Unintended effects of medicines that may be harmful.
(rez-ors) light as a resource and animals need food as a resource.
significant figure The first significant figure in a number is the digit with the
response A reaction to something (e.g. the release of hormone by a gland highest place value, the second significant figure has the second
is a response to another hormone in the blood). highest place value and so on.
resultant (force) The difference between forces in two opposite directions. skull A collection of bones that protects the brain.
reversible change A chemical reaction or physical change that can easily be slide A glass sheet that a specimen is put on.
reversed.
small intestine An organ in which most digestion happens. The soluble
rock cycle All the processes that form sedimentary igneous and (in-test-in) substances produced by digestion are absorbed into the body
metamorphic rocks linked together. here.
safety symbol Another term for ‘hazard symbol’. sound waves A wave is a way of transferring energy. A sound wave is
vibrations in particles of a solid, liquid or gas, which are detected
saliva A digestive juice. It contains an enzyme that breaks down starch by our ears and ‘heard’ as sounds.
(sall-eye-va) into sugar.
south pole The name for one end of a magnet.
salt An ionic compound produced in a neutralisation reaction.
species (spee-shees) A group of organisms that can reproduce with each other to
sample A small part of something that is being investigated. You use a or produce offspring that will also be able to reproduce.
sample to draw conclusions about what the larger whole is like. (spee-sees)
sand Fine particles of rocks, mainly made of quartz (silicon dioxide). specific heat The energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a
capacity substance by 1 °C.
scatter graph A graph in which data for two variables is plotted at points. This
allows you to see whether there is a relationship between two specimen The object you look at using a microscope.
variables. Lines (or curves) of best fit are often drawn through (spess-im-men)
the points.
specular reflection When light is reflected evenly, so that all reflected light goes off
scientific paper An article written by scientists and published in a science (speck-you-lar) in the same direction. Mirrors produce specular reflection.
magazine called a journal. It is like an investigation report but
usually shows the results and conclusions drawn from many speed How fast something is moving. Often measured in metres per
experiments. second (m/s), miles per hour (mph) or kilometres per hour
(km/h).
scrotum (scrow-tum) The bag of skin containing the testes in males.
speed-time graph A graph that shows the speed at different times during a
seasonal change Change in the physical environment factors of an environment journey. Horizontal lines show constant speeds, and sloping
that happens during the course of a year (e.g. it gets colder in lines show accelerations.
winter).
sperm duct The tube that carries sperm cells from the testes to the urethra.
sedimentary (rock) Describes a rock formed from grains stuck together. The grains spinal cord The large bundle of nerves that runs through the vertebrae
are often rounded. (backbone). Nerve cells in the spinal cord carry electrical
impulses to and from the brain to many other parts of the body.
seed dispersal The spreading of seeds away from a parent plant.
stage Part of a microscope. You put a slide on it.
seedling A newly germinated plant.
standard form A very large or very small number written as a number between
selective breeding When humans choose an organism that has a certain 1 and 10 multiplied by a power of 10. A x 10n where A is between
characteristic and breed more of these organisms, often making 1 and 10 and n is the power of 10.
that chosen characteristic more and more obvious.
starch A type of insoluble carbohydrate found in plants. The glucose
selective (herbicide) A herbicide that only kills certain types of plants. made in photosynthesis is used to make starch.
sense organs Organs that contain receptor cells, such as the eye, ear, nose state of matter There are three different forms that a substance can be in: solid,
and skin. liquid or gas. These are the three states of matter.
series circuit A circuit in which there is only one loop of wire. state symbol Letter or letters to show the physical state of a substance (e.g.
(g) for gas).
sex chromosome Chromosome that determines the sex of an organism. In
(krow-mO-sOwm) humans, males have one X sex chromosome and one Y sex static electricity A positive or negative charge on an insulating material caused
chromosome, while females have two Xs. when rubbing transfers electrons from one material to another.
199
stigma Female part of a flower that receives pollen. tuber The swollen part of an underground stem used as a storage
(tyew-ber) organ and as a method of asexual reproduction in some plants
stimulant A drug that increases the speed at which nerves carry messages (e.g. potato).
(stim-you-lant) (e.g. caffeine).
ultrasound Sound waves with frequencies above 20 000 Hz, the upper limit
stimuli Changes inside and outside the body that the body detects and of human hearing.
(stim-you-lie) responds to.
umbilical cord The tissue that carries food, oxygen and waste between the
stoma A tiny hole in a leaf through which gases can diffuse into and (um-bill-ick-al) placenta and the growing embryo or foetus.
(stO-ma) out of the leaf. Plural is stomata.
unbalanced (forces) When two forces acting in opposite directions on an object are
stomach An organ containing strong acid that mixes food up and digests not the same strength. Unbalanced forces change the motion
(stum-uck) proteins. of objects.
strain energy A name used to describe energy when it is stored in stretched or universal indicator An indicator that has a range of different colours and can be
squashed things that can change back to their original shapes. used to determine the pH of a liquid.
Another name for ‘elastic potential energy’.
Universe All the galaxies and the space between them.
stretch To pull something to make it longer.
unreactive A substance that reacts with few other substances, or reacts
style Female part of a flower down which a pollen tube grows. (un-ree-yak-tive) very slowly or not at all.
superposition When two waves meet and their effects add up or cancel out. upthrust A force that pushes things up in liquids and gases.
(soup-er-poz-ish-un)
urethra The tube that carries sperm cells from the testes and urine from
surface area The total area of all the surfaces of a three-dimensional object. (you-ree-thra) the bladder.
surface area:volume The surface area of a three-dimensional object (such as an uterus (you-ter-ous) The organ in females in which a baby develops.
ratio organism) divided by its volume. Also written as SA:V ratio.
vaccine A medicine used to immunise people before they get ill so that
symbol (chemistry) The letter or letters that represent an element. (vack-seen) they are protected from a particular pathogen.
symbol equation A way of writing out what happens in a chemical reaction using vagina The tube in females leading from the cervix to the outside. The
(eck-way-shun) symbols to represent the substances involved. (vaj-eye-na) penis is placed here during sexual intercourse.
transported The movement of rock grains and fragments by wind, ice or weedkiller Another name for a ‘herbicide’.
water.
weight The amount of force with which gravity pulls things. It is
transverse wave A wave where the vibrations are at right angles to the direction measured in newtons (N). Your weight would change if you
the wave is travelling. went into space or to another planet.
200
Wilkins, Maurice Scientist whose experiments produced evidence to support our work The energy transferred when a force moves an object. It is
current understanding of the structure of DNA. calculated using the size of the force and the distance moved by
the force. The unit for work is the joule (J).
wilting When a plant droops because it has too little water.
word equation An equation in which the names of the reactant(s) are written xylem tissue/vessel Tube that carries water (and dissolved mineral salts) in plants. It
(eck-way-shun) on the left side, there is an arrow pointing from left to right, and (zy-lem) is found in stems and roots and is made of xylem cells.
the names of the product(s) are written on the right side:
yield The amount of useful product that is obtained from a crop.
reactant(s) → product(s)
A word equation is a type of model. zygote (zY-goat) Another term for ‘fertilised egg cell’.
201
1 2
H He
hydrogen helium
3 4 metal 5 6 7 8 9 10
semi-metal
Li Be B C N O F Ne
non-metal
lithium beryllium boron carbon nitrogen oxygen fluorine neon
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
sodium magnesium aluminium silicon phosphorus sulfur chlorine argon
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
potassium calcium scandium titanium vanadium chromium manganese iron cobalt nickel copper zinc gallium germanium arsenic selenium bromine krypton
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
rubidium strontium yttrium zirconium niobium molybdenum technetium ruthenium rhodium palladium silver cadmium indium tin antimony tellurium iodine xenon
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
caesium barium lanthanum hafnium tantalum tungsten rhenium osmium iridium platinum gold mercury thallium lead bismuth polonium astatine radon
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Fl Uup Lv Uus Uuo
francium radium actinium rutherfordium dubnium seaborgium bohrium hassium meitnerium darmstadtium roentgenium copernicium ununtrium flerovium ununpentium livermorium ununseptium ununoctium
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
cerium praseodymium neodymium promethium samarium europium gadolinium terbium dysprosium holmium erbium thulium ytterbium lutetium
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
thorium protactinium uranium neptunium plutonium americium curium berkelium californium einsteinium fermium mendelevium nobelium lawrencium
202
206
INDEX
absorption of light 169 carbon dioxide 25 crystals 69, 101 energy 132–3, 164–5
absorption of nutrients 40 carbon monoxide 41 cuticle 25 from chemical reactions 90–1, 103
abundance 62 carnivores 45 cytoplasm 38 resources 164
acceleration 130 catalysts 40, 103 storage 147
accidental bias 35 causal link 184 data 161 supply 144
accuracy 37, 63, 99, 161 causation 182–3 deciduous plants 45 transfer in chemical reactions
acid rain 76 cause and effect 182–3 decimal places 156–7 118–19
acids 104 cell division 13, 42 decomposers 30 environment 46
active voice 86–7 cell surface membrane 38 deficiency diseases 40 environmental factors 6
adaptations of organisms 14, 16–17, cell walls 38 deformation 133 environmental variation 6–7, 46
44, 46 cells 38–9 demolition 83 enzymes 40, 49
addictive drugs 41 cellulose 26, 38 density 163, 177 equations 102, 122–3
aerobic respiration 23, 38, 44 cement 75 dependent variables 99 equilibria, chemical 126–7
aggregate 75 ceramics 68–9, 105 deposition of grains 109 equilibrium of forces 141
aims 72 characteristics of an organism 6, depressants 43 estimates 10, 37, 62
air resistance 131 46 determiners 148 evolution 17, 47
algae 38, 44 chemical energy 164 diaphragm 41 exothermic reaction 71, 75, 91, 103,
alkalis 104 chemical equations 122–3 diet 51 119
aluminium 97 chemical reactions 84, 100, 119 diffusion 25, 39, 64, 65, 101, 163 expansion 163
alveoli 41 chemical symbols 99 digestion 40 explosions 84–5
amino acids 44 chemical weathering 109 digestive juices 40 explosives 83, 98
ammeters 153 chlorophyll 22, 44 dinosaurs 5 extinction 5, 14–15, 47
amperes 153, 171 chloroplasts 22, 38 direct proportionality 185 restoring species 20
anaerobic respiration 44 chromatography 101 discontinuous variation 7, 9, 46 eyepiece lens 38
analogies 188 chromosomes 12, 38, 46 diseases 51, 54–5 eyes 172
angle of incidence 169 sex chromosomes 13 displacement 136
animal smuggling 48 cilia 38 displacement reactions 94–5, 103 faeces 40
anthers 43 circulatory system 39 dissolving 100 failure of materials 82
antibiotics 51, 58 classification of organisms 7 distance multipliers 140 fair tests 99
antiviral drugs 58 clear writing 28–9 distance–time graphs 136, 167, 186 farming 21, 32–3, 36
anus 40 climate change 76, 108, 164 distillation 101 fats 26, 40
arguments, scientific 18–19 cohesion in writing 148–9 distribution of organisms 63 fermentation 44
art and chemistry 113 combustion 102 DNA 12–13, 46 fertilisation 8, 42
arteries 41 command words 52–3 double helix structure 46 fertilisers 30, 32
asexual reproduction 43, 46 communicable diseases 54 drag 131 fibres 74
asthma 41 competition for resources 14–15, drugs 43, 58 filtration 101
atmosphere 108 30, 47 addictive 41 finite resources 76
atmospheric pressure 41 components, electrical 171 recreational 43 flagella 38
atoms 102 composite materials 74–5, 105 dynamic equilibrium 127 flammable substances 84
attraction 151 compounds 102 flowers 43
average, types of 10 compression 163 ears 172 fluids 131, 163
conclusions 72, 161 Earth 162 focusing wheels 38
backbone 39 concrete 75 structure of 108–9 food chains 45
balanced diet 40 condensing 101 ecology 62–3 food webs 15
balanced equations 123 conductors of heat and electricity ecosystem 14 force fields 146–7, 178–9
balanced forces 130, 166 106, 165 effectors 56 force multipliers 140
bases 105 conjunctions 148 efficiency 133, 165 forces 130–1, 164, 166–7
bias 34–5, 59 conservation of energy 133, 143 effort 140 formulae 122
biased language 78–9 consumers 45 egestion 40 fossil fuels 132, 164
biodegradability 77 contact forces 166 elastic materials 71 Franklin, Rosalind 46
biodiesel 29 continuous variation 7, 9, 46, 60 elastic potential energy 133, 164 frescos 128
biodiversity 15, 47 contraction of muscles 39, 41 electric currents 152–3, 171 friction 130, 166
bioethanol 29 control group 59 electric fields 151, 169 fruits 43
biofuels 28–9 control systems 56–7 electric motors 159, 171 fusing of gametes 8
biomechanics 39 control variables 99 electricity 132, 164, 171
blood 39 controlling forces 167 measuring 153 galaxy 162
red cells 39, 41 convection currents 177 electrolysis 97, 111 gametes 8, 42
bonds 69, 100 converging light rays 169 electromagnets 158–9, 171 gas exchange 25, 41
brain 56 correlation 10, 182–3 electrons 116, 150, 169, 171 gases 163
breathing 41 corrosive substances 104 elements 102 gene banks 15, 47
brittle materials 68, 105, 106 counter arguments 18 ellipsis 149 genes 13, 14–15
Brownian motion 163 Crick, Francis 46 embryo 42 genetic information 8, 46
criteria for farming 21 emphasis in writing 28 genetic variation 46
capillaries 41 crops 21, 30–1 emphysema 41 genetics 46–7
carbohydrates 26, 40 cross-breeding of crops 31 endangered species 14 genus 5
carbon capture technology 76, 110 crude oil 71 endothermic reactions 71, 75, 91, germination 27, 43
carbon cycle 33 crust of the Earth 108 103, 119 glands 57
203
global warming 33, 76, 108 linear relationships 184–5 obesity 40 pure substances 100
glucose 22, 44 lipids 26, 40 objective lenses 38 purpose of writing 134–5
graphs 186–7 liquids 163 offspring 8, 46 pyramid of numbers 45
drawing 138–9 litmus indicator 104 ohms 155
gravitational fields 147, 169, 178–9 load 140 oils 26, 40 quartiles 60
strength of 147 locomotor system 39 orbits 162
gravitational potential energy (GPE) long answers 180–1 ores 96, 104 ramps 142, 170
133, 147, 164, 178–9 longitudinal waves 168 organ systems 39, 40–1 random error 161
gravity 162 lungs 41 organic farming 21, 36 random sampling 35
greenhouse effect 76, 108 organic molecules 44 rates of reactions 22, 120–1
greenhouse gases 108 machines 142–3, 170–1 organisms 38 reactants (raw materials) 22, 72, 102
guard cells 25, 41 magma 109 osmosis 65 reaction profile 119
gullet 40 magnetic fields 146, 169 oviduct 42 reactivity 88–9
gut 40 magnification of a lens 38 oxidation 89, 102 reactivity series 88, 104
malleable 106 oxidising agents 90 receptor cells 56
habitats 46 malnutrition 40 recreational drugs 43
haemoglobin 41 mammals 42 pallisade cells 25 rectum 40
health 43 Mars mission 145 pandemics 66 recycling 80–1
heat resistant 68, 105 mass 147 papers, scientific 5, 37, 72, 161 red blood cells 39, 41
heating 132, 164, 165 materials 67 parallel electric circuits 171 reducing agents 96
herbicides 30 failures of 82 parents 8 reduction 96
herbivores 45 problems with 76–7 partially permeable membranes 65 references 72
heredity 46 properties of 105 particle model of matter 100, 163 reflection 168, 169
hibernation 45 mean 10 particle theory 85, 188 refraction 168, 169
hormonal system 57 mean speed 136 passive voice 86–7 relationships 161
hormones 57 median 10, 60 pathogens 51 relative speeds 137, 167
humans in space 160 medicines, testing of 58–9 peer review 37, 72–3, 161 relaxation of muscles 39, 41
hydrocarbons 91 metals 106 percentage change 93 relays 158, 171
hygiene 51 bonding 116 percentage loss or gain 92 reliable data 99
hypothesis 37, 72, 161 conductivity 117 periodic table of elements 106–7 renewable resources 133
extraction 96–7, 104 permanent vacuole 38 repeatable experiments 99
igneous rocks 109 metamorphic rocks 109 persistent pesticides 32, 45 reproducible experiments 99
immunisation 51 method 72 pesticides 30, 32, 45 reproduction 42–3
implosions 83 metres per second 136 pests of crops 30 asexual 43, 46
impulses 56 microorganisms 44 pH scale 104 sexual 8, 42, 46
impurities 76 microscopes 38 phloem vessels 23, 26 repulsion 151
incomplete combustion 76 migration 45 photosynthesis 22, 38, 41, 44 resistance, electrical 154–5, 171
independent variables 99 miles per hour 136 physical changes 84, 100, 118–19, 163 resources 6, 47
index numbers 124–5 mineral salts 24, 41, 44 physical environmental factors 6, competition for 14–15
indicators 104 minerals 40, 109 45, 46 respiration 23
infectious diseases 54 mitochondria 38 physical models 188 aerobic 23, 38, 44
inhalation 41 mixtures 100 physical weathering 109 anaerobic 44
inheritance 46 mode 10 physicists 175 resultant force 130
insecticides 30 models 100, 162–3, 179, 188–9 physics research 190 results 72
insulators 68, 105, 165 moments 141, 170 placebo 59 reversible changes 100
intentional bias 34 monomers 71 planets 162 reversible reactions 126
interdependence 45 Moon 162 plants rock cycle 109
internal energy 133, 164 motor effect 159 adaptations 24–5, 44 root hair cells 24, 41
interquartile range 60–1 moving things 129 nutrition 41 rounding numbers 156–7
intestine, large 40 multicellular organisms 39 products 26–7 runners (of plants) 43
intestine, small 40 muscles 39 reactions 22–3 rusting of iron 89
inverse proportions 185 reproduction 43
ionic bonds 117 nanoparticles 112 plastic materials 71 sacrificial protection 89
ionic compounds 117 native species 14 pollen 45 safety symbols 99
ions 116–17 natural polymers 71 pollen tubes 43 salivary glands 40
natural selection 16–17, 47 pollination 43 samples 10, 37, 62
joints 39 nectar 45 pollinators 45 scatter graphs 161
joules 165 negative charges 150 polymerisation 71 scientific arguments 18–19
journals, scientific 5, 37, 72 nerves 56 polymers 26, 70–1, 105 scientific journals 5, 37, 72
nervous system 56, 57 positive charges 150 scientific method 37
kilojoules 40 neutral pH 104 potential difference 117, 171, 176 scientific papers 5, 37, 72, 161
kilometres per hour 136 neutralisation reactions 103, 105, precision 99, 161 scurvy 40
kilowatt hours 165 122 predators 45 seasonal changes 45
kilowatts 165 newton metres 141, 170 predictions 37 sedimentary rocks 109
kinetic energy 132, 164 newtons 166 premature birth 43 seedlings 43
kingdoms of organisms 38 nicotine 41 pressure 85, 100 seeds 27, 43
nitrates 27, 41, 44 pressure differences 177 dispersal of 43
lactic acid 44 Nobel, Alfred 98 prey species 45 selective breeding of crops 31
landfill sites 80, 109 nocturnal species 45 prisms 169 selective herbicides 30
language, biased 78–9 non-biodegradable materials 77 probability 10–11 sense organs 56
large intestine 40 non-communicable diseases 54 scale 11 separating charges 150
latent heat 176 non-contact forces 146 producers 45 series electric circuits 171
lattice structure 69 non-metals 106 products of a reaction 22, 102 sex chromosomes 13
levers 140, 170 non-renewable resources 132 pronouns 148 sexual reproduction 8, 42, 46
life expectancy 51 normal distribution curve 9, 10, 60 properties of materials 105 short answers 114–15
ligaments 39 north pole of a magnet 169 proportional relationships 184–5 side effects of medicines 58
light 164, 169 nuclear energy 133, 164 proteins 27, 40 significant figures 157
use by plants 25 nucleus (of an atom) 116, 150, 169 protocists 44 skeleton 39
light years 162 nucleus (of a cell) 8, 13, 38 pseudopods 38
limiting factor in a reaction 22 nutrients 40 pulleys 142, 170 Index continued: inside back cover
204
Published by Pearson Education Limited, 80 Strand, London, WC2R 0RL. FirePhoto 186tr/A, imageBROKER 18c/B, Ingram Publishing Ltd 144br/B,
Kat Woronowicz / ZUMA Press 15cr/E, Leo Francini 62c/B (1), Lourens Smak
www.pearsonschoolsandfecolleges.co.uk 68tr/A (iii), Mark Leach 122tr/A, Martin Shields 22bl/B, Nigel Cattlin 62bc/B
(4), Oliver Furrer 178bl/B, Paul White Aerial VIews 110tr, Pavel Chernobrivets
Text © Pearson Education 2015 49tr/A, Peter Dazeley 172tr/A, Phil Degginger 94tr/A, Powered by Light /
Designed by Poppy Grant, Pearson Education Limited Alan Spencer 33cr/E (4), Rex Anderson 176tr/A, Roy Conchie 118bl/C,
Typeset by Phoenix Photosetting, Chatham, Kent Ryan McGinnis 76tr/A, scubazoo / RGB Ventures / Superstock 33cl/D,
Illustrated by KJA Artists Illustration Agency and Phoenix Photosetting, Stockshoot 63cr/D, Stocktrek Images 5bl, Tim Laman / National Geographic
Chatham, Kent Image Collection 23br/E; Barcroft Media: amosphotography.com 46br/B;
Picture research by Susie Prescott Blackthorn Arable Ltd: 30cr/B, 31tr/C, 36tr/A; Bridgeman Art Library
Cover photo © Bruno Calendini / Biosphoto / Steve Bloom Images Ltd: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, USA 113cl/B, The Advertising
Archives 59bl/D, The Hay Wagon (Triptych of Hay) - The Path of Life, 1500
The rights of Mark Levesley, Iain Brand, Penny Johnson, Sue Kearsey and (oil on panel), Bosch, Hieronymus (c.1450-1516) / Prado, Madrid, Spain /
Sue Robilliard to be identified as authors of this work have been asserted by Mondadori Portfolio / Electa / Remo Bardazzi 120tr/B; C. Abergel & J-M
them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Claverie, IGS CNRS-AMU: 55cl/E; CDC: James Gathany 54cl/B; Corbis:
68 / Ocean 190tr/A, Bettman 12cr/B, David Gray / Reuters 7br/F, Filip
First published 2015 Singer / epa 183cr/E, FINBARR O’REILLY / X01342 / Reuters 51bl/B, John
Harper 129tl/B, Jonathan Blair / Royal BC Museum 20tr/A, Karen Kasmauski
19 18 17 16 15 129tr/A, Keren Su 182tr/A, Legnan Koula / epa 66cl/B, Micah Wright / First
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Light 16br/C, Norbert Wu / Science Faction 77cr/D, Oliver Hoslet / epa
29br/A, Pierre Albouy / Reuters 175tr/A, Pierre Merimee 118br/D, Reuters
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data 62tr/A, Visuals Unlimited 89c/E, Zeduce 67bl/C; Courtesy of Karen Harpp:
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library 84tr/A; Courtesy of Matthias Berg: 58tr/A; Courtesy of Rothamstead
Research: 30tr/A (bottom), 30tr/A (top); Courtesy of SpaceX: 157bl/D; ©
ISBN 9781447959625 (Print)
DACS: © Roger Hiorns. All Rights Reserved, DACS 2015. Image courtesy
ISBN 9781292315430 (PDF) Corvi-Mora, London. Photo: Marcus Leith» 113tr/A; David Collidge: 132br/C;
Copyright notice DK Images: 38tr/B, Clive Streeter 112cr/B, Mike Dunning 151tr/D; Duke
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any Medicine: Shawn Rocco 172cl/B; ESA: 68bl/B, Rosetta / NavCam 156tr/A,
form or by any means (including photocopying or storing it in any medium S. Corvaya 160br/B; Fotolia.com: azthesmudger 81cr/D, fotoknips 6bc/C,
by electronic means and whether or not transiently or incidentally to some Hans Peter Denecke 26tr/A, kimberly kilborn 14cr/C, pf30 183tr/D, Svetoslav
other use of this publication) without the written permission of the copyright Radkov 178tr/A; FotoLibra: Andrew Green 62bl/B (3); Gary Scott: www.
owner, except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs garyscottsculpture.com 113bl/C; Getty Images: alvarez / iStockphoto 82bl/C,
and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Australis Photography 82cl/B, DANIEL MIHAILESCU / AFP 56br/C, David
Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS Boyer / National Geographic 74cl/B, Eurasia Press / Photononstop 116tr/A,
(www.cla.co.uk). Applications for the copyright owner’s written permission FABRICE COFFRINI / AFP 66cr/C, Fred Tanneau / AFP 139cl/D, Herfordshire
should be addressed to the publisher. Police 84bc/C, Hulton Archive 131bl/E, John Shearer / Wireimage 8bl/C,
Lester Lefkowitz 75tr/D, Medioimages / Photodisc 7tr/E, Michael Kappeler /
Printed in Slovakia by Neografia AFP 173tr/A, Mike Fuentes / Fort Worth Star-Telegram / MCT 173bl/B,
Oli Scarf 47br/D, Peter Macdiarmid 57tr/E, 87tl/B, Peter Schoen 65tc/C,
Acknowledgements PhilAugustavo / iStockphoto 16bl/C, Phillip Jones 177br/E, Popperfoto 14c/B,
Science & Society 144t/A, Witthaya / iStockphoto 80cl/B; Home Office:
The following authors contributed text to previous editions of Exploring 48tl/A; Imagestate Media: John Foxx Collection 21tr/A; Irish Revenue:
Science and the publishers are grateful for their permission to include items 48tr/B; Mars One: 149c/B; Mary Evans Picture Library: 142tr/A; Michael
in the current edition: Sandra Baggley; Julian Clarke; Andrea Coates; Steve Branscom : 72tr/A; Mondolithic Studios Inc: www.mondoart.com 150tr/A,
Gray; Marc Pimbert. www.mondoart.net 147bl/E; NASA: 14tr/A, 145cl/B, 145bl/C, 154tr/A,
158tl/A, 160tr/A, 184tr/A, 190cl/B, ESA / Roberto Vittori 152tr/A, JPL-
The authors and publisher would like to thank the following individuals and Caltech 145tr/A, JPL-Caltech - NASA Stardust Website 67tr/A, NASA, ESA,
organisations for permission to reproduce photographs and text. the Hubble Heritage Team (STScI / AURA)-ESA / Hubble Collaboration, A.
Evans (University of Virginia, Charlottesville / NRAO / Stony Brook University),
Photographs K. Noll (STScI), and J. Westphal (Caltech) 175cl/B, SOHO 146br/C, Tom
(Key: b-bottom; c-centre; l-left; r-right; t-top) Story / Arizona State University 89c/D; National Geographic: Sarah Leen
9c/E; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/ Department
123RF.com: Borirak Mongkolget 8tc/A, Choo Poh Guan 8tr/A, Dan of Commerce; : 176br/C, 188bl/B; Nature Picture Library: Barrie Britton
Kosmayer 5bc, Ekaterina Kondratova 153cl/D, gala98 137bl/D, Hannu 65tr/C; Noah Kalina: 188tr/A; Pearson Education Ltd: Martyn F Chillmaid
Vitanen 68tr/A (i), Ivan Sizov 133tr/D, netsuthep summat 70bl/C, Nico Smit 111bl, 120bl/C, Trevor Clifford 93tr/B (1), 93tr/B (2), 117bl/F, Oxford Designers
130br/C, Noppharat Manakul 25tl/C, Oleg Mikhaylov 112tr/A, Pathiphan & Illustrators Ltd 39tr/E, 67cl/B, Coleman Yuen 140bl/C; PhotoDisc: 155tl/C,
Nanthasarn 32tr/A, Paul van den Berg 18cl/A, rafcha 8tr/A (left), Rony Zmiri Photolink 45tc/B (seal), Stocktrek 75bc/F; Photoshot Holdings Limited:
154cr/B, Rune Kristoffersen 6bl/B, Sergejs Bespalovs 8tr/A (right), thitisan Wang Jianwei / Xinhua 119tr/E; Press Association Images: Alistair Grant /
krobkham 68tr/A (ii), Tul Chalothonrangsee 6br/D, vladimir voronin 70cl/B, PA 32br/C, Josh Reynolds / AP 77bl/E; Reprinted with permission from
Win Nondakowit 140br/D; Alamy Images: Aasley Cooper 82tr/A, Actionstock Elsevier: Andrew Wade 50cr/B; Reuters: China Daily Information Corp
142br/C, Adam Gault / OJO Images Ltd 24tr/A, Agencja Fotograficzna 83cr/B, Michael Kooran 96tr/A; Rex Features: Bill Cross / Associated
Caro 69tl/C, Bill Coster IN 16tr/B, Blend Images 69tr/D, blickwinkel 32cl/B, Newspapers 129bl/C, Bournemouth News 31cl/D, Ray Tang 74br/C, Solent
blickwinkel / Kottman 36cl/B, Brian Maudsley 179br/E, Charles Lister / News 6tr/A; Science Photo Library Ltd: A Barrington Brown 12tc/A, 12br/B,
Heritage Image Partnership Ltd 128tr/A, Cliffe Hyde News 83tl/A, 83tr/A, 126tr/A, Andrew Lambert Photography 93br/C, Antonio Romero 24bc/B,
CTK 5tr, Cultura Creative (RF) 58br/B, David R. Frazier Photolibrary Inc
91tr/E, Everett Collection Historical 130tr/A, Evgeny Glyanenko 89cr/C, (continued on inside back cover)
Acknowledgements (continued) TopFoto: ullsteinbild 134tr/A; University of Wisconsin: Mike Clayton / Plant
Teaching Collection 26br/C; USGS: 189bl/E; Walter Leonardi: 134br/B;
Bill Barksdale / AgestockUSA 34tr/A, Biofoto Associates 64cr/A, Charles D. Wellcome Library, London: 18br/C, 73bl/C, 98tr/A, Wessex Reg. Genetics
Winters 95tr/D, 120tc/A, 125cr/C, Chris R Sharp 111tr/A, Christian Darkin Centre 13tc/C; www.rpmaustin.com: 118cr/B
17bl, Crown Copyright / Health& Safety Laboratory 90tr/A, Dept of Clinical
Cytogenetics, Addenbrookes Hospital 13cr/D, Dr P. Marazzi 56tr/A, Eye Of Cover images: Front: Steve Bloom Images: Bruno Calendini / Biosphoto
Science 55tr/D, IBM Research 69bl/E, Innerspace Imaging 64tr/A, Martin
Bond 21bl/C, Martyn F. Chillmaid 63br/E, 90cr/C, 118tr/A, 126br/B, 127cr/E, All other images © Pearson Education
Michael P Gadomski 31bl/E, Michael W. Tweedie 16tc/A, National Museum of
Health & Medicine 66tr/A, Philippe Psaila 62cr/B (2), Power & Syred 25bl/E, We are grateful to the following for permission to reproduce copyright material:
95cr/E, Ria Novosti 20cl/B, Science Source 12tr/A, Steve Gschmeissner
65bl/E, Ted Kinsmen 151cr/E; Shutterstock.com: 3drenderings 45tl/B (krill), 9Ab Figure A, p.10 Adapted from data from http://whatjapanthinks.com/tag/
Alexander Tihonov 130cl/B, Alexander Vasilyev 13tr/C, Alila Medical Media dinosaur/. Original source data in Japanese from http://www.myvoice.co.jp/
50tr/A, Bernhard Richter 5cr, Corepics VOF 148cr/A, Dmitri Melnik 98cl/B, biz/surveys/12010/index.html
EpicStockMedia 189tr/D, Eric Isselee 15tc/D, ggw1962 37br/B, Irenak 15tl/D,
isaravut 75cr/E, javarman 45tc/B (penguin), jordache 96bl/C, Kzenon 8cr/B, 9Ic Figure C, p.139 Race data supplied by Alan Leighton, Active Learning
Lars Christensen 33cr/E (2), Lebendkulturen.de 45tl/B (algae), Mikael Damkier Support Limited http://www.activelearningsupport.org
74tr/A, Mike Price 45tr/B (whale), Minerva Studio 175br/C, NatUlrich 54br/C,
ninsiri 33cr/E (1), paintings 138tr/A, Pichugin Dmitry 84bl/B, Pitsanu Kraichana Extracts in 9Lb, p.181 adapted from Edexcel June 2013 Paper P31F
94br/C, pryzmat 38tl/A, PureSolution 11cl/D, rsooll 33cr/E (5), swa182 Question 6b
178cr/A; Sozaijiten: 33cr/E (3); The Kobal Collection: Film Still from ‘The
Fantastic Four’ / 20th Century Fox / Hayes, Kerry 146tr/A, Film Still from ‘The Every effort has been made to trace copyright holders and we apologise in
Lone Ranger’ / Jerry Bruckheimer Films 137cl/C, Film still from ‘Troy’ / Warner advance for any unintentional omissions. We would be please to insert the
Bros 132cr/B; The Open University: 88tr/A; The Pirbright Institute: 55bl/F; appropriate acknowledgement in any subsequent edition of this publication.
INDEX continued
skull 39 stimuli 56 top predators 45 vitamins 40
small intestine 40 stomach 40 top speed 131 voltage 117, 153
smoking 41 stomata 25, 41 toxic substances 77 voltmeter 153
smuggling of animals 48 strain energy 133, 164 transmission of light 169 volts 153, 171
solar energy 132 sugars 40, 44 transportation of grains 109 vulcanisation of rubber 70
Solar System 162 Sun 162 transverse waves 168
solids 163 superposition 168 tubers 43 water 40
soluble substances 100 surface area 24, 40, 121 turning forces 140–1 use in plants 24
solutions 100 surface area:volume (SA:V) ratio 64–5, Watson, James 46
solvents 65, 101 121 ultrasound 168 watts 165
sound 133, 164, 168 symbol equations 102, 122 unbalanced forces 130, 166 wave models 189
sound waves 168 symbols 99 universal indicator 104 waves 168–9
south pole of a magnet 169 symptoms 54 Universe 162 weathering of rocks 109
species 5, 7, 46 synonyms 149 unreactive substances 68 weedkillers 30
specific heat capacity 177 synthetic polymers 71 weight 147, 169
specimen 38 systematic error 35 vaccines 58 Wilkins, Maurice 46
speed 136–7, 166, 167, 173 validity 35, 99 wilting of plants 24
speed limits 174 target cells 57 variables 184–5 word equations 22, 85, 102, 122
speed–time graphs 187 target organs 57 variation 46 work 143, 170
spinal cord 56 teeth 50 continuous 7, 9
standard form 124–5 temperature 165 discontinuous 7, 9 xylem vessel 24
starch 26, 40, 44 temperature difference 176 environmental 6–7
state symbols 122 tendons 39 in species 5 yield of crops 30
states of matter 100, 163 thermal decomposition 75, 103 inherited 8–9
static electricity 150–1, 169 thermal energy 133, 164 varieties of crops 31 zygote 8
statistics 10 thermite reaction 94 ventilation 41
stimulants 43 tissues 39 viruses 55
Measurable progression in Key
Stage 3 for every student in every
EXPLORING
SCIENCE
WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY
9 lesson – from the UK’s number one
science course.
Clear learning outcomes and differentiation – Clear learning outcomes are provided for Mark Levesley • Penny Johnson • Iain Brand • Sue Kearsey • Sue Robilliard
every page spread, ensuring students understand their own learning journey.
Working Scientifically – New Working Scientifically pages focus on the skills required by the
National Curriculum and for progression to Key Stage 4.
Mark Levesley • Penny Johnson • Iain Brand • Sue Kearsey • Sue Robilliard
A comprehensive digital and print service – Exploring Science: Working Scientifically
provides for all your planning, teaching, learning, homework and assessment needs, including:
Visit: www.pearsonschools.co.uk/exploringscienceseries
Year 9
Teacher and Technician Planning Pack Assessment Support Pack
9781447959656 9781447959441
Activity Pack
9781447959410
To find out more about our ActiveLearn
Digital Service, please visit
www.pearsonschools.co.uk/exploringscienceseries
Crocodile tears
People who fake being forced through holes prey (when of course,
sad are often said to be in their skulls and out they’re not). Crocodiles
‘crying crocodile tears’. through their eyes causing have their eyes, ears and
A scientific study recently them to weep. This nostrils on the tops of
discovered the reason makes the animals look their heads, so that they
for this metaphor. When as though they feel sorry can lie low in the water as
www.pearsonschools.co.uk T 0845 630 33 33
ISBN 978-1-4479-5962-5 crocodiles eat, air is for killing and eating their they wait to attack.
[email protected] F 0845 630 77 77 9 781447 959625