UNIT 5 Interaction function: the nervous and endocrine systems

1 Interaction
Interaction allows living things to react to changes in their environment.
These reactions help them to survive. For this to happen, different organs
short-lasting: happening for a short
1
work together.
amount of time.
The four basic elements involved in the interaction function are:
long-lasting: happening for a long
2

amount of time.
3
stable: firmly fixed.
4
shiver: when our body shakes
involuntarily because of the cold.
Stimuli Receptors Coordination Effectors
Stimuli are any Receptors in our centres Effectors receive
changes in the sense organs The nervous the response
environment that detect stimuli and system receives the and react to the
are detected by an send information information and stimuli. Muscles
organism. to the nervous sends a response to and glands are
system. the effectors. effectors.

Effectors include the endocrine system and the musculoskeletal system.

The endocrine system is made up of glands that produce hormones.
Hormones are chemicals that control how cells and organs work. The
musculoskeletal system produces movement.

The coordination of the nervous and endocrine systems

Nervous system Endocrine system
Electrical signals (nerve impulses) Chemical signals (hormones) transfer
transfer information. information.
It’s fast. It’s slow.
The action is short-lasting1. The action is long-lasting2.

Homeostasis is the body’s ability to maintain a stable3 internal environment

when it detects changes. For example, in cold weather, the nervous and
endocrine systems work together to keep the body’s internal temperature
at 37 °C.
Negative feedback is a process that occurs when an organism reacts
to stimuli by slowing down or stopping a process that’s happening. For
example, cold weather makes our body temperature decrease. Our body
reacts by shivering4, which makes our body generate heat. Once our body
temperature returns to normal, we stop shivering.

Notes

36 5. Interaction function: the nervous and endocrine systems

21 Neurons and neuronal communication
Neurons, or nerve cells, are the building blocks1 of the nervous system.

building block: basic element.

The structure of neurons
1

2
circuit: a path to transmit signals.
Neurons are specialised cells that process and transmit information to other
cells all around the body. Every neuron is made of a cell body, an axon and
3
impulse: signal transmitted through
dendrites. nerve fibres.

A cell body (also called a soma) receives information. It contains the nucleus and
cytoplasmic organelles.
An axon is a long nerve fibre that carries electrical messages from the cell body
and sends it to other cells.
Dendrites are short nerve fibres that carry information from other neurons to the
cell body.

Neurons can be classified into three groups: Cell body

Sensory neurons carry information from the senses to the brain.

Motor neurons carry information from the brain to muscles or glands. Dendrite

Interneurons carry information between motor and sensory neurons.

Neuronal communication Axon

Neurons connect to each other forming circuits2. Information is carried

from one neuron to another as chemical and electrical signals. Electrical
signals are nerve impulses3 that occur inside the neuron.
First, one neuron sends chemical signals called neurotransmitters into the
synapse, which is a small space between two neurons. Then, the receiving
neuron takes these neurotransmitters and changes them into an electrical
signal and sends it along the circuit.

Divergent circuits carry nerve impulses from one place to Convergent circuits carry impulses from several places
several organs. to one organ.

Notes

5. Interaction function: the nervous and endocrine systems 37

 3 Organisation of the nervous system
The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system and the
peripheral1 nervous system.
peripheral: not central, related to
1

the edges of something.

The central nervous system
canal: tube inside the body which
2

liquid, food or air can pass through. The brain and the spinal cord make up the central nervous system.
The brain is the body’s control centre. It receives information, processes
it and then sends a message to the body telling it how to react. This
information travels through the spinal cord.
The brain and spinal cord are protected by the bones of the skull and
Brain
the spine. They’re also covered and protected by three layers of tissue
Cerebellum Cervical nerves called the meninges.
The spinal cord and the brain are composed of two types of tissue:
Radial nerve Thoracic nerves white matter and grey matter.

Ulnar nerve Lumbar nerves White matter is

Sacral nerves the part of the
Coccygeal nerve
brain that sends
nerve signals
Sciatic nerve through the
Femoral nerve
Posterior tibial
spinal cord. It’s
nerve composed of
nerve fibres called
Plantar nerves axons, which are
covered by a white
fatty substance
called myelin.

Grey matter is the part of the brain that processes information. It’s
composed mostly of neuronal cell bodies and dendrites.

The spinal cord

The spinal cord carries signals between the brain and the rest of the body.
It also controls reflexes. Reflexes are automatic actions the body does in
response to stimuli.
The spinal cord is made up of nerves that begin in the brain and continue
down the back. Grey matter is found in the centre of the spinal cord. White
matter is on the outside of the spinal cord. Inside the grey matter is a small
central canal2 called the ependyma. This contains cerebrospinal fluid.

Notes

38 5. Interaction function: the nervous and endocrine systems

The brain and its functions
Each part of the brain has specific functions.
The thalamus receives information from the sensory organs, filters it, then
fissure: long deep opening.
1
sends it to another region of the brain for processing. It also regulates
our sensory perception, movement, sleep and appetite. It’s located in the integration: combining two or
2

middle of the brain. more things so that they work

together.
The hypothalamus regulates pituitary gland activity. The pituitary gland
consciousness: state of being
3
releases hormones and controls the activity of other glands. It’s located at
aware of and responsive to our
the base of the brain. surroundings.
The medulla oblongata controls our heartbeat, breathing and blood
pressure. It’s in the lower part of the brain. It consists of pathways that
transfer information between both sides of the brain and the spinal cord.
The cerebellum controls balance and movement. It’s located at the back of
the brain. It’s made up of grey matter on the outside and white matter on
the inside.
The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. It’s divided into the right
hemisphere and the left hemisphere. These two hemispheres are separated
by a fissure1. Both are connected by the corpus callosum, a band of white
substance that’s essential to the integration2 of all brain functions. Grey
matter is located on the outside of the cerebrum, forming a 2-mm layer
called the cerebral cortex. The cerebral cortex has multiple folds. There are
two types of folds: cerebral convolutions, which are numerous and shallow,
and fissures, which are sparse and deep. The folds mean the cerebral cortex
has a greater surface area.
The brain is divided into four regions called lobes.

The frontal lobe The parietal lobe

controls higher order processes sensory Notes
thinking and voluntary information related
movements. to taste and touch.

The temporal lobe is The occipital lobe

in charge of memory is responsible for
and hearing. vision.

The brain controls all the body’s functions:

interpreting sensory information and elaborating motor responses.
 
coordinating and controlling the functioning of the nervous system.
 
managing functions such as memory, intelligence, language and
 
consciousness3.
producing emotions and classifying stimuli.
 

5. Interaction function: the nervous and endocrine systems 39

 The peripheral nervous system
The peripheral nervous system connects all the receptors and effectors of
functional: related to the work they
1 an organism with the central nervous system. It’s made up of nerves, which
perform. are fibres that send electrical signals through the body. Nerves are made up
of fibres called axons.
innervate: supply a body part or
2

organ with nerves.

Types of nerves
Mielina Nerves can be classified according to the type of fibres they contain.
Sensory nerves transmit Motor nerves send orders Mixed nerves contain
Axon information from the to the body’s motor sensory and motor axons.
Nerve fibre
sense organs. system.

We can also classify nerves based on their location in the central nervous
system.
Cranial nerves are 12 pairs of nerves that originate in the brain. They can be
sensory, motor or mixed.
Spinal nerves are 31 pairs of mixed nerves that can originate or end in the
spinal cord.

Functional division of the peripheral nervous system

Nerve fascicles
From a functional1 point of view, the peripheral nervous system is divided
into two subsystems: somatic and autonomic. These two systems differ in
the type of responses they provide and in the organs they innervate2.

Functions of the somatic nervous system

Nerve The somatic nervous system connects the central nervous system to the
organs, muscles and skin. It’s made up of cranial and spinal nerves. It has two
main functions:
processing additional sensory information.
 
voluntary movement of the muscle.
 
Notes Skeletal muscle movements can be voluntary or involuntary.

Voluntary muscle actions are Reflexes are fast involuntary muscle

movements you can control. They’re actions that you can’t control. They
controlled by the motor cortex area of don’t travel to the brain for processing.
the brain.  heat reflexes
raising your hand
   knee-jerk reflex
kicking a football
  These actions involve a receptor
These actions involve a receptor (1), a (1), a sensory nerve (2), at least one
sensory nerve (2), the brain (3), a motor interneuron (3), a motor nerve (4) and
nerve (4) and an effector (5). an effector (5).
1
3 1
31
2 1
1

1
4
5
1
1 5 1
4 2

40 5. Interaction function: the nervous and endocrine systems

Functions of the autonomic nervous system
The autonomic nervous system regulates and coordinates involuntary body
functions, such as breathing, digestion and heartbeat. plasticity: quality of being easily
1

It’s composed of the sympathetic system and parasympathetic system. shaped.

The sympathetic system prepares the body for intense physical activity. physiochemical: related to the
2

body and chemistry.

The parasympathetic system conserves energy by slowing down
organ activity.

Memory and learning

Most responses generated by an organism are related to experience.
Responses are the result of the two basic processes of learning and memory.
Learning allows us to acquire new skills and knowledge. Memory allows us to
preserve and retrieve these skills and knowledge when we need them later.

Learning and memory rely on an essential property

of the nervous system: neuronal plasticity1. A B
When neurons receive the same stimulus several
times, they can change their shape and their
physiochemical2 properties to connect to other
neurons. The more we learn, the more connections
are formed. As a result, we become more efficient
in responding to that stimulus. This process is
especially intense during childhood, although it’s
maintained for the rest of our lives.

Drawings of a neuron during the first months of development

(A) and an adult (B).

Scientific advice for better learning

Science shows doing certain things can improve our ability to learn.
Spread out your study time into short sessions. This improves the
 
plasticity of your neurons.
Write down information by hand. This creates cognitive links.
 
Use mind maps and diagrams to think in different ways.
 
Do sports to improve neuronal plasticity and the flow of blood to
 
the brain.
Sleep well at night. Sleep is essential to consolidate learning.
 
Make associations. Link new information to things that you already know.
 

Notes

5. Interaction function: the nervous and endocrine systems 41

 4 The endocrine system
The endocrine system produces hormones that the body needs in order
to function and grow. It’s a coordinator and effector system made up of
bloodstream: the blood circulating
1

in our body. endocrine glands. These glands release hormones into the bloodstream1.
feedback: information or response
2 This is how the endocrine system works:
that comes back after an action. 1. The hypothalamus collects information sensed by the brain and sends it to
antidiuretic: reduces the amount
3
the pituitary gland by releasing chemicals called release factors.
of urine produced.
2. The pituitary gland secretes stimulating hormones. Hormones control the
4
hepatic: related to the liver. secretory activity of the body’s glands.
boost: increase.
5
3. When a gland receives a stimulating hormone, it produces its own
hormone. It travels through the blood to the corresponding organ.
4. Hormones can reach any organ, but they only act on those cells that are
capable of detecting them. These are called target cells.
Small variations in the concentration of a hormone can lead to very
important changes. This is why the release of hormones is controlled by
negative feedback2 mechanisms. Some glands, such as the pancreas, can
produce their own hormones without the aid of the pituitary gland.

Hypothalamus
The main glands in the human body
neuron The pituitary gland secretes oxytocin, growth hormones, antidiuretic3
hormones (ADH) and stimulating hormones.
Blood The thyroid releases thyroxine and stimulates metabolic activity.
vessel
The parathyroid secretes parathyroid hormone, which regulates the amount
of calcium and phosphorus in the blood.
Pituitary
gland cell The pancreas secretes insulin and glucagon. Insulin stimulates
muscle and other tissues to consume glucose. Glucagon
Blood
stimulates the conversion of hepatic4 glycogen into
vessel blood glucose.
The testicles secrete androgens that produce
and maintain male characteristics, such as
Target cells
abundant body hair.
The ovaries secrete oestrogen, which
produces and maintains female
characteristics. They also secrete
progesterone that allows the implantation
of an embryo in the uterus.
Endocrine gland
The suprarenal glands secrete adrenaline, corticoids and aldosterone.
Adrenaline prepares the body when it needs a fast boost5 of energy, for
example, to escape a dangerous situation. Corticoids are released during
stressful situations and regulate the quantity of water in tissues. Aldosterone
controls the concentration of sodium and potassium in our blood.

Notes

42 5. Interaction function: the nervous and endocrine systems

5 Taking care of the nervous and endocrine systems
Nervous system Endocrine system
Eat a balanced diet.
  1
 Don’t take drugs. balanced: in good proportions.
1

Exercise your body and mind.

  Avoid stress and stay positive.
  tremor: involuntary shaking
2

 Avoid stress. Get enough sleep.

  movement.
Don’t consume alcohol and drugs.
  Maintain a healthy weight.
  stiff: inability to move easily.
3

 Socialise.  Eat a balanced diet. 4

convulsion: sudden irregular
movement.
Diseases of the nervous system tachycardia: when the heart beats
5

Diseases of the nervous system can be classified into three major groups. too fast.

Neurodegenerative
A disorder that attacks the brain, usually in people over 65. It
Alzheimer’s
destroys the memory, and thinking and motor skills.
A brain disorder, usually in people over 50. Symptoms include
Parkinson’s
tremors2, problems with coordination and feeling stiff3.
Multiple A disease of the central nervous system. Patients suffer from
sclerosis weakness, fatigue, loss of motor skills and severe pain.
Mental
A common mental illness. Patients suffer from hallucinations and
Schizophrenia
often can’t distinguish between what’s real and not.
A common and serious mental illness that affects how you feel.
Depression
Symptoms include sadness, anxiety and fatigue.
Others
Infectious Bacteria and viruses can cause infections of the nervous system.
diseases Meningitis is an inflammation of the meninges.
An abnormal electrical activity in the brain causes seizures or
Epilepsy
convulsions4, and a loss of consciousness.

Diseases of the endocrine system

Endocrine system
The pancreas doesn’t produce enough insulin, resulting in too
Diabetes much glucose in the blood. This can damage the eyes, heart
and kidneys.
The thyroid gland doesn’t produce enough of the hormone
Hypothyroidism
thyroxin. Symptoms are fatigue, depression and weight gain.
The thyroid gland produces too much of the hormone
Hyperthyroidism People with diabetes have to check the
thyroxin. Symptoms include weight loss and tachycardia5. levels of glucose in their blood daily.

Notes

5. Interaction function: the nervous and endocrine systems 43