Welding in the World (2024) 68:459–473

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40194-023-01650-z

RESEARCH PAPER

Deformation and residual stress of T‑shaped joints fabricated

by laser‑arc hybrid welding for steel bridge members
Gang Chen1 · Mikihito Hirohata1 · Kengo Hyoma2 · Naoyuki Matsumoto2 · Koutarou Inose2

Received: 1 August 2023 / Accepted: 28 November 2023 / Published online: 21 December 2023
© The Author(s) 2023

Abstract
A series of experiments and analyses were performed for applying laser-arc hybrid welding to fabricating steel bridge com-
ponents. Two-pass fully penetrated T-shaped joints using high-performance steel (SBHS400) having a 15-mm thickness
were produced using hybrid welding. T-shaped joints having identical dimensions were manufactured using conventional
arc welding. Without considering the inter-pass cooling time, the duration of hybrid welding was reduced by roughly 83%
in comparison to that for GMAW. The average out-of-plane deformation caused by hybrid welding was decreased by 67%
compared to arc welding. The fully coupled thermal elastic–plastic analyses were performed to replicate the distribution of
residual stress in as-welded T-shaped joints. The analytical results indicated that the tensile residual stress range in hybrid-
welded T-shaped joints was approximately one third (1/3) of that in arc-welded T-shaped joints. The weld joints produced
by hybrid welding may have advantages over those produced by arc welding in terms of reducing welding deformation,
decreasing welding residual stresses, and shortening welding time when manufacturing large steel bridge components.

Keywords Laser-arc hybrid welding · T-shaped joints · Deformation and residual stress · Thermal elastic–plastic analysis ·
Steel bridge components

1 Introduction welding) has gained growing industrial attention on account of

the synergic effects between laser welding and arc welding [5].
Laser welding, a well-known welding process, is capable The synergetic effects facilitate achieving high welding speed,
of producing weldments with faster travel speed, deep pen- deep penetration, and low welding deformation. Furthermore,
etration, high precision, and reduced welding distortion broadening gap bridgeability and gap tolerances are achieved.
compared to arc welding [1]. Due to these merits, laser The laser beam provides intense energy density into narrow
welding is extensively utilized in many industries, includ- areas, enabling deep penetration, increased welding speed, and
ing the automotive industry, aerospace industry, and ship- reduced welding distortion compared with arc welding. Mean-
ping industry. However, due to the intricate heat and fluid while, the filler materials introduced during arc welding enable
interaction, laser-welded joints may encounter several weld improved gap bridgeability and gap tolerances compared to laser
defects, including porosity, spatters, root sag, humping, and welding [6]. In our previous investigation, when 15-mm-thick
underfilling [2–4]. steel plates were joined by laser-arc hybrid welding, one-pass
As an attractive alternative approach to mitigate or even solve full-penetration welding could be achieved. However, for fab-
the problems, laser-arc hybrid welding (also known as hybrid ricating same dimensional specimens, six passes were required
by conventional arc welding. In addition, the duration of hybrid
welding was decreased by 98%, and the angular distortion for
Recommended for publication by Commission XV - Design,
weld joints produced by hybrid welding was 95% lower than
Analysis, and Fabrication of Welded Structures
that for weld joints produced by arc welding [7]. Additionally,
* Mikihito Hirohata hybrid welding could achieve sound welds with up to 2-mm
[email protected] misalignment via adjusting the welding travel speed and the
1 position of the hybrid head [8]. For structural steels having a
Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University, Osaka,
Japan thickness of 15 mm, hybrid welding could bridge maximum
2 gap widths of 0.8 mm [9]. When laser welding was conducted
IHI Corporation, Tokyo, Japan

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460 Welding in the World (2024) 68:459–473

with cold wire feeding, it was possible to bridge a gap of up to rib plate was rectangular. The geometric dimensions of
0.6 mm, whereas, without filler material, the maximum value the bottom plate were 300 mm in length and 200 mm in
of gap width achievable was 0.2 mm. The laser/GMA hybrid width. At the midspan of the bottom plate, a 50-mm-high
welding showed its ability to bridge gaps as wide as 1.0 mm in rib plate was welded in two single passes by hybrid and
2.1-mm-thick sheets [10]. Thanks to these merits, hybrid weld- arc welding. Four specimens were fabricated, two using
ing was extensively used in various industries [11–14]. hybrid welding and the other two using arc welding. They
High-performance steel (HPS) features excellent strength, were named LA400-1,2 and A400-1,2. In this investiga-
weldability, and toughness, making it possible to reduce tion, the steel plates were made of SBHS400. The filler
costs and upgrade productivity for constructing steel bridges material used was YGW11 as specified in JIS Z 3312,
compared to conventional steel grades. In an investigation, with a 1.2-mm wire diameter. Table 1 lists the chemical
the hybrid design, which combined HPS and traditional steel compositions and measured mechanical properties (as per
grades, could obtain considerable and definite savings for mill sheet values provided by the mill maker) of SBHS400
both steel weight and total costs [15]. In recent years, Japan and the welding wire. The base metal has a nominal yield
has developed a novel steel grade, SBHS (Steels for Bridge strength above 400 MPa and a nominal tensile strength
High-Performance Structure). It is fabricated by thermo- ranging from 490 to 640 MPa. The filler material possesses
mechanical controlled processing (TMCP). Compared to a nominal yield strength of 490 MPa and a nominal tensile
conventional welded structural steels, SBHS features high strength of 590 MPa. Before being joined by fillet welding,
strength and toughness, and excellent weldability and work- tack welding was performed for obtaining the right align-
ability. SBHS was specified by JIS G3140 in 2008. Employ- ment between the bottom plate and rib plate. Tack welding
ing SBHS in fabricating steel bridge components is pro- was employed to attach the rib plate to the bottom plate
jected to result in reducing bridge construction expenses and at both ends of the weld lines. While tack welding was
increasing the robustness of steel structures. As a result, it carried out, there was still a small gap, later confirmed in
was identified as the material for this investigation. the macroscopic photographs of T-shaped joints using arc
In prior studies, hybrid welding has been widely applied welding, between the bottom plate and the rib plate. The
in joining steel bridge components and extensively studied thermocouples were attached at six positions (x =  ± 22.5
from various perspectives, encompassing investigations into , ± 37.5, ± 52.5 mm; y = 0 mm; z = 100 mm) as illustrated
residual stress, distortion, mechanical properties related to in Fig. 1. They were employed to capture and monitor the
toughness, and susceptibility to cold cracking [7, 16–21]. temperature throughout the entire welding process.
This research aims to further broaden the scope of hybrid
welding applications in joining steel structures and vali-
date the effectiveness of hybrid welding in manufacturing 2.2 Welding procedures
steel structures. T-shaped specimens, regarded as general
and widely used joints in steel bridge members, were fab- The hybrid welding process combines fiber laser welding and
ricated using hybrid and arc welding. A series of experi- MIG arc welding simultaneously. The YLR-20000 laser oscil-
ments were conducted on the as-welded T-joints to measure lator from IPG Photonics Corporation is a fiber laser, providing
residual stress and welding deformation. Moreover, numeri- a maximum power output of 20 kW. This apparatus possesses
cal simulations were performed via fully coupled thermal a focal length of 250 mm, a beam diameter of 0.6 mm, and a
elastic–plastic analyses to obtain the detailed distribution defocusing distance of − 5 mm. The power supply utilized for
of residual stress and welding deformation. The compari- GMAW was a DP350 digital pulse welding power source man-
son between experimental and numerical simulation results ufactured by DAIHEN Corporation. The shielding gas utilized
confirmed the validity of hybrid welding in terms of welding was a mixture of Ar and 5% CO2, delivered at 20 ℓ/min. The
time, distortion, and residual stress. This provides a theoreti- experimental setup is shown in Fig. 2. The leading heat source
cal foundation for the application of laser-arc hybrid welding was set to be the laser beam. The spacing separating the laser
in the fabrication of steel bridge components. beam and electric arc was adjusted to be 1 mm. The arc torch
was inclined at a 45-degree angle, while the laser beam was
inclined at a 75-degree angle from the vertical. Table 2 illus-
2 Experimental procedures trates the welding parameters for both hybrid and arc welding.
Hybrid welding and GMAW were used to create double-
2.1 T‑shaped specimen pass fillet welds on both sides of the rib plate. No mechanical
restraint was applied throughout the entire welding process.
Figure 1 demonstrates the geometric dimensions of a After the inter-pass temperature had cooled below 50 °C for
T-shaped specimen, which consists of two 15-mm-thick hybrid welding and 100 °C for arc welding, the second pass
steel plates. The geometric shape of the bottom plate and was performed.

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Welding in the World (2024) 68:459–473 461

Fig. 1  T-shaped specimen

2.3 Measuring out‑of‑plane deformation several measurements were carried out.

and residual stress The out-of-plane deformation was measured at the
seven points (x = 0, ± 50, ± 100, ± 150 mm; y =  − 15 mm;
To investigate the characteristics of distortion and residual z = 100 mm) for hybrid- and arc-welded T-shaped joints.
stress of two-pass T-shaped joints by hybrid and arc welding, Residual stresses (in the welding and cross directions) were

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Table 1  Chemical compositions Material Chemical compositions (mass%) Yield Tensile Elon-
and mechanical properties of strength strength gation
SBHS400 and filler material C Si Mn P S Ni Cr Fe (MPa) (MPa) (%)

SBHS400 0.11 0.29 1.36 0.009 0.001 0.01 0.02 bal 503 567 22
YGW11 0.04 0.73 1.66 0.015 0.009 — — bal 422 515 30

obtained through the X-ray diffraction technique (XRD) at temperature. Concerning the material properties, as shown
the specified measuring points (x = 0, ± 15, ± 30, ± 50, ± 80 in Fig. 5, this paper referenced previous research [22–24].
, ± 130 mm; y =  − 14.7 mm; z = 120 mm). Prior to measur- Hybrid welding features rapid heating and cooling, leading
ing the residual stress, the area surrounding the measure- to the hardening of heat-affected zone (HAZ), as well as weld
ment points underwent electropolishing to a depth of about metal (WM). Consequently, the Vickers hardness of hybrid-
0.3 mm beneath the surface to eliminate the effect of surface welded T-shaped joints was measured based on prior studies
treatment. [18, 25]. Figure 6 demonstrates the measuring points and the
Figure 3 demonstrates the cross-sectional macroscopic Vickers hardness of T-shaped joints fabricated by hybrid weld-
images of both types of weld joints obtained after measuring ing. The weld metal exhibited a hardness approximately 1.5
out-of-plane deformation and residual stress. Two-pass fully times higher than that of the base metal (BM). Similarly, the
penetrated T-shaped joints were achieved by hybrid welding, maximum value of Vickers hardness of the HAZ was roughly
thanks to its deep penetration. However, arc welding failed twice that of the BM. In this investigation, the WM of average
to achieve full penetration. Vickers hardness was divided by the average Vickers hardness
of the BM to determine mechanical characteristics of WM.
The average Vickers hardness represented the sum of Vickers
3 Fully coupled thermal elastic–plastic hardness measurements at various measurement points within
analysis the corresponding regions (WM, HAZ, and BM) divided by
the total number of measurement points. According to the test
3.1 Numerical analysis for hybrid welding results, the filler material exhibited the yield strength and ten-
sile strength that were 1.5 times greater than the BM in the
To explore thoroughly the distributions of distortion and numerical simulation. The average Vickers hardness of HAZ
residual stress, the fully coupled temperature-displacement was not considered. As shown in Fig. 6 (b) and (c), the Vickers
analysis was performed by Abaqus ver. 6.18 for simulating hardness in WM and BM exhibited small fluctuation ampli-
the aforementioned hybrid welding experiment. As dem- tudes with corresponding small standard deviations, rendering
onstrated in Fig. 4, the analysis model was created based the average Vickers hardness in WM and BM representative.
on the specimen, LA400-1. The element type used was an However, in the case of HAZ, there was a significant fluctua-
8-node thermally coupled brick with trilinear displacement tion amplitude and a large standard deviation. Therefore, the
and temperature. This analysis was implemented by applying average Vickers hardness in HAZ could not be employed.
heat input to the fusion zone. Therefore, concerning the mesh In accordance with the previous investigation [18], the
division, we referenced the fusion zone of the cross-sectional load in the numerical model was simulated as a uniform
macroscopic image shown in Fig. 3, roughly plotting the body heat flux originating from both the laser and arc. As
shape of the fusion zone. The element size along the welding shown in Fig. 4, the red region represented the laser heat
seam direction was set as 2 mm. An element birth technique input; the purple region represented the arc heat input. How-
was employed to replicate metal deposition accompanied by ever, this model neglected the spacing separating the laser
the movement of heat sources during the welding process. and arc heat sources.
Figure 4 illustrates the assumed mechanical boundary condi- The magnitudes of the laser (QL) and arc (QA) heat input
tions. As for the thermal boundary condition, the heat trans- were determined by Eqs. (1) and (2), respectively.
fer was established by considering the heat exchange from P⋅𝜂L
the analytical model surfaces to the ambient atmosphere. In QL = v
(J∕mm) (1)
the experimental procedure, a gap existed between two steel
plates, and they were fixed by tack welds. The numerical I⋅V⋅𝜂A
QA = (J∕mm) (2)
model took into consideration the influence of tack welds v

and the initial gap, with a gap width assumed to be 0.1 mm. Here, P is the laser energy (kW), I is the arc weld-
Additionally, for the model, the ambient temperature and the ing current (A), V is the arc welding voltage (V), v is the
initial condition temperature were both set to the atmospheric

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Fig. 2  Experimental setup

welding travel speed (mm/s), 𝜂L is the laser welding effi- 0.8 [28]. To achieve good agreement between the temperature
ciency, and 𝜂A is the arc welding efficiency. history obtained from the experiment and the simulation, the
The laser and arc welding efficiency varies depending on laser and arc welding efficiency was adjusted. Eventually, for
the welding process. Nevertheless, the laser and arc welding both welding passes, the thermal efficiencies were determined
efficiencies typically range from 0.5 to 0.9 [26, 27] and 0.6 to as 0.7 for the laser (𝜂L) and 0.8 for the arc (𝜂A).

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Table 2  Welding conditions

Welding condition Welding pass Laser power Welding speed Arc current (A) Arc voltage (V) Heat input (J/mm)
(kW) (m/min)
Laser Arc Total

LA400-1 1 6.9 1.0 156 27.1 414 254 668

2 6.9 1.0 155 27.3 414 254 668
LA400-2 1 7.0 1.0 166 28.1 420 280 700
2 7.0 1.0 178 24.0 420 256 676
A400-1 1 0.174 275 36.5 3461 3461
2 0.174 275 35.5 3366 3366
A400-2 1 0.174 287 35.2 3484 3484
2 0.174 288 35.2 3496 3496

was an 8-node thermally coupled brick with trilinear displace-

ment and temperature. The longitudinal element length was
set to 20 mm. As for other analytical conditions, they were the
same as those conditions demonstrated in Section 3.1. The arc
welding efficiency was adjusted until the experimental tem-
perature history matched well with the numerical temperature
history. Eventually, the value of arc welding efficiency (𝜂A) was
decided to be 0.8 for both welding passes.
The Vickers hardness of arc-welded T-shaped joints was
also measured. Figure 8 demonstrates the measuring points
and the Vickers hardness of arc-welded T-shaped joints. The
Vickers hardness of WM, HAZ, and BM was almost the same.
The similarity in Vickers hardness among the WM, HAZ, and
BM could be attributed to the relatively small temperature gra-
dient induced by arc welding compared to hybrid welding.
The reduced temperature gradient fostered a more uniform
grain recrystallization process, resulting in the development of
finer crystalline structures instead of a coarse metallographic
structure. This homogeneity led to the similarity in hardness
among these regions. As a result, the arc welding simulation in
this study did not introduce the average Vickers hardness ratio.

4 Results and discussions

4.1 Temperature history

Figure 9 illustrates the experimental and analytical tem-

perature histories of the hybrid-welded T-joint. It was vali-
dated that the analytical temperature histories matched well
with the experimental histories, except for the temperature
histories obtained from the two thermocouples (TC1 and
Fig. 3  Cross-sectional macroscopic photographs of hybrid-welded TC 4) near the fusion zone. This discrepancy was linked
and arc-welded T-shaped joints to the generation of spatters during the hybrid welding
experiments, which flew onto the thermocouples, causing
3.2 Numerical analysis for arc welding a sharp increase in temperature. Moreover, the as-welded
hybrid-welded T-shaped joints showed spatters near the
Figure 7 demonstrates the numerical model and mesh division, thermocouples (TC1 and TC 4), which in turn confirmed
created based on specimen, A400-1. The element type used the assumption.

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Welding in the World (2024) 68:459–473 465

Fig. 4  FE model for hybrid

welding

Figure 10 illustrates the temperature histories of the and welding directions obtained by the experiments. The
arc-welded T-joint obtained from the analysis and the maximum value of transverse tensile residual stress, a sig-
experiment. Apart from the thermocouples (TC1 and nificant factor that could reduce fatigue life, was generated
TC4), the experimental and analytical temperature his- in the T-shaped weld joints produced by hybrid welding.
tories exhibited acceptable agreement. This discrepancy The maximum value of compressive residual stress along
was considered to be for the same reason as observed in the welding seam direction, a significant factor that could
hybrid welding. weaken the compressive load-carrying capacity, occurred
in the arc-welded T-shaped joints.
Figure 13 (a) and (b) demonstrate the experimental and
4.2 Welding deformation analytical residual stress in both types of T-shaped joints.
Regarding the hybrid welding simulation, the analytical
Figure 11 shows the out-of-plane deformation (z = 100 mm) results generally replicated the experimental results in
derived from the analysis and experiment. For hybrid weld- both directions, indicating that the proposed hybrid weld-
ing, the analytical results could reproduce the experimental ing simulation model was reasonable. Concerning the arc
results. As for arc welding, although the analytical results welding simulation, the analytical results could generally
were slightly larger than the experimental results, they still reproduce the trend of experimental results, yet the ana-
remained within an acceptable range. lytical values (x = 0 mm) deviated dramatically from the
When comparing the out-of-plane deformation derived experimental values. Several main reasons could explain
from the two types of welding experiments, the average this phenomenon as follows: firstly, the positions of elec-
out-of-plane deformation was 0.86 mm for hybrid-welded trochemical grinding may have a small deviation, and
T-shaped joints and 2.73 mm for arc-welded T-shaped even minor deviations could cause significant variation
joints, respectively. The average out-of-plane deforma- in residual stress because the residual stress at x = 0 mm
tion for hybrid welding was decreased by 67% compared exhibited drastic changes. Secondly, there was a time inter-
to that for arc welding. In addition, the total heat input val between electrochemical grinding and residual stress
in hybrid welding was significantly lower compared to measurement, and the metal surface after electrochemi-
that in arc welding, as illustrated in Table 2. As a result, cal grinding developed imperceptible rust and corrosion,
the out-of-plane deformation of hybrid-welded T-shaped resulting in deviations in the measurement. Thirdly, at this
joints was suppressed in comparison to the arc-welded point (x = 0 mm), the measurement error for X-ray diffrac-
T-shaped joints. Furthermore, it indicated that hybrid tion (XRD) escalated [29]. In summary, comparing the
welding, due to the reduction of out-of-plane deforma- experimental results to the analytical ones, the proposed
tion, may be advantageous from the perspectives of time arc welding simulation model was generally reasonable
and economic costs when fabricating the steel structural despite the observed deviations.
members. As demonstrated in Fig. 13(a), by comparing the resid-
ual stress distributions derived from the experiments and
4.3 Residual stress simulations, the experimental maximum value of transverse
tensile residual stress was generated in specimen LA400-
Figure 12 (a) and (b) illustrate the distribution of residual 1. However, the analytical maximum tensile residual stress
stresses in both types of T-shaped joints along the cross in both types of weld joints was 365 MPa and 413 MPa,

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466 Welding in the World (2024) 68:459–473

Fig. 6  The test results of hybrid-welded T-joint

respectively. The analytical maximum residual stress of

the hybrid-welded joint was 48 MPa less than that of the
arc-welded joint, indicating that the hybrid-welded joints
may outperform arc-welded joints in terms of fatigue life.
Moreover, combined with the maximum tensile residual
stress (128 MPa) in specimen LA400-2, the viewpoint was
strengthened.
As demonstrated in Fig. 13(b), by comparing the
Fig. 5  Mechanical properties and physical constants used for simula- longitudinal residual stress distributions, the experi-
tion mental maximum compressive residual stress in speci-
men LA400-1 was − 125 MPa compared to the value

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Welding in the World (2024) 68:459–473 467

Fig. 7  FE model for arc welding

(− 286 MPa) in specimen A400-1. The analytical maxi- 5 Conclusions

mum tensile residual stress in both types of weld joints
was 43 MPa and 353 MPa, respectively. The analytical The effectiveness of hybrid welding in manufacturing
maximum compressive residual stress in both types of T-shaped joints having 15 mm-thick steel plates using
weld joints was − 62 MPa and − 331 MPa, respectively. SBHS400 by two-pass full penetration was investigated
In addition, the tensile residual stress values in the through experiments and analyses. The following conclu-
hybrid-welded joints ranged from roughly − 8 to 7 mm. sions are the primary outcomes acquired.
In contrast, the tensile residual stress values in the
arc-welded joints ranged from roughly − 20 to 25 mm. (1) Within the scope of the experiments, hybrid welding was
Hence, the tensile residual stress zone in hybrid-welded able to achieve two-pass fully penetrated T-shaped joints
joints was roughly one-third of arc-welded joints. due to its deep penetration capabilities. However, the arc-
Beyond this range, the compressive residual stress was welded T-shaped joints failed to achieve two-pass full-
generated along the welding direction to counteract the penetration. Without considering inter-pass cooling time,
tensile residual stress and weaken the load-carrying the welding time for hybrid welding was 83% shorter than
capacity of T-shaped joints. The range and values of ten- arc welding.
sile residual stress in the hybrid-welded T-shaped joints (2) On account of the reduced heat input, the average out-
were dramatically decreased compared to the arc-welded of-plane deformation in weld joints produced by hybrid
T-shaped joints. Meanwhile, the maximum compressive welding was decreased by 67% in comparison to those
stress was also significantly reduced. Taking into con- fabricated by arc welding.
sideration the small welding deformation induced by (3) Fully coupled thermal elastic–plastic analyses were per-
hybrid welding, the compressive load-carrying capacity formed to reproduce the fabrication processes, and the
of hybrid-welded T-shaped joints may outperform that of effectiveness of the proposed hybrid and arc welding
arc-welded T-shaped joints. Furthermore, as illustrated simulation models was verified. According to the ana-
in Fig. 12(b), the experimental maximum compressive lytical results, the maximum transverse residual stress
residual stress of specimen LA400-2 was 66 MPa less generated in the hybrid-welded T-joint was decreased
than that of specimen A400-2. The viewpoint was rein- by 48 MPa. Based on the experimental results, the maxi-
forced that the compressive load-carrying capacity of mum average compressive residual stress generated in
hybrid-welded T-shaped joints may outperform that of the hybrid-welded T-shaped joints in the welding direc-
arc-welded T-shaped joints. tion was reduced by about 132 MPa.

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468 Welding in the World (2024) 68:459–473

Fig. 8  The Vickers hardness test

results of arc-welded T-joint

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Welding in the World (2024) 68:459–473 469

Fig. 9  The experimental and

analytical temperature histories
of the hybrid-welded T-joint

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470 Welding in the World (2024) 68:459–473

Fig. 10  The temperature histo-

ries of the arc-welded T-joint
obtained by the analysis and
experiment

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Welding in the World (2024) 68:459–473 471

Fig. 11  Out-of-plane deformation distortions by hybrid and arc weld-

ing

Fig. 12  Residual stress obtained

from the experiments

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472 Welding in the World (2024) 68:459–473

Fig. 13  Residual stresses by the

experiments and simulations for
hybrid and arc welding

Funding Open access funding provided by Osaka University. Partial Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attri-
financial support for this investigation was provided by a grant from the bution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta-
Japan Iron and Steel Federation (JISF) for steel structure research and tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long
education during the fiscal years 2019 and 2020. Also, the research was as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source,
supported by JST SPRING, Grant Number JPMJSP2138. provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes
were made. The images or other third party material in this article are
Data Availability Data sharing is not applicable to this article. included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated
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Declarations the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not
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Conflict of interest The authors declare no competing interests.

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Welding in the World (2024) 68:459–473 473

need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a 15. Barker MG, Schrage SD (2000) High-performance steel bridge
copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. design and cost comparisons. Transp Res Rec 1740(1):33–39.
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