Wireless Ommunication and Internet of Things

S.Y.B.Sc.
(Computer Science)
(Sem - IV)
Electronics Paper-ll
Course code: ELC-242
- According to New CBCS

; Syllabus w.e.f. 2020-21
A text book of
Wireless
Communication
& Internet
of Things
a
ema /
VISION
Dr. Deepa Ramane
. °
CONTENTS
1. Wireless Communication: Cellular Telephony 1-40
1: IFIBFOCUCEIOM:....anersecccsssonssansadnnsanadvexnvsserssouransevauscnusssvaseluvstassseiupuctzevavegeseepnosnesavssvorceistee!
creas 1-1
2. Overview of Wireless Communication ........cscsssssssssssssssssssssnesessecsessssssssseessseeesssvsessensasseses 1-2

3. Introduction of Cellular Telephony System .....c..scscssecssssssesssesssesssessssssiesersssssssssvessvesssesseess 1-3
3.1 Cellular Concept 1-4

3.2 Frequency Reuse Concept 1-7
3.3 Handoff Concept — 1-9
3.4 Interference 1-11
3.5 Block Diagram of Mobile Handset 1-12
4. ~ Overview of Cellular Telephony GenerationS..........s:ssssssesssecssesssesseesssesseessesssessesessesnseenees 1-15
4.1 - 2G Cellular Network 1-15

4.2 2.5G Cellular Network 1-16
4.3 3G Cellular Network 1-16
4.4 4G Cellular Network . 1-18
4.5 5G Cellular Network 1-19
4.6 Comparative Study of Generations of Mobile Communication 1-20
5. GSM (Global System for Mobile) .......c.ssessecsessesessssssesesees SENOS TSOUOSN AEN hae er eheasnnsaseees 1-21
5.1 Introduction 1-21

5.2 The Architecture of GSM 1-21
5.3 Handovers in GSM 1-25
6. General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) .........sssssssessssesssesssessssesssssessnecsssessssessvessseessssesssecs 1-28

6.2 GPRS Network Architecture 1-28
2. Short Range Wireless Technologies and Location Tracking 2-42

1, INODUCHION szessssessce essserssemess0Cpenvenenesennesnsiocanvensdtsaraer
vali cauestavetssdassccasicsstiesaithasevaoe coecueeaae 2-1
2. BlUBtOOth sssssesssscesesissezeeszcierrsvecsasctictuvstevacesavaysbaasisetusasenaiets Sotesiudbovavivdbeneannadlelelsvvsatesesveace 2-2
2.1 Bluetooth Architecture 2-3

2.2 — Classes of Bluetooth 2-5
2.3 Bluetooth Frequency Spectrum 2-5
Wireless Communication and Internet of Things 1 ¢ 11925]

24 Bluetooth Protocol Stack 2-5
2.5 Bluetooth Frame Structure 2-7
3. ZIQBOO ...sessessssssssessssesssscsssscssscsssscssscssuscesuscssecssvessssessvscsevecsuscssscessssssuecsusccsessasecsavecssecssssessee 2-9

3.2 ZigBee Architecture 2-10
3.3 ZigBee Topologies 2-13
3.4 ZigBee Technology Advantages and Disadvantages 2-16
3.5 Applications 2-17
3.6 Comparison of ZigBee and Bluetooth 2-18
4 ZEWAVE 'sevssessessxesssesuaneseswusessssetasetaeeateCGORUSt opensooneennnsorsusreneenanosenuaosnssegnacinoncateggudieveerasoerve 2-19
4.1. Z-wave Architecture 2-19

4.2 Z-wave Protocol 2-20 S
4.3 Features of Z-Wave 2-22
5 RFID 'ssscvusscaveavvasyaepssessesegsarsessaevasenesuaeewanteyeesssuasseyts ageexeragsClielanensossseensasesarecnnsersencecnen 2-22

5.2 Working of RFID System 2-23
5.3. Types of RFID Tags 2-25
5.4 Limitations of RFID System 2-27
5.5 RFID Frequency 2-27
5.6 — RFID Applications 2-28
6. GPS (Global Positioning System) .......ccssscssssesssecsssssssvesssesssvesssssssseessavsssscssvessssssasscsseeavecs 2-29
6.1 — Introduction 2-29

62 GPS Architecture Beg *
6.3 GPS Receiver 2-30
6.4 How GPS Determines a Position 2-31
6.5 GPS Errors 2-33
6.6 Advantages of GPS 2-34
6.7 Disadvantages of GPS 2-34
6.8 Applications of GPS 2-34
3. loT Architecture 3-30

1, Introduction to lOT.....sessessessseeseesesvees cossscnsasesnsssenssssonssssossnssensnsessansecssnuscesssosennsotssssssssenesss 3-1
2. What is Internet of Things? ...sccsscsscssssssnssnssnsssssnsssssnstusseuasanuesissuesesussee 3-2

Wireless Communication and Internet of Things ¢2¢ 1925}
3. Evolution Of lOT ..ccccccccssssssssscssesssvscsscsvscsesesscsesesscscsesecsesesesaeseeesecasseseeesseseeeceeseecanevaseaveseeees 3-3
4, MAMAN NOT csssscssnsvesscesvosevorsvssovesssuseontorssouenesovnensonsnevesorannasonacssonsouaseennssibenavnesiantesenesospeevtans 3-5
4.1 M2M 3-5

4.2 Differences between loT and M2M 3-6
5: IOT ArChiteCture.........ccsccscssssessesesessssessssssessssessssesnssessssnsisavsesaneessveescssevsneanssesesseensatencanenseney 3-7
6. Role Of Cloud in OT ....sescecsssessesessessssesssstenesnsavensnecnsatencsveevavescsscassnesessescsssavessevsseenssnsassesess 3-10
6.1. Advantages of using Cloud in loT 3-10

6.2 Cloud Topologies 3-11
6.3 Cloud Access 3-14
te Communication Protocol USEC in lOT ....sssesesessesessessessesseseenssvesensesseeneenearesnennennennearenseeys 3-15
7.1. Physical and Link Layer Protocol 3-16

7.2. Network Layer 3-17
7.3 Transport Layer 3-17
7.4 Application Layer 3-17
8. Cross Connectivity across loT System COMPONENt ........ssssccssessesesereeseeserseenssneensensensenss 3-18
9. TOR TTTOIIN 3-20

Network Technologies .....c.ssssssesesseseevesseseseseseseneese CRITTER
9.1 Low Power Local Area Networking (LPLAN) 3-21

9.2 LPWAN (Low Power Wide Area Network) 3-21
9.3. Comparison of LoRaWAN, Sigfox, NB-loT, Cat-M 3-23
4. loT Applications 4-18
1, Application Domains Of 1OT......ssssesseesssessnesssesssesssesssessessserstesssessnsesnnssnessntssseasanensssssnsessses 4-1
2. Challenges in lOT.....ssssssssssssessccsssessssseecessnecessnseessnnecessnsecsssnsesssvcsesssscessssssonsvsrsnsnesessnenssnsnys 4-4

3, Case Studies .....c.sscssssessssssssscsscssssssssssessvssssvenssassessesonssssssnssnsssssssersnsceveneeucansavsnnsenencssensens 4-6
3.1 Case Study 1: Smart Irrigation System for Agricultural Field 4-7
3.2 Case Study 2: Home Automation 4-9
3.3 Case Study 3: Smart Cities 4-11
VISION
Wireless Communication and Internet of Things °3e 1925]
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Wireless
Communication:
Unit
Cellular Telephony
1. Introduction
In 1897 Gugelielmo Marconi first demonstrated radio's ability to provide continuous contact
with ships sailing the English channel. Since then mobility feature got attached to
communication technology. Afterwards many new wireless communication methods and
services have been enthusiastically adopted by people throughout the world. The past three
decades have witnessed exponential growth in the wireless industry.
The term 'wireless' is often used to describe all types of devices and technologies that use air/
space as a data communication medium. Wireless communication is defined as the transmission
of user information without the use of wires. The user information can be human voice, digital
data, e-mail messages or video. Wireless communication is revolutionizing almost every aspect
of our daily lives and is poised to continue expanding at a very fast pace. Using wireless
communications sending and receiving of messages, browsing of the internet and accessing of
corporate databases anywhere, anytime across the world has already become common.
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1-2 / vision Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
2. Overview of Wireless Communication
Wireless communication is enjoying the fastest development in the history of science, due to the
technologies that allow widespread deployment. Mobile telephony has penetrated in our day to
day life. It is observed that there is phenomenal growth of wireless subscribers in the late 1990s.
We are coming across a wide range of wireless applications in our day to day life. It could be
simple opening of door, security alarm, controlling of home entertainment equipments using
remote, cordless telephones, bluetooth devices or cellular telephones. All are examples of radio
communication systems. The impact of wireless communication is gradually increasing.
Wireless communication is allowing business to develop WANs, MANs and LANs without a
cable installation. The IEEE has developed 802.11 as a standard for wireless LANs. The
Bluetooth industry consortium is also working to provide better and better wireless technology.
Wireless technology has been using higher and higher frequencies that support greater data rates
and throughput. Following table highlights some of the important stages in the development of
wireless communication.
Year Implementation Specification

1896 Guglielmo Marconi - wireless Operating at 1MHz
telegraphy (Morse code - digital)
1906 1st World Radio Conference :
1915 Wireless Voice Communication

1920 Marconi Detected short waves -
1960 Bell laboratory developed cellular -

concept
1992 Introduction of GSM (2G) Entirely digital, 900 MHz, 124
channels. Data with 9.6 kbit/s
1997 Wireless LANs IEEE-Standard, 2.4 - 2.5 GHz,

2 Mbit/s
1998 Universal Mobile Telecommunication

System (UMTS)
2000, 2010- | Bluetooth Specification &
2013, 2020 Implementation of 3G,4G,5G
Cds
Wireless Communication .. . wien \ 1-3
The reason of popularity and growth of wireless communication technology is clearly

understood by following table.
Wired Communication Wireless Communication —
In wired communication wired medium | Wireless medium is of broadcast nature.
i. | conducts electrical signal information from
one fixed terminal to another.
It provides reliable guided link. it's unreliable as compared to wired
communication.
iii. | Wired medium does not support mobility. Wireless medium supports mobility.
This has high bandwidth and addition of | This has low bandwidth.
iv. | cables in general can duplicate the wired
medium and increase the bandwidth.
Different signals are conducted through | All signals are transmitted over the same
v. | different types of wires such as co-axial | medium, i.e., air.
cable, twisted pair cable, optical fiber etc.
vi. | Complicated and expensive. Simple and inexpensive.
3. Introduction of Cellular Telephony System
In 1960, Bell Laboratories developed the concept of cellular telephony system. Over the year
this concept matured and the cellular or mobile communication captured the world and is
witnessing a phenomenal growth in number of subscribers and advancement in cellular
technology. There has been a clear shift from fixed to cellular telephony. Both the mobile
network operators and vendors have felt the importance of efficient networks with equally
efficient design.
The cellular wireless generation (G) generally refers to a change in the fundamental nature of the
service and frequency spectrum used for transmission. New generations have appeared in every
ten years, since the first move from 1981 - An analog (1G) to digital (2G) network. After that,
there was multimedia support and spread spectrum transmission. These are the features of 3G.
Year 2011, witnessed 4G - IP switched networks. Next generation is witnessing re-configurable,
multi- core technology.
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3.1 Cellular Concept
The term ‘mobile’ is used to classify any radio terminal that could be moved during the
operation. Firstly developed conventional mobile system had a high power transmitters to cover
large geographical area, may be an entire city. Major drawbacks of this system were:
i. When mobile user was moving from one geographical area to other, user's call used to
drop and he had to initiate the call again.
ii. Inefficient spectrum utilization.
The above two drawbacks of conventional mobile system are eliminated in cellular mobile
system. The basic idea is to use many low power transmitters instead of single high power
transmitter. Each small power transmitter covers a small portion of the service area.
The concept of cellular mobile system is explained in detail in the following paragraphs:
1. A large geographical area is divided into smaller areas; each one is called as cell. While
forming the cells, two properties are followed:
a. no gap between two neighboring cells and
b. no overlap between two cells
ii. | Each cell has a base station which serves all the local mobile stations in the cell. The base
station has its own frequency spectrum. Each base station has transmitter, receiver and
control unit.
Base station
[transmitter,
receiver and
control unit]
Service area
(zone/cell)
Mobile/cell phones
present inside cell
Figure 1.1 : Individual Cell

6s
Wireless Communication ... VISION 1-5
ili. The shape of the cell is a major design aspect in cellular system. Various shapes possible
are circular, square, triangular etc. But in circular shape, some geographical area is
present, where no base station can serve the mobile users. It is called 'Hole’. The square
shape is not ideal, as mobile users within cells are not equidistant from the adjacent
antennas.
N2d 2d
t
oc} SE Sag
x
v2d v2d
(a) Circular shape cell (b) Square shape ceil
Figure 1.2: Cellular structure sizes
iv. A hexagonal shape is the ideal one. Reasons are:
a. The hexagonal pattern provides equidistant antennas.
b. — It provides a theoretical coverage of an area without any overlapping cells or gaps

in the coverage area (no 'Holes’).
c. The use of hexagons makes the theoretical calculations of system parameters easy.
Figure 1.3: Hexagonal pattern of cellular system (seven-cell cluster)

1-6
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/ vision = Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
In practice, a precise hexagonal pattern is not used. Variations from the ideal are seen due
to terrain architecture and practical limitation on siting antennas due to buildings,
trees etc. Moreover cell sizes are smaller in crowded / densely populated area.
Vi. As seen in figure 1.4, the cells are hexagons with the base station at the center. The N cells
which collectively use the available frequency spectrum is called a cluster. Only certain
cluster sizes are allowed. Typical cluster sizes are 3, 4, 7 and 12.
(a) |
3-Cell cluster 4-Celi cluster

Figure 1.4: Formation of Cell Cluster
Vii. The capacity of cellular system is dependent on the number of frequency channels that can
be allocated within a cell and the cell size. If, n is the number of users that can
communicate simultaneously, then
mM (BWroia/N)
n= BW
where, m = no. of cells required to cover an area

BWootai = total frequency spectrum allocated for cell
BWaser = required bandwidth for individual user
N = frequency reuse factor
Thus, capacity of the cellular system can be increased by
a. increasing m
b. decreasing frequency reuse factor.
viii. Classification of cellular technology depending upon the coverage area:
a. Femtocell: It is a small, low-power cellular base station, typically designed to cover

a range of only few meters. They are used in homes or for small offices. Mobile
phone utilizes less power hence battery life is longer.
c -s
Wireless Communication ... vision \ 1-7
b. Picocell: It is a small cellular base station typically covering an area in the range of
a few tens of meters. It is used in buildings, shopping malls, train stations etc.
c. Microcell: The microcell covers the range of few hundreds of meter. It is useful for
big shopping complexes, transportation hub covering larger range than picocell.
d. _—_ Macrocell: The macrocell covers the range of few km. So it is used in urban areas
and its antennas are mounted above the roof top of the buildings. It provides
excellent mobile phone services such as high data rates and capacity.
ix. Cell splitting: In practice, the distribution of traffic and topographic features is not
uniform. Cells in areas of high usage can be split into smaller cells. Generally, the original
cells are about 6.5 to 13 km in size. The cells can themselves be split into small size of
1.5 km. The power level used also reduces. A radius reduction by a factor of F reduces the
coverage area and increases the no. of required base stations by a factor of F’,
With cell splitting, a cell is divided into a number of wedge-shaped sectors. Each has its
own set of channels, typically 3 or 6 sectors per cell.
Figure 1.5: Cell Splitting
3.2 Frequency Reuse Concept
In previous section, we have seen cellular concept used in cellular telephony system. Now we
will study frequency spectrum allocation to the cells. Frequency spectrum is allocated cluster
wise. This spectrum is further subdivided into small frequency spectrums. Each cell in the
cluster has allocated unique frequency spectrum. The same set of frequency spectrums can be
reused by another cluster which is separated by a considerable distance with minimal
interference.
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1-8 / vision == Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
Thus same frequency band can be used for multiple conversations simultaneously by different
cells. This is referred to as frequency reuse.
In short,
° Frequency reuse is the process-of using the same set of frequencies to more than one cell.
e The frequency reuse pattern depends on transmitter power of base station, cell size and
cluster size.
° The minimum distance between the centers of two cells using the same frequency band is
called as reuse distance and is denoted by 'D'.
The frequency reuse pattern and reuse distance for seven cell cluster arrangement is shown in
Sigure 1.6. Here seven sets of frequency spectrums f,, f2, f3, f4, fs, fs and fz ‘are used.
Figure 1.6: Frequency reuse for seven cell cluster
e The reuse distance 'D' is given by
D = dN
where, d=distance between centers of adjacent cells
N =no. of cells in a cluster, i.e., cluster size

Feg) ¥
Wireless Communication ... WASIOH 1-9
Example
p>. For a mobile system of cluster size of 12, determine the frequency reuse distance if
distance between two adjacent cells is 5 km.
Solution
Frequency reuse distance, D dN

5km x12
17.32 km
Thus to repeat the frequency pattern the frequency reuse distance between the cells should be
greater than or equal to 17.32 km for cluster size of 12.
3.3 Handoff Concept
We have seen that each cell activities are managed by the base station. Sometimes base station is
also called as MTSO (Mobile Telephony Switching Office). Each mobile present in the cell,
communicates the information to the base station. Further base station route the information to
the communication network through the system called as Mobile Switching Center (MSC). MSC
is a core part of GSM/CDMA network system which connects calls between subscribes by
switching the digital packets between network paths.
When a mobile is moving from one cell to another cell, the control needs to be transferred from
old base station to base station of new cell. This is accomplished by handoff technique. This
handoff requires two operations:
1 To identify a new base station
ii. To transfer control of mobile from old base station to new base station
Thus handoff processing is an important task in any cellular system. It is defined as -
When the subscriber is moving between cells, during a journey, the communication with the base
station of the departing cell ceases and communication with the base station of the entering
cells
commences. Thus, simply, it is the ability to transfer mobile control from one base station to
another base station.
i
Handoff must be performed successfully without any discontinuation in communication. It

assures the continuity of calls. Handoff of a call to a new base station implies transfer of all
functions.
Handoff Mechanism
i. Each mobile continuously emits signals for base station.
ii. System designer sets an optimum signal level, called as threshold level, at which handoff
is to be initiated.
iii, The base station continuously monitors the signal strength emitted by each mobile in the
cell. Depending upon the strength, the decision for handoff is made.
iv. When the received signal strength goes below the threshold level, the handoff is initiated.
This is an indication that mobile device is at the boundary of the cell.
v. Atthe border between two cells, the subscriber is under the influence of two or three base
stations.
vi. The control of mobile device will be handover to the base station which receives the
strongest signal.
Mobile
device
Handoff 1 Handoff 2 Handoff 3
Figure 1.7: Handoft
As seen in figure 1.7, mobile has moved from cell 1 —» Cell 2 —> Cell 3 —» Cell 4. During
this travel, three times hand-off process has accomplished. When it enters into new cell,
frequency band of operation also changes. Thus mobile had used f;, f,, f, and f; frequencies
respectively.
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Wireless Communication... wision \ 1-11
3.4 Interference
Interference is the major limiting factor in the performance of mobile communication systems.
There can be 'n' reasons for this interference:
i. Due to mobile devices present in the same cell

ii. A call in progress in a neighboring cell
iii. Other base stations operating in the same frequency band
Interference causes cross talk. It may lead to missed and blocked calls due to errors in the digital
signaling. It's effect is remarkable in urban areas because of greater RF noise and large no. of
base stations and mobiles. There are two types of system generated cellular interference:
a. Co-channel interference
b. Adjacent channel interference
Co-channel Interference
We have studied frequency reuse concept used in cellular technology. It means that in a
given coverage area, there are several cells that use the same set of frequencies. These
cells are called co-channel cells and the interference between signals from these cells is
called co-channel interference.
Co-channel interference can be reduced by physically separating co-channel cells by a

minimum distance to provide sufficient isolation. When the size of each cell is
approximately the same and the base station transmits the same power, the co-channel
interference ratio is independent of the transmitted power. It is a function of the radius of
the cell (R) and the distance between centers of the nearest co-channel cells (D). If the
ratio D/R is increased, the spatial separation between co-channel cells relative to the
coverage distance of a cell increases. This will reduce interference. The parameter, Q, is
defined as the co-channel reuse ratio, related to the cluster size.
For a hexagonal geometry,

D
Q 4 R — \3N
Higher the value of Q, smaller is the level of co-channel interference.

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1-12 / vision = Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
b. Adjacent Channel Interference
Interference due to signals which are adjacent in frequency is called as adjacent channel
interference. It occurs due to improper filter design of receiver which allows nearby
frequencies to enter into the passband. The near-far effect is observed when a nearby
transmitter captures the receiver of the subscriber. The effect can also occur when a
mobile close to a base station transmits on a channel and this channel is closed to the
channel used by a weak mobile. In such cases, the base station finds difficulty in locating
the desired mobile user.
Adjacent channel interference can be reduced by proper filter design and channel
assignments. In a given cell, if the frequencies between two channels are separated by a
maximum, the adjacent channel interference reduces considerably. Even some channel
allocation schemes avoid the use of adjacent channels in neighbouring cell sites.
3.5 Block Diagram of Mobile Handset
Display Keypad ON/OFF SW

I | |
SIM ROM Ls p —s RF Part

v Converters
Basenand (Frequency
Battery 4 processing andl. J = DAC eg Conversion, | KY TX’AXH ead
audio/speech | . + p ‘
; ADC ower
K> std amplification)

RAM
x (DSP)
USB Fe x
Y d J
CODEC
i | i
Speaker MIC Camera
Figure 1.8: Mobile handset
A mobile handset is essentially a two-way radio, consisting of a radio transmitter and a radio
receiver. When user talks / texts using mobile phone, basically phone converts voice / text
messages into an electromagnetic signal, which is then transmitted via radio waves to the nearest
cell tower.
Wireless Communication ... wien \ 1-13
The architecture of the mobile device consists of Hardware and Software.
A. Hardware
Figure 1.8 shows hardware architecture of mobile handset. Basic components of mobile
device are:
a. CPU
b. Memory (RAM and ROM)
Cc. Digital Signal Processors (DSP)
d. D/A and A/D converters
e. Frequency converter and RF power amplifiers
| f. V/O peripherals such as speaker, mic, camera, keypad, display, USB, GPS, bluetooth
and wifi
g. SIM
h Transmitter arid receiver circuits
i. Antenna
Js Battery
Functioning of each of the above is explained in subsequent paragraphs.
Processor: Heart of the mobile handset is processor. The processors used in

smartphones are quite different from those used in a PC or laptop because they have
different design constraints. Here, one has to balance power consumption against
performance and cost. New smart phones have more than one processor (such as
quad-core, octa-core processors). Processor controls all other I/O peripheral devices
such as display, keypad, bluetooth etc. The radio signals are handled by baseband
processor which in turn communicates with other processors to use their
functionalities. Power and audio processors control the functioning of speaker and
microphone with the help of application processor. .
Memory: The device needs memory to store OS as well as data. Modern handsets
have a large volatile memory (SDRAM) of 8 GB and larger non-volatile storage,
typically more than 64 GB.
Peripheral devices: Mobile device needs many I/O peripheral devices through
which the end-user interacts with the smartphone. The OS needs to have the driver
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1-14 / vision §=— Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
software installed for each device. Typical peripheral devices are already listed
above.
e SIM - Subscriber Identification Module, widely known as SIM card, is a small

integrated microchip that securely stores the information which is used to identify
and authenticate subscriber on the network. It contains a unique serial number,
International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) number, security authentication and
ciphering information, temporary information related to the local network and two
passwords: a Personal Identification Number (PIN) for ordinary use and Personal
Unblocking Key (PUK) for PIN unlocking.
e Transmitter and receiver circuits: The receiver hardware receives incoming

signal and generates interrupts for the radio interface in OS. After the reception, a
physical layer handshake takes place. Thus the incoming audio, video and data are
processed by the modem processor. This data is given to display, speaker etc.
through radio OS components.
Similarly during transmission, the audio / video data from microphone / camera etc.
is written into the memory by the radio OS components. These data are then
processed by the modem processor as per the transmission protocol.
e Antenna: Cell phones contain at least one radio antenna to transmit / receive radio
signals. An antenna is a metallic element which converts electric signal into
electromagnetic signal. The antennas are of specific sizes and shapes for
transmitting and receiving specific frequencies. Some phones (such as iPhone) have
multiple transmitting or receiving antennas. In addition to cellular antenna,
smartphones also have Wi-Fi, bluetooth and /or GPS antennas.
e Battery: It provides the power for the functioning of all components. A modern
handset typically uses a lithium-ion battery whereas older handsets used nickel-
metal hydride batteries.
The average phone battery lasts 2-3 years at best. Battery life can be extended by
draining it regularly, not overcharging it and keeping it away from heat.
B. Software: Feature phones have basic software options while smartphones have advanced
software platforms. Since 2011, mostly Android OS is used.
4. Overview of Cellular Telephony Generations
The evolution of mobile communication has witnessed rapid progress in technology and in the
services, it is providing. The cellular concept was first developed in 1960s and 1970s. The
worldwide cellular and personal communication subscriber surpassed 700 million users till 2000
and still exponential growth is being observed.
The evolution of mobile communication system is progressing through different generations.

Next generation cellular networks are being designed to facilitate high speed data
communication traffic in addition to voice calls. New standards and technologies are being
implemented to allow wireless networks to replace fiber optic or copper wires. To support higher
data rate, increase channel capacity, to accommodate more number of users to provide reliable
and secure services, the advance digital modulation techniques, multiplexing and multiple access
techniques are developed.
4.1 2G Cellular Network
First generation (1G) cellular systems was relying on FDMA / FDD and analog. frequency
modulation technique. Second generation (2G) was first introduced in the early 1990s and
started using digital modulation techniques. New multiple access techniques such as TDMA and
CDMA were introduced.
A. Three most popular TDMA standards of second generation are:
i. GSM developed supported eight time slotted users for each 200 kHz radio channel
and has been deployed widely by service providers in Europe, Asia and Australia
and South America.
ii. Interim Standard 136 (IS136) was developed which supported three time slotted
users for each 30 kHz radio channel. It became popular in North America, South
America and Australia.
iii. . Pacific digital cellular standard known as Japanese TDMA standard was developed
which was similar to IS-136.
B. Popular CDMA standard of second generation includes Code Division Multiple Access
(IS-95) i.e. CDMAL1. It supported 64 users that are orthogonally coded and simultaneously
transmitted on each 1.25 MHz channel.
or
1-16 J visian © Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
In many countries, 2G wireless networks are designed and deployed for conventional
mobile telephone service to increase capacity. Above mentioned standards represent the
first set of wireless air interface standards. It uses digital modulation and digital signal
processing in the handset and the base station. However, circuit-switched data modems
used by 2G has limit data users to a single circuit-switched voice channel. So data
transmission in 2G are generally limited to the data throughput rate of an individual user.
This standard is able to support limited internet browsing and short messaging capabilities
(SMS) using a circuit switched approach.
4.2 2.5G Cellular Network
To support modern internet applications, throughput data rate of 2G needs to be increased. So

new data centric standards were developed under 2.5G technology. It allowed existing 2G
equipments to be modified and to upgrade software to support higher data rate transmissions for
web browsing, e-mail traffic, mobile commerce and location-based mobile services. The 2.5G
technologies also support a popular new browsing format language, called Wireless Application
Protocol (WAP). WAP allows standard webpages to be viewed in a compressed format
specifically designed for small, portable handheld wireless devices.
2.5G cellular network witnesses three upgradations:
i. High Speed Circuit Switched Data (HSCSD)

ii. | General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)
iii. Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE)
These options provide remarkable increase in internet access speed over 2G-GSM and IS-136
technology.
3G systems have advance features of wireless access. The advantages of this system are:
E. Multi-megabit internet access

ii. Communications using Voice Over Internet Protocol (VOIP)
iii. | Voice-activated calls
C *s
Wireless Communication .. . akan \ 1-17
iv. Un-parallel network capacity

v. ‘'Always-on' access .
The eventual 3G evolution for CDMA systems leads to CDMA2000 and wideband CDMA (W-
CDMA). W-CDMA is based on the network fundamentals of GSM, as well as mixed version of
GSM and IS-136 through EDGE.
CDMA2000 and W-CDMA remained popular in early years of 21“ century. It provides higher
data rates in new bands. New radio spectrum bands defined in 3G network system are 2500-2690
MHz, 1710-1885 MHz and 806-960 MHz.
3G W-CDMA (UMTS)
The Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) standard is designed in 1996.
Several wideband CDMA proposals were merged into a single W-CDMA standard and then
called as UMTS. It is backward compatible with the second generation GSM. It provided new
CDMA interface with additional capacity and bandwidth. It retained the network structure and
bit level packaging of GSM data.
The 3G W-CDMA standard had been designed for "always-on" packet-based wireless service.
Due to this, the same wireless network can be shared by computers, telephones, entertainment
devices for connection to the internet, anytime, anywhere.
Features of W-CDMA
1, Supported data rates upto 2.048 Mbps per user, thus allowing high quality data.
ii. Services provided to consumers - multimedia, streaming video and broadcast-type.
iii. Public and private network features.
iv. Provided video conferencing and Virtual Home Entertainment (VHE).
v. Ensured broadcasting, mobile commerce, games, interactive video and virtual private
networking.
vi. Required a minimum spectrum allocation of 5 MHz and supported 100-350 simultaneous
voice calls.
vii. Wider bandwidth of W-CDMA demanded a change of RF equipment at each base station.
So installation became expensive.
Oe
1-1 8 / vision © Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
The 4G system was originally put forward by DARPA, the US Defense Advanced Research
Project Agency. It was designed primarily for data and IP-based protocols. It has distributed
architecture and end-to-end Internet Protocol (IP). It was five times faster than 3G network and
can provide speeds of upto 100 Mbps. All mobile models released after the year 2013 support
this network which offers connectivity for tablets, laptops and smartphones.
Features of 4G
i. Better latency
ii. | Higher voice quality
iii. | Easy access to instant messaging services and social media
iv. Quality streaming
4G-LTE
In 2009, first release Long Term Evolution (LTE) was deployed in Oslo, Norway and Sweden. It
is a wireless communication with high speed.
LTE is comprised of following three main components:
i. The User Equipment (UE)
ii. | The Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN)
iii. | The Evolved Packet Core (EPC)
UE E-UTRAN EPC Server
Figure 1.9: LTE
i. | User Equipment is nothing but mobile equipment of LTE and is same as the one used by
UMTS and GSM.
ii. | E-UTRAN handles radio communications between the mobile and the evolved packet
core. It consists of evolved base stations. LTE mobile communicates with just one base
station and one cell at a time.
C s ‘
Wireless Communication... wsion \ 1-19
iii. EPC performs the function of mobility handling, IP address allocation, packet filtering
ee =
and also takes care of security. It communicates with packet data networks in the outside
world such as the internet, private corporate networks or the IP multimedia subsystems.
The primary goal of previous generations of mobile networks has been to simply offer fast,
reliable mobile data services to network users. 5G has broadened the scope to offer a broad range
of wireless services delivered to the end user across multiple access platforms and multi-layer
networks.
Features of 5G
i. Dynamic, coherent and flexible framework of multiple advanced technologies.
ii. 5G architecture utilizes Radio Access Networks (RAN).
ili. Created additional data access points.
_ iv. No need of having complex infrastructure or proximity base station.
Vv. Architecture is much more service oriented.
vi. Frequency spectrum is in between 30 GHz - 300 GHz.
vii. Multi-Access Edge Computing (MEC) is an important element of 5G architecture. It is an

evolution in cloud computing. This has created a shortcut between the user and the host
during content delivery. ,
1-20/ visian = Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
Multi-Gpbs
transmission rate
Highly flexible Highly dense

architecture networks
5G
requirements
Large scale Higher spectrum

MTG usage
Figure 1.10: Key requirements for 5G
4.6 Comparative Study of Generations of Mobile Communication
Figure 1.1] represents comparative study of generations of mobile communication
aA
10 Gbps, better
data rate, lower latency
2020
100 Mbps, voice data

athigh date rate 2010
wy
2 Mbps, voice communications, ks

wireless mobile, video calls 2001
1990
>
64 kbps digital signals - voice communication,
lexi messaging
1980
1G 4
2.4 kbps analog signals for voice communication
Figure 1.11: Overview of Generation of Mobile Communication

: in \
5. GSM (Global System for Mobile)
5.1 Introduction
The core data network that provides the main control and interfacing of the whole mobile
network is GSM system. To establish the communication between, two mobile devices is the
basic task of mobile network system. To accomplish this task, a number of function needs to be
performed such as:
° identifying the called person
° determining the location
° routing the call and ensuring that the connection is sustained as long as the communication
lasts.
e After the completion of transmission, the connection is terminated and (normally) the
calling user is charged for the service he/she has used.
In a fixed telephone network, the above operations are relatively easy, because the locations of
source and destination are permanent from the network's point of view. In a mobile network,
however, the establishment of a call is far more complex task as the wireless (radio) connection
enables the users to move with steady network services anywhere. In practice, the network has to
find solutions to three problems before it can even set up a call:
i. Where is the subscriber?
ii. Who is the subscriber?
iii. - What does the subscriber wants?
In other words, the subscriber has to be located and identified to provide him/her with the
requested services. These three operations are carried out by GSM.
5.2 The Architecture of GSM
The operations of GSM to locate the subscriber, to identify him/her and to provide the service
are carried out by GSM using its architecture shown in figure 1.12.
(
1-22 j vision = Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
1 J
i) '
{ {
BTS HLA VLR || AUC |!

1 i]
1 {
MS ae BTS BSC |
l
|
1
ean
BT.
5 MSC ISDN
1 1
‘ : Data
‘ ! network
BTS
1 '
ms iP BTS Bsc
1 1
1 1
BTS ‘| OMC
H
Base station subsystem BSS .
1
1 Network switching subsystem NSS | Public network
Figure 1.12: GSM System Architecture
The GSM architecture consists of
i. Mobile Station
ii. Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
iii. | Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)
iv. Network Management Subsystem (NMS)
Vv. OMC (Operation and Maintenance)
The calls are originated and terminated at Mobile Station. The network establishment for calls is
the responsibility of the subsystems NSS and BSS. The NMS controls the whole GSM network
while OMC takes care of maintenance of the GSM network.
Each block functioning is explained in detail here.
A. Mobile Station (Ms)

In GSM, the Mobile station is nothing but user equipment supported by necessary
software for communication. It is a combination of mobile equipment (ME) and
subscriber data card i.e. SIM (Subscriber Identity Module) card. Therefore, MS = ME +
SIM.
Cs \
Mobile equipment handles functions of radio transmission, speech encoding/decoding,

error detection/correction and access to the SIM. SIM card is a removable subscriber’s
identification token storing the IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber Indentity), a unique
key shared with the mobile network operator and other data. The SIM card also contains
tools needed for authentication and ciphering.
Network Switching Sub-systems (NSS)
The Network Switching Subsystem (NSS) contains the network elements MSC, VLR,
HLR, AUC, EIR. The main functions of NSS are:
i, Call control: This identifies the subscriber, establishes a call, and clears the
connection after the conversation is over.
Charging: This collects the charging details about a call/service and transfers it to
the Billing Centre.
ili. Mobility management: This maintains information about the subscriber's location.
iv. Signaling: This applies to interfaces with the BSS and PSTN.
Subscriber data handling: This is the permanent data storage in the HLR and
temporary storage of relevant data in the VLR.
Now let us study blocks of NSS units.
Mobile Services Switching Centre (MSC): The MSC acts as a bridge between a
mobile network and a fixed network. So it is also called as Gateway MSC. The
MSC performs following tasks:
e ~—_ Call control: Identifying type of call, the destination and origin of call etc.
¢ Locating a particular mobile station
e Charging Data Collection
Visitor Location Register (VLR): VLR is a database which contains information

about subscribers which are currently present in MSC’s service area. It stores
° Identification numbers of the subscribers

e Security information for authentication of the SIM card and for ciphering
e Details of the services that the subscriber can use
1-24 J vision = Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
Home Location Register (HLR): HLR is a huge database which stores

administrative information of the mobile subscriber. HLR also keeps track of the
current location of its customers, service restrictions and supplementary services.
Equipment Identity Register (EIR): The EIR is a list of all valid/non valid/stolen
mobiles on the network. If a mobile has been reported stolen or not approved, then
it may not be allowed to operate in the network. The equipments are identified by
their unique IMEI number.
The EIR contains three lists:
° A mobile equipment in the white list is allowed to operate normally.
e If we suspect that a mobile equipment is faulty, we can monitor it. It is then

placed in the grey list.
° If the mobile equipment is reported stolen, or it is otherwise not allowed, it is

placed in the black list.
Authentication Centre (AuC): The AuC is a database containing a copy of the

secret key present in each of the user’s SIM cards. This is used to enable
authentication and encryption over the radio link. The AuC uses a
Challenge - Response technique, where it will send a random number to the mobile
station; the mobile station encrypts this and returns it. The AuC will now decrypt
the received number and if it is successfully decrypted to the number originally
sent, then the mobile station is authenticated and admitted to the network.
Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

Base Subsystem is responsible for managing the radio network. BSS consists of the
following elements:
a. Base Station Controller (BSC)
b. Base Transceiver Station (BTS)
TC (Transcoder)
Base Station Controller: Important tasks of BSC are:

e Connection Establishment between MS and NSS.
e Initialization of handovers while going from one cell to another

s 2
Home Location Register (HLR): HLR is a huge database which stores

administrative information of the mobile subscriber. HLR also keeps track of the
current location of its customers, service restrictions and supplementary services.
Equipment Identity Register (EIR): The EIR is a list of all valid/non valid/stolen
mobiles on the network. If a mobile has been reported stolen or not approved, then
it may not be allowed to operate in the network. The equipments are identified by
their unique IMEI number. .
The EIR contains three lists:
e A mobile equipment in the white list is allowed to operate normally.
e If we suspect that a mobile equipment is faulty, we can monitor it. It is then

placed in the grey list.
° If the mobile equipment is reported stolen, or it is otherwise not allowed, it is

placed in the black list.
Authentication Centre (AuC): The AuC is a database containing a copy of the

secret key present in each of the user's SIM cards. This is used to enable
authentication and encryption over the radio link. The AuC uses a
Challenge - Response technique, where it will send a random number to the mobile
station; the mobile station encrypts this and returns it. The AuC will now decrypt
the received number and if it is successfully decrypted to the number originally
sent, then the mobile station is authenticated and admitted to the network.
Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

Base Subsystem is responsible for managing the radio network. BSS consists of the
following elements:
a. Base Station Controller (BSC)

b. Base Transceiver Station (BTS)
TC (Transcoder)
Base Station Controller: Important tasks of BSC are:
° Connection Establishment between MS and NSS.
° Initialization of handovers while going from one cell to another

Cs
Wireless Communication .. . waa \ 1-25
e Routing of information from BTS to NSS

e Controlling BTS and TC control
b. Base Transceiver Station (BTS): BTS is the network element responsible for
minimizing the transmission problems. Tasks of BTS are given below:
° Ciphering: Transmitted speech and data are encrypted and decrypted for
protection.
e Speech processing: For error free connection speech data is processed

(coding, interleaving, and burst formatting etc.).
c. TC-Transcoder: It compresses the digital speech. It also enables DTX

(Discontinuous transmission), during a call when there is no conversation. It
reduces the interference and save MS battery.
D. Network Management Subsystem (NMS)
The NMS monitors various functions and elements of the network. It mainly performs
three types of functions: .
i. Fault Management: The system maintains the current and previous status of alarm
events.
Configuration Management: It maintains information about the operation and

—e
.—e
configuration status of the network elements. It’s functions include the management
of the radio network, software and hardware management of the network elements,
time synchronization and security operations.
iii, Performance Management: In performance management, the NMS collects data

from individual network elements and stores it in a database. The database is used
to analyze the performance of the network and suggests for improvement.
5.3 Handovers in GSM
The process of handover within any cellular system is of great importance. It is a critical process
and if performed incorrectly handover can result in discontinuation in service or drop of calls.
Within the GSM system, four types of handovers can occur.-
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1-26 / wision © Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
i. Intra-BTS Handover: This form of GSM handover occurs if it is required to change the
frequency being used by a mobile because of interference, or any other reason. In this type
of GSM handover, the mobile remains attached to the same base station transceiver, but
changes the frequency.
BSC
MSC
| BSC
MSC
*
BSC
Figure 1.13: Intra-BTS Handover
ii. Inter-BTS Intra BSC Handover: This occurs when the mobile moves out of the
coverage area of one BTS but into another controlled by the same BSC. In such situation,
a new channel and slot is assigned to the mobile, before releasing the old BTS from
communicating with the mobile.
BSC
MSC
BSC
MSC
\
BSC
Figure 1.14: Inter-BTS Intra BSC Handover

& Ds
Wireless Communication .. . wsion \ 1-27
iii. Inter-BSC Handover: When the mobile moves out of the range of cells controlled by one
BSC to another. For this handover is controlled by the MSC.
BSC
MSC
BSC
MSC
\
BSC
Figure 1.15: Inter-BSC Handover
iv. Inter-MSC Handover: This form of handover occurs when changing between networks.
The two MSCs involved negotiate to control the handover.
BSC
MSC
BSC
MSC
\
BSC
Figure 1.16: Inter-MSC Handover

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1-28 / visian = Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
6. General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)
6.1 Introduction
GPRS is a packet switching technology that enables data transfers through cellular network. The
GPRS network acts in parallel- with the GSM network and it provides packet switched
connections to the external networks.
GPRS was established by European Telecommunication Standards Institute. It provided a packet

data capability for the 2G cellular systems. GPRS provides all the functionality of a GSM
network.
Depending upon the functionality, GPRS devices are of different kinds and shapes. ecORNOg to
functionalities the GPRS devices are classified as:
i. Class A: These devices can operate simultaneously with GPRS and with GSM networks.
ii. Class B: These devices can be registered for both the GSM and GPRS networks. But they
can't be operated simultaneously on both the networks. The device must shift between the
two modes.
iii. | Class C: These devices operate exclusively on GPRS services.
6.2 GPRS Network Architecture

GPRS is not a completely separate network. GPRS architecture consists of GSM architecture
and GPRS support nodes. It uses base transceiver and base transceiver station controller of GSM
architecture.
CAs \
Wireless Communication... vision \ 1-29
Voice PSTN /
transmission Voice network
Mobile station > BTS
E > Data PCU transmission
| | Mobite stations} BTS | | Data

t : SGSN > Switch GGSN >| network
i : (PDN)
GSM architecture | . fe. ay
CG LIG DNS
GPRS architecture
Figure 1.17: GPRS Architecture
GPRS architecture has two support nodes:
1 Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)
ii. Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)
Following paragraphs explain functioning of each block.
1. Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN): SGSN is responsible for routing, handover and
compression, authentication, registration and IP address assignment. It connects network
to the GPRS device. It functions as:
a. When mobile device is moving through different cells, the SGSN finds out the BSC
and does not allow the interruption / drop of call.
b. | When the user moves to a segment which is managed by different SGSN, it will
perform a handoff to the new SGSN. During this process, if any packets are lost,
‘then they are retransmitted.
c. The SGSN converts mobile data into IP and is connected to GGSN via a tunneling
protocol.
2. Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN): The GGSN provides the interface between the
user device and external packet switched network. It functions as a gateway, router and
firewall. GGSN stores International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) of mobile device,
charging information and address of SGSN.
Se
(
1-30 j vision Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
GGSN also receives the packets send from the other mobile device and routes them to the
correct SGSN for final delivery to the mobile device.
Charging Gateway (CG); It's basic function is to introduce a single logical link to the
operator's billing system and reduces the number of physical link and connections
required.
Lawful Interception Gateway (LIG): In many countries, the traffic through GPRS
network is monitored by Law Enforcement Agencies (LEA). So LIG captures the data and
forward it to LEA. Often this interception of user data requires a court order.
Domain Name System (DNS): To make a connection via GPRS to an external network,
selection of Access Point Name (APN) is required. The two general access points are net
and wap. Net would indicate a connection directly to the Internet and wap a connection to
a Wireless Access Protocol (WAP) gateway.
Border Gateway (BG): It acts as the backbone which connects different network
operators together. This backbone is referred to as an inter-PLMN backbone or Global
Roaming Exchange (GRX).
Benefits of GPRS
i. Resources are reserved only when needed.

ii. Connection set up times are reduced.
iii. Enables new service opportunities.
Exercises
Multiple choice questions
Which of the following is not a characteristic of cellular telephone system?

a. | Accommodate a large number of users
b. Large geographic area
c. Limited frequency spectrum
d. _—_ Large frequency spectrum
What is the responsibility of MSC in cellular telephone system?

a. Connection of mobile to base stations
b. Connection of mobile to PSTN
C: Connection of base station to PSTN
d. Connection of base station to MSC
What is the shape of the cell present in the cellular system?
a. Circular b. — Square
c. Hexagonal d. _—‘ Triangular
What is handoff?
a. Forward channel b. Switching technique
c. Roamer d. Guard channel
What is meaning of frequency reuse?

a. Increased capacity
b. Limited spectrum is required
c. Same spectrum may be allocated to other network
d. | Number of base stations is reduced
The interference between the neighbouring base stations is avoided by

a. Assigning different group of channels
b. Using transmitters with different power level
c. Using different antennas
d. — Using different base stations
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1-32 / uision Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
3G W-CDMA is also known as. ;

a. UMTS b. DECT
C) DCS-1800 _ | ETACS
detected short waves in 1920.
a. Edwin Armstrong b. Albert Einstein

C: Galileo Galilei d. Marconi
The interference between the neighboring base stations is avoided by.

a. Assigning different group of channels
b. Using transmitters with different power level
c. Using different antennas
d. _—_ All of the above
10. Radio capacity may be increased in cellular concept by

a. Increase in radio spectrum
b. Increasing the number of base stations and reusing the channels
c. Bothaandb
d. None of the above
1H. Hexagon shape is used for radio coverage for a cell because
a. It uses the maximum area for coverage
b. | Fewer number of cells are required
c. It approximates circular radiation pattern
d. _—_ All of the above
12. Circular shape is not used for radio coverage for a cell because
a. It’s coverage area is small
b. | Fewer number of cells are required
c. Problem of “Hole” occurs
13. The advantage/s of using frequency reuse in cellular telephony system is/are
a. — Increased capacity
b Limited spectrum is required
c. Same spectrum may be allocated to other network
d All of the above
Wireless Communication... weston \ 1-33
14. In Handoff.
a. Process of transferring the call to the new base station
b. — Transfers the call
c. New channel allocation is done
d. All of the above
15; Frequency reuse distance depends upon.

a. — Radius of the cell .
b. Distance between the centers of the co channel cells
c. Frequency allocation of nearest cells
d. Bothaandb
16. The 2G cellular network uses .

a. TDMA/FDD ; b. CDMA/FDD
c. Digital modulation formats = d. —Alll of the above
17. 2G CDMA standard - CDMA supports up to,

a. 8users b. 64 users
c. 32 users d. 116 users
18. 2G standards support

a. Limited internet browsing b. Short Messaging Service
c. . Bothaandb d. None of the above
19. The minimum spectrum allocation required for W-CDMA is

a. 5MHz b. 2MHz
c. 500 KHz d. 100KHz
20. What are the three main parts of a GSM Architecture or Structure?
a. Mobile Station
b. BSS - Base Station Subsystem
c. | NSS - Network and Switching Subsystem
d All the above
21. What are the main parts of a Mobile Station in a GSM Network?
a. MT- Mobile Terminal
b. | SIM- Subscriber Identity Module
Cc: Both a and b
d. None
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1-34 / wision Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
22, What are the main parts of a BSS (Base Station Subsystem) in a GSM network?
a. | BTS~-Base Transceiver Station b. BSC - Base Station Controller
c. aandb d. None
2: Each Mobile Terminal is identified by a unique . number.
a. IMEI b. SIM
c. IMSI d. None
24. IMEI stands for.

a. — Internal Mobile Equipment Identity
b. International Mobile Equipment Identity
c. Intra Mobile Enable Identity
d. None
2. Each SIM is identified by a unique . number.

a. IMSI b. IMEI
c. MSDN d. None
26. IMSI stands for

a. _ Internal Mobile Subscriber Identity
b. International Mobile Subscriber Identity
c. Investigating Mobile Subscriber Identity
d. None
Zi. What is the main function of NSS?
a. Establishing communication between mobile and landline numbers.

b. Providing eligible services to the subscriber
c. Providing parameters for Authentication and Encryption
d. All
28. ABTS is also called by general public
a. | Mobile tower b. Exchange

c. Charging Point d. None
29. The only element that personalises a Mobile Station is

a. Back cover b. SIM
c. Screen guard d. None
L 7s
Wireless Communication . . wien \ 1-35
30. The functions of an MSC are.

a. Charging the call or billing b. Signalling with outside systems
Cc. Logical radio link control d. All
31. An Equipment Identity Register (EIR) contains lists.

a. White list or Valid list b. Grey or Monitored list
C: Black or Prohibited list d= All
32. The actual network needed for establishing calls in GSM is composed of the
a. NSS and BSS b. | NSS and NMS

C. NSS and OMC d. BSS and NMS
33. Identification numbers of the valid subscribers are stored in element of

GSM architecture.
a. HLR b. VLR
EIR d. MSC
34. The origin and destination of a call is identified by _____element of GSM

architecture.
a. NSS b. VLR
Cc. MS d. MSC
35. is an element of BSS in GSM architecture.

a. BSC b. NMS
c. EIR d. VLR
36. Fault management of GSM architecture is handled by

a. BSS b. NMS
c. MSC d. NSS
37. GPRS stands for

a. General Packet Repair Service b. General Packet Radio Service
c. Graphics Packet Radio Service d. None
38. Class -A Mobile Station supports

a. Only GPRS b. Only GSM
c. | GSM and GPRS Simultaneously d. GSM and GPRS one at a time.
a
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39. Choose a correct abbreviation below.

a. SGSN - Serving GPRS Support Node
b. | GGSN - Gateway GPRS Support Node
c. IP- Internet Protocol
d. _—_ All of the“above
40. In a GPRS network, SGSN is the equivalent of system in GSM.

a. BSC b. MSC
c. VLR d. GMSC
41. GPRS Roaming from one SGSN to another SGSN is offered by ?

a. GMSC b. GGSN
c. HLR d. VLR
42. What are the functions of GGSN of a GPRS NETWORK. ?

a. Charging (Billing), Filter user traffic
b. Routing mobile originated traffic, GTP Tunneling to SGSN
c. Interface external networks
d. All
43. A BG(Border Gateway) connects to using Tunneling.

a. Same operator's GPRS network
b. Different operator's GPRS network
c. Same or different operator GPRS N/W
d. None
Which system in a GPRS architecture collects all Charging (Billing) records for final
processing?
a. SGSN b. GGSN
c. CH (Charging Gateway) | d. None
45. Which are the blocks of Mobile handset ?

a. Processor b. | Memory
C. DSP d. all of above
as \
Wireless Communication... wistot \ 1-37
B. _ Answer in one or two lines
1. | What is the medium used in wireless Communication system?
2. Why circular or square shape of cell are not suitable?
3. Draw structure of individual cell.
4. Draw seven cell cluster for cellular telephony network,
5. Give relation between total available frequency spectrum, bandwidth of singal user, and
number of users that can communicate simultaneously in a cell.
6. | Define the following w.r.t cellular system

a. Femtocell b. Picocell
c. Microcell d. Macrocell
7. What is cell splitting?
8. State frequency reuse concepts of cellular telephony system.
| 9. How frequency reuse distance is calculated?
10. Whatis "Handoff" in cellular system? why it is required?
11. | What are two types of interferences occurring in cellular systems?
12. How co-channel interference can be reduced?
13. How to reduce adjacent channel interference?
14. Name components of mobile handset.
15. What is purpose of memory inside mobile handset?
16.. What is need of multiple antennas in the mobile handset?
17. What is UMTS?
18. W-CDMA is a feature of which generation of cellular netwok.
19. What is 4G-LTE? |

20. "GSM architecture is must for cellular networking" - Comment.
21. What are different blocks of GSM architecture?

£2:
pa, What is mobile station?
a. Which are elements of base station subsystem of GSM?
24. Give function of following blocks of NSS of GSM
a. Visitor Location Register(VLR)
b. Home Location Register(HLR)
c. Equipment Identity Register(EIR)
d. Authentication Centre(AuC)
25. Mention four types of handover occurring in GSM.
26. Write the following type of handover will occur in GSM
a. Intra-cell handover
b. Inter-cell handover of Intra-BSC handover
Cc. Inter-BSC handover
d. Inter- MSC handover
27. GPRS uses GSM architecture-Comment.
28. Which are different blocks of GPRS architecture?
a: What is function of charging Gateway block of GPRS?
30. What are the benefits of GPRS?
al Define following types of GPRS devices
a. Class A
b. Class B
Cc. Class C
32. Which class supports only GPRS services?
33. In which type of class, GSM and GPRS services can be used simultaneously?
34. Draw GPRS architecture.

L Xs
Wireless Communication . . vision \ 1-39
C. — Answer in detail
1. What are advantages of wireless communication?
2. _ Explain seven-cell cluster of cellular telephony system.
3. What is frequency reuse concept of cellular telephony system.
4. Why "handoff" is necessary in cellular telephony system?
5. How "handoff" is achieved?
6. | What is co-channel interference in cellular system?
7. Explain adjacent channel interference.
8. Draw block diagram of mobile handset.
9. Describe functioning of any five blocks of Mobile handset.
10. Explain CDMA and TDMA technologies of 2G cellular network.
11. Which are advantages of 3G cellular network?
12. What are features of 3G W CDMA (UMITS)?
13. Write features of 4G cellular network.
14. | Write short note on 4G -LTE.
15. Compare 1G, 2G, 3G,4G cellular network.
16. Explain Mobile Station (MS) of GSM.
17. What are functions of Network switching subsystem of GSM?
18. Which are three different lists maintained by EIR of GSM?
19. Write role of base station subsystem of GSM. —
20. Mention any three tasks performed by BTS of GSM.
21. Write three functions performed by Network Management Subsystem (NMS) of GSM.
22. What are different types of handover of GSM?

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1-40 / uisign = Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
23. Draw GPRS architecture.
24. Explain functioning of Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN).
25. Explain role of Lawful Interception Gateway (LIG) and Domain Name System (DNS) in
GPRS architecture.
Answers
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(2:
VISION
Short Range Wireless
Technologies and
Unit
Location Tracking
1. Introduction
Many wireless technologies developed so far are now standardized and are widely used for
number of applications. Some of them are developed for specific applications while others are
flexible and generic. We are familiar with various types of wireless communication systems such
as
i. Television and Radio Broadcasting
ii. Satellite Communication
iii, Radar
iv. Mobile Communication System
Vv. Global Positioning System (GPS)
vi. Infrared Communication
vii. WLAN (Wi-Fi)
viii. Bluetooth
Most of the wireless standards we use daily are considered to be short-range communication
standards. These characterize a wide range of scenarios, technologies and requirements. There is
no formal definition of such systems though one can always classify short-range systems
2-1
(ps
2-2 j vision == Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
according to their typical reach or coverage. The range varies widely with frequency, power
level, antenna structures as well as many environmental conditions. Short-range systems involve
transfer of information from millimeters to a few hundreds of meters. However, short-range
communication systems are not only systems providing wireless connectivity in the immediate
proximity, but in a broader perspective they also define technologies used to build service access
in local areas. The short-range systems include Near Field Communications (NFC) for very
close connectivity (range in the order of millimeters to centimeters), Radio Frequency
Identification (RFID) ranging from centimeters upto a few hundred meters. Other examples are
standards like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, ZigBee, Z-Wave which ranges from a few feet upto 100 meters
Or so.
An important factor in the widespread penetration of short-range devices into the office and in
the home is the most popular applications based on the industry standards. While designing short
range communication applications, the following criteria are considered:
i. Communication architecture
ii. | Energy awareness
iii. Signaling and traffic channels
iv. Scalability and connectivity
v. Medium access control and channel access
vi. Service discovery
vii. Security and privacy and authentication
viii. Flexible spectrum
In this chapter, we will study very widely used short range communication applications. At the
end of this chapter, working of GPS architecture is explained.
2. Bluetooth
Wireless has become a remarkable and attractive feature for almost every new electronic
product. It adds flexibility, convenience, and remote monitoring and control without expensive
wiring and cabling. The range of applications is staggering, from simple toys to consumer
electronic products to industrial automation.
£ a \
Short Range Wireless... ViSION 2-3
Bluetooth is a short range, low cost and power efficient wireless technology standard used to
exchange data between point-to-point and point-to-multipoint connections. It operates in the
unlicensed 2.4 GHz band and uses frequency hopping technique. It was originally conceived as a
wireless alternative to RS-232 data cables. It connects handheld devices like printers, mobiles,
laptops and other accessories in the 10 m range.
In 1997 Jim Kardach of Intel developed a system that would allow mobile phones to
communicate with computers. He proposed the name “Bluetooth” for the newly invented device
in the honor of 10th-century Danish King, Harald Bluetooth. At the time of this proposal, he
was reading Frans G. Bengtsson's historical novel The Long Ships about Vikings and Harald
Bluetooth.
2.1 Bluetooth Architecture
The architecture of Bluetooth defines two types of network:
i, Piconet
ii. Scatternet
The basic unit of networking in bluetooth is a piconet and a collection’ of interconnected

piconets is called scatternet.
i. Piconet is a type of bluetooth network that contains one primary node called as master
device and one or more slave devices. One piconet can have maximum seven slave
devices.
@ (m) Bluetooth device acting as master

a\
(s) (s) (s) Bluetooth device acting as slave
Figure 2.1: Piconet

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2-4 / vision §=— Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
ii. Bluetooth uses Frequency Hopping sequence with a carrier spacing of 1 MHz for wireless
communication. Master decides frequency hopping sequence and timing required for
transmission of all slaves. For this, master device uses his own device address.
iii. Slave has to take permission from master for communication. Then it can communicate
through master only.
iv. The Bluetooth network consisting of one or more piconets is known as scatternet, A
device in one piconet may also exist as part of another piconet and may function as either
a slave or master. This forms a scatternet. In one scatternet there can be minimum two
and maximum ten piconets.
Figure 2.2: Scatternet
The advantage of the piconet / scatternet scheme is that it allows many devices to share
the same physical area and make efficient use of the bandwidth.
Vi. Different logical channels (different hopping sequence) can simultaneously share the same
80 MHz bandwidth.
Vii. Collision will occur when devices in different piconets, happen to use the same hop
frequency at the same time. .
Viii. As the number of piconets in an area increases, the number of collisions increases and
performance degrades.
ix. In short, the physical area and total bandwidth are shared by the scatternet. The logical
channel and data transmission are shared by a piconet.
c 2s
Short Range Wireless... wision \ 2-5
2.2 Classes of Bluetooth
Based on output power and coverage area, there are three classes of bluetooth transmitters:
i. Class 1: This class provides the greatest coverage distance. In this class, power control is
mandatory. It provides 1 mW power output for minimum range and 100 mW output
power for maximum range.
Class 2: This class outputs 2.4 mW at maximum and 0.25 mW at minimum. Here power
control is optional.
Class 3: This class outputs lowest power. Nominal output is 1 mW.
2.3 Bluetooth Frequency Spectrum
Most of the countries in Europe, Asia and U.S. use unlicensed 2.4 GHz - 2.4835 GHz
band within ISM (Industrial, Scientific and Medical) band.
il. It uses 1 MHz bandwidth for each channel. Typically upto 80 different frequencies are
used for a total bandwidth of 80 MHz.
ili. Power control is used to keep the devices from emitting more RF power than required.
iv. Modulation for bluetooth is Gaussian FSK, with a binary one represented by a positive
frequency deviation and binary zero represented by a negative frequency deviation from
the center frequency.
2.4 Bluetooth Protocol Stack

Bluetooth has a layered protocol architecture. It consists of four layers:
i, Core protocol
ii. Cable replacement protocol
iii, Telephony control protocol
iv. Adopted protocol

Oe
Let us study functioning of each layer.
Core protocol: It forms a five-layer stack having the following elements:
a. Radio: Takes care of frequency, hopping sequence, modulation scheme, transmit

power.
b. Baseband: Responsible for establishing connection within a piconet, addressing,

packet format, timing and power control.
ce Link Manager Protocol (LMP): Handles link setup between bluetooth devices and
ongoing link management. It takes care of security aspects such as authentication
and encryption.
d. Logical link control and adaption control (L2CAP): Adapts upper layer protocols to
the baseband layer.
e. _ Service Discovery Protocol: Device information, services and the characteristics of

the services can be queries to enable the establishment of a connection between two
or more bluetooth devices.
ii. Cable replacement protocol: RFCOMM is the cable replacement protocol. It is a virtual
serial port that is designed to make a replacement of cable technologies with the minimum
of modification of existing devices. EIA-232 is a widely used serial port interface standard
for bluetooth. |
iii. Telephony control protocol: TCSBIN (Telephony Control Specification - Binary) is a

bit-oriented protocol of bluetooth. It defines the call control signaling for the
establishment of speech and data calls between bluetooth devices. It also takes care of
mobility feature of group of bluetooth devices.
iv. Adopted protocol: Bluetooth has adopted existing standard, protocols

architecture
wherever possible and invented only necessary protocols. The adopted protocols are:
e PPP: (Point-to-Point Protocol)
e TCP/UDP/IP: Foundation protocol of TCP/IP protocol
° OBEX: Object exchange protocol
e WAE/ WAP: Wireless Application Environment / Wireless Application Protocol

Lw2
Short Range Wireless... WiSION \ 2-7
2.5 Bluetooth Frame Structure
The Bluetooth packet consists of three fields:
i. Access code: 72 bits in length
ii. - Header: 54 bits in length
iii. | Payload format: 0 to 2745 bits in length
72 54 0 to 2745
Access code Header Payload
Figure 2.3: Bluetooth packet format
i. Access code: Access code is of maximum 72 bits. It is used for timing synchronization,
offset compensation and enquiry.
The fields of access code are further subdivided as: Preamble, SYNC Word and
Trailer.
Preamble and trailer fields are of 4-bits each while SYNC word is of 64-bits.
LSB and MSB of SYNC word decides Preamble and Trailer fields.
If LSB in SYNC word is 0, then 4-bit preamble is 0101 and if LSB in SYNC word
is 1, then 4-bit preamble is 1010.
If the MSB of the SYNC word is 1, then the trailer is 0101 and if MSB is 0 then the
trailer is 1010.
4 64 4
Preamble SYNC Word Trailer
Figure 2.4: Bluetooth Access code format
There are three types of access codes:

a. Channel Access Code: Identifies a piconet.
b. Device Access Code: Used for paging and its subsequent responses.
c. Inquiry Access Code: Used for inquiry purposes.
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2-8 / vision © Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
Header: This field identifies packet type and carries protocol control information. It
consists of six fields:
a. AM_ADDR (Active Mode Address): 3-bit AM_ADDR (since max. seven. active
slaves) is temporarily address assigned to the slave in piconet.
Type: Identifies the type of packet.
Flow: Provides a 1-bit flow control mechanism. When a packet with Flow = 0 is
received, the station receiving the packet must temporarily halt the transmission.
When a packet with Flow = 1 is received, transmission may resume.
ARON: Provides a 1-bit acknowledgement mechanism. In case of successful

reception, ARQN = | is returned. ARQN = 0 indicates no reception and relevant
packet is retransmitted.
SEQN: Provides 1-bit sequential numbering schemes.
Header Error Control (HEC): An eight bit error detection code used to protect the
packet header.
iii. Payload: Payload contains user's voice or data. It’s format is decided by the baseband
specifications. The payload format has three fields:
a. Payload header: It can be 8-bits or 16-bits depending upon whether packets are
single-slot or multi-slot respectively. Payload header consists of three sections:
° L-CH: Identifies logical channel.
° Flow: Used to control flow at the L2CAP level.
° Length: The number of bytes of data in the payload.
Payload body: Actual user information is present in Payload body.
CRC: 16-bit CRC code is used for all data payloads for error detection and
correction.
C Ds ‘
3. ZigBee
3.1 Introduction
Currently, numerous high data rate communication standards are available but none of these
meet the sensors’ and control devices' communication standards. Several embedded applications,
industrial control, home automation and IoT applications etc. Demand low power
communication standard. ZigBee is a wireless technology specially developed for such
applications and for wireless personal area networks (WPANS). It is the product from ZigBee
alliance. ZigBee is a specification that's been around for more than a decade, and it's widely
considered an alternative to Wi-Fi and bluetooth for applications including low-powered devices
that don't require a lot of bandwidth - like your smart home sensors.
Maximum data transfer rate of ZigBee is just 250 kbps which is much lower than the lowest
speed of Wi-Fi. In spite of having low data transfer rate than Wi-Fi, attractive features like
low-cost and low-power consumption make ZigBee more suitable for applications of wireless
IoT networks and in automation industries. Another advantage is that it's protocol was designed
as ‘assemble and forget’, meaning once you set it up, it can last for months.
The ZigBee standard operates on the IEEE 802.15.4 physical radio specification and operates in
unlicensed bands including 2.4 GHz, 900 MHz and 868 MHz. The ZigBee technology range for
transmission covers mainly 10 - 100 meters based on the power output and on environmental
characteristics.
Standard ZigBee module is shown in figure 2.5.

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2-10 jf vision © Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
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XBee module XBee pin configuration

Figure 2.5: Standard module of ZigBee
3.2 ZigBee Architecture
We will study ZigBee architecture in two parts: ZigBee devices and ZigBee technological
architecture.
A. ZigBee Devices
ZigBee devices are commonly known as ZigBee nodes. Each node can send and receive
data. However depending upon functionality, the nodes are categorized as:
a. ZigBee coordinator
b. Router
c. End device
The number of coordinators, routers and end devices depends on the type of network
topology (star, tree and mesh). The role and function of each type of node is described
below:
a. Coordinator: Every ZigBee network must have at least one coordinator. The job of
the coordinator is to handle and store the information including security keys.
C?s \
b. Router: ZigBee routers act as intermediate devices that permit data to pass to and
fro through them to other devices.
c. End device: End devices are low-power or battery-powered devices, which talk to
the coordinator or a router. They can't relay data from other devices. These have
limited functionality to communicate with the parent nodes so that the battery
power is saved.
ZigBee Network
Wired connection
ST Wireless connection
Existing
network
ZigBee Coordinator (ZC)
3 ZigBee Router (ZR)
O ZigBee End Device (ZED)
Figure 2.6: ZigBee Devices
ZigBee Architecture
ZigBee protocol architecture is of five layers viz. physical layer, MAC layer, network
layer, application support sublayer and application layer. Out of these it's physical and
MAC layers ate same as that of IEEE 802.15.4, It has it's own other three layers.
or
User Defined
Application
Objects Defined by
ZigBee
Standard ZigBee
Application Support Sublayer Wireless
Networking
Defined by
IEEE 802.15.4
Standard
Radio Transceiver
Figure 2.7: ZigBee Architecture
Physical layer: This layer does modulation and demodulation operations upon
°—e
transmitting and receiving signals respectively.
MAC layer: This layer is responsible for reliable transmission of data by accessing
different networks with the carrier sense multiple access collision avoidances
(CSMA-CA). This also transmits the beacon frames for synchronizing
communication.
Network layer: This layer takes care of all network-related operations such as
network setup, end device connections and disconnections to network, routing,
device configurations, etc.
iv. Application support sub-layer: This layer enables the services necessary for
ZigBee device objects and application objects to interface with the network layers
for data managing services. This layer is responsible for matching two devices
according to their services and needs.
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v. Application framework: It provides two types of data services as key-value pair

and generic message services. The generic message is a developer-defined structure,
whereas the key-value pair is used for getting attributes within the application
objects. ZigBee Device Object provides an interface between application objects
and the APS layer in ZigBee devices. It is responsible for detecting, initiating, and
binding other devices to the network.
3.3 ZigBee Topologies
ZigBee supports several network topologies; however, the most used configurations are star,
mesh, and cluster tree topologies. Any topology consists of one or more coordinators, routers
and end devices.
i. Star topology: The star topology consists of one coordinator and several end devices.
Coordinator initiates and manages all the devices in the network. End devices can only
communicate with the coordinator. Any data exchange between end devices must go
through the coordinator. This topology is used in industries where all the endpoint devices
are needed to communicate with the central controller. This topology is simple and easy to
deploy. But disadvantage of this topology is the operation of the network depends on the
coordinator of the network, and because all packets between devices must go through
coordinator, the coordinator may become bottlenecked. Also there is no alternative path
from the source to the destination.
Figure 2.8: ZigBee - Star topology

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2-1 4/ vision © Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
‘Tree Topology: In this topology, the ZigBee network coverage is extended with several
routers. It has a central node acting as coordinator, several routers, and end devices as
shown in figure 2.9. The end devices can communicate either with routers or with the
coordinator.
End device
Figure 2.9: ZigBee -Tree topology
The end nodes that are connected to the coordinator or the routers are called children.
Only routers and the coordinator can have children. Each end device is only able to
communicate with its parent (router or coordinator). The coordinator and routers can have
children and, therefore, are the only devices that can be parents. An end device cannot
have children and, therefore, may not be a parent. A special case of tree topology is called
a cluster tree topology.
The disadvantages of tree topology is that if one of the parents becomes disabled, the
children of the disable parent cannot communicate with other devices in the network.
Cluster tree topology: A cluster tree topology is a special case of tree topology in which
a parent with its children is called a cluster, as shown in Figure 2.10. Each cluster is
identified by a cluster ID. ZigBee does not support cluster tree topology, but IEEE
802.15.4 does support it.
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Figure 2.10: ZigBee - Cluster topology
iv. Mesh topology: Mesh topology, also referred to as a peer-to-peer network, consists of one
coordinator, several routers, and end devices, as shown in figure 2.11.
End device
Coordinator
Figure 2.11: ZigBee - Mesh topology

Os
The following are the characteristics of a mesh topology:
A mesh topology is a multihop network; packets pass through multiple hops to reach their
destination. The range of a network can be increased by adding more devices to the
network. It can eliminate dead zones. A mesh topology is self-healing, meaning during
transmission, if a path fails, the node will find an alternate path to the destination. Adding
or removing a device is easy. Any source device can communicate with any destination
device in the network.
Compared with star topology, mesh topology requires greater overhead. Mesh routing
uses a more complex routing protocol than a star topology.
3.4 ZigBee Technology Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages
The advantages of ZigBee include the following:
i. This network has a flexible network structure.

ii. Battery life is good.
iii. | Power consumption is less.
iv. Very simple to fix.
v. It supports approximately 6500 nodes.
vi. Less cost.
vii. It is more reliable.
viii. Network setting is very easy and simple.
ix. The network is scalable and it is easy to add/remove ZigBee end device to the network.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of ZigBee include the following:
i. It needs the system information to control ZigBee based devices for the owner.
ii. _It is less secure than Wi-Fi. So highly risky to be used for official private information.
iii. The high replacement cost once any issue happens within ZigBee based home appliances.
iv. The transmission rate of the ZigBee is less.
ors \
Vv. It does not include several end devices.
vi. It is not used as an outdoor wireless communication system because it has less coverage
limit.
vii. Similar to other types of wireless systems, ZigBee communication system is prone to
bother from unauthorized people.
3.5 Applications
ZigBee is a low-cost, low-power, wireless network standard targeted at battery-powered devices.

So it is used in wireless control and monitoring applications. ZigBee chips are typically
integrated with microcontrollers.
Thus, ZigBee protocols are intended for embedded applications requiringlow power
consumption and tolerating low data rates. The resulting network will use very little power.
Individual devices must have a battery life of at least two years. ZigBee is not for situations with
high mobility among nodes. Hence, it is not suitable for adhoc radio networks where high data
rate and high mobility is needed.
The typical applications of ZigBee technology include the following:
i. Home automation: ZigBee is perfectly suited forcontrolling home appliances

remotely as a lighting system control, appliance control, heating, and cooling system
control, safety equipment operations and control, surveillance, and so on.
ii. Industrial automation: In manufacturing and production industries, a communication

link continuously monitors various parameters and critical equipments using ZigBee.
ZigBee considerably reduces communication cost as well as optimizes the control process
for greater reliability.
iii. Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN): A wireless sensor network consists of sensors which
are densely distributed to monitor physical or environmental conditions, such as
temperature, sound, pressure, etc. The sensor data is transmitted to network coordinator
which is heart of the wireless personal area network. In the modern scenario, wireless
networks contain sensors as well as actuators. WSN is composed of ZigBee coordinator,
ZigBee router and ZigBee end device. The sensor nodes send the information to the
coordinator, the coordinator collects all sensors data, stores the data in memory, processes
it, and routes the data to appropriate node.
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2-18 J visian Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
iv. Medical data collection: With wireless medical monitoring systems, patients’ information
such as blood pressure, heart rate and electrocardiogram can be sent instantly to
specialized medical centers to store and process properly.
Vv. Smoke and intruder warning: The conflagration of fire is still a serious problem caused
by humans, and houses are at a high risk of fire. People have developed smoke alarms
which only have one sensor to detect fire. Smoke is emitted in several forms in daily life.
A single sensor is not a reliable way to detect fire. Therefore intelligent smoke alarm
systems using many sensors are developed. It uses ZigBee transmission to build a wireless
network to identify smoke.
Building automation: Building automation systems using ZigBee technology

control various components within a building's structure, such as heating, ventilation, air
conditioning etc. It improves system efficiency, reduces costs and increases safety.
Vii. Smart metering: ZigBee application in smart metering includes energy consumption
response, pricing support, security over power theft, etc.
viii. Smart grid monitoring: ZigBee operations in the smart grid involve remote temperature
monitoring, fault locating, reactive power management, and so on.
3.6 Comparison of ZigBee and Bluetooth
The following table compares ZigBee and Bluetooth

Bluetooth — digBee
The frequency range of Bluetooth ranges from | The frequency range of ZigBee is 2.4 GHz.
2.4 GHz - 2.483 GHz.
ii. | Ithas 79 RF channels. It has 16 RF channels.
ii The modulation technique used in Bluetooth is | ZigBee uses different modulation techniques like
* | GFSK. BPSK, QPSK & GFSK.
iv. | Bluetooth includes 8-cell nodes. ZigBee includes above 6500 cell nodes.
v. | Bluetooth uses IEEE 802.15.1 specification. ZigBee uses IEEE 802.15.4 specification.
rr The network range of Bluetooth ranges from | The network range of ZigBee is upto 70 meters.
‘ | 4-100 meters based on radio class.
. | The protocol stack size of a Bluetooth is | The protocol stack size of a ZigBee is 28 kbytes.
vii. 250 kbytes.
viii. | Bluetooth uses rechargeable batteries. ZigBee doesn’t use rechargeable batteries.
ix. | Bluetooth requires less bandwidth. As compared with Bluetooth, it needs high
bandwidth.
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Short Range Wireless .. . wien \ 2-19
4. Z-Wave
The Z-Wave protocol was developed by Zensys, a Danish company in 1999. It is

a wireless communication protocol used primarily for home automation. Since it is low-energy
protocol, it is useful for wireless control of residential appliances and other devices, such as
lighting control, security systems, A/C, windows, locks etc. The advantage of this protocol is
that a Z-Wave system can be controlled via the Internet from a smart phone, tablet or simply
from computer or a Z-Wave gateway or central control device serving as both the hub controller
and portal to the outside. Today, worldwide, over 50 million Z-Wave products are in use.
Advanced Z-Wave technology does not interfere with Wi-Fi, Zigbee, or other 2.4 GHz wireless
technologies in a similar band.
4.1 Z-wave Architecture
The Z-wave architecture has two types of devices. One device is acting as controller and is
called as-master device. Other devices connected to master device are called as slaves.
Z-wave comes with pre-programmed Network ID (called as HomeID) that is assigned to each
slave. Slave does not assign a preprogrammed ID. Slaves are added to the network through a
process called “inclusion”.
Z-wave architecture uses a mesh network. Z-wave devices forms a mesh network, where signals
intended for one device are received, amplifies and repeated by other Z-wave devices.
Primary
controller
Secondary
controller
Figure 2.12: Z- Wave Network

ik ,
4.2 Z-wave Protocol
The Z-wave protocol layers main function is to communicate very short messages of few bytes
long from a control unit to one or more Z-wave nodes. It is a low bandwidth and half duplex
protocol to establish reliable wireless communication. Z-wave protocol stack need not have to
take care of large amount of data as well as any kind of time critical or streaming data.
Z-wave protocol stack has 5 layers namely
i, Physical layer
ii. MAC layer
iii. Transport layer
iv. Network layer
Vv. Application layer
Vi. The security layer is not defined in Z-wave open protocol specifications.
The major functions of these protocol layers are:
Physical layer: The physical layer in Z-wave does many functions. It takes care of
modulation and RF channel allocation. It inserts known pattern (called as ‘preamble') into
data which is used for synchronization at receiver.
MAC layer: MAC layer as the name suggests takes care of medium access control among
slave nodes based on collision avoidance and backoff algorithms. It takes care of network
operation based on Home ID, Node ID and other parameters in the Z-wave frame.
Transport layer: Details of transport layer are explained below.
a. It takes care of transmission and reception of frames, ACK frame transmission and
insertion of checksum.
b. | Z-Wave transport layer is mainly responsible for retransmission, packet

acknowledgment, waking up low power network nodes and packet origin
authentication.
c. The z-wave transport layer has four basic frame types for transferring commands in
the network. The frame format for all four types of frames is mentioned below.
d. Transport Frame = {HomeID, Source NodeID, Header, length, Data byte (0 to X),
Checksum}
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Short Range Wireless... wiston \ 2-21
e. The four frame types of transport layer is explained below:
° Singlecast frame type: These type of frames are transmitted to one specific
Z-wave node. The frame is acknowledged so that transmitter will know
whether the frame is received or not. If this frame or its ACK is lost or
damaged then the singlecast frame is retransmitted.
° ACK frame type: It is singlecast frame where in data payload part does not
exist.
e Multicast frame type: These frames are transmitted to more than one node i.e.
max. of 232 nodes. This type of frame does not support acknowledgement
concept. Hence this type is not used for reliable communication.
d. Broadcast frame type: These frames are received by all the nodes in a network and
they are not Acknowledged by any nodes.
iv. Network layer: The function of network layer is frame routing from one node to the other
node, topology scan and routing table updates. Both the controllers as well as slave nodes
participate in frame routing.
The Z-wave network layer is responsible for the following tasks:
a. Transmission of a frame with correct repeater list

b. Scanning of network topology
c. maintenance of routing table in the controller
Vv. Application ayer: Takes care of control of payloads in the frames received or to be
transmitted.
— Z-wave specific cmds,

Application ? app.specific cmds
Frame routing, topology scan,

Network ” routing table update
Transport +———> Retransmission, ACK, Checksum
MAC
Defined in 908/860 MHz bands
PHY
Figure 2.13: Z-wave protocol

i
2-22 / visien Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
4.3 Features of Z-Wave
i. Secure: Due to a unique ID assigned to each Z-wave device in a network, a gateway can
never control another gateway's connected devices.
ii. | Low communication latency: Z-wave is designed for reliable, low-latency transmission
of small amounts of data (100 kbit/s maximum).
iii. | Low power: Z-wave requires very less power so Z-wave devices can operate for up to
seven years on a single battery.
iv. Interference free: With Z-wave, there is no interference from Wi-Fi, Zigbee, or other 2.4
GHz wireless technologies.
v. Interoperable: All Z-wave certified products can work with any past, present, or future.
Z-wave product.
5. RFID
5.1 Introduction
RFID, i.e., radio-frequency identification is a short range wireless communication technology. It

is sometimes referred to as a contact-less technology and is often used in object tracking
applications.
RFID is grouped under the broad category of automatic identification technologies. Some of the
auto identification technologies that you are aware of include bar codes, optical character readers
and some biometric technologies, such as retinal scans. These are used to reduce the amount of
time and labor needed to input data manually and to improve data accuracy. Bar code system is
often used to scan a label or tag to capture the data. RFID is often visualized as next generation
of barcoding. It is like a barcoding system in which tags, or labels attached to the objects. Then
digital data from a tag or label is captured by a device remotely and is stored in a database. RFID
has several advantages over barcode systems. The main advantage is that for barcode reading
optical scanner must be aligned with barcode while RFID tag can be read from far distance.
Ls hy
Short Range Wireless... WiSion \ 2-23
Figure 2.14: RFID tags on objects
5.2 Working of RFID System
An RFID system has four elements:
1; RFID Tag
ii, | RFID Reader
iii. | Communication Network
iv. Workstation
is&
=
py
RFID
reader
RFID Tag RF Antenna Network Workstation
Figure 2.15: RFID System

or
user
RFID tag: An RFID tag is a tiny radio device on which the information required by
is present.
Tag
integrated
antenna
Microchip oe
/)
(a) RFID Tag (b) RFID Tag Structure
Figure 2.16: RFID Tag
The tags are made up of three elements: a microchip, an antenna and a substrate. The tag
is nothing but a simple silicon microchip (typically less than half a millimeter in size)
attached to a small flat aerial and mounted on a substrate. The whole device is then
encapsulated in different material (such as plastic) depending upon its intended usage. The
and read
finished tag can be attached to an object, typically on an item, box or pallet
remotely to ascertain its identity, position or state.
transmitted
A microchip has a fixed or programmable logic for storing and processing of
y (RF)
information. Tag also performs modulation and demodulation of radio-frequenc
signals which are transmitted and received by an RFID antenna.
be only a
The tag information is stored in a non-volatile memory. The information may
number,
unique tag serial number or may be product-related information such as a stock
be read-
lot or batch number, production date, or other specific information. Memory may
In read/write
only where a factory-assigned serial number is used as a key into a database.
Field
type of memory, the system user can write object-specific data into the tag.
programmable tags are also available which are write-once, read-multiple type.
RF data
ii. RFID reader: The reader, sometimes called an interrogator or scanner receives
s that are
from the tag via antennas. A reader may receive data from multiple antenna
responsible for sending and receiving radio waves.
is managed
iii. Communication network: The data flow from the reader and the workstation
nted in
by existing communication network. The networking methodology can be impleme
0s \
several different ways, depending on the frequency band used by the tag. The coverage
range of RFID tag is dependent upon the transmitted power and frequency used for
communication.
iv. Workstation: The data received from communication network is then passed to a
workstation. It has dedicated software or middleware for RFID system to filter the data
and route it to the correct application to be processed into useful information.
5.3 Types of RFID Tags
RFID tags are of two types:
is Passive RFID tag
il. Active RFID tag
Passive RFID tag: A passive tag has no power source or own transmitter, instead it uses
the radio energy transmitted by the reader for it's operation. It is cheaper and smaller in
size than active tag. However the power required to activate the passive tag is much
higher than an active tag for signal transmission. The working of the passive tag is as
follows:
a. When passive RFID tag is scanned by a reader, the reader transmits energy to the
tag.
Ob. Tag receives the power and it's chip is activated.
c. It transmits the signal back to the reader through the antenna.
d. The reader then transmits this information back to an computer for interpretation.
ii. Active RFID tag: Active tag has its own transmitter and power supply. It periodically
transmits RF signal. Active RFID tags use one of two main frequencies - either 433 MHz
or 915 MHz - to transmit information. The working of active tag is as follows:
a. Active tag is periodically sending the radio signals through it's antenna.
b. __ It's signals are readable from several hundreds of feet away by reader.
c. The reader then transmits this information to an RFID computer for interpretation.
i
d. When within range of one another, even a reader can first send out a signal to the
tag which then responds back with the relevant information.
As active tag is sending out data frequently, their battery tends to deplete quicker. Once
battery dies, the tag will not function unless and until battery is replaced. So the battery of an
active RFID tag should be such that it would supply enough power to last for 3-5 years.
Comparison on Active and Passive RFID

ee:
Active RFID Passive RFID
Tag power source/battery System uses battery powered System uses tags with no internal
RFID tags that continuously emits power supply. Energized from the
their own signals. reader via RF.
Availability of tag power | Continuous Only within field of reader
Required signal strength | Low High(must power the tag)

from reader to tag
Application e Dynamic business process e Rigid business process
characteristics e Unconstrained asset movement ¢ Constrained asset movement
¢ Security / sensing e Very simple security/sensing
e Data storage / logging e Limited data storage
Sensor capability Ability to continuously monitor and Ability to read and transfer sensor
record sensor input; data/time values only when tag is powered by
stamp for sensor events. reader; no date/time stamp.
Data storage Large read/write data storage Small read/write data storage
(128 kB) with sophisticated data (example:128 bytes).
search and access capabilities
available.
Available signal strength | High Low

from tag to reader
Communication range Long range Short or very short range (3 m or less)
Multi-tag collection Single reader can collect Single reader can collect information
information from 1000s tags within from 100 tags within 3 meters range.
range.
Cost Expensive Cheaper than active RFID tag.
Cs ‘
5.4 Limitations of RFID System
RFID systems aren't ideal compared to other tracking labels for a number of reasons.
Some problems with RFID are listed as follows:
i. Security and technological issues: Because an RFID tag cannot distinguish between
readers, the information can be read by almost anyone once it has left the original supply
chain. Because RFID readers are so portable, and the range of some tags so great, many
scanners can easily gather information. This means that anyone can collect potentially
sensitive information without a person's knowledge.
ii. Another security concern for consumers is that RFID tags can be linked to individual
credit cards, creating the potential for financial theft and fraud.
ili. Technology-wise, RFID tags are problematic because of lack of global or industrial
standards. Since they operate on radio frequency, RFID tags and their systems can also
easily become jammed or disrupted, reducing their usability.
iv. Some signaling issues can occur with RFID inventory systems, including collision - when
signals from two or more readers overlap. Interference may be caused by metal, water, or
other magnetic fields in the surrounding area.
Setting up of an RFID system is time-consuming, critical and costly.
5.5 RFID Frequency
RFID tags use three main frequencies for communication in LF, HF and UHF bands. These are :
i. LF range: 125 - 134 kHz, Detection range is 10-15 cm
HF range: 13.56 MHz, detection range is 1.5 meters
iii. Ultra High Frequency (UHF): 433 MHz, 865 - 960 MHz, detection range is upto 12
meters.
os
2-28 j vision © Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
The eens ap ee use asta i ila which are listed in ane table:
LF: : 120-1 50 kHz 10-15cm | Low Animal identification, factory data

collection
HF: 13.56 MHz 1.5m Low to Smart cards
moderate non-compliant memory cards
|ISO-compatible microprocessor cards
UHF: 433 MHz 1-100m | Moderate Defense applications, with active tags
UHF: 865 - 868 MHz (Europe) 1-12m | Moderateto | EAN, various standards; used by
902-928 MHz (North America) high railroads
5.6 RFID Applications
RFID applications can be categorized into two types: firstly, short range applications where the
reader and tag must be in close proximity (such as in access control) and secondly, medium to
long range application, where the distance may be greater (such as reading across a distribution
centre).
Some of the typical applications are listed below.
i. Inventory management
ii. Asset tracking
iii. Personnel tracking
iv. Controlling access to restricted areas
v. ID Badging
vi. Supply chain management
vii. Counterfeit prevention (e.g., in the pharmaceutical industry)

as
6. GPS (Global Positioning System)
6.1 Introduction
Most of us use GPS every single day. It has become an inseparable part of our life. It can be
Google map or any other GPS based navigation application.
Global positioning system is a navigation system based on a satellite communication. It has

created the revolution in navigation and position location. It is mainly used in positioning,
navigation, monitoring and surveying applications. The major advantages of satellite navigation
are real time positioning and timing synchronisation.
GPS is built by U.S. Department of Defense. It became fully operational since 1995. It was
initially developed for military use for accurate targeting, location awareness and monitoring etc.
In 1970, there was an urgent demand for improving long-distance positioning.
Traditional LORAN (Long Range Navigation) system suffers from electronic effects of weather
and in particular atmospheric effects related to sunrise and sunset and has got limited capacity.
So GPS based on satellite navigation system got developed.
6.2 GPS Architecture
GPS is based on network of satellites that continuously transmit coded information through radio
signals. The receivers interpret the information transmitted from the satellite to identify the
locations on earth accurately.
GPS architecture has three segments:

i. Space/Satellite segment (GPS satellites)
ii. | Control segment (Ground control stations)
iii. | User segment (GPS receivers)
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Space segment
sina / /
Unidirectional
Control
segment segment
Figure 2.17: GPS Segments
Space segment (GPS satellites): Complete operational GPS space contains twenty four
satellites at the altitude of approximately 20,000 km. These satellites form six groups and
in each group there are four satellites (ie. 6*4 = 24). The group of four satellites is called
as one constellation. Any two adjacent constellations are separated by 60° in longitude.
The orbital period of each satellite is approximately equal to twelve hours. Hence
everyday all satellites revolve around the earth twice. At any instant, the GPS users will
get the signals from at least four satellites.
Control segment: The control segment consists of a master station and several
monitoring stations. The monitor stations continuously monitor the GPS satellite signals.
These signals are then sent to the master control station. Here operational specifications
are checked and revised. Then the control signals are transmitted back to the GPS
satellites through ground antennas.
This segment also takes care of the deviation of the satellites from the orbit and GPS
timing.
User segment: The user segment comprises of the GPS receiver, which receives the
signals from the GPS satellites and determines the locations.
6.3 GPS Receiver
Note that, in GPS system, there is only one-way transmission from satellite to users. Hence, the
individual user does not need the transmitter, but only a GPS receiver.
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Short Range Wireless... wisien \ 2-31
The block diagram of GPS receiver is shown in figure 2.18.
Satellite Receiving Low Noise Down IF :

; antenna amplifier converter amplifier ADG DSP
Signals
fl
Microprocessor
Display
Figure 2.18: Block diagram of GPS receiver
The function of each block present in GPS receiver is mentioned below:
Receiving antenna: Receiving antenna of GPS system is mainly circularly polarized and
receives the satellite signals.
ii. Low noise amplifier: The received satellite signals are weak. So they are amplified using
low noise amplifier.
ili. Down converter: It converts the frequency of received signal to an Intermediate
Frequency (IF) signal.
iv. IF amplifier: It amplifies the intermediate signals.
Vv. ADC: It accomplishes the job of converting an analog signal to digital signal. Basically, it
does sampling and quantization of received signal.
DSP: It generates the C/A code (C/A code is explained in next section).
Microprocessor: It performs the calculation of position and provides the timing signals in
order to control the operation of other digital blocks. It sends the useful information to
display unit in order to display it on the screen.
6.4 How GPS Determines a Position
Three segments of GPS work in unison resulting in accurate and reliable operation of the
positioning system.
It is based on the 'trilateration' principle. This technique determines the position by measuring
distances to points at known coordinates.
Oe
In GPS, the four satellites are used to determine the position of the receiver on the earth. Three
satellites trace the location while the fourth satellite is used to confirm the location.
The positioning system uses two main factors in determining the position:
1, Position of the user using Trilateration Principle
ii. Pseudorange Calculation
Position of the user using Trilateration Principle: To calculate the 2-D position
(latitude and longitude) of a point or to track movement, a GPS receiver must be locked
onto the signal of atleast three satellites. A single satellite tracks a general location of the
point of interest on the earth's surface. This location information is spread over a large
area. Data from a second satellite, when added to this information, allows the GPS to
narrow the location. This will be the point where the two areas of satellite data overlap.
Adding data from a third satellite provides more accurate position of the point.
The distance is measured using the equation:

Distance = Travel time x Speed of light
Here travel time is the time taken by the signals to reach the receiver.
The fourth satellite is used to re-confirm and enhance the position of the user. The receiver
determines the 3-D position, i.e., latitude, longitude and altitude of the point using the
information from the fourth satellite. Precision increases with increase in the number of
satellites in the vicinity.
Satellite
Figure 2.19: Trilateration principle
Pseudorange Calculation: We have seen that GPS satellite rotates twice a day around the
earth. It transmits signals on the same two carrier frequencies F, and F>. F, is
c oo
Short Range Wireless... - wsion \ 2-33
1575.42 MHz and F; is 1227.60MHz. Transmission uses spread spectrum technology and
it uses two codes -
a. Coarse and Acquisition code (C/A)

b. Precise code (P)
The signal F, is modulated with 1.023 Mbps pseudo random bit sequence. This code is _
called as Coarse Acquisition Code or C/A code and it is used by the public. C/A code
consists of identification of each satellite and navigation information. The C/A code
pattern is used by the user to search the specific satellite to compute the distance to each
satellite using time frames. ,
The signal, F,, is modulated with 10.23 Mbps pseudo random bit sequence. This code is
called as Precise Code or P Code and it is used in military positioning systems. The P code
gives better measurement accuracy as compared to C/A code since the bit rate of P code is
greater than the bit rate of C/A code.
6.5 GPS Errors
There are many sources of possible errors that will degrade the accuracy of positions
computed by a GPS receiver. The travel time taken by the GPS satellite signals can be
changed by atmospheric effects. For example, the speed of the GPS signal when travelling
through the ionosphere and troposphere is different than the speed of the GPS signal in
space.
ii. Another source of error is noise or distortion of the signal which causes electrical
interference or errors inherent in the GPS receiver itself.
iii. Information about satellite orbits will cause errors in determining the positions.
iv. Small variations in the electronic clock of the satellites can translate to large position
errors. A clock error of 1 nsec translates to 1 feet or 0.3 m user error on the ground.
A multipath effect occurs when signals transmitted from the satellites bounce back from a
reflective surface before reaching to receiving antenna. During this process, the receiver
gets the signal in a straight line path as well as the delayed path. The effect is similar to a
ghost.
as
2-34 / wiSion Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
6.6 Advantages of GPS
GPS satellite-based navigation system is an important tool for military, civil and
commercial users.
il. Vehicle tracking systems, GPS-based navigation systems can guide us with turn by turn
directions.
iii. Very high speed.
6.7 Disadvantages of GPS
The highest accuracy requires line-of-sight from the receiver to the satellite.
il. GPS satellite signals are too weak as compared to phone signals. So it doesn't works well
in indoor, underwater, under trees etc.
6.8 Applications of GPS
To create digital maps.

ii, To determine position locations, e.g., you need to guide CAB driver about your positon
locations so that he can pick you up.
iii. To navigate from one location to another, e.g., will guide you the path when you are
travelling to an unknown location.
iv. To determine the distance between two different points.
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Short Range Wireless .. . uision \ 2-35
Exercises
Multiple choice questions
Bluetooth is the wireless technology for

a. __ local area network b. _ personal area network
Ci both (a) and (b) d. none of these
In the piconet of bluetooth one master device

a. _- can not be slave
b. can be slave in another piconet
c. can be slave in the same piconet
d. none of these
A scatternet can have maximum

a. 10 piconets b. 20 piconets
c. 30 piconets d. 40 piconets
The bluetooth supports

a. point-to-point connections b. _ point-to-multipoint connection
c. both (a) and (b) d. __ none of these
An interconnected collection of piconet is called

a. scatternet b. —_—‘ mininet
c. —_ micronet d. _ none of these
Bluetooth transceiver operates in band?

a. 101 MHz b. 2.3 GHz
.c. . 2.4GHZ d. 2.6 GHz
Bluetooth uses
a. orthogonal frequency division multiplexing
b time division multiplexing
c. frequency hoping spread spectrum
d None of these
th
Bluetooth architecture has layers

a. ~« 5 b. 6
e 7 d. 4
What is the IEEE specification used for Bluetooth?

a. 802.15 b. 802.14
c. 802.10 d. 802.16
10. Bluetooth standard is named after

a. King Ronaldo Bluetooth
b. Pope Vincent Bluetooth
c. . King Herald Bluetooth
d. Pope Francis Bluetooth
11. Which modulation scheme is used by Bluetooth?

a. QPSK b. QAM
c. FSK d. GFSK
12; RFID stands__

a. Radio-Frequency Indication
b. Radio-Frequency Identification
c. Radio-Frequency Interconnection
13. Which of the following is not RFID type?

a. Ultra-Low frequency b. Low frequency
c. High frequency d. Ultra-High frequency
14. Which of the following businesses benefit and implemented RFID? |

a. Logistics and Transportation b. Building and Construction
c IT d. All the above
15. The information on read-only chips be changed.

a. Can b. | Cannot
c. Sometimes can d. None of the above
16. There are basic types of chips available on RFID tags.

a. Two b. Three
Cc. Four d. . Five
: ors \
17, Which one of the following statements is true?

a RFID tags require laser scanning.
b. A passive RFID tag does not use an antenna.
c. Anactive RFID tag does not require a power source.
d. Normally passive RFID tags store ID numbers.
18. Which of the following RFID tag has battery?

a. Active b. Passive
c. Active and Passive d. None of the above
19. Basic elements of RFID system are

a. RFID tag b. RFID reader
c. RFIDComputersystem d.__ All of the above
20, Which of the following statements about radio frequency identification (RFID) is not true?
a. Companies may be required to upgrade hardware and software to accommodate the
massive amounts data that are being produced by RFID systems.
b. RFID systems transmit radio signals over long distances.
c. RFID systems use tiny tags with embedded microchips containing data about an
item and its location.
d. RFID systems provide a powerful technology for tracking the movement of goods
throughout the supply chain.
21. What is the use of the RFID Module?

a. Object Identification b. To provide 3G Connectivity
c. To measure temperature d. To measure Wi-Fi strength
22: Zigbee network layer supports the following topologies except:

a. tree b. bus
c. star d. mesh
23. In a Zigbee network, a single device that controls the network is called
a. ‘master b. server
c. coordinator d. —_— pointer
24. Devices being controlled in a zigbee network are known as

a. end devices b. clients
c. Slaves d. —_ coordinators
i
2-38 / wisian Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
25. Which of the following is not a characteristic of a Zigbee network?

a. | Low Power Consumption b. High data rates
c. Easy installation d. Unlicensed radio bands
26. Which of the following layers are defined by the Zigbee Stack?
a. Network layer b. Physical Layer
c. Application Support Layer d. | Medium Access Layer
ms What is the typical range of transmission distance in a ZigBee network?

a Sm -b 50m
c. 500m d. Skm
28. To determine the accurate position of the object, GPS receiver must receive signals from -
satellites?
a. 1 b. 2
Cc. 3 d 4
29. What does GPS stand for?

a. Going Places Sometimes
b. — Global Positioning System
c. | Government Positioning Satellites
d. Global Positioning Satellites
30. What is the total number of GPS satellites?

a 4 b. 6
c 6:10 d. 24
31. What kind of information does a GPS satellite transmit to the GPS receiver?
a. The orbital information for all the other GPS satellites in the fleet
b. The time the message was sent
c. The location of the GPS satellite
d. All of these
a2: What is the approximate time taken by the GPS for one complete orbit?
a. 11 minutes b. 45 minutes
c. 5 hours d. =: 12 hours
33. What is the reason for sending two transmissions in the same band?
a. Redundancy b. Ionosphere refraction corrections
c. Multiplexing d. Reducing traffic
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Short Range Wireless... wsion \ 2-39
34. Accuracy of the position through can be influenced by

a. Refraction b. Reflection
c. Signal strength d. Position of satellite
35. Basic principle of GPS positioning is

a. Analytical resection b. Triangulation
c. Trilateration d. Graphical resection
36. Incase of GPS positioning, positions of are considered to be objects at

known positions
a. Receivers b. Satellites
c. Controllers d. Signals
37. The most significant error in GPS is

a. Ionosphere error b. Cycle slip
c. receiver clock d. User
B. Answer in one or two lines
1. Name any two short range wireless technologies.
2: What is advantages of bluetooth technology.
3. What is operating frequency band of bluetooth technology?
4. Define piconet and scatterenet for Bluetooth technology.
5. Draw piconet and scatternet architecture.
6. | How Bluetooth devices are classified according to output power?
7. Which spread spectrum technology is used in bluetooth?
8. What is the bandwidth of one channel of bluetooth?
9. Which modulation technique is used in bluetooth?

10. Draw bluetooth packet format.
11. What is maximum length of access code and state its different fields.
12. What are advantages of ZigBee?
13. What is IEEE standard on which ZigBee is operated?

lke
14. How ZigBee devices/nodes are classified?
15. Name the layers of ZigBee architecture.
16. Name the ZigBee topologies.

17. Mention any four disadvantages of ZigBee.
18. What is difference between RFID and bar code?
19. Name the components of RFID tag.
20. Which are two types of RFID tuvet
21. What is active RFID tag?
225 What is passive RFID tag?
23. - Mention any two limitations of RFID.
24. Which frequency bands are normally used by RFID.
20: State any two applications domains of RFID.
26. Who has developed Z-wave protocol?
rae State five layers of Z-wave protocol?
28. Give frame format of transport frame.
2: Give any two features of Z- wave.
30. Which are applications of GPS?
ahs Which are three segments of GPS?
a2. Which are block of GPS receiver?
33. Which two principles are used by GPS to determine position?
34. Name the two codes used on psedorange calculations.
30. Which are main error sources of GPS to locate position?
36. Mention any two advantages of GPS system.
Bh. Mention any two disadvantages of GPS system.

(rs
Short Range Wireless . . . wien \ 2-41
C. — Answer in detail
1. Explain piconet-of Bluetooth.
2. Explain scatternet of Bluetooth.
3. Explain Bluetooth protocol stack.
4. — Indetail explain core protocol of bluetooth.
5. Which protocols are adopted by bluetooth architecture.
6. Explain Bluetooth frame structure.
7. Explain ZigBee devices architecture.
8. Draw and explain ZigBee architecture.
9. Explain following topologies used in ZigBee

i. Star ii, Tree
iii. Cluster tree iv. Mesh
10. What are advantages and disadvantages of ZigBee system?
11. Write application domain of ZigBee. Explain any one in detail.
12. How Zigbee is useful in Wireless Sensor Network(WSN).
13. Compare Bluetooth and Zigbee.
14. Explain working of RFID system.
15. Write note on RFID tag.
16. Explain passive RFID tag.
17. Explain active RFID tag.
18. Compare active and passive RFID tags.
19. Which are limitations of RFID systems?
20. Explain Z-wave architecture.
21. Write in detail transport layer of Z-wave.
22. . Which tasks are performed by network layer of Z-wave?
23. Write any four features of Z-wave. .

a
2-42 / wisiem Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
24. Explain three segments of GPS.
25. Write note on space/ satellite segment of GPS.
26. Draw and explain GPS receiver.

27. How GPS determines a position of an Object?
28. How trilateration principle is used for position detection in GPS?
29. Explain pseudorange calculation method for position detection in GPS.
30. Which are sources of errors in locating correct position using GPs.
Answers
lL ob 2. »b 3. a 4 ¢c 3 a
6. c¢ 2 6¢ 8. a 9 06a 10. c¢
ll. d 12. b 13. b 14. d 15. b

16. a Ws *S 18. b 19. d 20. a
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(7s
VISION
loT Architecture
Unit
1. Introduction to loT
For last five decades, growing applications in wireless communication have been witnessed
since the evolution of Internet. The internet has undergone severe changes since its first launch
"ARPANET" in 1960s.
The reach of internet is growing faster than ever before. The internet is not just limited to
desktop, laptops, smartphones, but new internet connected devices has been introduced to the
general public. The things you used to read in the science fiction novels are now becoming real
because of the new upcoming technology "INTERNET OF THINGS". The Internet of Things
(IoT) has gradually transformed the way daily tasks are completed. The technology has made our
lives more comfortable and secure. Smart home, smart city, smart medical wearable gadgets are
all examples of IoT. Let us consider an example of smart home for instance. People can start
their cooling devices, lights, various appliances remotely through their mobile phones or can be
programmed for automatic On/Off.
Below are some of the interesting applications of loT system:
i, In morning, when you open your eyes, you noticed that alarm rings at 6.15 am while you
have set it for 6.00 am. You must be wondering how it could happen without human
intervention. But it's possible in IoT world. The clock has checked the train timing online
3-1
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3-2 j vision © Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
and got the information that your train is delayed by 15 minutes. So it lets you sleep a
little longer.
ii. In your kitchen, a blinking light reminds you it's time to take your tablets if you forget to
take it on time.
ili. | Your umbrella handle is lit up automatically and has indicated you to carry it with you as
umbrella has received weather reports which has predicted rainfall.
iv. Refrigerator place an order to shopkeeper for eggs after noticing that egg-tray is empty.
v. In advance, one will receive intimation on mobile by car indicating the less fuel level in
the tank and warns you about need of refilling it.
There are such ‘N’ numbers of examples of the internet of things in our daily lives. In all these
examples, we have used the internet to send/receive the information. Note that in each case the
gadget that was connected to the internet wasn't a computer, tablet or a mobile phone but an
object or a thing like alarm clock, tablet, umbrella, refrigerator and car. These things are
designed for a specific purpose.
So let us study details of interesting and upcoming technology: Internet of Things!!
2. What is Internet of Things?
Let us see the technical definition of IoT. It is a global network of interconnecting devices that
interact with each other and with user using different communication methods.
There are basically three components of IoT:
i Physical object
ii. Controller, sensor and actuators
iii. Internet
(4s
loT Architecture WiSION 3-3
Thus very simple equation of IoT is:
Physical Object
+
Controller, Sensor, and Actuator

+
Internet
Internet of Things
An equation for the Internet of Things
In previous courses of electronics subjects, you have separately studied these three components.
Integration of proper devices will make an IoT system.
3. Evolution of loT
As stated earlier, history of IoT started with ARPANET. During recent years, one of the most
familiar name scaling new heights and creating a benchmark is Internet of Things (IoT). It has
transformed Things (objects) of the real world into smarter devices.
Since its invention, IoT technology has paved a journey so successful that today IoT is one of the
topmost business drivers. Let us have a look at how the evolution of IoT happened over a period
of time along with the timelines:
i. Year 1999: The term Internet of Things (IoT) was framed by Kevin Ashton, MIT in 1999.
He linked objects to the internet using the RFID tags.
ii. Year 1999: In the same year, Device to Device (D2D) communication concept was
coined by Bill Joy.
iii. | Year 2000: LG Internet Digital DIOS invented the first internet connected refrigerator in
the world. It had used a LAN port for IP connectivity. .
iv. Year 2001: David Brock MIT, proposed a new object identification scheme for unique
identification and tracking of objects throughout the product life cycle using the internet.
ae
3-4 Z vision == Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
Vv. Year 2003: The ‘Project JXTA-C’, enabled a web of things. The aim of the project was to
assign a unique number for every object to replace the unique barcode system in the
world.
Year 2005: Single-board micro-controller was developed at Italy.
Year 2008: Various industrialists formed the IPSO Alliance to promote technology
related with connected devices. This was a major jump towards implementation of IoT on
larger scale.
Year 2011: The most recent version of Internet Protocol was released. Launching of new
protocol IPv6 was a turning point for IoT.
ix. Year 2013-14: IoT devices started using sensors to accurately sense the surrounding
environment parameters. This allowed people to control home lighting, garage doors from
their phones.
xX. Year 2014: Dublin became the first oT city. Smart Dublin installed hundreds of smart
bins, sensors for monitoring flood levels and sensors for monitoring sound level of city.
Year 2017 onwards: Billions of IoT devices got installed for military, healthcare,
agriculture, industrial automation, transportation etc. purposes.
Figure 3.] shows percentage of 10 most widely used IoT applications.
@ @& smarthome | | #1 100%

@ @ Wearables
(3) tala Smart city
@ de ew
® & Smart grid
© mm Connected
car
Comoresed [AerTao,
© Gy Connect
eS Smart retail [Jax
© @ oan” Oe
Figure 3.1: Popularity of loT applications
loT Architecture wsien \ 3-5
Future of loT
It is predicted that over zettabytes of IoT devices will be connected to the internet till 2025.
Though it's difficult to predict exact number, we can all agree that the IoT industry will continue
to grow and progress with continued innovation.
4. M2M and loT
In previous sections, we have learned about basis of IoT and its evolution. Another term which is
often used synonymously with IoT is Machine-to-Machine (M2M). Though IoT and M2M are
often used interchangeably, there are certain differences between M2M and IoT. These are
discussed in this section.
4.1 M2M
Machine-to-Machine (M2M) refers to networking of machines (or devices). It's main purpose is
remote monitoring, control and data exchange. Architecture of M2M system consists of:
i, | M2Marea network
ii, Communication network
iti. Application domain
Now let us study these in detail.
i. M2M area network: It comprises of machines which are also called as M2M nodes.
These have hardware modules for sensing, actuation and communication.
ii, Communication network: It provides connectivity to remote M2M area networks. The
communication network can be. either wired or wireless. It uses IP-based networks.
Various communication protocols used are ZigBee, Bluetooth, M-bus, 6LoWPAN, IEEE
802.15.4 etc.
To enable the communication between remote M2M area networks, M2M gateways are
used. Gateway performs translations from/to native protocols to/from Internet Protocol
(IP). .
C2
3-4 / visi0M = Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
Vv. Year 2003: The ‘Project JXTA-C’, enabled a web of things. The aim of the project was to
assign a unique number for every object to replace the unique barcode system in the
world.
Year 2005: Single-board micro-controller was developed at Italy.
Year 2008: Various industrialists formed the IPSO Alliance to promote technology
related with connected devices. This was a major jump towards implementation of IoT on
larger scale.
Vili. Year 2011: The most recent version of Internet Protocol was released. Launching of new
protocol IPv6 was a turning point for JoT.
Year 2013-14: IoT devices started using sensors to accurately sense the surrounding
environment parameters. This allowed people to control home lighting, garage doors from
their phones.
xX. Year 2014: Dublin became the first IoT city. Smart Dublin installed hundreds of smart
bins, sensors for monitoring flood levels and sensors for monitoring sound level of city.
Year 2017 onwards: Billions of IoT devices got installed for military, healthcare,
agriculture, industrial automation, transportation etc. purposes.
Figure 3.1 shows percentage of 10 most widely used IoT applications.
@) @é Smart home
® Q Wearables
(3) blab Smart city

@ & Smart grid
tisduetwat
© edhe internet
© im © Connected
© eo Somesen
car
|@ WB smart retail []2%

@ @ estoyJo
Figure 3.1: Popularity of loT applications
C 2s
loT Architecture wisten \ 3-5
Future of loT
It is predicted that over zettabytes of IoT devices will be connected to the internet till 2025.
Though it's difficult to predict exact number, we can all agree that the JoT industry will continue
to grow and progress with continued innovation.
4, M2Mand lot
In previous sections, we have learned about basis of IoT and its evolution. Another term which is
often used synonymously with IoT is Machine-to-Machine (M2M). Though IoT and M2M are
often used interchangeably, there are certain differences between M2M and IoT. These are
discussed in this section.
4.1 M2M
Machine-to-Machine (M2M) refers to networking of machines (or devices). It's main purpose is
remote monitoring, control and data exchange. Architecture of M2M system consists of:
i. M2Marea network
ii | Communication network
iii, Application domain
Now let us study these in detail.
i. | M2M area network: It comprises of machines which are also called as M2M nodes.
These have hardware modules for sensing, actuation and communication.
ii. Communication network: It provides connectivity to remote M2M area networks. The
communication network can be. either wired or wireless. It uses IP-based networks.
Various communication protocols used are ZigBee, Bluetooth, M-bus, 6LoWPAN, IEEE
802.15.4 etc.
To enable the communication between remote M2M area networks, M2M gateways are
used. Gateway performs translations from/to native protocols to/from Internet Protocol
(IP). .
(2s
iii. Application domain: M2M has various application domains such as smart metering,
home automation, industrial automation, smart grids etc. Application domain of M2M
designs, architecture for data collection, storage and analysis according to application
requirement.
M2M application
M2M area network
ae
Client
application
oe. Bomain
Figure 3.2: M2M system architecture
4.2 Differences between lol and M2M
Though both M2M and IoT involve networking of machines and devices, they differ in the
underlying technologies, system architectures and types of applications. Major differences are
listed below:
l“%
loT Architecture eae \ 3-7
Parameter M2M loT
Communication Commonly used protocols are mainly Protocols used are of above network
Protocol below network layer protocols such as layer protocols such as HTTP, Web
ZigBee, Bluetooth, PLC, BLoWPAN, Sockets, MQTT, DDS, AMQP etc.
IEEE 802.15.4, Z-Wave.
Machines in M@2M Typically have homogenous machine "Things" in loT are heterogeneous
vs Things in loT types within an M2M area network. physical objects having unique |P/MAC
addresses.[e.g. smart home includes
loT devices of various types such as fire
alarms, door alarms, lighting control
devices etc.]
Hardware vs Emphasis of M2M is more on hardware The emphasis of loT is more on
Software with embedded modules. software.
emphasis
Data collection M2M data is collected in point solutions The data in loT is collected in cloud
and analysis and often in on-premises storage (either public or private or hybrid).
infrastructure.
Applications Application domains include diagnosis | Since cloud is used for massive data
applications, service management collection, cloud-based real-time and
applications and on premises enterprise batch data analysis frameworks can be
applications. used. So loT is used in applications in
education, healthcare, finance, retail,
supply-chain, manufacturing and other
industries.
5. lol Architecture
Widespread use of IoT demands a reliable architecture for successful implementation of IoT
applications. Typically, the seven layer architecture used for IoT has the following layers:
1 Physical devices and controllers (The "Things" in IoT)
ii, | Connectivity (Communication and Processing units)
iii. | Edge computing (Data Element Analysis and Transformation)
iv. Data Accumulation (Storage)
v._ Data Abstraction (Aggregation and Access)
vi. Application (Reporting, Analytics, Control)
vii. Collaboration and Processes (Involving people and business processes)

Lk
3-8 j visian Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
involving people and Business processes
Reporting, Analytics, Control

oe
_———> Aggregation and Access
Data Accumulation ————® Storage
—_._-—-» Data Element Analysis and Transformation
Communication and Processing units
i ees
eR Ohi
Bos > The "Things" in loT
Figure 3.3: Seven layer architecture of loT
Layer 1: Physical Devices
The first layer is covered with the "Things" in the IoT. It has controllers and physical
equipments which are used to control devices and to send/receive data.
Layer 2: Connectivity
This layer is responsible for communication between devices via multiple networks. It
executes the following tasks:
a. Setup aconnection with the first layer devices
b. Deliver the data throughout the network
c. Implement different device compatible protocols
d. Used for routing and switching
e. Serves as an added protection measure for the network

ey
loT Architecture Wwision \ 3-9
iii. Layer 3: Edge Computing
This is an important layer of loT architecture which takes care of data formatting. It
performs the following tasks:
a. Filter the data

b. Clean up the data
c. Aggregate the data
d. Provide evaluation for validation so that the data can be processed by the fourth
layer.
e. Reformat the data so that it can help in. more complex and higher level
computations.
i. Used for expanding and decoding
g. Compress the data to reduce traffic
h. — Generate events for any alerts
iv. Layer 4: Data Accumulation
The real-time data coming from the sensor is constantly changing. After data is filtered
through the layer 3, a lot of data is decreased. Data accumulation layer maintains the data
in an accessible format.
Layer 5: Abstraction
The objective of this layer is to render data along with its storage with such a strategy that
can help developers to write easier applications.
vi. Layer 6: Application
It processes data in order to ensure that it is accessible for everyone. It is associated with
both the physical and software layer. It is used for data interpretation to create reports.
vii. Layer 7: Collaboration and Processes
Seventh layer offers action or response that can help against the provided data. For
example, this action can be an electromechanical device's actuation after a trigger from the
controller.
3-10 / visi == Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
6. Role of Cloud in loT
Apart from providing smarter solutions for homes and housing communities, oT has also been
used in business environments across various industries. However. with the amount of huge
amount of data that is generated by IoT. a lot of strain is put on the internet infrastructure. This
has made businesses and organizations look for an option that would reduce this load. Use of
cloud in JoT system is the solution for this.
Today. cloud computing has more or less penetrated mainstreams of IT and its infrastructure.
Many tech biggies such as Amazon. Alibaba. Google and Oracle are building machine learning
tools with the help of cloud technology to offer a wide range of solutions to businesses
worldwide.
6.1 Advantages of using Cloud in loT
Increased data storage: Cloud acts as a large, virtually never ending storage for huge
data generated in IoT applications. It also manages big data and has virtually unlimited
computing capabilities.
ii. Mobility: The data stored and processed in the cloud server can be accessed from almost
anywhere in the world. It means that it won't be bound by any infrastructural or network
limitations. Mobility is very essential when it comes to IoT projects requiring real-time
monitoring and management of connected devices. It allows developers to implement
projects without delay.
iii. Provides security and privacy: Cloud has made IoT more secure with preventive,
detective and corrective controls. It has enabled users with strong security measures by
providing effective authentication and encryption protocols.
iv. Scalability: What exactly does scalability mean as it pertains to the Internet of Things?
Scale. by definition, refers to the capability of a system, network, or process to handle a
growing amount of work. or its potential to be enlarged in order to accommodate that
growth,
Cloud-based IoT system is easily scalable. It’s possible to add another virtual server or
more cloud space to implement new techniques. Furthermore, IoT cloud platform services
offer flexibility in case you want to scale down the number of IoT-enabled devices. On the
loT Architecture disten \ 3-11
other hand. scaling up of IoT system without cloud requires purchasing of hardware and
upgradation of configuration. This would increase developing time and cost.
Vv. Removes entry barrier for hosting providers: Today. many innovations in the field of
IoT need plug-and-play hosting services. With the cloud, most hosting providers allow
their clients a ready-to-roll model.
Thus cloud computing and IoT work towards increasing the efficiency of everyday tasks
and both have a complementary relationship. On one hand. IoT generates lots of data
while on the other hand. cloud computing paves way for this data to travel. It is essential
that both cloud and JoT form cloud-based IoT applications in a bid to make the most out
of their combination. This alliance has led to the success of IoT.
6.2 Cloud Topologies
Cloud computing is dictated by some specific topologies. One has to select the proper one as per
the application. Cloud topology can be broadly categorized as:
Types of cloud
|
Public cloud Private cloud Hybrid cloud
Public Cloud: In this topology. a third party owns and manages the entire infrastructure
ee
.
and the hardware of a business. User has to pay only for the consumed resources and need
not worry about the hardware. Therefore. public cloud is the most cost effective topology
for cloud server hosting.
Public
cloud
Figure 3.4: Public Cloud

a ze
The features of public cloud are:
High scalability
a PS
Pay as you use

Cost-effective
9
Easy deployments
a
Reliable
©
f. Continuous uptime
g. Zero maintenance
ee
il. Private Cloud: Private cloud can be of two types - dedicated private cloud and managed
private cloud.
In dedicated private cloud, the hardware is placed at a data center. It is managed and
owned by the user. Obviously, this is the most expensive setup. Therefore, dedicated
private cloud is mostly used by large organizations.
In managed private cloud, the hardware is managed by a third party and is installed at an
external location. Here, one can utilize the best of a dedicated private cloud's control and
security while reducing complexity of creating a data center.
gir A * ee
wf
Private
%
cloud g”
~ Pe i
Sy
Organization Security
Figure 3.5: Private Cloud

N\
loT Architecture wision \ 3-13
The features of private cloud are:

a. Most secure
b. Good performance
c. High reliability
d. _—_ Less risky
e. Agility
f. — Efficient
iii. Hybrid Cloud: Hybrid cloud is a combination of the public and private clouds. It
combines control and security of private cloud and cost saving advantage of public cloud.
It achieves this by using the public cloud for non-critical information while the private
cloud is utilized for sensitive data.
Figure 3.6: Hybrid cloud = Public Cloud + Private Cloud
The features of hybrid cloud are:

a. High scalability
b. Very secure
c. Improved cost
d. High reliability —
e. Easy transition
C? ‘
3-14 j wisian © Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
6.3 Cloud Access
In the previous section, we have seen advantage of using Cloud in IoT. A cloud-based service
can be utilized and consumed in different ways. There are three key service models in the cloud.
i. Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)
ii. Platform as a Service (PaaS)
ili. Software as a Service (SaaS)
IaaS (Infrastructure as a Service): It is the most basic level of cloud based solutions. In
this model, outsourcing of infrastructure elements is allowed. e.g., storage, networking,
load balancers and virtualization. If anyone wants to deploy cloud application, he/she has
to install images of the operating system along with the concerned application software. In
IaaS, the user is responsible to maintain, update and patch the operating system and install
the required application software. Cloud provider will charge the concern depending upon
the usage of provided resources.
Advantage: laaS offers high level control by which one can select the basic components of
infrastructure. The pooling of storage and computing resources. can allow with easy and
quick scaling.
e.g. Amazon EC2 and $3, Google Compute Engine, Windows Azure.
PaaS (Platform as a Service): In PaaS. apart from providing an infrastructure. cloud

providers also issue an on-demand computing environment to develop, test, run and
collaborate with components such as web services, database management systems and
software development kits for various programming languages. In PaaS, the lower level is
not user headache. Security, load balancers, network topology and the infrastructure are
managed by the cloud provider.
One can easily use PaaS platform to deploy his/her own applications and configure them
to scale down or scale up own functionalities.
Advantages: User need not worry about managing operation system, running updates or
upgrading the hardware. It is the responsibility of cloud provider.
e.g., AWS. Elastic Beanstalk, Heroku, Google App engine.
SaaS (Software as a Service): SaaS providers offer fully functional web-based

application softwares. SaaS provider is responsible to supervise everything, which
ic As
loT Architecture wsion \ 3-15
includes firewalls, load balancers and infrastructure. Runtime environments and operating
systems like Java and .NET. business applications and even emails are handled by the
provider. The user of SaaS service is known as tenant. The architecture is known as a
multitenant architecture. The provider vertically partitions its servers.
Advantage: It does not need much investment for software licensing or servers.
e.g., Microsoft Office 365.
Following is a diagrammatic representation of the above three service categories:
laaS
(Network
8 architects)
oO
3g PaaS
tn (Application
2 developers)
g SaaS
§ (Users) Wv
Ease and manageability
Figure 3.7: Cloud access Types
7. Communication Protocol used in loT
Communication protocol is one of the important piece in IoT for seamless connectivity. The IoT
system uses number of protocols intended to serve different purposes. Communication speed,
reliability and connection durability affects the IoT system performance.
or:
3-16 / vision — Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
Following are the IoT protocols used at different architecture layers of IoT.
Application Layer
= ao. a.
= E S < g a
F Ss 2 § i) x
Transport Layer
TCP | UDP
Network Layer
IPv4 / |Pv6
Physical and Link Layer
Ethernet, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, ZigBee, Z-wave, Cellular
Figure 3.8: Communication protocol suite used in loT
7.1 Physical and Link Layer Protocol
Developers and engineers can use a wide range of connectivity options with IoT systems and
products. The network protocols used are Wi-Fi, ZigBee, Bluetooth, 3G/4G/5G cellular etc.
i. Bluetooth: It is one of the most important networking protocols used for wearable
devices.
ii. | ZigBee: It is used more in industrial set ups. ZigBee Remote Control (RF4CE) provides
high security, scalability, robustness and low power consumption for complex systems
along with a high number of nodes. It can increase the sensor networks and wireless
control in the loT and M2M applications.
iii. | Z-wave: This low power RF communication protocol is used for the IoT automation
system. It works with less than 1 GHz band, data rate of 100 kbits/s and can provide
control of at least 232 devices.
Cs \
iv. Wi-Fi: Widespread use of Wi-Fi devices at homes/offices, it is used for speedy transfer of
huge data. However, it consumes large power for several IoT applications.
v. Cellular: Long distance communication applications of IoT use 3G/4G/SG cellular. The
protocol is recommended for IoT systems that involves sensors and deals with low data
bandwidth.
7.2. Network Layer _
One of the prominent protocol used in IoT applications is Internet Protocol version 6 or IPv6.
Exponential increase of interconnected users, platforms, devices and various other services has
created a challenge of assigning unique identity to each. To overcome this, IPv6 came into
existence in 1998. It allows IP address of 128 bits. This naturally gives us a massive amount of
billions of unique IP addresses. However in IoT, one has to consider the power consumption of
all the devices. The devices should be low power and very reliable, while still being capable of
connecting to the Internet. To accomplish this, 6LoWPAN was put forward. The details of this
are explained in subsequent sections.
7.3 Transport Layer
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Diagram Protocol) are the most widely
used protocols for transportation.
i. TCP is connection oriented. Once a connection is established, data is transmitted between

systems over a network in the form of packets. It includes error checking, guarantees the
delivery and preserves the order of the data packets.
ii. | UDP is a connectionless protocol. It is faster than TCP. However, it provides only basic
error checking support so the delivery of data to the destination can't be guaranteed.
7.4 Application Layer
This is the highest layer of protocol where users are mostly interacting while prototyping an IoT
projects. Commonly used protocols are: http, SMTP, MQTT, DNS, DHCP, CoAP etc.
Lk
3-18 / vigiax = Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol) is a simple widely used protocol for IoT devices
when there is a lot of data to be published. It uses client/server model. It is not suitable in
resource constraint environment because it is extremely heavy-weight and incurs a large
parsing overhead.
MQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport): It is a light-weight messaging

protocol designed for limited network bandwidth. It uses publish/subscribe mechanism for
exchanging messages via a message broker. It was developed initially by IBM for M2M
communication and is playing a crucial role in the IoT.
SMQTT (Secure Message Queue Telemetry Transport): It is an encryption based light

weight messaging protocol giving more security.
CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol): It is specially designed for limited hardware.

The hardware that does not support HTTP can use CoAP protocol. It is a light weight
client-server based model and is used for communication between battery powered IoT
devices.
V. DDS (Data Distribution Service): It is an M2M application layer protocol for reai-time
systems. Like MQTT. it is based on publish/ subscribe mechanism. It does not require any
networking middleware and programming as it does not verify existence or location at the
nodes and confirmation of the message delivery.
8. Cross Connectivity across loT System Components
IoT connectivity is a term defining connection between all the points in the IoT ecosystem. The
core modules of IoT ecosystem are:
Sensors. endpoints. analytics, data management, data communication and protocols.

tf
loT Architecture viSias \ 3-19
f Data \
\ Management /
Figure 3.9: Core Model of loT
IoT platforms operate and provide several data and intelligence features with the help of sensors.
Sensors collect data and forward it to other IoT modules.
An endpoint is a physical device that executes a task or a function as a component of an IoT

solution. .
Data communication module communicates the data between various devices in loT. The data
is properly managed and analysed by Data management and analytics module.
Protocol is one of the important part of IoT system as without these various modules cannot
understand each other's language and fail to communicate.
In all these processes, an IoT gateway plays a key role. The IoT gateways are programmed
hardware devices which form the communication bridge for different technologies. It creates a
bridge between the IoT sensors/ actuators and the internet. The loT gateway aggregates all data,
translates sensor's protocols, and pre-process the data before sending it.
An IoT gateway enables loT communications, usually
1 Device to Gateway
ii. | Gateway to Cloud
ili. Device to Cloud

3-20 if uisign = Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
e
Device to Gateway: Here application layer gateway is used as a channel between an JoT
device and cloud service. In layman terms, it is an application software running on a local
gateway device.
This model is common in many consumer devices/smart gadgets. Most of the time, a
smartphone is used as a local gateway. Connection is established by an application
running on smartphone. The connection may be established using access point using
router, switch or hub. Hub can also be used as a gateway especially in home/office
automation system.
Gateway to Cloud: This model is used for long range IoT applications. Here dedicated
protocols are designed to send small amount of sensor data over a large distance. It uses
wired LAN, WAN, cellular network or satellite links to establish faster connectivity
between gateway to cloud.
iii. Device to Cloud: In this communication model, the IoT device establishes a direct
connection with an Internet cloud service. An application software controls the transfer of
data. The model uses Wi-Fi and wired Ethernet to connect an IP network with a device
after which it finally establishes a connection with the cloud service. In this mode, IoT
device must be uniquely identified, located and allocated an IP address. This method is
cost effective as compared to the above two.
9. Network Technologies
The situation of network technologies is totally different in IoT network. Most IoT sensors are
designed for a single job and they are typically small and inexpensive. This means that they
often have limited power, processing capabilities and memory storage. They transmit only when
there is something important. Because of the massive scale of these devices and the huge
uncontrolled environments where they are usually deployed, the networks
that provide
connectivity also tend to be very lossy and support very low data rates. To meet the constrained
nature of IoT systems, IoT requires a new breed of connectivity technologies that meet both the
scale and constraint limitations.
LPLAN, LPWAN are types of wireless telecommunication networks designed to meet the above
requirements.
C s
loT Architecture vision \ 3-21
9.1 Low Power Local Area Networking (LPLAN)
This networking is used for smart home/office applications. It’s connectivity range as well as
number of IoT devices that can be connected are limited. Therefore this is not widely used for
IoT networking.
9.2 LPWAN (Low Power Wide Area Network)
The name itself is self-explanatory. It is a new type of technology which is developed in 2013
and is used in many IoT applications. The most prominent features of LPWAN are:
i. LPWAN provides long-range communication.
-ii. | LPWAN has less bit rate.
iii. |. LPWAN devices has low power consumption.
iv. _LPWAN devices have good battery life as they transmit small packets of data at random
intervals.
v. | LPWAN offers better connectivity
Because of the above features, many businesses utilize LPWANSs to establish their own secure
networks and link their IoT devices. For example, in application of environment monitoring,
many sensors can be deployed to monitor the air quality in an area or water level/purity of a
river.
As IoT devices have good battery life, sensors can be deployed in buildings or hard to access
areas and left there for a long time to transmit data. LPWAN facilitates a wide area of coverage
which is never limited by proximity to the distance among the access points. This power saving
translates into lower costs for the end users and companies who are using this technology.
Widely used LPWAN technologies are:
LoRaWAN, Sigfox, NB-IoT, Cat-M1
i. LoRaWAN: The LoRaWAN (Long Range WAN) is a low power wide area open access
protocol designed for long distance communication. The protocol is defined by the LoRa
Alliance. It is a cloud-based MAC layer protocol which manages communication between
LPWAN gateways and end-node devices.
3-22 / vigian Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
LoRaWAN network architecture is deployed in a star-of-stars topology in which gateways

pass the messages between end-devices and central network server. LoRa devices define
the physical layer and use spread spectrum modulation technique.
LoRaWAN operates in unlicensed ISM band and the band varies from country to country.
In India. 865 MHz - 867 MHz band is allocated for LORaWAN.
Application
End nodes Concentrator/Gateway server
Network
(Fawn server
erve | .
. Mt} °
Ethernet
Water
backhaul
mater
Trash container
NY
Gas monitoring
Figure 3.10: LoRaWAN Architecture
° End device, Node, Mote: An object with an embedded low-power communication

device.
° Gateway: LoRaWAN nodes are associated with a specific gateway. Data from end
devices is transmitted to all gateways and each gateway which receives a signal
transmits it to a cloud based network server.
e Network server: Servers that route messages from End devices to the right
application, and back. -
° Application: A piece of software, running on a server.
ii. | Sigfox: Sigfox is an LPWAN technology that offers an end-to-end IoT connectivity.
Sigfox deploys its proprietary based stations connected to back-end servers. The end
devices are connected to base stations using BPSK modulation.
Sigfox uses the frequency bandwidth efficiently and experiences very low noise levels.
This ultimately results in low power consumption and high receiver sensitivity.
ce \
iii. NB-IoT: NB-IoT is a Narrow Band IoT technology released by 3GPP in 2016. It uses
licensed frequency bands of 700 MHz, 800 MHz and 900 MHz.
The NB-IoT communication protocol functionalities are enhanced as per requirement of

IoT applications. It allows connectivity of upto 100 k end devices per cell which can be
expanded by adding more NB-T carriers. It uses FDMA technique and QPSK modulation
technique.
NB-IoT devices consume large power as compared to Sigfox and LoRa and reduces
NB-IoT end-device life time.
iv. Cat-M1: Cat-M1 is LPWAN technology which supports high data rates. It operates at 1.4
MHz bandwidth with higher device complexity/cost than NB-IoT. It uses modulation
technique of OFDM. Wider bandwidth allows data rates upto 1Mbps and more accurate
device positioning capabilities. It also supports voice calls and mobility of device. So
many times wearable devices, smart vehicles, trackers and alarm panels prefer this
technology.
9.3 Comparison of LoORaWAN, Sigfox, NB-loT, Cat-M1
LoRaWAN Sigfox NB-loT Cat-M1
i. | Long range Long range Short range Long range
ii. | Low data rates Moderate data rates Moderate data rates | High data rates
Long battery life ‘Long battery life Good battery life Low battery life
iv. | Lowcost Low cost Low cost Medium cost
. cee Modulation technique is Modulation Modulation

spectrum BPSK technique is QPSK | technique is OFDM
Vi Unlicensed ISM frequency | Unlicensed ISM Licensed LTE Uses LTE specified
* | bands are used. frequency band is used. | frequency band frequency band
vii Connectivity of upto 50k | Connectivity of upto Connectivity of upto | Connectivity of upto
* | per cell 50 k per cell 100 k per cell 50 k per cell
The IoT factors and technical differences of LORaWAN, Sigfox, NB-IoT, Cat-M1 will determine
their feasibility for specific applications. One technology cannot serve all IoT applications. One
has to select the best fitting technology as per the application under.
or
Exercises
A. Multiple choice questions
IoT stands for?

a. Introduction of Things b. — Internet of Things
c. Internet of Tracking d. _—_ Interaction of Things
2. The term "Internet of Things” was coined by?

a. Kevin Ashton b. Guido van Rossum
c. IBM d. _—_ Ross Ihaka
3. Which of the following is true about IoT?

a. The term Things in the Internet of Things refers to anything and everything in day
to day life.
b. oT has greater transparency, control, and performance.
c. Bothaandb
4. ToT is an advanced automation and analytics system which deals with?

a. sensor, networking b. electronic
c. cloud messaging d. _—_ All of the above
5. Which of the following is not an advantage of loT?
a. Improved customer engagement b. — Security
c. Reduced waste d. Enhanced data collection
6. The number of layers in the IoT Architecture?
Ae: . © b. 6
Q 7 d 8
7. Scalability of loT means:

Expandable/reducible in terms of scale or size.
aes Pp
Measurable
Increasing/decreasing monetary costs.
All of these.
MOTT stands for:

a. Message Queue Telemetry Transport
b. Multiple Queue Telemetry Transport
c. Multiple Query Transport Technique
d. Message Query Transport Technique
M2M stands for:
a. | MAC to MAC communication
b. - Machine to MAC communication
c. Machine to machine communication
d. | MAC to machine communication
10. Why is IPv6 preferred over IPv4 for loT implementations?

a. Larger addressing range b. More security
c. Bothaandb d. Neither a orb
11. Which one
of these is the most important factor to be considered in an IoT
implementation:
a. Scalability
b. Power efficiency
c. Efficient and scalable addressing schemes
d. _—_ All of these
12. Which of these is a part of the Sensing Layer of the IoT Service Oriented Architecture?
a. Service integration
b. Data storage
c. Data sensing and actuation protocols
d. Data Analytics
13. Gateway provides the connection between and
a. Cloud and controller b, Network and cloud
G: Network and controller d. Controller and device
14, CoAP is specialized in
a. Internet applications b. Device applications
c. Wireless applications d. Wired applications
fe Pe
3-26 / wisian Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
15. Which layer is HTTP?

a. Control layer b. Transport layer
c. Service layer d. Application layer
16. Which is an open standard?

a. HTTP b. CoAP
Cc. XMPP d. MQTT
17. MOQTT is_____——_ protocol.

a. Machine to Machine
b. Internet of Things
c. Machine to Machine and Internet of Things
d. Machine Things
18. Which protocol is lightweight?

a. MQTT b. HTTP
c. CoAP d. SPI
19. Which of the company is not a leader in cloud computing?

a. Google b. Amazon
c. Blackboard d. Microsoft
20. Examples of a public cloud include:

a. Amazon Web Services
b Microsoft Azure
c. Google Cloud Platform
d All of the above
21. Who is responsible for security in a public cloud service?

a. The cloud provider is responsible for data protection
b. An individual tenant is responsible for data protection
c. Both the cloud provider and the tenant are responsible for data protection
Which cloud deployment model is managed by a cloud provider, has an infrastructure that
is off site, and is accessible to the general public?
a. Public cloud b. Private cloud
c. Hybrid cloud d. None of the above
|
loT Architecture
Cr \
wision \ 3-27
ai Which one is not an element of IoT?

a. People b. Process
c. Cloud d. =‘ Things
24. Which of the following is not the component of IoT Endpoint
a. Sensor b. Gateway —
c. Communication Module d. MCU
2, in IoT as one of the key characteristics, devices have different hardware
platforms and networks.
a. Sensors b. Heterogeneity
c. Security d. Connectivity
26. Which of the following is one of the backend's built-in components of cloud computing?
a. Security b. Application
c. Storage d. Service
27. The allows systems and services to be accessible within an organization.
a. Private cloud b. Public cloud
-c. Community cloud d. Hybrid cloud
28. Which of the following is a type of Service Models?
a. Public-as-a-Service b. __ Platform-as-a-Service
c. Community-as-a-Service d. — Public-as-a-Service
29. provides the runtime environment for applications, development and
deployment tools, etc.
a. _— TaaS b. PaaS
c. SaaS d. XaaS
30. Which of the following is the most complete cloud computing service model?
a. PaaS b. —_ TaaS
c. CaaS d. SaaS
31. Which of the following is best known service model?
a. PaaS b. TaaS
C; SaaS d. all of the mentioned
Ce
3-28 / wision = Wireless Communication and Intemet of Things
32: provides virtual machines, virtual storage, virtual infrastructure, and other
hardware assets.
a. PaaS b. —_ TaaS
c. SaaS d. _ all of the mentioned
33. | Which cloud is deployed when there is a budget constraints but business autonomy is
most essential?
a. __ Private cloud b. Public cloud
c. Community cloud d. Hybrid cloud
34. cloud is one where the cloud has been organized to serve a common function
or purpose by many organizations.
a. __ Private cloud b. Public cloud
c. Community cloud d. Hybrid cloud
35. Which is not a characteristic of SaaS?

a. Multi device Support b. Web access
c. One to many d. Offline Access
36. | Which of the following is not the part of basic services offered by cloud.
a. PaaS b. SaaS
c. — TaaS d. LaaS
1. What is IoT?
2. Define M2M.
3. | Name communication protocol used in M2M.
4. | Compare M2M and IoT with respect to any two points.
5. Which are different cloud topologies?
6. Define following:
a. Private cloud
b. Public cloud
c. Hybrid cloud
7. State the need of cloud in IoT.
8. | Name the seven layers of IoT architecture,
ds
loT Architecture wien \ 3-29
9. State any two features of private cloud.

10. State any two features of public cloud.
11. State how hybrid cloud is better than public and private cloud.
12. Name three key services in the cloud. .
13. What is IlaaS?
14. What is PaaS?
15. What is Saas?
15. State following clouds are of which type?
a. Heroku
b. | Windows Azure
c. Microsoft office
16. Name the protocols used in link layer of IoT layers.
17. Name the protocols used in link layer of IoT layers
18. What is bit length of IP address in IP.
19. What is long form of SMQTT, COAP, HTTP, DDS.
20. Define 'Things' in case of IoT.
21. What is requirement of network technology in IoT?
22. State four important features of LPWAN.
23. What is the frequency band of LORaWAN?
24. What is Sigfox technology?
25. Give any one advantage of NB-IoT and Cat —M1 network technology.
C. — Answer in detall
1. Write a note on evolution of IoT.
2. Describe M2M architecture.
3. Differentiate between M2M and IoT.
4. Describe seven layer of IoT architecture.
5. Whatis the role of edge computing layer in IoT architecture?
6. Explain role of cloud in IoT.
tr
3-30 / vision Wireless. Communication and Internet of Things
7. Describe following cloud topologies:

a. Public cloud b. Private cloud c. Hybrid cloud
8. Explain features of public cloud.
9. Explain three services models of cloud access:
a. Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)
b. Platform as a Service (PaaS)

C: Software as a Service (SaaS)
10, Explain physical and Link layer protocol used in IoT.
11. Explain in detail Transport layer protocol of IoT.
12. Explain following loT gateways.
a. Device to Gateway b. GatewaytoCloud c. Device to Cloud
13. What is LPWAN technology?
14. Describe LORaWAN.
15. Write note on Sigfox.
16. Describe NB-IoT and cat-M1.
17. Compare LoRaWAN, Sigfox, NB-IoT and Cat-M1 technologies.
Answers
l. ob 7 a a 6 °t 4. d 5. b
6. c 1 d 8 a c 10. c
ll. d 12. ¢ 13. a 14. a 15. d
16. b is '@ °* 18. a 19. c¢ 20. d
21, © 22. a 23. a 24. »b 25. b

26. a oF. a 28. »b 29. »b 30. d
ab @ a2; ib 33. a 34. b 35. d
36. d
VISIO
Unit lol Applications
1. Application Domains of loT
The number of IoT devices and systems has been increasing all over the world. The range of IoT
application domain is wide and encapsulates applications from home automation to more
sophisticated environments, such as smart cities, manufacturing, supply chain, healthcare,
education, retail, government and so on.
Ce
4-2 j vision == Wireless Communication and Internet ofThings
Consumer and Home Smart Infrastructure Security and
wv _ oa ae
Surveillance
= = ae f
Healthcare
cht om Fal
lie :
Retail Industrial
e Sais
Wa Ob pees
Me bi
Figure 4.1: Day-to-day applications of loT
Major application areas are categorized for your reference and are explained:
i. | Manufacturing and Logistic: Using IoT systems, the retailer can optimize activitie
s like
automation in checking, real time stock monitoring and detection of expired stock.
On
demand information regarding goods can optimize the logistics of whole supply
chain.
Applications also include authentication of goods, anti-counterfeiting, inventor
y
management service and support.
Smart Transportation: Use of sensor network, GPS and wireless network are
—_
making
—
.
vehicles and transportation system smart, safe and efficient. Vehicle tracking, traffic
data
collection for management, traffic rule enforcement systems, are going to be a part
of an
integrated network. Another emerging application is real time traffic monitoring using
video sensors and it’s use for traffic forecasting.
6s \
loT Applications wsion \ 4-3
Manufacturing
Smart
and Transportation
Logistic
Health Environmental
Monitoring Monitoring
Home Energy
Automation and Utilities
Figure 4.2: Application domains of loT
Environmental Monitoring: Weather forecasting and environmental monitoring is very

important and valuable application of IoT. It is used to protect environment by monitoring
air or water quality, atmospheric or soil conditions. It can even include areas like
monitoring the movements of wildlife and their habitats. Development of IoT systems can
also be used for early warning systems for tsunami or earthquake and used by emergency
services to provide effective aid.
iv. Energy and Utilities: Smart electricity grid, water transmission grid, real time monitoring
of water supply and electricity usage are some of the applications of IoT in this domain.
Vv. Home Automation: IoT home automation is slowly but steadily becoming a part of daily
lives in the world. These days, there is a vast range of devices powered by IoT. These
include thermostats, refrigerators, security systems and even dryers and kettles. All these
things have sensors for data collection. The data is then used for monitoring, controlling
and transferring information to other devices via the internet. This allows specific actions
to be automatically activated whenever certain situation arises. In a simple example,
consider a smart kettle. The kettle can be programmed to automatically turn off once it
reaches a specific temperature. It might also send a notification to the user on the same.
£ pe
4-4 / wisiax Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
vi. Health Monitoring: IoT has enabled tele-monitoring of the health conditions of a person
especially the old age patients and informing doctors/relatives in case of emergency. One
can have access to electronically stored patient records and medical history from
anywhere.
The use of smart technology in healthcare has been advancing steadily with the invention
of smart insulin pens, internet connected inhalers, asthma monitors, wearable devices like
biosensors and smart watches. Use of such gadgets allows user to better manage and
address their own health needs as well as to quickly access help if something goes wrong.
2. Challenges in loT
The world is witnessing massive growth of IoT application. It is predicted that by 2025 there will
be 79 Zettabyte IoT devices (one Zettabyte = one trillion Gigabytes). This has put up many
challenges in front of IoT system researchers and developers. The major challenges are figured
out in the diagram.
Power Consumption
Scalability
Physical Security
Data Volume \ Challenges J

Durability
por < at
Secure Data Storage Secure Connectivity
Figure 4.3: Challenges of loT
i. Power consumption: All the oT devices need power in order to work. Increasing number
of IoT devices demands more power. Currently devices are using external sources like
batteries, which do not have a long life and are not economical. This.adds some functional
ors
challenges as power sources need to be replenished. Replacements of batteries or

rechargeable batteries are not feasible options. Also accessing continuous power from the
power grid is not always possible.
There are two primary ways to avoid loT power consumption issues:
a. Energy - harvesting technique, which captures energy from a device's surrounding

environment.
b. Reduction in power use by implementing protocols that conserve power. Three

examples of low-power consumption techniques are: the use of power saving mode,
employing Extended Discontinuous Reception protocols and wake-up signals.
Physical security: Security is one of the most important concern in IoT. Since billions of
devices are connecting to each other and transferring a large amount of data, security
becomes the biggest concern. The security challenges are related to security services like .
authentication, privacy, confidentiality and end-to-end security.
Main problem is any IoT device could be a possible attack target. Some devices are
located in untrusted areas and attackers can gain physical access to them and even get
control of the device.
Durability: Durability is related with the ability of a system to work within specified
limits without any maintenance. IoT system includes many "Things", sensors controllers,
actuator and communication networking devices. All these components have aging,
overheating effects or connection establishment issues. The IoT devices must sustain
mechanical shocks, vibrations or environment condition.
Thus, overall durability of IoT system is dependent on durability of each and every
component of the system.
iv. Secure connectivity: There is no standard platform and common architecture available
for IoT applications. Because of lack of open collaborative platform for all the
manufacturers, devices face problem of connectivity. IoT implementations are taking
place in fragments. There are millions of connected devices and billions of sensors and
their number is continuously increasing. All of them need secure and reliable connectivity.
Vv. Secure data storage: Data storage security involves protecting storage resources and the
data stored on them - both on premises and in external data centers and cloud. IoT data is
mostly unstructured and so can easily be stored in public cloud infrastructure. Al the
é -e
°
4-6 i visian = Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
major cloud providers offer low-cost scalable Storage systems based on object storage
technology.
vi. Data volume: With the increase in density in IoT devices and the rapid increase
in daily
generation of the huge volume of data, the data volume became a problem in IoT.
The
Statistics shows the overall data volume of connected IoT devices / connections over the
years. The growth is exponential; it is because in almost all IoT applications, real-tim
e
data is generated from sensors surveillance cameras, drones, personal devices,
gateways etc.
On this background, data management of IoT is gaining importance and researchers are
focusing on finding solutions for tackling ‘Big Data’ generated. Data authentication,
security and confidentiality also need to be taken care.
vii. Scalability: This is an upcoming challenge for major IoT implementations. A lot of data
is getting generated through this connected’ architecture, which adds pressure on
bandwidth. Hence, scalability becomes an issue where the network has to extend as we
add more devices to it.
Secondly, scalability is limited by availability of hardware components as well. Main

issue is with sensors used for IoT applications. Though many types of sensors are
available in market, one has to think about durability, power requirement, robustness,
sustainability of these when they are deployed as IoT devices.
One has to consider communication means (wire or wireless) and protocols (Bluetoot
h,
ZigBee, RFID, Wi-Fi etc.). The IoT system is highly distributed, heterogeneous and
pervasive. Dealing with such type of system, scalability is an important point in designing
a secure and reliable IoT system.
3. Case Studies
In third chapter, we got familiar with IoT architecture and network technologies. In the first
section of this chapter, we have seen various application domains of IoT. Now in this section, we
will study three cases of IoT applications in different domains.
loT Applications wision \ 4-7
3.1 Case Study 1: Smart Irrigation System for Agricultural Field
IoT is nowadays widely used in agricultural domain for irrigation system or for green house
control. Use of IoT in irrigation system optimizes the water and energy resources thus making
system more efficient and cost effective.
Objectives
i. To design a smart irrigation system using IoT devices and soil moisture sensors.
ii. To determine the amount of moisture in the soil.
iii. If moisture level goes below a predefined threshold, release the flow of water through the
irrigation pipes.
iv. To collect data of moisture levels in the cloud where it is analyzed to plan watering
schedules.
System Architecture
To accomplish the above objectives, the system architecture has been designed. Basically
moisture level of soil is measured at different locations and is used as input to the system. This
input is compared with predefined threshold level required by field. It depends upon crop type,
soil texture and growth status of crop. The switching of the water pumps is controlled remotely
after processing of real time acquired data and predefined threshold level.
For simplicity, it is divided into four broad categories:
i, Data collection of soil / environment parameters
ii. Data transmission -
iii. - Data processing and intelligence
iv. Enabling of water pumps
Following figure shows block diagram, of IoT based Irrigation System:

c Pe
4-8 / visian © Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
Weather
data SRNL NETS
I EONS
}
Ag Web service for} !

| | online weather | 3
; | data collection |
:
pe i
i i
1_| Webservice to | |
internet / | | control motor
intranet | i
i
:t i
| | Webbased | |
; | interfacefor | 3
d i real time i y
Water i | monitoring : ‘ yaya
pump 1 Al¥ ,¥ ¥ At¥
control i ; ¥ A ¥,
' + Soil moisture ol ed
! prediction i
: algorithm A - Gateway node
V¥YYY A - Sensor node
¥¥¥¥Y
Field ——j ¥.¥ ‘ wy i | Webservice |! | Wire/ wireless
y M ‘ : | | for field sensor connectivity
; | data collection | interface
t i
a » _ Jk J
ae .
Enabling of Data processing and Datatransmission Data collection
water pumps intelligence module
Figure 4.4: Smart irrigation architecture
The working of the system is as below:
Data collection of soil parameters: For irrigation system, we are interested in knowing
soil moisture, air temperature and humidity in air. For sensing these parameters, we will
require moisture, temperature and humidity sensors. For detection of moisture level of the
field, only one sensor will not be sufficient. Many moisture sensors need to be deployed at
different locations for monitoring soil moisture level. Number of sensors required and
their location is dependent on the area of field and soil morphology. These IoT devices
form a wireless sensor network and transmit data to network. For this low power ZigBee,
Wi-Fi modules can be used.
Data transmission: Real-time captured data of WSN is transmitted to server using

suitable wireless protocol.
6%
iii. Data processing and intelligence: This unit processes WSN data. It also collects weather
forecasting data like cloudiness, UV index and precipitation. Algorithms like vector
regression model and k-means clusting etc. are used to predict irrigation schedule based
on captured level of soil moisture and predicted precipitation to save water and energy.
iv. Enabling of water pumps: A water pump is connected to a relay switch that is controlled
by a Wi-Fi enabled node. The node is controlled by the web service through a- trigger
generated by data processing and intelligence unit. Thus, water pumps are managed
remotely using web based interface.
Advantages of loT based Smart Irrigation System
i. Avoids excessive use of water in irrigation
ii. Avoids under irrigation
iii. | Automated control of irrigation system increases crop yield
3.2 Case Study 2: Home Automation
Once a dream, smart homes are slowly and steadily becoming a part of daily uses around the
world. These days, most smart IoT home automation devices allow you to control them via an
app or even via voice commands.
Most of the home automation includes:
i, Smart lighting
ii. | Smart appliances
iii. Intrusion detection
iv. Smoke / gas detectors
In all the above applications, the related real-time data is collected from things using sensors.
The data is then used for monitoring, controlling and transferring information to other devices
via the internet. This allows specific actions to be automatically activated whenever certain
situation arises. In a simple example, consider a smart kettle. The kettle can be programmed to
automatically turn off once it reaches a specific temperature. It might also send a notification to
the user on the same.
oP:
4-10 / wisian == Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
The same concept can be applied to all the devices present in the home to make
them smart IoT
device.
1 Smart lighting: Smart lighting in home saves a lot of energy. It is because system
is
designed such that depending upon ambient light and occupancy in the room, lights
are
either switched off or dimmed. Smart lighting uses solid state lighting and IP enabled
lights. Wireless enabled and internet connected lights can be controlled remotely using
loT architecture. Smart lights with sensors for occupancy, temperature, required lux level,
ambient light etc. can be configured to change the light intensity/colour.
Smart appliances: Modern homes have
a number of appliances such as TVs,
refrigerators, music systems, washing machines, dishwashers; oven etc. Managing and
controlling these appliances can be tedious with each appliance having its own control or
remote controls.
Smart appliances make the management easier and also provide status information to the
users remotely. For example, smart washers/dryers that can be controlled remotely and
notify when the washing/drying cycle is completed. Smart thermostats allow controlling
the temperature remotely and can learn the user preference. Smart refrigerators can keep a
track of the items stored using RFID tags and send updates to the users when an item is
low on stock. The order may be placed automatically to the shopkeeper. Smart TVs allow
users to search and stream videos and movies from the internet on a local Storage drive,
search TV channel schedules and fetch news, weather updates and other content from the
internet.
Intrusion detection: Home intrusion detection systems use security
cameras and
PIR/door sensors to detect instructions and raise alerts. Alerts can be in the form of SMS
or email sent to the user. Advanced system can even grab the image or a short video of the
intruder and sent as email attachment. A cloud controlled intrusion detection system uses
location aware devices, where the geo-location of each node of a home automation system
is independently detected and stored in the cloud.
Smoke / gas detectors: Smoke detectors are installed in homes and buildings to detect
smoke that is typically an early sign of fire. Smoke detectors use optical detection,
ionization or air sampling techniques to detect smoke. Alerts raised by smoke detectors
can be in the form of signals to a fire alarm system. Gas detectors can detect the presence
of harmful gases such as Carbon Monoxide (CO), Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG) etc.
em architecture is as sho
; yi the above mentioned applications, the syst
application. shown in figure 4.5s. The
will. change according to "Thing" and
sensor
AS
Temperature || Humidity }| Light shan
Motion || Smoke | | Intruder E
Appliances status
oP
io Alarm ©
Smoke sensor
Control Unit LeD/LCD
3 (with internet} O/P_|
2 Bee poor sensor __ indicators
connectivity
=< Temperature senso! oP
module) ‘Pp Appliances |
: * Humidity sensor S Relay circuit |
é _ |
Light intensity sensor
ock Diagram
re 4. 5: Sm ar t Home System Bl
Figu
Smart Cities
3.3 Case Study 3: su st aiina bl e w e e s : aectices to
lp to de ve lo p, de ploy and promote
es he
loT based smart citi
er pr is es and a ¢l
s a i o i e l -f To T based § cae
alittiies, ent Tp
icpaipli v
-time to he lp mu ni ci
manage data in real e the Fe
to im pr ov e qu al it y of life. Following ar
so as
city:
i, Improved energy distribution

ii, Streamlined trash collection
4-12 fs WiSiaH = Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
ili, Decreased traffic congestion

iv. Improved air quality
Ve Conserved energy
The systems required to achieve the above advantages are described in subsequent paragraphs.
Structural
Health Emergency
Smart
Monitoring Smart Response /
Lighting Parking
Roads
Fog lof ON Location

Computing Architecture Tracking
Figure 4.6: Smart city domains
Smart lighting: Smart lighting allows lighting to be dynamically controlled and adaptive
to the ambient conditions. Smart lights are connected to the internet. They are controlled
remotely to configure lighting schedules and lighting intensity. These are set considering
foggy days, cloudy days, festival days etc. Such type of smart lighting systems for roads,
parks and buildings saves lot of electricity.
Smart roads: Smart roads equipped with sensors can provide information on driving
conditions, travel time estimates and alerts drivers in case of worst driving conditions,
traffic congestions and accidents. Such systems helps in making the driving safe and help
in reducing traffic jams. Information sensed from the roads is communicated via internet
to cloud-based applications and social media. The system provides the drivers and
passengers with a consistent view of the road situation a few hundred meters ahead of
them, so that they can react to potential dangers early enough.
Structural health monitoring: Structural health monitoring systems use a network of

sensors to monitor the vibration levels in the structures such as bridges, dams, buildings,
towers etc. The data collected from these sensors is analyzed to assess the health of the
loT Applications wsiox \ 4-13
structures. It can detect cracks, mechanical breakdowns, damages to a structure and

estimated life span of structure. In case of intimation of structure failure, advance
warnings can be given and corrective action in this regard can save structure from
damaging as well as can avoid disaster situation.
iv. Smart parking: Finding a parking space during rush hours in crowded cities is critical
and time consuming. Smart parking makes the search for parking spaces easier and
convenient for drivers. loT based smart parking system detects the number and location of
empty parking slots and sends the information over the internet. The smart parking
applications can be accessed by the drivers from smart phones, tablets and in-car
navigation systems.
Vv. Surveillance: Surveillance of infrastructure, public transport and events in cities is

required to ensure safety and security. IoT based surveillance infrastructure system
capture videos using camera for further analysis.
Emergency response: [oT systems can be used for monitoring the critical infrastructure
in cities such as buildings, gas and water pipelines, public transport and power sub-
stations. IoT systems for fire detection, gas and water leakage detection helps in
generating alerts and minimizing their effects on the critical infrastructure.
Sensor data from loT Things, ” Data

like, roads, lights. bridges, WSN 1 aggregation
garbage can etc. Se
: Data i
Le 2 -—+ aggregation Controller
Real time data of oa

weather, location etc. : Data
WSN n aggregation
Things1 Actuator1 «
lot network
Things2 te Actuator2 € transportand
’ applicaiion layer
t t
t f
Thingsn |< Actuatorn
Figure 4.7: Smart city architectural model

tz
4-1 4/ wisian = Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
Exercises
A. Multiple choice questions
Which challenges should be considered in IoT?

a. Privacy and security b. Power consumption
c. Network congestion d. _all of the above
empowers IoT by bringing together everyday objects.

a. _ Intelligence b. — Connectivity
Cc. Dynamic nature : d. Enormous scale
Provide the means to create capability that reflects true awareness of the
physical world and people.
a. Sensors b. Heterogeneity
4. . JoT devices are naturally vulnerable to threats.

a. Sensors — b. Heterogeneity
Which challenge comes under securing the information?

a.. Signaling b. Security
c. Presence detection d. Power consumption
Which is most important challenge when we use many devices on the same network?
a. _—_ Signaling b. Security
c. Presence detection d. Power consumption
Which of the following issues are considered in IoT?

a. Security issue b. Reliability issue
c. Scalability issue d. _— All issues
Process of identifying any individual
a. Auditing b. — Authorisation
c. Authentication d. Accounting
9. Scalability of oT means
a. Expandable/reducible in terms of scale or size.
b. Measurable
c. Increasing/decreasing monetary costs
d, All of these
a ds
loT Applications wision \ 4-15
10. Which one of these is the most important factor to be considered in an IoT implementation
a Scalability
b. Power efficiency
c Efficient and scalable addressing schemes
d All of these
11. IoT devices must have

a. A USB port b. A unique identification
c. Wired connectivity d. All of the above
12. Why data volume is a problem in IoT-based cloud computing?
a. . because data are encrypted and hard to analyze.
b. because data coming from IoT devices are always in raw format and difficult to
store. :
c. because the density of IoT devices is increasing each day and in turn the volume of
generated data is growing very fast.
d. because IoT device density is decreasing each day and in turn the volume of
generated data are decreasing very fast.
13. Which of these can be considered as the skeleton for smart cities?
a. _ Buildings b. Rivers
c Banks d. Sensors
14. Which of these can be considered as the sensors of smart cities?

a. Light intensity sensors b. Motion sensors
Cc. Optocoupler d. .-None of the above’): :-'
15. Smart Agriculture incorporates:

a. Alert generation in case of above-threshold pollutants in the air or water
b. Scheduling harvesting and controlling water pumps
c. . Controlling On/OFF of field lighting
d. None of these
16. Heterogeneity for IoT in smart cities stands for

a. Integration of varying hardware platforms and specifications
b Integration of different radio specifications
c. Integration of various software platforms
d All of these
C2
4-1 6/ vision = Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
17. Which of these sensors can be most appropriately used for activity monitoring in
wearables?
a. Accelerometer b. | Cameras
c. LIDARs d. LED
18. | Which of the following sensors are used in smart home for detection of intruder
i. Light sensor ii. Motionsensor iii. Camera
iv. Temperature sensor v. Gas sensor
a. i, ii, iv b. ii, iii
C iii,v d. all of the above
19. Which sensors are used in Smart Irrigation system

a. Humidity sensor b. | Temperature sensor
c. Bothcan be used d. None of above
20. Smart city can monitor

a. Public transport b. Water leakages
c. Gas levels in atmosphere d. _ all of the above
1. List any four major application areas of IoT.
2. What is use of IoT in environmental monitoring?
3. | What is role of IoT in manufacturing and logistic?
4. List any two IoT based gadgets used for health monitoring.
5. List down any four challenges of IoT.
6. Which factors affected durability of oT system?
7. Define scalability of loT system.
8. Which parameter of irrigation system can be controlled in smart irrigation system.
9. List the sensors used in smart irrigation system.
10. What are advantages of smart irrigation system?
11. What is meaning of ‘Smart Lighting’ in smart home?

(ry
loT Applications wien \ 4-17
12. Name few smart appliances at home with their smart function.
13. What is intrusion detection system?
14. | Which gas can be detected by smoke/ gas detector system of smart home.
15. Name the sensor are used for smart home system.
16. What are advantages of IoT based smart city?
17. Define smart roads.
18. How smart lighting in smart cities can save electricity.
19. ‘Smart parking’ system helps drivers and saves their time- comment.
20. Name IoT ‘Things' of smart city.
C. Answer in detail
1. Explain application domains of IoT.
2. | How IoT can be used in medical field?
3. | How power consumption becomes important in loT?
4. | Why data volume generated in IoT applications becomes a challenge for designers and
how it is taken care of?
5. Write note on secure connectivity and secure data storage in IoT.
6. Draw and explain smart irrigation system for agricultural field.
7. Which parameter are controlled in smart home system?
8. Draw and explain architecture of smart home system.
9. | Which smart applications are normally considered in smart city?
10. Draw and explain architecture of smart city.
1]. What are advantages of smart city using loT?
12. What is meaning of structural health monitoring in smart city and how it is useful?
(7s
4-18 / vision == Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
Answers
1. d 2 »b 3. a 4. 5. b
6. d | 8c 9, 10. d
ll. ob 12. ¢ 13. a 14, 15. b
16. od 17. a 18. b 19, 20. d
VISION
About Author
Dr. Mrs. Deepa Ramane has an excellent combination of academic expertise, teaching and research
experience and practical skills. She completed her Doctorate in Electronic Science from University of
Pune. She is gold medalist at M.Sc. and third rank holder at B.Sc. of same University. After working in an
Electronics Industry for initial three years as R&D engineer, due to passion for teaching, she switched to
teaching career in 1995 by joining Dr. D.Y. Patil Institute, Pimpri, Pune. At Dr. D.Y Patil Arts, Commerce
and Science College, she worked as HoD, Electronics department and shouldered many other
academic, administrative and research related responsibilities. In 2014, she switched over to Sinhgad
College of Science, Pune and is working as IQAC Coordinator and Head of Physics and Electronics
department. She is BOS member of Electronics Science of Savitribai Phule Pune University and also of
S.P.College, Pune. She is actively participating in design, implementation and evaluation of curriculum of Electronics.
She has more than 30 research papers in International journals and conferences at her credit. She is author of 20
academic books on Electronics subject. (1 international, 4 national and 15 district level). She has organised more than
40 conferences/workshops/seminars. She has delivered many guest lectures at various conferences, competitions and
seminars.
She is recognized Ph.D. and M.Phil. guide for SPPU. Her expertise is in Instrumentation System, Embedded System,
Communication, Wireless Sensor Networks and Internet of things (loT).
S.Y. B.Sc. (Computer Science) Sem-IV

Data Structures and Algorithms-l
¢$¢0¢¢¢94
Computer Networks-|
Embedded System Design
Wireless Communication and Internet of Things
Computational Geometry
Operations Research
ISBN: 978-93-90646-11-1
8939016461 11

Wireless Ommunication and Internet of Things

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S.Y.B.Sc.

- According to New CBCS

2. Overview of Wireless Communication ........cscsssssssssssssssssssssnesessecsessssssssseessseeesssvsessensasseses 1-2

3.1 Cellular Concept 1-4

4. ~ Overview of Cellular Telephony GenerationS..........s:ssssssesssecssesssesseesssesseessesssessesessesnseenees 1-15

4.1 - 2G Cellular Network 1-15

5.1 Introduction 1-21

6. General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) .........sssssssessssesssesssessssesssssessnecsssessssessvessseessssesssecs 1-28

6.1 Introduction 1-28

2. Short Range Wireless Technologies and Location Tracking 2-42

2. BlUBtOOth sssssesssscesesissezeeszcierrsvecsasctictuvstevacesavaysbaasisetusasenaiets Sotesiudbovavivdbeneannadlelelsvvsatesesveace 2-2

2.1 Bluetooth Architecture 2-3

Wireless Communication and Internet of Things 1 ¢ 11925]

3. ZIQBOO ...sessessssssssessssesssscsssscssscsssscssscssuscesuscssecssvessssessvscsevecsuscssscessssssuecsusccsessasecsavecssecssssessee 2-9

3.1 Introduction 2-9

4 ZEWAVE 'sevssessessxesssesuaneseswusessssetasetaeeateCGORUSt opensooneennnsorsusreneenanosenuaosnssegnacinoncateggudieveerasoerve 2-19

4.1. Z-wave Architecture 2-19

5 RFID 'ssscvusscaveavvasyaepssessesegsarsessaevasenesuaeewanteyeesssuasseyts ageexeragsClielanensossseensasesarecnnsersencecnen 2-22

5.1 Introduction 2-22

6.1 — Introduction 2-29

3. loT Architecture 3-30

2. What is Internet of Things? ...sccsscsscssssssnssnssnsssssnsssssnstusseuasanuesissuesesussee 3-2

4, MAMAN NOT csssscssnsvesscesvosevorsvssovesssuseontorssouenesovnensonsnevesorannasonacssonsouaseennssibenavnesiantesenesospeevtans 3-5

4.1 M2M 3-5

5: IOT ArChiteCture.........ccsccscssssessesesessssessssssessssessssesnssessssnsisavsesaneessveescssevsneanssesesseensatencanenseney 3-7

6. Role Of Cloud in OT ....sescecsssessesessessssesssstenesnsavensnecnsatencsveevavescsscassnesessescsssavessevsseenssnsassesess 3-10

6.1. Advantages of using Cloud in loT 3-10

te Communication Protocol USEC in lOT ....sssesesessesessessessesseseenssvesensesseeneenearesnennennennearenseeys 3-15

7.1. Physical and Link Layer Protocol 3-16

8. Cross Connectivity across loT System COMPONENt ........ssssccssessesesereeseeserseenssneensensensenss 3-18

9. TOR TTTOIIN 3-20

9.1 Low Power Local Area Networking (LPLAN) 3-21

4. loT Applications 4-18

1, Application Domains Of 1OT......ssssesseesssessnesssesssesssesssessessserstesssessnsesnnssnessntssseasanensssssnsessses 4-1

2. Challenges in lOT.....ssssssssssssessccsssessssseecessnecessnseessnnecessnsecsssnsesssvcsesssscessssssonsvsrsnsnesessnenssnsnys 4-4

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ute -Appliction) | MSc. Comp. Sci.) | MCA| MCM |

2. Overview of Wireless Communication

Year Implementation Specification

1906 1st World Radio Conference :

1915 Wireless Voice Communication

1960 Bell laboratory developed cellular -

1997 Wireless LANs IEEE-Standard, 2.4 - 2.5 GHz,

1998 Universal Mobile Telecommunication

The reason of popularity and growth of wireless communication technology is clearly

3. Introduction of Cellular Telephony System

3.1 Cellular Concept

Figure 1.1 : Individual Cell

Figure 1.2: Cellular structure sizes

iv. A hexagonal shape is the ideal one. Reasons are:

a. The hexagonal pattern provides equidistant antennas.

b. — It provides a theoretical coverage of an area without any overlapping cells or gaps

Figure 1.3: Hexagonal pattern of cellular system (seven-cell cluster)

3-Cell cluster 4-Celi cluster

where, m = no. of cells required to cover an area

viii. Classification of cellular technology depending upon the coverage area:

a. Femtocell: It is a small, low-power cellular base station, typically designed to cover

Figure 1.5: Cell Splitting

3.2 Frequency Reuse Concept