The Language of Analytical Chemistry

Quantitative analysis

An analysis in which we determine how much of a constituent species is present in a sample.

Qualitative analysis

An analysis in which we determine the identity of the constituent species in a sample.

Characterization analysis

An analysis in which we evaluate a sample’s chemical or physical properties.

Fundamental analysis

An analysis whose purpose is to improve an analytical method’s capabilities.

Concentration

An expression stating the relative amount of solute per unit volume or unit mass of solution.

Morality

The number of moles of solute per liter of solution (M).

Formality

The number of moles of solute, regardless of chemical form, per liter of solution (F).

Normality

The number of equivalents of solute per liter of solution (N).

Equivalent

The moles of a species that can donate one reaction unit.

Equivalent weight

The mass of a compound containing one equivalent (EW).

Formula weight

The mass of a compound containing one mole (FW).

Molality

The number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent (m).

Weight percent

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Grams of solute per 100 g of solution. (% w/w).

Volume percent

Milliliters of solute per 100 mL of solution (% v/v).

Weight-to-volume percent

Grams of solute per 100 mL of solution (% w/v).

Parts per million

Micrograms of solute per gram of solution; for aqueous solutions the units are often expressed as
milligrams of solute per liter of solution (ppm).

Parts per billion

Nanograms of solute per gram of solution; for aqueous solutions the units are often expressed as
micrograms of solute per liter of solution (ppb).

Analysis

A process that provides chemical or physical information about the constituents in the sample or the
sample itself.

Analytes

The constituents of interest in a sample.

Matrix

All other constituents in a sample except for the analytes.

Determination

An analysis of a sample to find the identity, concentration, or properties of the analyte.

Measurement

An experimental determination of an analyte’s chemical or physical properties.

Technique

A chemical or physical principle that can be used to analyze a sample.

Method

A means for analyzing a sample for a specific analyte in a specific matrix.

Procedure

Written directions outlining how to analyze a sample.

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Protocol

A set of written guidelines for analyzing a sample specified by an agency.

Signal

An experimental measurement that is proportional to the amount of analyte (S).

Total analysis techniques

A technique in which the signal is proportional to the absolute amount of analyte; also called “classical”
techniques.

Concentration techniques

A technique in which the signal is proportional to the analyte’s concentration; also called “instrumental”
techniques.

Accuracy

A measure of the agreement between an experimental result and its expected value.

% Error = obtained result – expected result / expected result ×100

Precision

An indication of the reproducibility of a measurement or result.

Sensitivity

A measure of a method’s ability to distinguish between two samples; reported as the change in signal per
unit change in the amount of analyte (k).

Detection limit

A statistical statement about the smallest amount of analyte that can be determined with confidence.

Method blank

A sample that contains all components of the matrix except the analyte.

Calibration

The process of ensuring that the signal measured by a piece of equipment or an instrument is correct.

Standardization

The process of establishing the relationship between the amount of analtye and a method’s signal.

Calibration curve

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The result of a standardization showing graphically how a method’s signal changes with respect to the
amount of analyte.

Validation

The process of verifying that a procedure yields acceptable results.

Quality assurance and Quality control

Those steps taken to ensure that the work conducted in an analytical lab is capable of producing
acceptable results; also known as QA/QC.

Mean

The average value of a set of data (–X).

Median

That value for a set of ordered data, for which half of the data is larger in value and half is smaller in
value ( X med).

Range

The numerical difference between the largest and smallest values in a data set (w).

Standard deviation

A statistical measure of the “average” deviation of data from the data’s mean value (s).

Variance

The square of the standard deviation (s2).

Error

A measure of bias in a result or measurement.

Determinate error

Any systematic error that causes a measurement or result to always be too high or too small; can be traced
to an identifiable source.

Sampling error

An error introduced during the process of collecting a sample for analysis.

Method error

An error due to limitations in the analytical method used to analyze a sample.

Measurement error

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An error due to limitations in the equipment and instruments used to make measurements.

Tolerance

The maximum determinate measurement error for equipment or instrument as reported by the
manufacturer.

Personal error

An error due to biases introduced by the analyst.

Constant determinate error

A determinate error whose value is the same for all samples.

Proportional determinate error

A determinate error whose value depends on the amount of sample analyzed.

Indeterminate error

Any random error that causes some measurements or results to be too high while others are too low.

Uncertainty

The range of possible values for a measurement.

Confidence interval

Range of results around a mean value that could be explained by random error.

Histogram

A plot showing the number of times an observation occurs as a function of the range of observed values.

Thermo gram

A graph showing change in mass as a function of applied temperature.

Detection limit

The smallest concentration or absolute amount of analyte that can be reliably detected.

Aliquot

A portion of a solution.

Internal standard

A standard, whose identity is different from the analyte’s, that is added to all samples and standards
containing the analyte.

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Frequency

The number of oscillations of an electromagnetic wave per second (ν).

Wavelength

The distance between any two consecutive maxima or minima of an electromagnetic wave (λ).

Wave number

The reciprocal of wavelength (ν−).

Power

The flux of energy per unit time (P).

Intensity

The flux of energy per unit time per area (I).

Photon

A particle of light carrying an amount of energy equal to hν.

Electromagnetic spectrum

The division of electromagnetic radiation on the basis of a photon’s energy.

Absorbance

The attenuation of photons as they pass through a sample (A).

Absorbance spectrum

A graph of a sample’s absorbance of electromagnetic radiation versus wavelength (or frequency or wave
number).

Emission

The release of a photon when an analyte returns to a lower-energy state from a higher-energy state.

Detector

Mechanical, electrical or chemical device that identifies, records, or indicates a change in one of the
variables in its environment.

Detection system

Entire assemblies that indicate of record physical or chemical quantities.

Transducer

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A device that converts a chemical or physical property, such as pH or photon intensity, to an easily
measured electrical signal, such as a voltage or current. OR A device that converts information between
nonelectrical and electrical domains.

Signal processor

A device, such as a meter or computer, which displays the signal from the transducer in a form that is
easily interpreted by the analyst.

Sensor

Analytical devices those are capable of monitoring specific chemical species continuously and reversibly.
Transducer + chemically selective recognition phase.

Chromophore

The specific bonds or functional groups in a molecule responsible for the absorption of a particular
wavelength of light.

Transmittance

The ratio of the radiant power passing through a sample to that from the radiation’s source (T).

Beer’s law

The relationship between a sample’s absorbance and the concentration of the absorbing species (A=εbC).

Spectrophotometer

An instrument for measuring absorbance that uses a mono chromator to select the wavelength.

Atomization

The process of converting an analyte into a free atom.

Plasma

A hot, ionized gas containing an abundance of ions and electrons.

Counter current extraction

A liquid–liquid extraction in which solutes are extracted back and forth between fresh portions of two
extracting phases.

Mobile phase

In chromatography, the extracting phase that moves through the system.

Stationary phase

In chromatography, the extracting phase that remains in a fixed position.

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Chromatography

A separation in which solutes partition between a mobile and stationary phase.

Column chromatography

A form of chromatography in which the stationary phase is retained in a column.

Planar chromatography

A form of chromatography in which the stationary phase is immobilized on a flat surface.

Chromatogram

A plot of the detector’s signal as function of elution time or volume.

Retention time

The time a solute takes to move from the point of injection to the detector (tr).

Retention volume

The volume of mobile phase needed to move a solute from its point of injection to the detector (Vr).

Baseline width

The width of a solute’s chromatographic band measured at the baseline (w).