Thermo emf is an electromotive force which is generated due to the thermal gradient.

This
gradient is generated intentionally for electric current to flow through a circuit. A schematic
representation of terminal of Cu-Fe thermocouple is as shown in the fig below.

We have 2 thermally and electrically conducting

wires Copper and Iron. The 2 wires are attached
terminal to terminal to become a closed circuit. A
galvanometer is attached to the circuit to detect
any current flow through the circuit. A junction P
is hot terminal where the temperature is
comparatively higher as compared to the cold
terminal which is Q. We know that electrons
from a denser electron metal flow to a lower electron denser metal, thus creating a gradient.
So, if temperature of the junction is maintained at 2 different values, electron diffusion
happens, which generates larger potential at the hotter junction when compare to the colder
junction. This variation in potential creates a flow of current, which is detected by the
galvanometer. The existence of current flow indicates that an emf exists in the circuit.

Seebeck effect:
In 1821 Thomas Johann Seebeck discovered that an electromotive force appears in a circuit
composed of 2 dissimilar metals, if the junctions between the metals are held at different
temperatures(fig). The emf I known as thermoelectric emf. The thermoelectric emf causes a
continuous current in the conductors. If they form a complete loop and the current is known as
thermo electric current. This phenomenon is called the Seebeck effect. The voltage (thermo
electric emf) created is of the order of several micro volts per kelvin difference.

The thermo electric emf will exist and the current will flow in the circuit as long as the 2
junctions, known as the “hot” junction and “cold” junction, are at different temperatures.
Thus, the Seebeck effect is the conversion of temperature differences directly into electricity.
The magnitude and direction of thermoelectric current the types of metals used and the
temperature between the hot and cold ends and does not depend on the temperature
distribution along the conductors.
The voltage developed in the circuit, fig, is proportional to the temperature difference between
the 2 junctions.
V =α (T 2−T 1) Where α =α B −α A
α A∧α B are known as the Seebeck coefficients of the metals A and B, and T1 and T2 are the
temperatures of the two junctions.
Seebeck effect is observed not only in metals but as well in semiconductors also. It is not
necessarily a junction phenomenon, but arises in a single conductor also. If atemperature
gradient (difference) is caused in conductor, electrons diffuse from the hot side to the cold
side. Electrons migrating to the cold side leave behind their oppositely charge and immobile
nuclei on the hot side and thus give rise to a thermoelectric voltage.

Seeback coefficient:
Seebeck coefficient or thermopower of a material measures the magnitude of an induced
thermoelectric voltage in response to a temperature difference across that material. It is
defined as the open circuit voltage produced between two points on a conductor, where a
uniform temperature difference of 1K exists between those points.
If the temperature difference ∆T between the two ends of a material is small, then the
thermopower or Seebeck coefficient of a material may be written as
∆V
α=
∆T
This can also be expressed in terms of the electric field E and the temperature gradient∇ T ,as
E
α=
∇T
The thermopower is an important material parameter the efficiency of a thermoelectric
material. A larger induced thermoelectric voltage for a given temperature gradient will lead to
a larger efficiency.

Peltier effect:
In 1834 Peltier discovered that when electric current passed
in a circuit consisting of two dissimilar metals,
heat is evolved at one junction and absorbed at the
other junction. This is known as peltier effect.
It is the inverse of the Seebeck effect. The peltier effect is
junction phenomenon.
There is heat absorption or generation at the junctions
depending on the direction of current flow.
Heat generated by current flowing in one direction was
absorbed if the current was reversed.
As an example, consider the circuit as shown in the figure. Under these conditions it is
observed, as indicated in the diagram, that the right-handjunction is heated, showing that
electrical energy is being transformed into heat energy. Meanwhile, heat energy is
transformed into electrical energy at the left junction, there by causing it to be cooled. When
the current is reversed, heat is absorbed at the right junction and produced at the left one.

Peltier coefficient:
The peltier coefficient is defined as the amount of heat energy absorbed or evolved at the
junction of two dissimilar metals when one amper of current flows through it for one second.
It is denoted by π and expressed in volts. It is a property that depends on both materials of the
junction.
The heat absorbed per second at a junction carrying a current I amperes is given by

Heat absorbed per second = πab I ----------(1)

Heat absorbed in t seconds, H = πab I t = πab q ----------(2)

Where current is from metal a to metal b. The junction emf, πab ,is known as Peltier
coefficient.
H
π ab= ----------(3)
It

πab is positive if metal a is positive with respect to metal b(thus πCu-Feis positive).
The magnitude of πabis a function of the temperature of the junction. For identical
temperatures πab= - πba. Thus, if the direction of the current in the equation (1) is reversed, the
heat absorbed per second is

Heat absorbed per second = πab I,which is opposite in equation (1)

If V is the potential difference applied, then Heat absorbed = V q = V It

Equating the above with equation (1), we getπ =V

Thus, the Peltier coefficient is numerically equal to the applied potential difference expressed
in volts.

Figure of -Merit, Z:
The efficiency of conversion of thermal energy into electrical energy is denoted by the
parameter called the figure-of-merit of a thermoelectric material. It is denoted as
2
α σ
Z=
K
Where α is the Seebeck coefficient of the material (measured in microvolts/K), σ is the
electrical conductivity of the material and K is the total thermal conductivity of the material.
Laws of thermoelectricity:
First law of homogeneous circuit
An electric current cannot be sustained in a circuit of single homogenous by application
of heat done. This law is generally accepted to an experimental.
In thermocouple, an emf is formed by joining two dissimilar wires/metals.

Second law of intermediate metals

It states that intersection of third metal into a thermocouple circuit will have no effects,
as long as a junction by the third metal with thermocouple at the same temperature.

Equation

Applications
This law makes it possible to use extension wires at metals different from the thermocouple
because platinum extension wires are at the same temperature high cost, copper can be used
without any change in performance. The law enables an instrument to be introduced into the
circuit to be means the emf produced.
This law allows the use of joining material such or hard solder(silver) in fabricating the
thermocouple and junction.

Law of intermediate thermocouple

The emf generated in a thermocouple with junction at temperature T1 and T3 is equal to sum
of emf generated by similar thermocouple one acting between T2 + T3 and where T2 between
T1+T3
This law is used when making or reference junction temperature is different from temperature
at which it is calibrated. Thus, a thermocouple is calibrated with reference junction at 0’C is
used and with the junction at 20’C.
Equation
Derive the expression for thermo emf in terms of T1 and T2:
Positive Thomson Effect: Positive Thomson effect is shown by Cu, Sn, Ag, Cd, Zn… etc
metals. In metals such as zinc and coper, hotter end will be at a higher potential and cooler
end at a lower potential. When current moves form the hotter end to the colder end, it is
moving from a high to a low potential, so there is evolution of heat. Heat is absorbed when
current is passed from colder end to hotter end, as shown in Fig,. This is called the positive
Thomson Effect.

Negative Thomson Effect: In metals such as cobalt, nickel, and iron, the cooler end will be at
a higher potential and hotter end at a lower potential. When current moves from the hotter end
to the colder end, it is moving from a low to a high potential. So there is absorption of heat.
Heat is evolved when current is passed from colder end to hotter end(Fig). This is called the
negative Thomson effect. The metals which show negative Thomson effect are Fe, Co, Bi, Pt,
Hg… etc.
Now let us consider a circuit consisting of two metals A and B as shown in Fig. . The hot
junction is at a temperature T2ºK and the cold junction is at a temperature T1ºK. Due to the
Seebeck effect, i.e., due to temperature difference between the junctions, thermoelectric
current flows through the circuit. As the current flows through the hot and cold junctions, heat
is absorbed at the hot junction and evolved at the cold junction due to Peltier effect.

Let π1 and π2 be the Peltier coefficients at T1 and T2. During the passage of current an amount
of heat energy equal to π2q is absorbed at hot junction and heat energy π1q is evolved at the
cold junction. Then, the energy (π2-π1)q is used in driving the current through the circuit. As π2
and π1are equal to the potential differences at hot and cold junctions respectively, the thermo
e.m.f. developed is given by
E= (π2-π1)
The current in the circuit is small, and the joules heating effect is negligible. As Peltier effect
is reversible, a thermocouple may be regarded as a reversible heat engine taking heat from the
source at the hot junction at temperature T2, does work in driving the current through the
circuit, and rejecting heat to the sink, the cold junction at temperature T1. By the Carnot’s
engine we have
Q2 Q1
=
T 2 T1

Now during the flow of current in the thermocouple, heat absorbed at the hot junction is
Q2=π2q joules while the energy given out to the sink is Q2=π2q joules.
π 2q π2 q π2 T 2 π2 T2
= ∴ = ∴ −1= −1
T2 T1 π1 T 1 π1 T1
π 2−π 1 T 2−T 1
Or =
π1 T1

Or π 2−π 1=π 1
( T 2 −T 1
T1 )
π1
But π 2−π 1=e ∴ e= ( T −T 1 )
T1 2

If the cold junction temperature is held constant, the Peltier coefficient π 1 will also be
constant. Then
e ∝ ( T 2−T 1 )

Thermo couple:
A thermocouple is a transducer that converts thermal energy into electrical energy and is
constructed by joining wires made from dissimilar metals to form a junction. Voltage is
produced when the temperature at the junction changes.
The concept of the thermocouple is based on the Seebeck Effect, which states that if dissimilar
metals are joined at a point, they will generate a small measurable voltage when the
temperature of the point of connection changes. The amount of voltage depends on the
amount of temperature change and the characteristics of the metals.
The structure of a thermocouple consists of two insulated wires connected to a measuring
device. Thermocouples serve as a safety and monitoring gauge for various processes and
equipment.
The process of a thermocouple can be seen in the image below where the temperature is raised
at the junction of the wires on the left, and the change in temperature is displayed on the
gauge at the right.

Measurement of temperature
An unknown temperature can be measured with the help of thermocouple. First the
thermocouple is calibrated. For the purpose of calibration, one of the thermocouple junctions
is placed in a liquid bath while the other junction is kept in a bath of constant temperature,
usually held at 0ºC. As the liquid in the hot bath is heated, the thermo e.m.f. varies. The e.m.f.
developed at different temperatures is recorded and a graph is plotted between the temperature
and the corresponding thermo e.m.f. This graph is known as the calibration graph. Next the
hot junction is placed in a bath of unknown temperature and the e.m.f. developed in the
thermocouple is noted. The temperature corresponding to this e.m.f. is read from the
calibration graph. It is the temperature of the bath whose temperature has to be measured.

Thermopile:
In the direction and measurement of radiation, a thermopile is usually used.
A series connected array of thermocouples is known as a thermopile. It is constructed in order
to increase the output voltage since the voltage induced over each individual thermocouple is
small.
The thermopile consists of thermocouples of metals antimony and
bismuth placed end to end to enhance the thermoelectric e.m.f. The metals
are widely separated in the thermo electric series and comparatively large e.m.f.
is produced for a small difference temperature between the junctions. The
bismuth and antimony metals are taken in the form of thick strips which reduces
the resistance of the circuit. A galvanometer of resistance equal to the resistance
of thermocouple is connected to the end of the thermocouple. The whole assembly is enclosed in a box
and the front of the surface of the metals is blackened. A conical piece is attached to the front side so
that the incoming radiation falls on the blackened surface and increases the temperature of the hot
junction. With the help of thermopile temperature difference up to 0.001 ºC can be detected.

Construction and Working of Thermoelectric generators (TEG) and

Thermoelectric coolers (TEC):
The Seebeck effect forms the basis for power generation. Thermo-electric generators convert
heat directly into electricity, using the voltage generated at the junction of two different
metals.
Thermoelectric power generators convert het energy to electricity. When a temperature
gradient is created across the thermoelectric device, a DC voltage develops across the
terminals. When a load is properly connected, electrical current flows. Typical applications
for this technology include providing power for remote telecommunication, navigations, and
petroleum installations.
As early as 1929, A. F. Iofe (1880-1960) showed that a thermoelectric generator utilizing
semiconductors could achieve a conversion efficiency of 4%, with further possible
improvement in its performance. The simplest thermoelectric generator consists of a
thermocouple, comprising a p-type and n-type thermo-element connected electrically in series
and thermally in parallel (Fig). Heat is pumped into one side of the couple and rejected from
the opposite side. An electrical current is produced, proportional to the temperature gradient
between the hot and cold junctions.

Of the great number of materials studied, semiconductors based on bismuth telluride, lead
telluride and silicon-germanium alloys are found to be the best.
THE THERMOELECTRIC COOLERS
Thermoelectric coolers are solid state heat pump used in applications where temperature
stabilization, temperature cycling, or cooling below ambient are required.
A thermoelectric cooling arrangement is a shown in figure it consists of a thermoelectric
module, a heat sink and the object to be cooled. A typical thermoelectric module consists of
an array of bismuth telluride semiconductor pellets that have been “doped” so that one type of
charge carrier-either positive or negative carriers the majority of current. The pairs of P/N
pellets are configured so that they are connected electrically in series, but thermally in parallel
Metallized ceramics substrates provide the platform for the pellets and the small conductive
tabs that connect them.The ceramic material on both sides of thethermoelectric adds rigidity
and the necessary electrical insulation.The pellets, tabs and substrates thus from a layered
configuration.Module size varies from less than 0.25” by 0.25” to approximately 2.0” by
2.0”.Thermoelectric modulescan function singularly or in groups with either series, parallel,
or series/parallel electrical connections.Some applications use stacked multi-stage modules.

When DC voltage is applied to the module, the positive and negative charge carriers in the
pellet array absorb heat energy from one substrate surface and release it to the substrate at the
opposite side.The surface where heat energy is absorbed becomes cold the opposite surface
where heat energy is released, becomes hot.
These devices cannot only pump appreciable amount of heat, but with their series electrical
connection, are suitable to be used as DC power supplies. Thus, the most common
thermoelectric devices now in use connecting 254 alternating P and N-type pellets can run
from a 12 to 16 VDC supplyand draw only 4 to 5 amps. A means to mechanically hold
everything together is to mount the conductive tabs to thin ceramic substrates (Fig) the outer
faces of the ceramics are then used as the thermal interface between Peltier device and the
‘outside world’. Ceramic materials represent the best compromise between mechanical
strength, electrical resistivity, and thermal conductivity.
Low, mid and high temperature thermoelectric materials:

Applications: Exhaust of Automobiles, Refrigerator, Space Program

(RTG):

Numerical Problems