6.6. Contribution of Yeast and Its Biomass For The Preparation of Industrially - CS

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SURAT PERNYATAAN

CONTRIBUTORSHIP

Dengan ini kami menerangkan bahwa Jurnal dengan judul :

Contribution of Yeast and Its Biomass for the Preparation of


Industrially Essential Materials: A Boon to Circular Economy

Yang diterbitkan oleh :

Bioresource Technology Reports 23 (2023) 101508


https://doi.org/1.1016/j.biteb.2023.101508

Kami tulis secara bersama :


No. Nama Jenis Tanda Tangan
Kontributor
1 Atif Khurshid Wani UTAMA

2 Farida Rahayu UTAMA

3 Ita Yustina UTAMA

4 Gatot Suharto Abdul Fatah UTAMA

5 I Ketut Kariada UTAMA

6 Sri Satya Antarlina UTAMA

7 Akhmad Jufri UTAMA

8 Dicky Pamungkas UTAMA


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Bioresource Technology Reports 23 (2023) 101508

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Bioresource Technology Reports


journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/bioresource-technology-reports

Contribution of yeast and its biomass for the preparation of industrially


essential materials: A boon to circular economy
Atif Khurshid Wani a, *, Farida Rahayu b, Ita Yustina c, Gatot Suharto Abdul Fatah d,
I Ketut Kariada d, Sri Satya Antarlina c, Akhmad Jufri d, Dicky Pamungkas e
a
Department of Biotechnology, School of Bioengineering and Biosciences, Lovely Professional University, Punjab 144411, India
b
Research Center for Applied Microbiology, National Research and Innovation Agency, Bogor 16911, Indonesia
c
Research Center for Food Technology and Processing, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Bogor 16911, Indonesia
d
Research Center for Horticulture Estate Crops, National Research and Innovation Agency, Bogor 16911, Indonesia
e
Research Center for Animal Husbandry, National Agency of Research and Innovation, Bogor 16111, Indonesia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Yeast biomass, a valuable byproduct of various industrial processes, can help in minimizing the environmental
Yeast biomass impact of industries by reducing the use of non-renewable resources and the generation of waste while offering
Valorization tremendous potential for a wide range of applications in the circular economy. This review paper examines the
Probiotics
diverse uses of yeast biomass and highlights its role in promoting sustainability across different sectors. With its
Animal feed
Biofuel
rich composition of proteins, carbohydrates, and essential nutrients, yeast biomass has emerged as an attractive
Genetic engineering feedstock for multiple purposes. In the realm of bioenergy, yeast biomass can be used for production of biofuels
such as bioethanol and biogas, reducing our dependence on fossil fuels and fostering a more sustainable energy
system. Additionally, yeast biomass has proven to be a sustainable and nutritious animal feed, mitigating the
environmental impact of conventional feed ingredients while effectively repurposing industrial waste. Yeast can
also be metabolically engineered for the production of bio-based materials, like bioplastic, enabling the shift
towards a more environmentally friendly materials economy. The review explores the potential of yeast biomass
as a biofertilizer, promoting plant growth while reducing reliance on synthetic fertilizers. Moreover, the nutri­
tional benefit of yeast as a supplement is discussed. Additionally, the role of yeast biomass in bioremediation,
showcasing its efficacy in removing pollutants from wastewater and contaminated soil is described. Finally, the
remarkable progress made in genetic engineering of yeast, enabling the manipulation of DNA and the rewiring of
cellular networks to optimize metabolite fluxes and produce valuable compounds is explored. The integration of
yeast biomass in various sectors contributes to a more sustainable and efficient utilization of resources. Further
research and development in this field will undoubtedly unveil new opportunities and novel applications for
yeast biomass, enabling a transition towards a more sustainable and circular future.

1. Introduction they are known as dimorphic fungi. Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a yeast


species, is popular for converting carbon dioxide and alcohol production
Yeasts, a type of microorganism belonging to the fungus kingdom, from carbohydrates through fermentation, which has been used in the
are unicellular eukaryotes that have been around for hundreds of years. baking and beverage production industries for thousands of years
There are currently more than 1000 recognized yeast species, which (Akhtar et al., 2018). Yeasts are now used for electricity generation in
make up about 1 % of all known fungal species (El Baidouri et al., 2021). microbial fuel cells and production of ethanol for biofuel purposes. Yeast
Yeast ranges from 3 to 4 μm to as large as 40 μm in size depending on the biomass, which refers to the total weight of yeast cells in a given sample,
species and environment. They reproduce asexually through mitosis and has potential applications food, and biotechnology (Pereira et al., 2021).
budding (Váchová and Palková, 2018). Unlike molds, which grow hy­ The valorization of yeast biomass has numerous applications, and it is
phae, yeasts grow as single cells. Some fungi can grow in both forms, and growing research field for scientists and industry professionals. Yeast

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: atifkhurshid61200216@gmail.com (A.K. Wani).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biteb.2023.101508
Received 10 May 2023; Received in revised form 12 June 2023; Accepted 14 June 2023
Available online 16 June 2023
2589-014X/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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A.K. Wani et al. Bioresource Technology Reports 23 (2023) 101508

biomass is rich in proteins, vitamins, and minerals, making it a valuable However, the aim of industrial production is to efficiently convert sugar
ingredient in animal feed and other food products (Jach et al., 2022). For feedstock into yeast biomass while minimizing the production of
example, it can be utilized as a protein supplement in baked goods anaerobic metabolites, such as acetaldehyde, which is toxic and can
including bread, pasta, and as a nutritional additive in yogurt, cheese, hinder growth at high biomass densities (Poontawee and Limtong,
and other dairy products. Yeast biomass can be used as enzyme source, 2020). In order to attain the objective, the aim is to channel the sugar
such as hydrolases, for use in various industrial processes (Serba et al., metabolism towards the oxidative pathway, leading to the highest ATP
2020). It can also be used in the production of ethanol, which is made by energy yield and biomass creation. Examples of microbial biomass
fermenting sugars derived from biomass (Hermansyah et al., 2021). products include yeast products which employ S. cerevisiae strains as
Yeast plays a pivotal role in the production of bioethanol, a renewable hosts for heterologous-protein production. The Crabtree effect, which
and sustainable alternative to fossil fuels. The ethanol production pro­ refers to the tendency of S. cerevisiae to produce ethanol through
cess involves acquiring fermentable sugars, converting them into glycolytic metabolism, even under fully aerobic conditions, is a well-
ethanol through fermentation, and separating and purifying the result­ known characteristic of this yeast (Perez-Samper et al., 2018). Catabo­
ing ethanol (Kumar et al., 2018). We explore the key stages of this lite repression, which is triggered not only by glucose but also fructose,
process and highlight the importance of feedstock pretreatment, hy­ results in low yield when cultivating S. cerevisiae in batch cultures
drolysis, and fermentation efficiency in maximizing ethanol yield and (Simpson-Lavy and Kupiec, 2019). This is due to the low ATP yield from
reducing production costs. The advancements in yeast-based bio­ alcoholic fermentation. However, there are numerous metabolic path­
production have the potential to significantly contribute to the renew­ ways for biomass formation, and pure oxidative growth can yield
able energy sector and mitigate environmental concerns associated with biomass up to 50 % on substrate. The yeast can effectively adjust its
traditional fuel sources. The waste yeast biomass can also be sed for the cellular composition, metabolism, and physiological state to different
production of biogas through anaerobic digestion (Rahayu et al., 2022; growth modes, such as respiratory or fermentative growth, which result
Wani et al., 2023a). Thus, yeast and its biomass have proven to be a in considerably different substrate biomass yields (Broach, 2012). To
valuable resource in the preparation of industrially essential materials, produce yeast biomass, it is crucial to have a high respiratory capacity,
providing a sustainable solution to many industrial processes. The use of while for yeast applications in a fermentative process, a sufficiently high
yeast biomass not only reduces waste but also promotes a circular fermentative capacity is important. Both growth modes must be satis­
economy by utilizing a byproduct of one industry as a resource in factorily managed to achieve optimal production. In the baking in­
another (Donzella et al., 2021). As industries continue to explore more dustry, both types of growth are essential, and an important challenge is
sustainable practices, the contribution of yeast and its biomass has a to optimize assimilable carbon conversion to biomass during the pro­
demanding role in meeting the growing demand for eco-friendly mate­ duction phase while maintaining good leavening characteristics of the
rials. Thus, the use of yeast and its biomass serves as a boon to circular yeast in the dough. Other respiratory yeast cultivation processes also
economy, offering a promising solution towards a more sustainable require balancing between biomass production and optimal end-use
future. Furthermore, the paper highlights the circular economy characteristics, such as flavor or heterologous protein production
approach to yeast biomass, emphasizing the potential reuse and repur­ (Fig. 1).
posing of yeast biomass generated by industrial processes. Yeast biomass Yeast offers numerous advantages in the feed, food, pharmaceutical,
exhibits great potential in areas such as biofuels, animal feed, food ad­ and biotechnological fields (Nyyssölä et al., 2022). However, their
ditives, and bio-based materials. Its utilization in the circular economy market price often limits their potential applications. One of the main
can contribute to sustainable energy systems, reduced environmental challenges in developing cost effective fermentation routes for high-
impact in animal agriculture, The paper highlights the significance of value compounds is the requirement for yeast extract in culture
yeast and its biomass in the preparation of essential materials for various media. The utilization of the hemicellulosic fraction stream presents a
industries. The use of yeast biomass in industrial processes not only promising solution for the production of yeast biomass. A study
reduces waste but also promotes circular economy by utilizing a compared three yeast cell factories’ growth using non-detoxified brew­
byproduct of one industry as a resource in another. The paper empha­ ery’s spent grains hemicellulosic hydrolyzate supplemented with min­
sizes the sustainable benefits of yeast and its biomass in reducing the eral nutrients. The yeast species Debaryomyces hansenii displayed the
carbon footprint of industries and contributing to a more sustainable most impressive results by converting all sugars and efficiently using
future. Overall, the paper highlights the immense potential of yeast and most of the substances that inhibit hydrolysis. When conditions were
its biomass as a valuable resource for various industrial applications. optimized, D. hansenii showed a maximum specific growth rate, biomass
This review paper aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the yield, and productivity of 0.34 h-1, 0.61 g g-1, and 0.56 g 1–1 h-1,
recent advancements in yeast research, focusing on bioproduction, respectively. Additionally, D. hansenii had a beneficial nutritional profile
bioremediation, and genetic engineering. By examining the latest that included a considerable quantity of essential amino acids and a high
studies and breakthroughs in these areas, we aim to highlight the proportion of unsaturated to saturated fatty acids. Studies have also
remarkable potential of yeast as a versatile microorganism and pave the investigated how various nitrogen and carbon sources affect the pro­
way for future research and technological innovations. The exploration duction of biomass in three wine yeast species that are not Saccharo­
of yeast’s capabilities in these domains underscores its significance in myces, specifically Lachancea thermotolerans (Gobbi et al., 2013),
driving sustainable practices, addressing environmental challenges, and Metschnikowia pulcherrima (Spadaro et al., 2010), and Issatchenkia ori­
offering valuable solutions for various industries. entalis (Schnierda et al., 2014). These yeasts have the potential to
improve the final composition of wine, but optimal conditions remain
2. Yeast biomass production obscure, which limits their commercial application (Phong et al., 2022).
Additionally, the production of viable biomass is essential in deter­
Microbial biomass refers to the protein obtained from large-scale mining the suitability of antagonistic yeasts as potential biocontrol
cultivation of bacteria, yeasts, fungi, or algae (Salazar-López et al., agents (Schnierda et al., 2014). In a research study, the impact of three
2022). Yeast biomass is a one protein source used in animal feed or different metal ions on the production of biomass and viability of the
human nutrition (Agboola et al., 2021). Specific strains such as antagonistic yeast, C. diversa, was analyzed. A response surface meth­
S. cerevisiae and C. utilis are commonly used for single cell protein pro­ odology was used to optimize the medium components. Yeast cells
duction (Ritala et al., 2017). The industrial procedure consists of grown in a minimal mineral medium modified with ions exhibited lower
growing cells from agar slants of pure culture and transferring them to levels of cellular oxidative damage and higher levels of antioxidant
progressively larger bioreactors in each stage of propagation, until the enzyme activity. This led to the most effective control of gray mold on
final volume of the bioreactor is reached (Bărbulescu et al., 2021). apple fruit in a biocontrol assay. These findings provide valuable

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A.K. Wani et al. Bioresource Technology Reports 23 (2023) 101508

Fig. 1. Applications of S. cerevisiae and non- Saccharomyces yeasts in sequential valorization to produce different industrially important materials.

insights into culture medium optimization for enhancing biomass pro­ investigate the diversity of yeast in Durio kutejensis, a type of fruit native
duction and biocontrol efficacy (Liu et al., 2017). to Indonesia that was collected from Borneo, Central Kalimantan. The
study employed a metagenomic approach, which resulted in the iden­
3. Yeast metagenomics tification of 10 fungal species belonging to the Ascomycota group
(Sukmawati et al., 2021). Despite its promise, yeast metagenomics
Metagenomics is an emerging field that involves the study of the research still faces some challenges. One major challenge is the accurate
genetic material of yeast communities in various environments (Wani assembly and annotation of metagenomic datasets, which can be com­
et al., 2022b). This area of research is gaining increasing attention due to plex due to the presence of multiple yeast species and the absence of
the importance of yeast in various fields, including biotechnology, food reference genomes. Another challenge is the lack of standardization in
and beverage production, and medicine. Metagenomics provides an sampling and sequencing protocols, which can make it difficult to
opportunity to study the diversity and function of yeast communities in a compare results across studies.
particular ecosystem, allowing for a better understanding of their
ecological roles and potential applications (Bai et al., 2021; Wani et al., 4. Yeast biomass and circular economy
2022a; Wani et al., 2023b). The advent of next-generation sequencing
technologies has greatly facilitated yeast metagenomics research (Miller Yeast biomass is an important byproduct of many industrial pro­
and Chiu, 2022). These technologies allow for the sequencing of DNA cesses, including the brewing, baking, and biofuel industries (Philippini
from mixed populations of yeast, without the need for isolation or et al., 2020). It is a rich source of protein, carbohydrates, and other
cultivation of individual strains. As a result, metagenomics has enabled nutrients, and has been shown to have potential applications in a variety
the identification and characterization of a wide range of yeast species of fields, including animal feed, food additives, and bio-based materials
and their functional roles in different environments. One of the key (Llorente et al., 2022). One promising area of research related to yeast
applications of yeast metagenomics is in the field of biotechnology. biomass is the circular economy. Circular economy is a sustainable
Yeast is a widely used organism in the production of biofuels, enzymes, economic model that aims to minimize waste and maximize the use of
and other bioproducts. The identification and characterization of novel resources. In the case of yeast biomass, the circular economy approach
yeast species and their metabolic capabilities through metagenomics can involves finding ways to reuse and repurpose the yeast biomass gener­
lead to the development of new biotechnological processes and prod­ ated by various industrial processes (Binati et al., 2021). One example of
ucts. In addition, yeast metagenomics has implications for the food and this is the application of yeast biomass as a feedstock. By converting
beverage industry (Bibby et al., 2019). Yeast is essential in the yeast biomass into biofuels, we can reduce our reliance on fossil fuels
fermentation process of various food and beverage products, such as and create a more sustainable energy system. Another potential appli­
beer, wine, and bread. The identification of novel yeast species with cation of yeast biomass in the circular economy is protein source for
desirable fermentation characteristics through metagenomics can lead different feeds. Currently, much of the protein used in animal feed is
to the development of new, improved products. A study that utilized derived from soybeans and other crops, which can have significant
metagenomics showed that Chaetothyriales were prevalent on the skin environmental impacts. By using yeast biomass as a protein source
even when there was no infection present. The majority of the identified instead, we can reduce the environmental footprint of animal agricul­
microorganisms were responsible for causing mild skin diseases, ture while also reducing waste from industrial processes (Donzella et al.,
although some species were also found that had been previously linked 2021). The yeast cells present in wine lees, a waste byproduct of wine
to patients who had a CARD9 deficiency (Voidaleski et al., 2023). A making process could be used as compost or animal feed production (De
research study utilized next generation sequencing (NGS) analysis to Iseppi et al., 2020). Furthermore, the polyphenols in wine lees get

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adsorbed on the yeast cells. The polyphenols adsorbed on the yeast cells including medicine, food, and cosmetics. GSH is a potent antioxidant
can be recovered as used as additives in foods industry for antioxidant molecule that helps in reducing oxidative stress, which is linked to
and antimicrobial properties (De Iseppi et al., 2020). Yeast biomass can several diseases like cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and cardio­
also be used as a feedstock to produce bio-based materials, such as vascular diseases (Tan et al., 2018). Yeast-produced GSH can be used as
bioplastics. By replacing petroleum-based plastics with bio-based al­ a dietary supplement to enhance the body’s antioxidant defense system.
ternatives, we can reduce our reliance on non-renewable resources and GSH is an essential molecule in several pharmaceutical applications. For
create a more sustainable materials economy (Degli Esposti et al., 2021). example, it is used in chemotherapy to reduce the side effects of anti­
The spent brewer’s yeast could be used to isolate high-value products cancer drugs, protect liver function, and improve immune function (Niu
like beta-glucans, which can be used as nutraceutical in food products et al., 2021). Yeast-produced GSH is cost-effective, and it can be used as
such as yogurt and, can also be used for increasing the dietary fiber and a source for large-scale production of GSH for pharmaceutical purposes
reducing calorie content in breads and substitution of fat in mayonnaise (De Vero et al., 2017b). Yeast-produced GSH is used as a food additive in
(Puligundla et al., 2020). Furthermore, the waste yeast biomass can be the food industry to prevent lipid oxidation and improve the flavor and
used for the extraction of value added products like mannoproteins color of food. It is also used in the production of fermented foods,
which can be commercially used as emulsifiers in food industry (Qiao including cheese, wine, and beer (Raveendran et al., 2018).
et al., 2022). The yeast biomass generated after various industrial pro­
cesses can be used to obtain yeast extract which can be then used in 4.1.1. Glutathione and its nutraceutical applications
making microbial growth media (Jacob et al., 2019). Moreover, the dead GSH functions as a reducing agent and cofactor in several
yeast biomass produced during brewing can be used for the generation biochemical reactions, including the detoxification of xenobiotics
of biogas such as methane through anaerobic digestion (Oliveira et al., (Cummins et al., 2011), maintenance of the cellular redox state, and
2018). The waste yeast biomass can also be used for the green synthesis regulation of cellular metabolism (Minich and Brown, 2019). It is
of nanoparticles. Yantcheva et al. used spent brewer’s yeast in combi­ involved in several cellular processes, including DNA synthesis and
nation with Rosa damascene waste extract for the synthesis of silver repair, protein synthesis, and immune function. Nutraceuticals are
nanoparticles (Yantcheva et al., 2019). In another study the waste yeast bioactive compounds that have therapeutic benefits when consumed as
biomass from brewing was used for the synthesis of silver nano­ a part of a regular diet (Streletskii et al., 2019; Wani et al., 2021).
composites showing antibacterial property (Sudagar et al., 2021). Glutathione is one such nutraceutical that has gained considerable
Additionally, the waste yeast biomass can be used for isolating various attention for its potential health benefits. The nutraceutical application
bioactive peptides which can be used for the production of cosmetic of glutathione is primarily based on its antioxidant and detoxifying
products (Oliveira et al., 2022). properties. The availability of glutathione in the body can be increased
through dietary supplementation or by consuming foods that are rich in
4.1. Yeast and glutathione (GSH) production glutathione precursors, such as cysteine, glycine, and glutamine.
Several studies have reported the health benefits of GSH in various
GSH is a peptide composed of amino acids like cysteine, glutamate, disease conditions (Sacco et al., 2016; Shen et al., 2022; Silvagno et al.,
and glycine (Pastore et al., 2003). GSH plays a key role in detoxification 2020; Weschawalit et al., 2017). GSH has been shown to play a vital role
and defense mechanisms against oxidative stress owing to its antioxi­ in the prevention and management of several chronic diseases, including
dant property (Hasanuzzaman et al., 2019). In yeast, GSH production is cancer (Valenti et al., 2023), cardiovascular disease (Handy and
tightly linked to sulfate uptake, which is necessary for cysteine biosyn­ Loscalzo, 2022), diabetes (Y. Wang et al., 2022), and neurodegenerative
thesis, one of the three components of GSH. GSH has essential physio­ disorders (Sangwan et al., 2022). GSH has been found to inhibit the
logical and biochemical functions in yeasts, such as redox control, growth of cancer cells and promote apoptosis, or programmed cell
detoxification, and sulfur metabolism (De Vero et al., 2017a). GSH death, of cancer cells. It also protects against the harmful effects of ra­
performs diverse actions, including preserving vital varietal aromas and diation and chemotherapy. GSH has been shown to protect against
reducing unwanted aging off-flavors in wines. The function of GSH in oxidative stress-induced damage to the cardiovascular system by
winemaking is closely linked to its redox properties (Nikolantonaki reducing lipid peroxidation and inflammation (Tan et al., 2023). It also
et al., 2018). GSH helps prevent browning reactions that can occur due improves endothelial function, which is crucial for maintaining car­
to different reactions involving phenols. Its antioxidant nature plays a diovascular health. Diabetes is a chronic metabolic disorder character­
crucial role in stabilizing the color of the wine by obstructing the ized by high blood sugar levels. Oxidative stress plays a crucial role in
polymerization. Furthermore, GSH can halt the formation of sotolon and the pathogenesis of diabetes and its complications. GSH improves in­
aminoacetophenone, which are abnormal aging flavors in wine. More­ sulin sensitivity, reduce oxidative stress, and prevent diabetic compli­
over, it can also safeguard the aroma compounds by preventing the loss cations such as nephropathy and retinopathy (Matough et al., 2012).
of volatile molecules (Nikolantonaki et al., 2018). GSH has been shown to protect against oxidative stress-induced damage
GSH, which is a non-protein thiol with low molecular weight, makes to the neurons and improve cognitive function in patients with neuro­
up more than 95 % of this type of compound in wild strains of degenerative disorders. Thus, glutathione is a powerful antioxidant and
S. cerevisiae and can account for up to 1 % of the cellular dry weight (De nutraceutical with several potential health benefits (Bland, 2022). It
Vero et al., 2017b). The production of GSH in yeast is closely linked to plays a crucial role in the prevention and management of chronic dis­
the uptake of sulfate, which is necessary for cysteine biosynthesis. Sul­ eases, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and neurode­
fate is transported into the cell by two specific membrane permeases, generative disorders. GSH supplementation or the consumption of GSH-
Sul1p and Sul2p, and is then converted to adenylyl sulfate (APS) and rich foods may be beneficial for individuals with high oxidative stress
phosphoadenylyl sulfate (PAPS) (Ohtsuka et al., 2021). PAPS is further levels or those at risk of chronic diseases. However, further research is
converted to sulfite and sulfide, which are incorporated into the carbon needed to establish the optimal dose, duration, and mode of delivery of
chain of homocysteine. Two transsulfuration reactions then lead to the glutathione for maximum health benefits.
formation of cystathionine, which is then converted to cysteine. GSH is
synthesized in the cytosol through two consecutive reactions catalyzed 4.2. Yeast biomass as animal feed and probiotic
by two enzymes, γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase (GSH1) and GSH syn­
thetase (GSH2). The first reaction involves the condensation of cysteine Several strategies are being followed to improve the livestock well-
and glutamate to form γ-glutamylcysteine, and in the second reaction, being through various genome based strategies (Raza et al., 2022b,
glycine is added to synthesize GSH (Marí et al., 2020). 2022a; Wani et al., 2022c; Wani et al., 2022). Yeast biomass can be used
GSH produced by yeast has several applications in different fields, as a nutritious and sustainable animal feed. Yeast is a rich source of

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protein, vitamins, and minerals, and is often used as a feed supplement as growth promoter and alternative to antibiotic (Banu et al., 2020).
(Patterson et al., 2023). The use of yeast biomass as a feed ingredient has Spent oleaginous yeast, Lipomyces starkeyi, dry cells obtained from oil
several advantages over traditional protein sources such as soybean industry supplement improved growth, tolerance to stress condition,
meal and fishmeal (Hua et al., 2019). Yeast biomass is a cost-effective feed utilization and antioxidant capacity in juvenile red sea bream
alternative to other protein sources. It can be produced using a variety (Shadrack et al., 2022, 2021). The yeast supplement in the fish diet has
of low-cost feedstocks, including molasses, whey, and corn steep liquor also improved the growth and health of juvenile Micropterus salmoides
(Bušić et al., 2018). Additionally, yeast is a single-cell organism, which fish (Feng et al., 2022).
means it can be grown rapidly and easily under controlled conditions.
Yeast biomass is highly digestible and contains a balanced amino acid 4.3. Yeast biomass for agricultural application
profile, making it an ideal source of protein for animals. It also contains a
range of vitamins and minerals, including B vitamins, iron, and sele­ Plant growth can be improved using microorganisms that promote
nium. The use of yeast biomass as animal feed can help reduce the growth. These microorganisms, known as PGPMs effect plants (Akhtar
environmental impact of livestock production (Jach et al., 2022). Yeast et al., 2022; Soumare et al., 2021). While bacteria and mycorrhizal fungi
can be produced using waste materials, reducing the amount of waste have been studied as PGPMs, the potential of yeasts in this role has been
that would otherwise be sent to landfill (Lee et al., 2019). largely overlooked. Yeast biomass has the potential to be used as both
Yeast can remove oxygen from the rumen environment, thereby biofertilizers and biopesticides (Hernández-Fernández et al., 2021). This
enhancing the growth and metabolic activity of anaerobic microorgan­ is because they offer several benefits such as a sustainable source of
isms in the rumen (Ghazanfar et al., 2017). Additionally, yeast can in­ nutrients, promoting soil health and microbiota, reducing synthetic
crease the cellulolytic activity and improve nutrient digestibility, fertilizers by up to 30 %, breaking down plant residues, and being
especially in diets that are high in fiber (Elghandour et al., 2020). Yeast environmentally safe and non-polluting (Table 1). Additionally, pests
has also demonstrated its potential in regulating the pH of the rumen are less likely to develop resistance to yeast, making it a cost-effective
and minimizing the risk of acidosis by controlling the balance between and eco-friendly option (Yatoo et al., 2021). Yeasts are commonly
lactate-producing and lactate-utilizing bacteria (Amin and Mao, 2021). found in the rhizosphere, where they can stimulate root growth, but they
A study involving dairy calves revealed that adding yeast culture at a have also been investigated as potential biofertilizers (Sarabia et al.,
rate of 2 % to the grain they were fed from 2 to 70 days of age enhanced 2018). Yeast can also colonize the interior of plants and promote crop
their neutrophil function when incubated with harmful E. coli. Calves growth. It is essential to maintain soil biodiversity and plant microbiota
that received yeast culture tended to experience fewer days with mild or populations to enhance plant growth, as the uncontrolled use of fertil­
watery diarrhea, and fever incidents were also reduced. Consequently, izers can diminish this biodiversity (Backer et al., 2018,). Yeast sus­
the number of calves that required treatment with anti-inflammatory pensions can also play a crucial role in plant growth when applied to
and anti-diarrhea products was reduced, as was the number of calves foliage. The less solubility of essential plant nutrients affects plants
treated with antibiotics. The incorporation of yeast culture resulted in a negatively. Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), the most common plant auxin, is
higher net income, as the calves’ value improved. The mortality rate particularly important in regulating various aspects of plant growth
among calves that received yeast culture was significantly lower (Mahmud et al., 2021). Microbes can also enhance plant growth indi­
compared to the control group, especially beyond 13 days of age, with a rectly by inducing resistance to environmental stress and producing
6-fold reduction in risk of mortality (Magalhães et al., 2008). The antifungal compounds (Koza et al., 2022). Yeast biomass can also be
addition of yeast to dairy cow feed can lead to increased milk production used to decrease the use of mineral NPK fertilizers (Mahmoud et al.,
and profitability through two mechanisms. Firstly, yeast supplementa­ 2023). The use of 25–50 % NPK fertilizer along with yeast S. cerevisiae
tion alters the microbial population in the cow’s stomach, improves the
fermentation process, increases nutrient absorption, and enhances diet Table 1
digestibility, all of which contribute to higher milk yield (Verdier-Metz Yeast biomass as a potent biocontrol agent in plant growth and management.
et al., 2023). Secondly, yeast products contain various beneficial com­
Yeast Mechanism of Effect References
pounds that have antioxidant, appetite-stimulating, pathogen-inhibit­ action
ing, and immune-boosting properties, which can further improve the
C. lusitaniae Biodegradation of Improves shoot and (Giglio and
cow’s health and productivity (Burdick Sanchez et al., 2021). dinitroaniline root growth Vommaro, 2022;
Yeast is rich in nucleic acids, particularly RNA, leading to increased Han et al., 2019)
purine metabolism in the liver and a consequential high production of Rhodotorula Siderophore Acts as a biofungicide (Ferramola et al.,
uric acid. This can result in urinary calculi and other metabolic issues, glutinis production 2013)
Phyllophora Polyamine Cell proliferation, (Fu et al., 2016;
which can be reduced by limiting the amount of yeast products in the
antarctica production growth and Tyagi et al.,
animal diet (Daignan-Fornier and Pinson, 2019). It is essential for cattle differentiation 2022)
farmers to obtain yeast material from reputable sources and ensure its Candida N2 fixation Supply of the vital (Soumare et al.,
quality and composition (Soares et al., 2023). Feeding yeast can also tropicalis plant nutrients 2020)
lead to an imbalanced supply of amino acids, with high levels of lysine Rhodotorula sp. P solubilization Plant growth (Mukherjee and
promotion Sen, 2015)
and low levels of arginine. This can negatively affect growth due to Pichia anomala K solubilization Improves plant (Mohamed et al.,
improper metabolism and protein synthesis in animals (Romano et al., growth and yield 2017)
2019). Therefore, adding arginine during yeast processing can correct S. cerevisiae S oxidizing Formation of (T. Wang et al.,
the lysine-to-arginine ratio, and including additional methionine can proteins, vitamins 2022)
and enzymes.
correct deficiencies and improve animal performance (Arif et al., 2019).
Cryptococcus ACC deaminase Lowering the level of (Deng et al.,
Apart from animal feed, the waste yeast biomass from industrial sp. activity ethylene 2012; Singh
processes can be used as feed for the aquatic organisms such as fish and et al., 2015)
shrimp (Puligundla et al., 2020). Nguyen et al. reported the use of spent Meyerozyma Indole acetic acid Regulating cell (Fernandez-San
brewer’s yeast as fish meal substitute in diet of giant freshwater prawn guilliermondii (IAA) production division, elongation, Millan et al.,
and tissue 2020)
(Nguyen et al., 2019). Another study also reported that the inclusion of differentiation
S. cerevisiae fish diet could be used as an alternative to fish meal (Huyben A. pullulans Cytokinin Delay in leaf (Emery and
et al., 2018). The yeast supplement in the diet of freshwater catfish production senescence. Kisiala, 2020;
improved their growth and survival rate against fish pathogen Pseudo­ Streletskii et al.,
2019)
monas fluorescens infection, suggesting the potential of yeast supplement

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increased essential oil content in lemon grass (Mahmoud et al., 2023). facilitated by yeast enzymes, breaks down complex sugars into simpler
Biochar made from the waste brewery spent yeast obtained after compounds, releasing energy in the form of ethanol (Khandaker et al.,
brewing process improved growth and nutrient acquisition of maize 2018). Bioethanol can be used as a renewable and environmentally
plants and also enhanced the soil fertility parameters (Manolikaki and friendly alternative to fossil fuels in transportation and as a fuel additive.
Diamadopoulos, 2020). The application of brewer’s yeast and brewers Yeast biomass can also be utilized for the generation of biogas through
spent grain in soil showed their possibility in controlling weeds growing anaerobic digestion (Oliveira et al., 2018). Biogas is primarily composed
in strawberry fields (Liu et al., 2020). Furthermore, the treatment of soil of methane, which can be used as a fuel for heating, electricity gener­
with brewers spent grain in presence of brewer’s yeast improve cumu­ ation, or as a substitute for natural gas.
lative strawberry yield (Liu, 2021). There has been an increase in studies
exploring the potential of certain yeasts to combat insect pests (Douglas, 4.4.1. Yeast biomass and bioethanol production
2007; Gibson and Hunter, 2010). RNA interference (RNAi) has emerged Yeast biomass and bioethanol production are closely related topics,
as an effective tool for pest management, wherein double-stranded RNA as yeast is a key component in the production of bioethanol. Yeast is a
(dsRNA) is produced in plants and ingested by insects, leading to the microorganism that can convert sugars into ethanol through the process
downregulation of targeted genes via RNAi (Mamta and Rajam, 2017). A of fermentation. This process is used to produce bioethanol, which is a
transgentic yeast has been developed to express dsRNA that targets y- renewable fuel that can be used in place of gasoline (Khandaker et al.,
tubulin in Drosophila suzukii. This biopesticide has been shown to reduce 2018). Yeast biomass is the amount of yeast that is produced during
larval survival, and the target gene deltion via RNAi is the primary fermentation (Fig. 2). This biomass is a valuable byproduct of the bio­
reason for the decreased fitness of D. suzukii (Hough et al., 2022). The ethanol production process, as it can be used in a variety of ways. For
Solicoccozyma terricola yeast can break down glyphosate in soil and serve example, yeast biomass can be used as a source of protein for animal
as a source of nutrients (Stosiek et al., 2019). Additionally, a particular feed or as a fertilizer for crops. Bioethanol production involves several
strain of Clavispora lusitaniae yeast can degrade pendimethalin, a toxic steps (Vasić et al., 2021). First, a source of carbohydrates, such as corn or
dinitroaniline herbicide (Han et al., 2019), while a strain of sugarcane, is converted into a sugar-rich solution. Yeast is then added to
P. kudriavzevii yeast can break down atrazine, an herbicide belonging to the solution, and fermentation occurs. The ethanol is then purified and
the s-triazine group (Abigail et al., 2013). The ability of yeasts to used as a fuel. The efficiency of the bioethanol production process de­
remediate soil pollution is a promising method for sustainable agricul­ pends on several factors, including the type of yeast used, the concen­
ture. However, there are also some challenges associated with using tration of sugars in the solution, and the temperature and pH of the
yeast as biofertilizers and biopesticides. These include the limited fermentation process (Mohd Azhar et al., 2017). Researchers are
availability of effective strains, marketing difficulties, lack of awareness continually working to improve the efficiency of this process, with the
among farmers. goal of making bioethanol a more sustainable and cost-effective alter­
native to traditional fossil fuels. S. cerevisiae is a type of yeast commonly
used in the brewing and wine industries for its ability to produce ethanol
4.4. Yeast biomass for the production of energy
efficiently and withstand high ethanol concentrations (Parapouli et al.,
2020). Its use in these industries helps to keep distillation costs low
Yeast biomass can be utilized as a valuable resource for the pro­
while maintaining high productivity. Yeasts such as Pichia stipitis (NRRL-
duction of energy through various processes. One of the most common
Y-7124), S. cerevisiae (RL-11), and Kluyveromyces fagilis (Kf1) have
applications of yeast biomass in energy production is in the production
shown promise in generating fuel ethanol from renewable energy
of biofuels, particularly bioethanol. Yeast can metabolize sugar sources,
sources (Agbogbo and Coward-Kelly, 2008; Dragone et al., 2011; Stanley
such as glucose or sucrose, and convert them into ethanol and carbon
et al., 2010). These yeast strains have been identified as good producers
dioxide through the process of fermentation. This fermentation process,

Fig. 2. Biofuel production through enzymatic conversion of biowaste using yeast biomass.

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of ethanol from various types of sugars. The use of S. cerevisiae in in­ feedstocks, flexible to various product specifications, and does not
dustrial ethanol production is very common due to its ability to tolerate require labor skills, it has low productivity and requires intensive labor
a wide range of pH and reduce the risk of contamination. While baker’s costs (Zulqarnain et al., 2021).
yeast was commonly used in the past, it was unable to compete with
wild-type yeast, leading to contamination during fermentation. The 4.4.2. Yeast biomass and biogas production
yeast faces challenging conditions, including high ethanol concentra­ The production of biogas can be achieved by subjecting yeast
tions, temperature, osmotic stress, and bacterial contamination, which biomass to anaerobic digestion. In a study conducted by Zupancic and
make it difficult to survive during fermentation. his team investigated the anaerobic co-digestion of brewer’s yeast and
The production of bioethanol is influenced by multiple factors, such anaerobically treated brewery wastewater using a pilot-scale anaerobic
as temperature, sugar concentration, pH, fermentation time, agitation sequencing batch reactor (ASBR). The findings of the study indicated
rate, and inoculum size. The temperature has a direct impact on the that incorporating brewer’s yeast into the ASBR process resulted in a 50
growth rate of microorganisms. When the temperature is too high, it % increase in biogas production from brewery wastewater. Further­
becomes a stressor for microorganisms and inhibits their growth (Mohd more, the study demonstrated that brewer’s yeast could be effectively
Azhar et al., 2017; Yalcin and Yesim Ozbas, 2008). Free cells of digested in an ASBR without any negative impacts on biogas production,
S. cerevisiae perform best at around 30 ◦ C, while immobilized cells can even at concentrations of up to 8 % (by volume) in the brewer’s yeast/
tolerate slightly higher temperatures (Moreno-García et al., 2018). wastewater mixture (Zupančič et al., 2017). Another study studied the
Additionally, enzymes involved in microbial activity and the fermen­ waste concentrated yeast biomass generated from the downstream
tation process can be negatively impacted by high temperatures, which processing after citric acid biosynthesis for the production of biogas
can cause their tertiary structure to denature and render them inactive. (Moeller et al., 2018). The anaerobic digestion of the waste concentrated
yeast biomass from citric acid production lead to the high biogas yield,
4.4.1.1. Bioethanol production process. The ethanol production is reliant with a maximum of 1.45 m3 N/kgVS and had average methane concen­
on the type of feedstocks that are utilized. There are typically three key tration of 66 ± 4 % (Moeller et al., 2018). However, the use of the
stages involved in producing ethanol: firstly, the acquisition of a solu­ concentrated yeast biomass led to problems such as coagulation of the
tion containing fermentable sugars; secondly, the conversion of these yeast biomass in the feeding device, and over-acidification. Neverthe­
sugars into ethanol by way of fermentation; and lastly, the separation less, the co-digestion of the concentrated yeast biomass along with waste
and purification of the resulting ethanol. The feedstocks usually need to frying fat ameliorated the problems and yielded 1.42 m3/kgVS biogas
be pre-treated to make them smaller and more manageable for the with methane concentration of 67 ± 4 % (Moeller et al., 2018). A study
ensuing processes (Shukla et al., 2023). Once this has been done, the showed that the addition of activated yeast during the anaerobic
hemicellulose and cellulose are broken down into fermentable sugars digestion of food waste increased the daily biogas production (Gao et al.,
through a process called hydrolysis (Vasić et al., 2021). Following this, 2020).
yeasts are responsible for fermenting these sugars into ethanol (Maicas,
2020). Technologies designed for separation are then utilized to retrieve 4.5. Yeast biomass and bioremediation
ethanol before it can be utilized as fuel. The pretreatment stage in
ethanol production has a significant impact on the overall process, Biodetoxification has emerged as a fresh option for eliminating
affecting the ease of hydrolysis and the amount of fermentable sugars substances like microbial toxins, chemical pollutants, and industrial
produced (Dimos et al., 2019). This, in turn, affects the yield of ethanol waste products in recent times (Pop et al., 2022). Biodetoxification
and the cost of production. Physical, chemical, biological, and physi­ pathways fall into three categories depending on the system involved,
cochemical methods are used for pretreatment (Chen et al., 2017). namely commodity-dependent, enzymatic, or microbial (Anasonye
Physical methods use mechanical milling to grind the substrate (Kumar et al., 2014). Microbial detoxification methods might be helpful in
and Sharma, 2017), while chemical methods include ozonolysis, acid eradicating heavy metals or biotoxins, which have become a growing
hydrolysis, alkaline hydrolysis, and organosolv-based processes (Sabiha- worldwide concern. Wastewater discharge into the environment has
Hanim et al., 2018). been on the rise due to industrial expansion (Aili Hamzah et al., 2022).
The hydrolysis process is utilized after pretreatment to convert Unlike other pollutants, heavy metals cannot be broken down by natural
feedstocks into fermentable sugars for bioethanol production (Tse et al., biochemical processes. These metals have a propensity to build up in
2021). The two most common methods for this purpose are acidic and living organisms, causing them to be toxic or carcinogenic (Briffa et al.,
enzymatic hydrolysis. Acid hydrolysis, the oldest and most widely used 2020). Yeast biomass can be used for bioremediation, which is the
method, can be divided into two categories: dilute and concentrated. process of using living organisms to remove or neutralize pollutants in
Dilute acid hydrolysis involves using low acid concentrations at higher the environment (Table 2). Yeasts are particularly useful for bioreme­
temperatures, whereas concentrated acid hydrolysis uses high acid diation because they are able to tolerate a wide range of environmental
concentrations at lower temperatures. Although dilute acid hydrolysis is conditions and can metabolize a variety of organic compounds. One
more common, it generates more inhibitors than concentrated acid hy­ example of bioremediation using yeast is the treatment of wastewater
drolysis (Sritrakul et al., 2017). When dealing with lignocellulosic containing organic pollutants (Nicula et al., 2023). Yeast can be used to
biomass, acid hydrolysis is performed in two stages because pentose break down the organic compounds in the wastewater, converting them
sugars degrade faster than hexose sugars. Enzymatic hydrolysis, on the into carbon dioxide and water. This process not only removes the pol­
other hand, involves using enzymes to break down feedstocks into lutants from the water but also produces yeast biomass, which can be
fermentable sugars. The enzyme’s concentration and source influence used as a source of protein and other nutrients (Dias et al., 2023).
the cellulase enzyme’s activity (Vasić et al., 2021). Bioethanol fermen­ Another example of bioremediation using yeast is the treatment of
tation can be carried out in several modes, including batch, fed-batch, contaminated soil. Yeast can be applied to the soil and used to break
repeated batch, or continuous mode (Jiang et al., 2013). In a batch down organic pollutants, such as petroleum hydrocarbons (Gargouri
process, the substrate is provided at the beginning of the process without et al., 2015). The yeasts metabolize the pollutants, converting them into
the addition or removal of the medium. This system is the simplest carbon dioxide and water, and in the process, they produce biomass that
bioreactor with a closed-loop system (Mitra and Murthy, 2022). The can be harvested and used as a nutrient-rich soil amendment (Akash
fermentation process starts with high sugars and inhibitors concentra­ et al., 2023). Research conducted on yeast’s ability to detoxify has
tion and ends with high product concentration (Horváth et al., 2020). shown that specific strains of both Saccharomyces and non-
Although the batch system offers several benefits such as easy control of Saccharomyces can effectively remove heavy metals from wastewater
generated by the food industry. In an study it was reported that

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Table 2 making it an attractive nutritional supplement for vegans. The Fleisch­


Role of yeast and yeast biomass in degradation of environmental contamination. mann Yeast Company once promoted yeast cakes as a health supple­
Yeast Contaminant Degradation References ment, claiming a wide range of benefits, but were later censured by the
efficiency Federal Trade Commission for misleading advertising (Ciudad-Mulero
R. mucilaginosa Lead 94 % in 6 days (Tian et al., 2022) et al., 2020). Recently, a zinc-enriched yeast Saccharomyces pastorianus
Geotrichum sp. CS-67 Metal ions 30–45 % in 15 (He et al., 2022) has been reported which has shown the possibility of being used as zinc
days supplements (Maares et al., 2022). Another study reported the use of
Kazachstania Chromium 48 % in 10 days (Campaña-Pérez chromium enriched yeast as organic chromium supplement for chro­
yasuniensi et al., 2019)
Pseudozyma antarctica Plastic mulch 50 % in 5 (Sameshima-
mium (III) deficiency (M.-T. Wang et al., 2022). The chromium (III)
film weeks Yamashita et al., enriched S. cerevisiae improved liver glycogen synthesis, lipid meta­
2019) bolism, glucose tolerance, and ameliorated intestinal microbiota
P. antarctica Poly-butylene 60 % in 14 days (Kitamoto et al., disturbance in hyperlipidemic and hyperglycemic mice (Y. Wang et al.,
2018)
2022). Jach et al. obtained a vitamin B12 enriched yeast Yarrowia lip­
Yeast consortium Low-density 33.2 % in 10 (Elsamahy et al.,
polyethylene days 2023) olytica from biofuel waste which can be used as a nutritional supplement
Oleaginous yeasts Azo dye 47.25 % in 30 h (Al-Tohamy et al., for vitamin B12 deficiency (Jach et al., 2020). The EFSA Panel on
2021) Nutrition, Novel Foods And Food Allergens declared that the yeast
Meyerozyma caribbica Azo dye 87.2 % in 18 h (Ali et al., 2022) Y. lipolytica biomass, is safe for the use as food ingredient in single meal
Sterigmatomyces Azo dye 50 % in 12.4 h (Ali et al., 2022)
halophilus SSA-1575
replacement products for weight reduction for adults at a maximum
Candida sp. SMN04 Cefdinir 84 % in 6 days (Selvi et al., 2015) amount of 6 g/day (EFSA Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food
(Antibiotic) Allergens (NDA) et al., 2022).

5. Genetically engineering of yeast


bentonite clay functionalized with spent brewer’s yeast was able to
remove platinum from aqueous solutions (Mosai et al., 2020). Addi­
In 1973, the discipline of genetic engineering emerged following the
tionally, it is understood that during fermentation and in finished food
successful creation of biologically functional bacterial plasmids outside
products, the cell walls of yeast can absorb specific mycotoxins. The
of a living organism. Since that time, numerous techniques have been
efficacy of yeasts in eliminating aflatoxin B1 and zinc was investigated
developed that enable the manipulation of DNA on a large scale,
in a study utilizing HPLC and voltammetric techniques. Further tests
including the ability to read and write genetic code and perform intri­
were carried out on the strains that exhibited the best performance. Out
cate modifications and alterations (Khalil, 2020; Mir et al., 2022;
of the 213 strains examined, 33 were able to eliminate more than 50 %
Takahashi et al., 2021). Several key advancements were necessary to
of aflatoxin B1, and Rhodotorula mucilaginosa was found to be the most
move from the use of recombinant DNA to the current advanced stage of
effective species. In the case of zinc, 39 strains removed more than 50 %
genetic engineering. In addition to E. coli, S. cerevisiae is a crucial model
of the heavy metal, and Diutina rugosa demonstrated the most promising
organism in genetic engineering due to its ease of handling and its
results (García-Béjar et al., 2020).
generally recognized as safe (GRAS) status (van der Hoek et al., 2019).
Due to the existence of numerous reference genomes, it is now possible
4.6. Yeast as a nutrition supplement to conduct low coverage sequencing and compare results with data­
bases, leading to significant outcomes at an affordable price. In recent
Yeast can be a valuable source of nutrition when consumed as a times, third-generation sequencing technologies have emerged, which
supplement. It is high in protein, fiber, B vitamins, and other important offer the benefits of long sequencing reads and parallel sequencing of the
nutrients (Nkhata et al., 2018). Yeast supplements are commonly used to second generation. However, the accuracy of these technologies is lower
boost immune function, support digestion, and improve overall health. (Miyamoto et al., 2014).
One type of yeast supplement that is often used is nutritional yeast (Jia Yeast has been extensively utilized to produce valuable products,
et al., 2021). This type of yeast is deactivated, meaning it cannot ferment ranging from single gene expression to metabolic engineering, which
or grow like active yeast used in baking. Nutritional yeast has a cheesy, extensively rewires a cell’s network to optimize metabolite fluxes for
nutty flavor and is often used as a vegan or vegetarian substitute for increased production of desired compounds (Schindler, 2020). Yeast has
cheese. It is a good source of protein and B vitamins, especially vitamin become a versatile platform for various products, including antibiotics,
B12 which is important for vegetarians and vegans who may have dif­ fine chemicals, petrochemicals, and vaccines (Żymańczyk-Duda et al.,
ficulty getting enough of it from their diet (Jach et al., 2022). Brewer’s 2017). Recently, researchers in Christina Smolke’s lab modified yeast to
yeast is another type of yeast supplement that is often used. It is a produce tropane alkaloids. The modified yeast contained 15 additional
byproduct of the beer-making process and is often sold as a dietary genes and seven gene disruptions (Srinivasan and Smolke, 2020). The
supplement. Brewer’s yeast is high in protein, B vitamins, chromium, investigation formed the basis of a subsequent article that developed
and selenium. It is often used to improve immune function and support medically significant alkaloids, namely hyoscyamine and scopolamine,
healthy digestion (Marson et al., 2020). Yeast is commonly used in food in yeast. This was accomplished by introducing 34 chromosomal mod­
for its umami flavor, similar to the way monosodium glutamate is used, ifications and carefully considering the subcellular localization of pro­
and often contains free glutamic acid (Zanfirescu et al., 2019). Yeast teins involved in the relevant reactions. This intricate method of genetic
extract is made from the contents inside yeast cells and is used as a food engineering is arguably the most sophisticated means of producing
additive or flavoring. The process for making yeast extract on a com­ substances in yeast available at present.
mercial scale involves adding salt to a suspension of yeast, which trig­ It’s worth mentioning that the potential of yeast to be transformed
gers a process of self-destruction called autolysis (Tao et al., 2023). The into a cell factory also applies to non-laboratory strains, with potential
resulting dying yeast cells are then heated to complete their breakdown, applications in the food industry. In a study, genetically modified in­
after which the husks are removed. This yeast extract is used in products dustrial brewing yeasts was used to produce the primary flavor com­
like Vegemite, Marmite, and Cenovis (Tullio, 2022). Nutritional yeast is ponents of hopped beer (Denby et al., 2018). These strains could make
made from whole dried, deactivated yeast cells and is a popular vegan beer production more environmentally friendly by eliminating the need
substitute for cheese powder due to its nutty and umami flavor. It can for water- and energy-intensive hop crops, which can vary in flavor from
also be used in various dishes like mashed potatoes, scrambled eggs, and harvest to harvest. While yeast can be used as a biotechnological plat­
popcorn (Jensen et al., 2008). It is often fortified with vitamin B12, form for sustainable applications beyond biofuel production from

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petrochemicals, it’s important to note that excessive engineering of a regulatory compliance.


particular platform can put a strain on cells (Nandy and Srivastava,
2018). These platforms are living organisms and subject to the principles 7. Conclusion
of evolution. The second, which is more time-consuming, involves
constructing chromosomes from amplified or synthesized DNA frag­ In conclusion, yeast biomass has great potential for a wide range of
ments as episomal vectors (Kuijpers et al., 2013). Both approaches allow applications in the circular economy. The numerous benefits of yeast
for modification and alteration of the constructs using a variety of ge­ biomass, including its ability to convert various waste streams into
netic engineering tools. Genome capturing has an advantage in that it valuable products, make it a promising candidate for sustainable and
can be used to modify genomes that are not easily accessible (Abdallah eco-friendly practices. Through the use of yeast biomass, waste can be
et al., 2016). However, for large modifications, de novo synthesis of the transformed into useful materials, reducing the amount of waste sent to
genome may be more cost-effective. Although de novo synthesis requires landfills and contributing to the circular economy. Additionally, yeast
more work and cost, it allows for more flexibility in the design of the biomass can be used to produce a variety of products, such as food, feed,
chromosome. Recent research has shown that functional RNA genomes biofuels, and even pharmaceuticals, creating a sustainable and diverse
can also be generated using a similar approach, where a DNA genome is economy. With continued research and development, the applications of
assembled in yeast, followed by in vitro RNA production. This tech­ yeast biomass in the circular economy will continue to expand, leading
nology has the potential for producing functional viral particles. to a more sustainable and prosperous future.

6. Future perspective CRediT authorship contribution statement

Yeast biomass research has a promising future as it plays an impor­ Atif Khurshid Wani: Conceptualization, Literature survey, Writing-
tant role in various industries such as food, feed, pharmaceutical, and Original draft, Project administration, Supervision. Farida Rahayu:
biofuel production. As the demand for sustainable alternatives to fossil Formal analysis, Investigation, Writing-Original draft, Analysis. Ita
fuels continues to grow (Vural Gursel et al., 2021), there is a need for Yustina: Formal analysis, Investigation, Writing-Original draft, Anal­
further optimization of yeast-based bioproduction processes. Future ysis. Gatot Suhart Abdul Fatah: Formal analysis, Methodology, Vali­
research can focus on improving feedstock pretreatment methods, dation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review &
enhancing hydrolysis efficiency, and developing more robust yeast editing. Ketut Kariada: Formal analysis, Investigation, Writing-Original
strains capable of efficiently fermenting a wider range of sugars. Addi­ draft, Analysis. Sri Satya Antarlina: Validation, Visualization, Writing –
tionally, exploring novel fermentation strategies and fermentation original draft, Writing – review & editing. Akhmad Jufri: Conceptual­
conditions can lead to higher ethanol yields and increased process sus­ ization, Formal analysis, Writing – review & editing. Dicky Pamungkas:
tainability. The integration of omics technologies, such as genomics, Formal analysis, Methodology, Validation, Visualization, Writing –
transcriptomics, and metabolomics, can provide valuable insights into original draft, Writing – review & editing.”
yeast metabolism and guide the design of tailored bioproduction stra­
tegies. Furthermore, the possibility of using waste yeast biomass Funding statement
generated from various industries should be further explored to optimize
the biogas production and overcome the limitations posed by yeast This work did not receive funding from any institute or agency.
biomass in bioreactors during biogas generation. The possibility of yeast
biomass produced as waste from different industries can also be
Declaration of competing interest
explored for their probiotic property, growth promoting ability, fish feed
supplement and antibiotics substitute in the cultivation of various fish
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
and aquatic crustaceans. Yeast-based bioremediation holds immense
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
potential for addressing environmental pollution challenges (Akhtar and
the work reported in this paper.
Mannan, 2020a). Future research efforts can focus on expanding the
range of pollutants that yeast can effectively degrade, including
Data availability
emerging contaminants such as pharmaceuticals and personal care
products. Moreover, the exploration of co-culture systems involving
No data was used for the research described in the article.
yeast and other microorganisms can enhance bioremediation efficiency
and broaden the scope of pollutants that can be targeted (Akhtar and
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