Wallace, Introduction to Information Systems, 3rd edition

Instructor’s Manual
Chapter 4, Databases and Data Warehouses

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Chapter 4
Databases and Data Warehouses
Learning Objectives
1. Explain the nature of information resources in terms of structure and quality, and
show how metadata can be used to describe these resources.

2. Compare file processing systems to the database, explaining the database’s

advantages.

3. Describe how a relational database is planned, accessed, and managed, and how
the normalization process works.

4. Explain why multiple databases emerge, and how master data management helps
address the challenge of integration.

5. Describe how a data warehouse is created, and explain the challenges and value of
big data.

6. Explain how the human element and ownership issues affect information
management.

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Chapter 4, Databases and Data Warehouses

Solutions to Chapter Review Questions

4-1. What are the three categories that describe the nature of information
resources? Give an example of each. How do you characterize the
relationships within each category of information?

Information may be categorized as structured, unstructured, or semi-structured.

Structured information can be broken down into component parts and organized
into hierarchies. Credit card account information is structured information. On the
other hand, unstructured information is difficult to break down, categorize,
organize, and query. Information relating to a lawsuit that includes letters, emails,
business cards, post-it notes, meeting minutes, and phone calls is unstructured
information. Semi-structured information is a gray area that exists between the
extremes of structured and unstructured information. This can include information
that has at least some structure, such as web pages and documents, all of which
have creation dates, titles, and authors (i.e., document properties). The
relationships in structured information are relatively easy to identify. With
unstructured information, there is no way to link items together except perhaps in
physical form. Semi-structured information may be easier to query and aggregate
compared to unstructured information.

4-2. What is metadata? What does metadata describe for structured

information? For unstructured information? Give an example of each type of
metadata.

Metadata refers to data about data, and clarifies the nature of pieces of
information. For structured information, metadata describes the details of the
structure. For example, database metadata refers to the definitions of each of the
fields and tables, and their relationships. For semi-structured and structured
information, metadata is used to describe properties of a document or other
resources such as the title, author, creation date, and keywords entered into the
documents property fields.

4-3. What are the characteristics of information that affect quality? What are
examples of each?

The characteristics of information that affect quality are accuracy, precision,

completeness, consistency, timeliness, bias, and duplication. Accurate information
describes correct amounts, dates, spelling, descriptions, or other values. Precise
information describes numbers that are not rounded, and complete information
includes all values that are required. Consistent information does not differ across
different reports. Timeliness describes up-to-date information. Unbiased
information is objective information, and unique information, such as customer
name and account number, describes information that is not duplicated.

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4-4. What were the early designs approaches to managing information resources?

Lateral filing cabinets were invented in 1898, giving users the ability to store
documents in vertical folders.

4-5. What are the major disadvantages of file processing systems? What are four
specific problems associated with file processing systems?

The major disadvantages of file processing systems are problems with reduced
quality of information and difficulty in information retrieval. The four specific
problems associated with file processing systems are: (1) data redundancy and
inconsistency, (2) lack of data integration, (3) inconsistent data definitions, and
(4) data dependence.

4-6. Following the file processing model of data management, what three
architectures emerged for integrated databases? What are the advantages of
each? Are there disadvantages?

The hierarchical model, the network model, and the relational model are the
database architectures that emerged from the file processing model of data
management. The hierarchical model accommodates situations in which records
are related in a hierarchical fashion. A disadvantage of the hierarchical model is
that duplication creeps in to handle some situations relating to the relationship
between records. The network model allows more flexibility in establishing
relationships between entities compared to the hierarchical model. The relational
model dominates the field because it organizes information into tables of records,
which can be related to one another by linking a field in one table to a field in
another table with matching data.

4-7. What are the steps in planning a relational data model? Are there benefits to
the planning stage?

The steps in planning a relational data model include (1) identifying what kind of
information to track and determining how the information is related, (2)
identifying the primary key for each field, and (3) normalizing the data model to
minimize duplication.

4-8. What are primary keys and foreign keys? How are they used to create links
between tables in a relational database?

A primary key is the unique identifier for each record in a table. A foreign key is a
primary key that appears as an attribute in a different table. A foreign key in one
table is linked to a primary key in another table to create the relationship between
the two tables.

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Chapter 4, Databases and Data Warehouses

4-9. What is the typical strategy to access a database? How do users access an
Access database? Are there other strategies to access database systems?

Organizations typically develop or purchase applications that present user-

friendly interfaces that enable users to enter, edit, delete, and retrieve data. An
example is Microsoft® Access that allows users to create a variety of forms and
reports to access an Access database. Another strategy to access a database is to
use a web-based application that allows access using any web browser.

4-10. What is the role of the database administrator in managing the database?
What is the career outlook for this job?

The database administrator (DBA) is responsible for monitoring and optimizing

database performance, troubleshooting bottlenecks, setting up new databases,
enhancing security, planning capacity requirements, designing backup and
disaster recovery plans, and working with department heads and the IT team to
resolve problems and build innovative applications. The career outlook for this
job is promising. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the job of DBA is
one of the fastest growing careers in the United States and earnings are some of
the highest in the industry.

4-11. What is SQL? How is it used to query a database?

SQL is an acronym for structured query language. SQL uses the concept of join to
link tables together based on common attributes. It is easy to use for simple
queries, and allows complex queries and sub-queries that insert or edit data and
make other tables based on the results of a query.

4-12. What is IVR? How is it used to query a database?

IVR is an acronym for interactive voice response. IVR uses signals transmitted
from a telephone to access a database, retrieve information, and enter data. Callers
can make selections from menus, enter numbers, and confirm transactions.

4-13. What is a shadow system? Why are they sometimes used in organizations?
How are they managed? What are the advantages of shadow systems? What
are the disadvantages?

A shadow system is a smaller database that duplicates some of the functionality

and information maintained in a larger, integrated system. They are used to focus
on the specific information needs of an individual user or a department. Shadow
systems are managed by the user; they are not managed by the central IT staff.
The advantage of a shadow system is that users can control their data and make
changes rapidly. Disadvantages include lack of documentation and technical
support for the smaller database, as well as a lack of enterprise-wide, integrated
data to support strategic planning and executive decision-making.

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 Wallace, Introduction to Information Systems, 3rd edition
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Chapter 4, Databases and Data Warehouses

4-14. What is master data management? What is a data steward? What is the role
of master data management in an organization’s integration strategy?

Master data management (MDM) refers to a data integration strategy in which

consistent and uniform data definitions are applied to entities and their attributes
across all business units and processes, at least as much as possible. A data
steward is an individual whose role involves ensuring that people adhere to the
definitions for the master plan in their organizational unit. MDM serves to involve
people, processes, and governance in an effort to resolve a fragmented and
inconsistent data management environment.

4-15. What is a data warehouse? What are the three steps in building a data
warehouse?

A data warehouse is a central data repository, drawn from multiple sources that
can be used for analysis, intelligence gathering, and strategic planning. A data
mart is a smaller data repository that is developed typically for departmental
analytical tasks. Three steps in building a data warehouse are extraction,
transformation, and loading.

4-16. What are examples of internal sources of data for a data warehouse? What
are examples of external sources of data for a data warehouse?

Operational data from the company’s own systems is a critical source of data for a
data warehouse. Operational data may include but is not limited to customer
records, transactions, inventory, assets and liabilities, and human resources
information going back many years. One example of an external source of data
for a data warehouse is US Census Bureau data that lists every US zip code with
the median household income for its residents. Another example of an external
sources of data is a custom data extract (e.g., consumer data, automotive data,
business data, property data), that may be purchased from a commercial data
vendor.

4-17. What are four examples of data warehouse architectures? Which approach is
suitable to meet today’s growing demand for real-time information?

Data warehouse architectures include a standard relational database architecture, a

data cube architecture, a virtual federated architecture, and a data warehouse
appliance. The virtual federated architecture is more suitable to meet today’s
demand for real-time information.

4-18. What is big data? What are the defining features of big data?

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Instructor’s Manual
Chapter 4, Databases and Data Warehouses

Big data refers to enormous collections of data that are so fast to accumulate that
they are difficult to store and analyze using traditional database methodologies.
The defining features of big data are volume, velocity, and variety.

4-19. What is data mining? What is the difference between data mining and data
dredging? What is the goal of data mining?

Data mining involves analyzing very large sets of data to find hidden patterns and
relationships. Data mining software relies on algorithms that consider attributes,
relationships, and patterns, which would be valuable to understand. On the other
hand, data dredging describes blind analysis into data to come up with any
patterns or relationships, which may be meaningless or may have occurred simply
by accident. An important goal of data mining is to make predictions.

4-20. What are examples of databases across organizational boundaries?

Organizations exchange information across boundaries for managing supply

chains and customer relationships, compliance activities, and providing
emergency disaster relief.

4-21. How do ownership issues affect information management? How do

information management needs differ among stakeholder groups?

Although a company may establish the rule that all information resources belong
to the company, in practice, people may assume some ownership rights.
Employees may feel protective of their departmental data and may want to control
who has access to records that they are mainly responsible for maintaining. This
may impair an organizations effort to manage integrated enterprise information.
Top-level managers need clear, consistent, accurate reports that summarize
information from across the enterprise. Operating units rely on accurate reports on
transactions; they require information systems that can be changed quickly to
adapt to operational requirements. Customers want simpler user interfaces that
work quickly and reliably. Government agencies want enterprises to provide
aggregate reports using the government’s definitions of terms. It is a challenge for
organizations to balance the different needs of the stakeholders.

Solutions to Projects and Discussion Questions

4-22. Why is metadata becoming increasingly important in this age of digital
information? What types of metadata would you expect to see attached to
these information resources?

a. Book
b. Digital photograph

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Instructor’s Manual
Chapter 4, Databases and Data Warehouses

c. MP3 file
d. Zappos.com web page for men’s athletic shoes

Although answers will vary, it should be clear that the student understands the
concept of metadata. The metadata for a book will include the title, author,
subject, genre, keywords, and format. The metadata for a digital photograph will
include the caption, keywords, credits, and the date it was taken, as well as
technical information such as shutter speed and focal length, MP3 files has
metadata such as title, artist, genre, and track number. A web page for athletic
shoes will have metadata that includes title, creator, publisher, and format.

4-23. The concept of relationships is fundamental to relational database design.

Briefly describe three relationships that explain how records in a database
might be logically related to one another. What are examples of each type of
relationship? At your university, what is the relationship between students
and courses? What is the relationship between advisors and students?

An example of a one-to-one relationship is that each person has one and only one
birth date. An example of a one-to-many relationship is that a person may have
one or more employees reporting to him or her. An example of a many-to-many
relationship may involve a situation in which a person is working on any number
of projects, each of which might have any number of employees assigned to it.
The relationship between students and courses is many-to-many. The relationship
between advisors and students may be one advisor to many students or many
advisors to many students if students have a major advisor as well as a minor
advisor.

4-24. Target marketing uses databases and data warehouses to identify potential
customers that a business wants to reach based on factors that describe a
specific group of people. For example, target markets may be identified by
geographic area, by age group, by gender, or by all three factors at one time.
One of the leading providers of business and consumer information is
infoUSA.com. Visit their website at www.infousa.com to learn how they
compile data from multiple sources. (Look for Resources/FAQs.) How does
their process compare to extract, transform, and load (ETL)? Prepare a brief
summary of your findings that describes the infoUSA five-step process of
building a quality database.

As an alternative to viewing the website, students may search youtube.com for

“infoUSA data quality” to view a video that describes their process of building a
quality database. The video describe a four-step process. In step 1, infoUSA
acquires data from 6,000+ phone directories and new business sources including
Secretaries of State, County Courthouses and Public Record Notices (this step
compares to extraction). In step 2, infoUSA verifies the business information by
phone. In step 3, infoUSA assigns credit scores, sales volume, and other modeled
information (this step compares to transformation). In step 4, infoUSA prepares

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the database for delivery to the customer (this step compares to loading). The
website describes a five step process that includes the four steps described above
plus a fifth step to standardize the information (part of transformation process).

4-25. Visit YouTube.com and search for “R. Edward Freeman Stakeholder
Theory” to learn more about stakeholder groups. Are you a stakeholder at
any of the following organizations? List several stakeholders at each of these
organizations and describe the kind of information each stakeholder needs.

a. A university
b. A regional bank
c. Toyota Motor Corporation

Stakeholders of a state university include but are not limited to current students,
faculty, and staff, as well as prospective students, alumni, and donors.
Stakeholders at a regional bank include employees, shareholders, customers,
business partners, suppliers, and government entities. Toyota Motor Corporation
will have stakeholders similar to those of a bank. Answers will vary regarding the
kind of information each stakeholder needs but may include clear, consistent, and
accurate reports that summarize information, and accurate reports of transactions.

4-26. The idea of data warehousing dates back to the 1980s. Today, data
warehousing is a global market worth billions of dollars. What is the
relationship between operational databases and data warehouses? Why are
data warehouses created, and how do organizations use them? What types of
decisions do data warehouses support? Have you ever searched a data
warehouse? Visit FedStats.gov and search “MapStats” to see what facts are
available for your home state. Prepare a list of five interesting facts about
your home state to share with your classmates.

Operational databases are used to manage the ongoing daily activities of firms.
Data warehouses are used for historical analysis and special projects. Data
warehouses support strategic decisions for firms. Answers to the remaining
sections of this question will vary based on the student’s experience and home
state.

4-27. Lisa Noriega has a problem with unstructured data. As her catering business
grows, Lisa wants to analyze contracts to learn if over-budget projects result
from using inexperienced project managers. Lisa wants to set up a database
and she wants you to identify the records she will need. Work in a small
group with classmates to identify the three entities that have meaning for her
catering business. What are the attributes of these entities? What are
probable data definitions of the attributes? What is the relationship between
records and tables? What is the relationship between fields and attributes?
Prepare a 5-minute presentation of your findings.

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Chapter 4, Databases and Data Warehouses

Answers will vary. Three entities that may have meaning for her catering business
are clients, suppliers, and employees. Expected attributes of clients include name,
address, phone number, function date, function type, and number of guests.
Expected attributes of suppliers include company name, contact name, phone
number, and address. Expected attributes of employees include name, address,
phone number, pay rate, and social security number. Probably data definitions
include text, integer, yes/no, and date/time. In a relational model, fields and
attributes become a record, and a collection of records becomes a table.

4-28. The Drexel Theatre is a small, family owned cinema that screens independent
and classic films. The lobby is decorated with vintage movie memorabilia
including an original poster of Arnold Schwarzenegger, the Terminator, and
his famous quote, “I’ll be back.” The theatre has a collection of 5,000 movies
on DVD. It hires part-time workers for ticket and concession sales, and
janitorial and projection services. It shows one of its movies every evening at
7:00 p.m. The owner of the Drexel plans to implement a relational database
to handle operations. He has asked you to develop the data model for
managing the film inventory. He wants to track movies, genres (categories),
actors, and languages. He wants a description of each entity’s attributes, and
he wants an explanation of how to use primary keys and foreign keys to link
the entities together. Work in a small group with classmates to plan the data
model. Prepare a 5-minute presentation that includes an explanation of
primary keys and foreign keys.

In general, most student teams should conceptualize a database with four tables.
The first table will be for movies, the second table will be for categories, the third
table will be for actors, and the fourth table will be for languages. Most movies
will belong to one category and have one language (there may be some exceptions
where a movies can belong to multiple categories and be dubbed in multiple
languages). Most movies will have multiple leading actors. A category can apply
to multiple movies, a language can apply to multiple movies, and an actor can
appear in multiple movies.

In this table, a primary key in the movies table (MovieID) will uniquely identify
each movie, a primary key in the category table (CategoryID) will uniquely
identify each category, a primary key in the actor table (ActorID) will uniquely
identify each actor, and a primary key in the language table (LanguageID) will
uniquely identify each language. Note that the CategoryID, ActorID and
LanguageID fields will all be foreign keys in the movie table. The movie table
will link to the category table through the CategoryID field, to the actor table
through the ActorID field, and to the language table through the LanguageID
field.

Solutions to Application Exercises

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Chapter 4, Databases and Data Warehouses

4-29. Excel Application: Managing Catering Supplies

Lisa Noriega developed the spreadsheet shown in Figure 4-28 so that she can better
manage her inventory of disposable catering supplies. Download the spreadsheet
named Ch04Ex01 so you can help her with the inventory analysis.

Lisa listed her inventory items in “Case” quantities, but she now wants to analyze
items according to “Pack” quantities and create a price list to show to her
customers. For example, a case of Heavy Duty Deluxe Disposable Plastic Knives has
12 packs of 24 knives each. She wants to calculate a “Sales Price per Pack” based on
her cost plus a 25% markup.

Lisa asks that you complete the following operations and answer the following
questions.

• Create columns that list Case Pack, Packs on Hand, and Cost per Case Pack
for each item. Use a formula to calculate the Cost per Case Pack.
• Create a column that lists Sales Price per Pack. Use a formula to calculate a
25 percent markup. Set up an assumption cell to input the percentage
markup rather than include the markup value in the formula.
• Format the spreadsheet to make it easy to read and visually appealing.

1. What is Lisa’s total investment in disposable catering supplies?

2. What is the total sales value of her inventory?
3. How much profit will she make if she sells all of her inventory at a 25%
markup?
4. How much profit will she make if she uses a 35% markup instead?

Students should add five columns, transform information provided in the Unit column to
information in the Case Pack column, and use formulas to calculate Packs on Hand, Cost
per Case Pack, Sales Price per Pack, and Total Cost.

Students should add sum functions to answer the questions, “What is Lisa’s total
investment in disposable catering supplies?” and “What is the total sales value of her
inventory?” and use a formula to calculate profit. To answer the question, “How much
profit will she make if she sells all of her inventory at a 35 percent markup?” go to the
cell containing 25 [Markup] and change it to 35; the formula would then recalculate the
Value and Profit amounts. The completed spreadsheet appears below.

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Chapter 4, Databases and Data Warehouses

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 Wallace, Introduction to Information Systems, 3rd edition
Instructor’s Manual
Chapter 4, Databases and Data Warehouses

4-30. Access Application: DD-Designs

Devon Degosta set up an Access database to manage her web design business. She
has asked you to create a report that summarizes and identifies projects that are
assigned to more than one employee. Recreate the Access database with the table
names, attributes, and relationships as illustrated in Figure 4-29. Download and use
the information in the spreadsheet Ch04Ex02 to populate the tables. Create a report
that lists each project by name and the names of the employees assigned to it. Devon
wants the report to include the client name and the project budget. What other
reports would Devon find useful?

Figure 4-29
DD_Designs database schema

Students should produce an Access database with five tables by importing data from the
Excel file named Ch04Ex02. Students should create a query to summarize project
information that includes project number, project name, employees assigned to the
project, client name, and project budget. The query is used to produce the Project Report.
Answers will vary regarding other reports Dana may find useful. An example is a report
that lists each employee, their projects, and project start dates. The Project Report appears
below.

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Chapter 4, Databases and Data Warehouses

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Chapter 4, Databases and Data Warehouses

Solutions to Case Study Questions

Case 1—U.K. Police Track Suspicious Vehicles in Real Time with Cameras and the
License Plate Database

4-31. Describe the manner in which data elements are linked across databases.

The purpose of this question is to help students understand how data must be
integrated across applications and systems. In this case, license plate numbers
appear in both databases and can be used to link information from video camera
surveillance and from the Police National Computer, which includes data on
stolen vehicles, parking fines, and lack of insurance. Data must be consistent and
accurate across systems so that U.K. police can perform a valid and timely match
of license plate with an offense, and there must not be room for a false arrest (type
1 error) or a missed offense (type 2 error).

4-32. What technical and physical challenges does this information system face?

The purpose of this question is to help students understand the relationship

between technical operations and physical challenges. Some physical challenges
include the readability of the license plate in difficult weather conditions, such as
rain, fog, or snow. The numbers and letters on the plates may also be blurred by
mud. An additional challenge is the use of fake plates by criminals that duplicate
legitimate license plates. Although students may suggest other ideas on future
challenges, it is most important to recognize that many technology projects are a
work in process and require continual improvement.

4-33. What human capital capabilities for law enforcement are necessary to make
the database more effective?

The purpose of this question is to help students understand the manner in which
business knowledge (or in this case public service knowledge) is combined with
IS. Even with the license plate database, police must have the ability to respond
rapidly to unplanned alerts. For example, if a police officer is on a regular patrol,
the officer must allow flexibility in that routine to respond if he or she receives an
unexpected message related to a license plate. Police must also have the ability to
process information that may or may not coincide with their visual observations.
For example, a police officer may receive an alert about a license plate on a car
that would not otherwise raise suspicion, and the officer must be able to process
that information and respond in a timely manner. While flexibility and sensing
may be part of the normal human capital for police officers, the license plate
database further accentuates the need for these characteristics.

4-34. What are the relevant considerations to balance the police’s ability to
investigate versus the citizens’ need for privacy?

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Instructor’s Manual
Chapter 4, Databases and Data Warehouses

The purpose of this question is to help students balance multiple considerations in

the use of a technology. In this case, police officers need timely access to license
plate data to identify potential infractions in real-time. On the other hand, citizens
may not wish to have their location data available, because of the potential for
unauthorized use and abuse. To balance these considerations and manage these
risks, the police in the United Kingdom must establish policies and procedures to
safeguard the data, and must educate officers to use the data in an ethical manner.

Case 2—How eBay Scales Its Database Architecture with SQL and NoSQL

4-35.
Identify at least three reasons why continuing business growth has been a challenge
for eBay database management.

The purpose of this question is to help students understand the challenges for
eBay database management. The first challenge from growth was to deploy a
DBMS (Oracle) that could handle their volume of items and load volumes. The
second challenge was to scale out by splitting the database so it could be stored on
multiple servers providing them more flexible scaling. The third challenge to
handle growth was to have the engineers adjust the load by moving functions
from the DBMS to the applications. Growth continues to be a challenge, and eBay
is developing new strategies.

4-36.
Identify the risks to data integrity that eBay took when it transferred some of the
DBMS functions, such as referential integrity, to the application programs.

The purpose of this question is to help students understand the risks assumed
when moving functions from the DBMS to the applications. Student answers may
vary, but each should highlight the risks when a centralized control, the DBMS, is
replaced with distributed control functions, the applications. Referential integrity
must be checked by every program modifying data in the DBMS to ensure
quality. Enforcing and verifying that many programs do this consistently and
accurately is a real risk.

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Another random document with
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1 lb. 3 oz.
The dimensions of a young male shot in autumn were as follows:
To end of tail 24 inches, to end of wings 24, to end of claws 29;
extent of wings 26; wing from flexure 10 1/2. Weight 1 lb. 1 1/2 oz.

In dissecting this bird, the extreme compression of the body strikes

one with surprise, its greatest breadth being scarcely an inch and a
half, although it is capable of being much dilated. The great length
and thickness of the neck are also remarkable; but these
circumstances are not peculiar to the present species, being equally
observed in many other Herons. On the roof of the mouth are three
longitudinal ridges; the aperture of the posterior nares is linear, with
an oblique flap on each side; the lower mandible is deeply concave,
its crura elastic and expansile; the tongue 2 1/12 inches long,
sagittate at the base with a single very slender papilla on each side,
trigonal, tapering, flattened above; the width of the mouth is 10
twelfths; but the pharynx is much wider. The œsophagus, a b c,
which is fifteen inches long, is very wide, having at its upper part,
when inflated, a diameter of 2 inches, but gradually contracting to 1/2
inch at its entrance into the thorax, and again expanding to 1 inch. Its
walls are extremely thin, and when contracted, its mucous coat
forms strongly marked longitudinal plaits. The proventriculus is very
wide, its glandules oblong and arranged in a belt 10 twelfths in
breadth. The stomach, e, is of moderate size, membranous, that is
with its muscular coat very thin, and not forming lateral muscles; its
tendinous spaces large and round, its inner coat smooth and soft; its
greatest diameter 1 inch. There is a small roundish pyloric lobe, as in
other Herons. Both lobes of the liver lie on the right side of the
proventriculus; one, i, being 1 inch 10 twelfths, the other, j, 1 inch 2
twelfths long; the gall-bladder large, 11 twelfths long. The intestine is
long and very slender, measuring 4 feet 7 inches, with a diameter of
only 2 twelfths at its upper part, and 1 1/2 twelfth at the lower, when
inflated; the rectum 4 inches long, and 4 twelfths in diameter, its
anterior extremity rounded, and having a minute papilliform
termination, only 1 twelfth long.

The trachea, which is 12 1/2 inches long, differs from that of ordinary
Herons in being much compressed, especially at its upper and lower
extremities; the middle part being less so. It is also proportionally
wider, and its rings are narrower. At the top its diameter is 5 twelfths,
at the middle 4 1/4 twelfths, towards the lower part 4 3/4 twelfths, at
the end 4 1/4 twelfths. The rings are osseous, in number 180; the five
lower divided in front and behind, and much arched, the last
measuring half an inch in a direct line between its extremities. The
bronchi are in consequence very broad at their commencement, but
gradually taper, and are composed of about 18 half rings. The
contractor muscles are inconspicuous, the sterno-tracheal slender;
and there is a single pair of inferior laryngeal, going to the first
bronchial ring. The aperture of the glottis is 8 twelfths long, without
any papillæ, but with a deep groove behind, and two thin-edged
flaps.
In the digestive organs of this bird, there is nothing remarkably
different from that of other Herons. The stomach contained remains
of fishes and large coleopterous insects. The examination of the
trachea, bronchi, and lungs, would not lead us to suppose that its cry
is of the curious character represented, although it certainly would
induce us to believe it different from that of ordinary Herons, which
have the trachea narrower, round, and with broader and more bony
rings.
Although in external appearance and habits it exhibits some affinity
to the Rails, its digestive organs have no resemblance to theirs.
An egg presented by Dr Brewer of Boston measures two inches in
length by one inch and a half, and is of a broadly oval shape, rather
pointed at the smaller end, and of a uniform dull olivaceous tint.
 BREWER’S DUCK.

Anas Breweri.
PLATE CCCXXXVIII. Male.

The beautiful Duck from which I made the drawing copied on the
plate before you, was shot on Lake Barataria, in Louisiana, in
February 1822. It was in company with seven or eight Canvass-back
Ducks. No other individuals of the species were in sight at the time,
and all my efforts to procure another have been ineffectual.
You will see that this curious bird is named in the plate “Anas
glocitans,” the descriptions of that species having induced me to
consider it identical with this. But on comparing my drawing with
specimens in the Museum of the Zoological Society of London, I
found that the former represents a much larger bird, which, besides,
is differently coloured in some of its parts. The individual figured was
a male; but I have some doubts whether it had acquired the full
beauty of its mature plumage, and I considered it at the time as a
bird of the preceding season.
In form and proportions this bird is very nearly allied to the Mallard,
from which it differs in having the bill considerably narrower, in
wanting the recurved feathers of the tail, in having the feet dull
yellow in place of orange-red, the speculum more green and duller,
without the white bands of that bird, and in the large patch of light
red on the side of the head. It may possibly be an accidental variety,
or a hybrid between that bird and some other species, perhaps the
Gadwall, to which also it bears a great resemblance.
Bill nearly as long as the head, higher than broad at the base,
depressed and widened towards the end, rounded at the tip, the
lamellæ short and numerous, the unguis obovate, curved, the nasal
groove elliptical, the nostrils oblong.
Head of moderate size, oblong, compressed; neck rather long and
slender; body full, depressed. Feet short, stout, placed behind the
centre of the body; legs bare a little above the joint; tarsus short, a
little compressed, anteriorly with small scutella, laterally and behind
with reticulated angular scales. Hind toe very small, with a narrow
free membrane; third toe longest, fourth a little shorter; claws small,
arched, compressed, acute.
Plumage dense, soft, and elastic; of the hind head and neck short
and blended; of the other parts in general broad and rounded. Wings
of moderate length, acute; tail short, graduated.
Bill dull yellow, slightly tinged with green, dusky along the ridge. Iris
brown. Feet dull yellow, claws dusky, webs dull grey. Head and
upper part of the neck deep glossy green; but there is an elongated
patch of pale reddish-yellow, extending from the base of the bill over
the cheek to two inches and a quarter behind the eye, and meeting
that of the other side on the chin; the space immediately over and
behind the eye light dull purple. A narrow ring of pale yellowish-red
on the middle of the neck; the lower part of the neck dull brownish-
red, the feathers with a transverse band of dusky, and edged with
paler. The upper parts are dull greyish-brown, transversely undulated
with dusky; the smaller wing-coverts without undulations, but each
feather with a dusky bar behind another of light dull yellow; first row
of smaller coverts tipped with black; primaries and their coverts, light
brownish-grey; some of the outer secondaries similar, the next five or
six duck-green, the next light grey with a dusky patch toward the
end. The rump and upper tail-coverts black, as are the parts under
the tail, excepting two longitudinal white bands; tail-feathers light
brownish-grey, edged with whitish. All the rest of the lower parts are
greyish-white tinged with yellow, beautifully undulated with dusky
lines, on the middle of the breast these lines less numerous, and
each feather with a reddish-grey central streak.
Length to end of tail 23 inches, to end of claws 24; extent of wings
39; bill along the ridge 2 1/2, along the edge of lower mandible 2 1/8;
tarsus 1 1/8, middle toe 2, its claw 5/12; hind toe 3/8, its claw 1/8.
Weight 2 lb. 9 oz.
I have named this Duck after my friend Thomas M. Brewer of
Boston, as a mark of the estimation in which I hold him as an
accomplished ornithologist.
 LITTLE GUILLEMOT.

Uria Alle, Temm.

PLATE CCCXXXIX. Male and Female.

This interesting little bird sometimes makes its appearance on our

eastern coasts during very cold and stormy weather. It does not
proceed much farther southward than the shores of New Jersey,
where it is of very rare occurrence. Now and then some are caught
in a state of exhaustion, as I have known to be the case especially in
Passamaquody Bay near Eastport in Maine, and in the vicinity of
Boston and Salem in Massachusetts.
In the course of my voyages across the Atlantic, I have often
observed the Little Guillemots in small groups, rising and flying to
short distances at the approach of the ship, or diving close to the
bow and reappearing a little way behind. Now with expanded wings
they would flutter and run as it were on the surface of the deep;
again, they would seem to be busily engaged in procuring food,
which consisted apparently of shrimps, other crustacea, and
particles of sea-weeds, all of which I have found in their stomach. I
have often thought how easy it would be to catch these tiny
wanderers of the ocean with nets thrown expertly from the bow of a
boat, for they manifest very little apprehension of danger from the
proximity of one, insomuch that I have seen several killed with the
oars. Those which were caught alive and placed on the deck, would
at first rest a few minutes with their bodies flat, then rise upright and
run about briskly, or attempt to fly off, which they sometimes
accomplished, when they happened to go in a straight course the
whole length of the ship so as to rise easily over the bulwarks. On
effecting their escape they would alight on the water and
immediately disappear.
During my visit to Labrador and Newfoundland I met with none of
these birds, although the cod-fishers assured me that they frequently
breed there. I am informed by Dr Townsend that this species is
found near the mouth of the Columbia River.

Alca alle, Linn. Syst. Nat. vol. i. p. 211.—Lath. Ind. Ornith. vol. ii. p. 795.
Little Auk, Alca alle, Wils. Amer. Ornith. vol. ix. p. 94, pl. 74, fig. 5.
Uria alle, Ch. Bonaparte, Synopsis of Birds of United States, p. 425.
Little Guillemot, Uria alle, Richards. and Swains. Faun. Bor.-Amer. vol. ii.
p. 479.
Little Auk, or Sea Dove, Nuttall, Manual, vol. ii. p. 531.

Adult Male in summer. Plate CCCXXXIX.

Bill shorter than the head, stout, straightish, subpentagonal at the
base, compressed towards the end. Upper mandible with the dorsal
line convexo-declinate, the ridge convex, the sides sloping, the
edges sharp and overlapping, the tip rather obtuse. Nasal
depression short and broad; nostrils basal, oblong, with a horny
operculum. Lower mandible with the angle long and wide, the dorsal
outline very short, ascending, and straight, the sides convex, toward
the end ascending and flattened, the edges thin and inclinate, the tip
acute, with a sinus behind.
Body full and compact; neck short and thick; head large, ovate. Feet
short, rather stout; tibia bare for two-twelfths of an inch; tarsus very
short, compressed, covered anteriorly with oblique scutella, behind
with angular scales; hind toe wanting; anterior toes connected by
reticulated webs, the inner much shorter than the outer, which is
almost as long as the middle; the scutella numerous. Claws rather
small, moderately arched, compressed, rather acute, that of the
middle toe having its inner edge considerably expanded.
Plumage dense, blended, glossy. Wings of moderate length, narrow,
pointed; primaries pointed, the first longest, the rest rapidly
graduated; secondaries rounded. Tail very short, slightly rounded, of
twelve feathers.
Bill black. Iris dark hazel. Feet pale flesh-coloured; webs dusky;
claws black. Inside of mouth light yellow. The head, upper part of
neck, and all the upper surface, glossy bluish-black. A small spot on
the upper eyelid, another on the lower, several longitudinal streaks
on the scapulars, and a bar along the tips of the secondary quills,
white. The lower parts white; the feathers on the sides under the
wings have the outer webs white, the inner dusky; lower wing-
coverts blackish-grey.
Length to end of tail 7 1/8 inches, to end of claws 7 7/8, to end of
wings 6 7/8, to carpal joint 2 7/8; extent of wings 14 1/4; wing from
1/2
flexure 4 7/8; bill along the ridge 4 /8, along the edge of lower
mandible 1; tarsus 3/4; middle toe 1, its claw 1/4; outer toe 1, claw
1 1/2/ ; inner toe 5/8, its claw 1
1/2
/8. Weight 8 1/2 oz.
8

Adult Female, in winter. Plate CCCXXXIX. Fig. 2.

In winter, the throat and the lower parts of the cheeks are white; the
sides and fore part of the neck white, irregularly barred with blackish-
grey; the upper parts of a duller black than in summer.
There is nothing very remarkable in the anatomy of this bird, beyond
what is observed in the Auks and Guillemots. The ribs extend very
far back, and, having the dorsal and sternal portions much
elongated, are capable of aiding in giving much enlargement to the
body, of which the internal, or thoracic and abdominal cells are very
large. The subcutaneous cells are also largely developed, as in
many other diving and plunging birds.
The roof of the mouth is flat, broad, and covered with numerous
series of short horny papillæ directed backwards. The tongue is
large, fleshy, 10 twelfths of an inch long, emarginate at the base, flat
above, horny on the back. The heart is large, measuring 10 twelfths
in length, 8 1/2 twelfths in breadth. The right lobe of the liver is 1 3/12
inch in length, the left 1 1/12; the gall-bladder is elliptical. The kidneys
are very large.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.
 Fig. 3.

The œsophagus, Fig. 1, a b c, is 3 inches 10 twelfths long, its walls

very thin, its inner or mucous coat thrown into longitudinal plates; its
diameter at the middle of the neck 5 eighths, diminishing to 4
twelfths as it enters the thorax. It then enlarges and forms the
proventriculus, c e, which has a diameter of 8 twelfths; the glandules
are cylindrical, very numerous, and arranged in a complete belt, half
an inch in breadth, in the usual manner, as seen in Fig. 2, b c. The
stomach, properly so called, Fig. 1, d g, is oblong, 11 twelfths in
length, 8 twelfths in breadth; its muscular coat moderately thick, and
disposed into two lateral muscles with large tendons; its epithelium,
Fig. 2, c d e, thick, hard, with numerous longitudinal and transverse
rugæ, and of a dark reddish colour. The duodenum, f g h, curves in
the usual manner at the distance of 1 1/4 inch, ascends toward the
upper surface of the right lobe of the liver for 1 inch and 10 twelfths,
then forms 4 loops, and from above the proventriculus, passes
directly backward. The length of the intestine, f g h i, is 16 1/2 inches,
its diameter 2 1/4 twelfths, and nearly uniform as far as the rectum,
which is 1 1/4 inch long, at first 3 twelfths in diameter, enlarged into
an ovate cloaca of great size, Fig. 3. b; the cœca a, a, 41 twelfths
long, cylindrical, 1/2 twelfth in diameter, obtuse.

The trachea, Fig. 1. k, l, is very wide, flattened, its rings unossified,

its length 2 9/12 inches, its breadth 3 twelfths, nearly uniform, but at
the lower part contracted to 2 twelfths. There are 75 rings, with 5
inferior blended rings, which are divided before and behind. The
bronchi, Fig. 1. m, m, are wide and rather elongated, with about 25
half rings. The contractor muscles are extremely thin, the sterno-
tracheal slender; there is a pair of inferior laryngeal attached to the
first bronchial rings.
The above account of the digestive organs of this bird will be seen to
be very different from that given by Sir Everard Home, who has, in all
probability, mistaken the species. “There is still,” says he, “one more
variety in the structure of the digestive organs of birds, that live
principally upon animal food, which has come under my observation;
and with an account of which I shall conclude the present lecture.
This bird is the Alea Alle of Linnæus, the Little Auk. The termination
of the œsophagus is only known by the ending of the cuticular lining,
and the beginning of the gastric glands; for the cardiac cavity is one
continued tube, extending considerably lower down in the cavity of
the abdomen, and gradually enlarging at the lower part; it then turns
up to the right side, about half-way to the origin of the cavity, and is
there connected to a small gizzard, the digastric muscle of which is
strong, and a small portion of the internal surface on each side has a
hard cuticular covering. The gastric glands at the upper part are
placed in four distinct longitudinal rows, becoming more and more
numerous towards the lower part of the cavity, and extend to the
bottom, where it turns up. The extent of the cavity in which the
gastric glands are placed, exceeds any thing met with in the other
birds that live upon fish; and the turn which the cavity takes almost
directly upwards, and the gizzard being at the highest part instead of
the lowest, are peculiarities, as far as I am acquainted, not met with
in any other birds of prey. This mechanism, which will be better
understood by examining the engraving, makes the obstacles to the
food in its passage to the intestines unusually great; and enables the
bird to digest both fishes and sea-worms with crustaceous shells. It
appears to be given for the purpose of economizing the food in two
different ways,—one retaining it longer in the cardiac cavity, the other
supplying that cavity with a greater quantity of gastric liquor than in
other birds. This opinion is further confirmed by the habits of life of
this particular species of bird, which spends a portion of the year in
the frozen regions of Nova Zembla, where the supplies of
nourishment must be both scanty and precarious.”
With respect to this statement and the reasonings founded upon it, it
will be seen from the description and accompanying figures above,
taken directly from nature, and without the least reference to the
dissections or theories of any person, that the œsophagus and
stomach of the Little Auk or Guillemot, Alca Alle of Linnæus, are very
similar to those of other Auks, Guillemots, Divers, and fish-eating
birds in general. The cardiac or proventricular cavity forms no curve;
and the gizzard with which it is connected, is not small, nor has it
merely a small portion of the internal surface on each side covered
with a hard cuticular lining; for the epithelium covers its whole
surface, and is of considerable extent. The gastric glands are not at
all disposed as represented by Sir E. Home, but are aggregated in
the form of a compact belt half an inch broad, Fig. 2. b, c. As to the
ingenious reasoning by which the economy of the Little Auk is so
satisfactorily accounted for, it is enough here to say, that having no
foundation, it is of less than no value. But were there such a
curvature as that in question, there could be no propriety in
supposing that it presented any great obstacle to the passage of the
food, or retained it longer than usual. Nor is the statement as to
scanty and precarious supply of nourishment correct; for the Arctic
Seas, to which this bird resorts in vast numbers, are represented by
navigators as abounding in small crustacea, on which chiefly the
Little Auk feeds, and that to such an extent as to colour the water for
leagues. Besides, if there were such a scarcity of food in Nova
Zembla, why should the birds go there? In short, the whole
statement is incorrect; and the many compilers, from Dr Carus to
the most recent, who have pressed it into their service, may, in their
future editions, with propriety leave it out, and supply its place with
something equally ingenious.
The egg of this species measures one inch and nearly five-eighths in
length, one inch and an eighth in its greatest breadth. It is
remarkably large for the size of the bird, and of a dull uniform pale
greenish-blue.
 LEAST PETREL.

Thalassidroma pelagica, Leach.

PLATE CCCXL. Male and Female.

In August 1830, being becalmed on the banks of Newfoundland, I

obtained several individuals of this species from a flock composed
chiefly of Thalassidroma Leachii, and Th. Wilsoni. Their smaller size,
and the more rapid motions of their wings, rendered them quite
conspicuous, and suggested the idea of their being a new species,
although a closer inspection shewed them to belong to the present.
In their general manners, while feeding, floating on the water, or
rambling round the boat in which I went in pursuit of them, they did
not differ materially from the other species. Their flight, however, was
more hurried and irregular, and none of them uttered any note or cry,
even when wounded and captured. I have been assured that this
bird breeds on the sandy beaches of Sable Island on the coast of
Nova Scotia; but not having had an opportunity of visiting it, or any
other breeding place, I here present you with Mr Hewitson’s
observations on this subject.
“In an excursion,” says this amiable and enterprising naturalist,
“through the Shetland Islands during the present summer, in search
of rarities for this work (the British Oology), I had the very great
satisfaction of seeing and taking many of these most interesting
birds alive; they breed in great numbers on several of the islands,
principally upon Foula, the north of Hunst, and upon Papa, and
Oxna, two small islands in the Bay of Scalloway; the last of these I
visited on the 31st of May in hopes of procuring their eggs (it being
the season in which most of the sea-birds begin to lay); but in this I
was disappointed; the fishermen who knew them well by the name of
Swallows, assured me that my search would be quite useless, that
they had not yet “come up from sea,” and so it proved. Sixteen days
after this (June 16th and three following days) I was at Foula, but
was alike unsuccessful, the birds had arrived at their breeding
places, but had not yet begun laying their eggs; numbers of them
were sitting in their holes, and were easily caught; one man brought
me about a dozen tied up in an old stocking, two of which I kept alive
in my room for nearly three days, and derived very great pleasure
from their company; during the day they were mostly inactive, and
after pacing about the floor for a short time, poking their head into
every hole, they hid themselves between the feet of the table and the
wall; I could not prevail upon them to eat any thing, though I tried to
tempt them with fish and oil; their manner of walking is very light and
pleasing, and differing from that of every other bird which I have
seen; they carry their body so far forward and so nearly horizontal,
as to give them the appearance of being out of equilibrium. In the
evening, toward sun-set, they left their hiding places, and for hours
afterwards, never ceased in their endeavours to regain their liberty;
flying round and round the room, or fluttering against the windows;
when flying, their length of wing, and white above the tail, gives them
a good deal the appearance of our House-Martin. I went to bed and
watched them in their noiseless flight long ere I fell asleep, but in the
morning they had disappeared; one had fortunately made its escape
through a broken pane in the window which a towel should have
occupied, the other had fallen into a basin, full of the yolks of eggs
which I had been blowing, and was drowned. I regretted much the
fate of a being so interesting, by its very remarkable, wandering,
solitary, and harmless life. Before leaving Shetland I again visited the
island of Oxna, and though so late as the 30th of June, they were
only just beginning to lay their eggs. In Foula they breed in the holes
in the cliff, at a great height above the sea; but here under stones
which form the beach, at a depth of three or four feet, or more,
according to that of the stones; as they go down to the earth,
beneath them, on which to lay their eggs. In walking over the
surface, I could hear them, very distinctly, singing in a sort of
warbling chatter, a good deal like swallows when fluttering above our
chimneys, but harsher; and in this way, by listening attentively, was
guided to their retreat, and, after throwing out stones as large as I
could lift on all sides of me, seldom failed in capturing two or three
seated on their nests, either under the lowest stone or between two
of them. The nests, though of much the same materials as the
ground on which they were placed, seem to have been made with
care; they were of small bits of stalks of plants, and pieces of hard
dry earth. Like the rest of the genus, the Stormy Petrel lays
invariably one egg only. During the day-time they remain within their
holes; and though the fishermen are constantly passing over their
heads (the beach under which they breed being appropriated for the
drying of fish), they are then seldom heard, but toward night become
extremely querulous; and when most other birds are gone to rest,
issue forth in great numbers, spreading themselves far over the
surface of the sea. The fishermen then meet them very numerously;
and though they have not previously seen one, are sure to be
surrounded by them upon throwing pieces of fish overboard.”
The egg measures one inch and an eighth in length, six and a half
eighths in breadth, is nearly equally rounded at both ends, rather
thick-shelled, and pure white, but generally with numerous minute
dots of dull red at the larger end, sometimes forming a circular band.

Procellaria pelagica, Linn. Syst. Nat. vol. i. p. 212.—Lath. Ind. Ornith. vol.
ii. p. 826.
Stormy Petrel, Nuttall, Manual, vol. ii. p. 327.
Adult Male. Plate CCCXL. Fig. 1.
Bill shorter than the head, slender, compressed towards the end,
straight, with the tips curved. Upper mandible with the nostrils
forming a tube at the base, beyond which, for a short space, the
dorsal line is nearly straight, then suddenly decurved, the sides
declinate, the edges sharp, the tip compressed and acute. Lower
mandible with the angle rather long, narrow, and pointed, the dorsal
line beyond it very slightly concave and decurved, the sides erect,
the edges sharp, the tip slightly decurved.
Head of moderate size, roundish, anteriorly narrowed. Neck short.
Body rather slender. Feet of moderate length, very slender; tibia bare
at its lower part; tarsus very slender, reticulate; hind toe extremely
minute, being reduced, as it were, to a slightly decurved claw;
anterior toes rather long and extremely slender, obscurely scutellate
above, connected by striated webs with concave margins. Claws
slender, arched, compressed, acute.
Plumage very soft, blended, the feathers distinct only on the wings,
which are very long and narrow; primary quills tapering, but rounded,
the second longest, the first three and a half twelfths, the third a
twelfth and a half shorter; secondaries short, the outer incurved,
obliquely rounded. Tail rather long, broad, slightly rounded, of twelve
broad rounded feathers.
Bill and feet black. Iris dark brown. The general colour of the upper
parts is greyish-black, with a tinge of brown, and moderately
glossed; the lower parts of a sooty brown; the secondary coverts
margined externally with dull greyish-white; the feathers of the rump
and the upper tail-coverts white, with the shafts black, the tail-coverts
broadly tipped with black.
Length to end of tail 5 3/4 inches, to end of claws 5 1/4, to end of
wings 6 1/4; extent of wings 13 1/2; wing from flexure 5 1/8; tail 2 1/8;
bill above (4 1/2/8, along the edge of lower mandible 5/8; tarsus 7/8;
middle toe and claw 7/8; outer toe nearly equal; inner toe and claw
5 1/2/8. Weight 4 1/2 drachms; the individual poor.
Adult Female. Plate CCCXL. Fig. 2.
The Female resembles the male.

Fig. 1.

A male bird, from Nova Scotia, examined. The upper mandible

internally has a longitudinal median ridge; the palate is convex, with
two lateral ridges. The tongue is 5 1/2 twelfths long, emarginate and
serrulate at the base, very much flattened, tapering to a horny point.
The heart, Fig. 1, a, is of a very elongated narrow conical form, 2
twelfths in length, 4 twelfths in breadth at the base. The lobes of the
liver, b, c, are equal, 6 1/2 twelfths long. The œsophagus, d, e, is 1
inch 10 twelfths long, of a uniform diameter of 2 1/2 twelfths; behind
the liver, it enters as it were a large sac, f, g, h, 9 twelfths of an inch
long, which gradually expands to a diameter of 6 twelfths, forming a
broad rounded fundus g, then curves forwards on the right side, and
at h terminates in a small gizzard, about 3 twelfths long, and nearly
of the same breadth, from the left side of which comes off the
intestine. The latter passes forward, curving to the right, behind and
in contact with the posterior surfaces of the liver, then forms the
duodenal fold, h, j, k, in the usual manner. The intestine, on arriving
at the right lobe of the liver, at k, receives the biliary duct, curves
backward beneath the kidneys, and forms several convolutions,
which terminate above the proventriculus. It then becomes much
narrower, and passes directly backward, in a straight course to the
rectum, which is only 4 twelfths of an inch long. The cœca are
oblong, 1 1/4 twelfth in length, and 1/2 twelfth in diameter. The
intestine is 8 1/2 inches long, its diameter diminishing gradually from
2 twelfths to 3/4 of a twelfth.

Fig. 2.

In Fig 2. are represented:—the lower part of the œsophagus, d, e, f;

the proventricular sac, f, g, h; the very small gizzard, h; the duodenal
fold of the intestine, i, j, k. Here the parts are viewed from the left
side.