NATURAL RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL SCIENCES

Animal Health II

AS 342 Module

Prepared By Dr. M.Hamakoko

ODL‐NRDC 2015

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 Table of contents

UNIT 1 Diseases of Cattle

UNIT 2 Diseases of poultry

UNIT 3 Diseases of pigs

UNIT 4 Diseases of dogs

UNIT 5 Meat Inspection

UNIT 6 Immunology

UNIT 7 Antibiotics and Uses

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UNIT 1: DISEASES OF CATTLE

I. Anthrax

It is an infectious soil‐borne bacterial disease of domesticated and wild ruminants. Man is

also affected by this disease.

Causative agent: Bacillus Anthracis a spore forming gram positive bacteria.

Epidemiology‐ it occurs worldwide and in Zambia anthrax is endemic in western and

southern provinces. Its been reported in wildlife such as hippos, antelopes and buffalo.
Species most susceptible include cattle horses and small ruminants. Humans succumb to the
disease through contact with infected carcasses or as hazard in working industries.

Transmission‐ ingestion of infected materials such as feed including grass, leaves and
contaminated pastures.

Clinical signs‐ anthrax is an acute disease so the disease is characterized by sudden death.
Other signs include fever, cessation of rumination, excitation followed by depression,
dyspnea, oedema of tongue and throat regions, convulsions, bloody diarhea, bloody
discharges from all natural orifices.

Disease in Man‐ is characterized by cutaneous, pulmonary and gastrointestinal forms.

Post mortem signs‐ include failure or poor clotting of blood, absence incomplete
development of rigor mortis, marked bloating and decomposition of carcass soon after
death. NEVER OPEN THE CARCASS WHEN YOU SUSPECT ANTHRAX. However you observe
enlargement of spleen, congestion and enlargement of liver, kidney and lymph nodes.

Diagnosis‐ collection of blood smears from the ear vein in animals affected. Blood samples
can also be collected through the same for culture. Serology can also be done to identify
antibodies.2

Treatment‐ penicillin is the drug of choice

Control‐ coordinated management practices and vaccination programmes are highly

advised. Keep animals away from contaminated sites/farms/rangelands as well as
contaminated feeds. Sterilisation of blood meals is also advised. Do not move carcasses
away from site of death but rather dig 6 meter deep trenches and bury on the same site.
Vaccination is key to prevention of the disease to avoid outbreaks and frequent
occurrences.

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2. Anaplasmosis
This is a vector borne infectious blood disease in cattle caused by rickesstial
parasites.

Causative agents‐ intracellular parasites Anaplasma Marginale and Anaplasma

Centrale

Epidemiology‐ this disease occurs in subtropical and tropical areas. Other species
affected include small ruminants and buffalo.

Transmission‐ the disease is transmitted by ticks( hyalomma, Rhepicephalus,

Boophilus). It can also be transmitted via contaminated needles, dehorning
equipment, castrating knives, biting flies and mosquitoes. These intracellular
parasites destroy red blood cells.

Clinical signs‐ fever, mucus membranes appear pale and yellow, anemia, weightloss,
dyspnea, uncoordinated movements, abortion and death. Other signs include rapid
bounding pulse in late stages, urine is brown,pregnant may abort. Affected cattle
either die or begin or recovery within 4 days after the first signs of the disease.
Mortality rate goes up with the age of the animal. When an animal with advanced
anaplasmosis is found to move it may die from lack of oxygen.

Post‐mortem‐carcass is anaemic and jaundiced, blood is thin and watery, spleen is

enlarged gall bladder is distended containing thick brown and green bile.

Diagnosis‐ separation of thin and thick blood smears are essential to distinguish
anaplasmosis from babesiosis and other tick borne diseases.the smears are then
stained with giemsa. Serology tests can also be done.

Treatment‐ long acting tetracyclines at 20mg/kg and imidocarb dipropionate at

3mg/kg SC

Control‐dipping, spraying and pour on applications of acaricides.

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3. Babesiosis
it is a vector borne blood disease that affects domestic and wild animals occasionally
people.
Causative agent‐ intra erythrocyctic protozoan parasite of genus Babesia, the two
most important species in cattle include Babesia bigemina and Babesia bovis

Epidemiology‐ the disease is wide spread in subtropical and tropical areas. Species
affected are ruminants, equines, canines.

Transmission‐ the main vectors of the two parasites are the Rhipicephalus species
others are Boophilus. Occassionally dehorning, castration and needle vaccination
procedures are implicated.

Clinical signs‐ its an acute disease. First sign is that of fever, inappetance, increase in
temperature, muscle tremors, anaemia, jaundice and weight loss, hemoglobinaemia
and haemoglobinuria, constipation, diarrhea, late term pregnant animals may abort,
bulls may experience temporary infertility.

Post‐mortem‐ enlarged and friable spleen, enlarged gall bladder, generalised

anaemia and jaundice, urine is red.

Diagnosis‐ giemsa staining on thin and thick blood smears as well as serological
testing

Treatment and control‐ diminazene aceturate at 3‐5mg/kg IM. Imidocarb

dipropionate 3mg/kg SC. Long acting tetracyclines 20mg/kg IM reduce severity soon
after infestation.
Supportive therapy is advisable in valuable animals e.g anti inflammatory drugs,
corticosteroids, anti oxidants. Blood transfusions may be life saving. In some
countries vaccinations of live strains has been successful.

Control‐ of the vector is through dipping, spraying and pour ons of acaricides.

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4. Brucellosis
Also known as contagious abortion. It’s a febrile zoonotic disease caused by brucella
species characterized by abortion in third trimester and subsequent high rate of
infertility.

Causative agent‐brucella abortus affcets cattle and man. Several species of brucella
affecting different species are also known.

Epidemiology‐ the disease occurs worldwide.

Transmission‐ infection is introduced into the herd by infected animals. The

ingestion of contaminated feed and water with excretions of aborted animals. The
purchase of infected pregnant cows and contaminated semen. Man gets infection
through handling infected pregnant cows or animals products.

Clinical signs‐ classicall sign is of abortion in third trimester.fever, retained foetal

membranes, metritis, foetal maceration, hepatitis,orchitis, epididmytis and
inflammation of joints.

Diagnosis‐ culture of abomasal contents from aborted foetuses and use of

serological testing such Rose Bengal test.

Treatment‐ long term tertarcyclines.

Control‐ test and slaughter. Vaccinations. Others include observation of hygiene on

farms, depopulation of infected herds, quarantine of animals in areas where disease
occurs. Never use seropositive dams. Public education of farmers and the public on
hazards of disease is beneficial.

5. Cowdriosis (Heartwater)
is a disease of cattle, sheep, goats and wild ruminants.
Causative agent‐ its caused by intracellular rickettsial organisms that will parasitize
macrophages( a type of white blood cell). The organism is called Ehrlichia
ruminatium.
Transmission‐ the disease is transmitted by Amblyomma tick.

Clinical signs‐ fever, dyspnea,nervous system signs, hydro pericardium, hydro thorax,
ascites. Acute form of the disease is by far the most common. Feverdevelops

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followed by a decrease to normal levels for a day or two. This is followed by
inappetance, depression, listlessness and rapid breathing. Nervous signs include
chewing movements, twitching of the eyelids, protrusion of the tongue and circling
seen with stepping gait. Nervous signs increase in severity and the animal convulses.
Diarrhea is ocassionally seen especially in young aniamls.

Post mortem‐accumulation of straw coloured or reddish fluid in the pericardium,

hydro thorax, froth in the trachea reflecting terminal dyspnea due to pulmonary
edema and swelling of the brain.

Diagnosis‐examiantion of brain crush smears stained giemsa. Serology for antibodies

detection.

Treatment and control‐ tetracyclines are effective and vector control aims at
eradication of Amblyomma ticks.

6. Contagious bovine pluerapnuemonia (CBPP)

Is an infectious bacterial disease primarily of cattle. Lungs are the target organ and in
general the respiratory system

Causative agent‐ CBPP is caused by Mycoplasma mycoides mycoides

Epidemiology‐ Bos taurus and Bos indicus are susceptible to infection.

Transmission‐ CBPP is spread by inhalation of infective droplets from an infected

coughing animal. Consequently close contact is required for transmission to occur.
Outbreaks usually begin as aresult of movement of an infected animal into a naïve
herd.

Clinical signs‐ depression, inappetance, fever. Coughing is the next sign followe by
evidence of thoracic pain and increased respiratory rate. When pulmonary
involvement is extensive

Post‐mortem‐ abundant yellow fluid found in the thoracic cavity. Consolidation and
thickening of lung tissue. Thickening of lung pleura is evident. In calves the joints
may be filled with abundant fluid which clots on exposure due to excess amonts of
fibrin.

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Diagnosis‐ gross lesions at post mortem are suggestive. Laboratory diagnosis
involves collection of samples such as nasal swabs, plueral fluid and blood for culture
and serology

Prevention and control‐ successful control involves the removal of CBPP infected
animals. In endemic areas of Zambia attempts at treatment are made. A ban on
livestock movement is instituted from infected areas.

7. Foot and Mouth Disease

It is an extremely contagious viral disease primarily of cloven hoofed animals. FMD is
characterised by fever and abnormalities affecting the muzzle and feet.

Causative agent‐ there are 7 completely immunologically distinct FMDV types. A,C,O
for the european types. Then SAT 1, SAT 2 and SAT 3 for the southern types. The last
ASIA 1 for Asia.

Epidemiology‐ the respective serotypes are found in those locations.

Transmission‐ FMD occurs through direct contact between infected and susceptible
animals. Also through contact of susceptible animals with contaminated inanimate
objects ( hands, footwear, clothing, vehicles). Consumption of contaminated meat
products, ingestion of contaminated milk in calves, artificial insemination with
contaminated semen and by inhalation of infectious aerosols are other ways of
disease transmission.

Clinical signs‐ fever accompanied by dullness, anorexia and a drop in milk

production. cattle develop excessive drooling of salivation and excess nasal
secretions. These sins are not necessarily resulting from excess production of saliva
but rather the inability of the animals swallow saliva or clean nostrils with the tongue
due to painful mouth lesions. Vesicles appear around the nares, lips, gums, tongue,
teats, coronary bands and inter digital spaces. As vesicles rupture, erosions form in
the same locations.
Post mortem‐ include fluid filled vesicles on the muzzle and feet, they enlarge and
rupture, epithelium covering the vesicles sloughs off leaving eroded area. Gray areas
appear over eroded areas. Heart or myocardial degeration and necrosis.

Diagnosis‐ vesicles present in predilected sites is suggestive. Samples such as

vesicular fluid, epithelium or scrapings of erosions are sent for serology.

Prevention and control‐ the first line of defense against the introduction of FMD into
a free area is to have adequate import controls and quarantine procedures for live

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animals. Most effective control strategies will call for the depopulation of affected
farms and establishment of control and surveillance zones. Vaccination are done and
are serotype specific.

8. Footrot
Its an infectious bacterial disease of ruminants and pigs affecting the hooves.

Causative agent‐ fusobacterium necrophorum , this bacterium lives in the soil and
enters the hooves through abrasions.

Clinical signs‐ lameness, reluctance to walk, foul smell from affected parts, oozing of
pus and loss of weight.
if left untreated the infection may go deeper and cause arthritis.

Treatment‐ it can be treated successfully if treatment is instituted early. Penicillins

and any broad spectrum drugs can be given. Sulphonamide have also proved to be
useful. Antiseptics are also applied. 5 % copper sulphate is applied and the animal
left standing on dry ground to allow antiseptic to work.

9. Lumpy Skin Disease‐

Is a malignant pox of cattle characterized by fever, cutaneous nodules and mucosal
ulcers .
Causative agent‐ LSD virus

Epidemiology‐found in Africa and the middle east.

Transmission‐ transmitted by vectors commonly sand flies. Contact transmission

may occur with susceptible animals in contact with infected animals. Placental
transmission does also occur and through contaminated semen. Outbreaks occur at
the onset of the rainy season.

Clinical signs‐ fever, depression, rhinitis and conjunctivitis. Nodules will appear in
different sites simultaneously. The predilection sites for the cutaneous nodules
include head, neck limbs, perineum, genitalia and udder. Cows may have the teats
and udder affected. In bulls nodules may be present on the scrotum, preputila
mucosa and the glans penis.

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Post mortem‐ skin nodules are evident. Lymph nodes are also enlarged. The nodules
may rupture leaving open wounds and cause secondary bacterial infections.

Diagnosis‐ virus isolation and serology is done.

Control‐ restricted animal movements and vaccination are done.vector control using
sprays and housing of animals at night can also be done but is very difficult to stop
disease from spreading.

10. Mastitis
It is the inflammation of the mammary gland characterized by thr physical, chemical
and bacteriological changes in the milk and pathological changes in the glandular
tissue of the udder.

Causative agent‐ mainly bacteria but includes pathogens such as protozoa and
viruses

Epidemiology‐ occurs worldwide and especially in intensive dairy systems.

Transmission‐ pathogens enter via the teat into the udder.

Clinical signs‐ four forms of mastitis are recognized that is subclinical, mild, acute
and chronic.
Subclinical mastitis‐ is difficult to detect as both udder and milk appear normal.
Clinical mastitis test or culture is necessary for diagnosis.
Mild mastitis‐ there are changes in both udder and milk. The udder is firm though
the milk is watery and may have clots and flakes in it.
Acute mastitis‐ the udder is inflamed, hot and painful. Supramammary lymph nodes
are enlarged.milk is thick and blood tinged. Milk yield drops. Animal has fever and
anorexic.
Chronic mastitis‐udder is permanently damaged. Milk is thick, watery, yellow grey
and yields are low.

Diagnosis‐bacterial culture and clinical mastitis test

Treatment‐ mastitis is treated with specific antibiotics after carrying out sensitivity
tests. Intramammary infusions are encouraged. The udder is completely milked
before infusing intra mammary antibiotics.

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 Control‐ good management, repair of milking machines, teat disinfection after
milking, routine check of mastitic animals and the use of dry cow therapy.

NOTE: WHAT ARE THE PREDISPOSING FACTORS OF MASTITIS. (THINK!!)

11. Tuberculosis
A chronic wasting zoonotic disease of animals including man.

Causative agent‐ mycobacterium bovis in cattle. Mycobacterium avium in birds and

mycobacterium tuberculosis in man and cattle.

Epidemiology‐ affects domestic and wild animals. Cats and dogs may also be
susceptible.

Transmission‐ the disease is mainly spread through infectious droplets and digestive
routes through milk in young calves.

Clinical signs‐ include broncho pneumonia, weight loss, reduced milk yield and
breathing difficulties.

Post mortem‐ tubercles on the lungs and regional lymph nodes

Tubercules when cut may appear caseous and crunch as though you are touching sand.

Diagnosis‐ culture of appropriate sample and demonstration of the pathogens. more so

common tuberculin testing using bovine and avian strains.

Treatment‐ in animals treatment is not done.

Prevention‐ serological tests are done followed by slaughter of positive cases, with
government comes in to compensate farmers for their losses.

12. Trypanosomiasis

Is an acute and chronic infectious protozoal disease of ruminants, pigs and dogs.

Causative agent‐ extra cellular trypanosome vivax and trypanosome congolense in

ruminants and dogs.

Transmission‐ the vector tse‐tse fly is responsible for the transmission of the parasite. Other
ways include inanimate objects such as contaminated needles.

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Clinical signs‐ fever, anaemia, respiratory distress, weakness, loss of appetite and
emaniciation.

Post mortem‐ carcass is anaemic and emanciation. Spleen and lymph nodes are enlarged.

Diagnosis‐ blood smears are made and stained with Giemsa stain for identification

Treatment‐ samorin and berenil have been known to help the cure and prevent the disease.

Control‐ is directed vector elimination such as aerial spraying, fencing and housing of
animals. sterile insect technique has been employed.

13.Theilleriosis

The first recorded case was 1922in Northern Province. The current disease situation is that
theilleriosis is endemic in Northern, Eastern and Southern Provinces.

Causative agent‐ Theilleria parva parva is the causative organism of the disease in Northern
and Eastern provinces. Ii Southern province its largely Theilleria parve lawrencei although it
has now transformed into classical Theilleria parva parva

Transmission‐ the vectors Rhipicephalus appendiculatus and Rhipicephalus zambeziensis are

known to transmit the theilleria organisms. Reservoirs theilleria infection are African
buffaloes and more recently water bucks.

Clinical signs‐ the first sign is the swelling of the draining lymph node usually the parotid, for
the ear is the preffered feeding site of the vector. This is followed by the swelling of the
prescapular and prefemoral lymph nodes. Fever sets in and continues through out the
course of infection, anorexia develops, loss of condition. Other signs are corneal opacity,
nasal discharge, terminal dyspnea and diarrhea.

Post‐mortem signs‐ frothy exudate frequently seen around the nostrils of ECF infected
animals. Diarhea, emanciation and dehydration. Lymph nodes are enlarged, haemorrhagic
and edematous, in chronic cases shrink and become necrotic.

Diagnosis‐giemsa stained blood smears, lymph node impression smears with demonstration
of schizont infected cells. A febrile disease with signs of enlarged lymph nodes associated
with infestation of ticks vectors is suggestive of ECF.

Treatment and Control‐ immunization with live parasites is the most successful involves
infection and treatment method provided local theilleria stocks are used.animals are
inoculated with a potentially lethal dose of infectivesporozoite stabilate and animal treated
with drugs such as tetracyclines, buparvaquone or parvaquone or halofuginone.

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UNIT 2 DISEASES OF POULTRY

1.Newcastle

It’s an important viral disease of poultry in Zambia. It is highly infectious.

Transmission‐ the virus is excreted in discharges and excreta or droppings. The virus can be
carried on inanimate objects such as poultry equipment as well as people. Wild birds have
also been to be reservoirs of the virus.

Clinical signs‐ involve three main systems the nervous, gastro intestinal and respiratory.
These are torticollis, greenish diarrhea is present, respiratory distress, coughing, frothy
discharge, paralysis of the legs. Morbidity and mortality are near 100%.

Post mortem‐ haemorrhages are present on the proventriculus and gizzard mid way. The
caecum, tonsil and lymphoid tissue are enlarged and haemorrhagic. Greenish stool is also
found in the intestines. Frothy discharges in the trachea.

Diagnosis‐ post mortem signs and serology

Treatment‐ no treatment is applicable. Stress packs are advised to prevent secondary

bacterial infection.

Control‐ isolation and destruction of sick birds. Equipment should be sterilized.

Vaccinations of birds is important to avoid occurences of the disease.

2.Mareks Disease

It is a highly contagious viral neoplastic disease of birds usually between 8 and 20 weeks old.
The disease is characterized by inability of the birds to walk or stand.

Clinical signs‐ lameness, Wing or leg paralysis, potential nerve enlargement.

Post mortem‐ tumors on internal organs such as kidney, liver, heart, lung and
proventriculus and enlarged sciatic nerve.

Diagnosis‐clinical signs, post‐mortem signs and serology.

Control‐vaccination is a central strategy for prevention and control. Strict hygiene and
sanitation are key.

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3.Infectious Bursal Disease

is a viral infection affecting the immune system of poultry between 3 to 6 weeks of age. The
disease is highly contagious, affects young chickens and characterised by destruction of
lymphoid organs and in particular the bursa of fabricius.

Causative agent‐ infectious bursal disease virus.

Clinical signs‐ appears sudden morbidity is 100%. Birds are postrated, debilitated and
dehydrated, watery diarrhea, swollen vent.mortality varies with strain of virus

Post mortem‐ swollen bursa of fabricius with yellow mucoid contents. The bursa is
oedematous and haemorrhagic. Haemorrhages may be found on skeletal muscle, intestines,
kidney and spleen.

Diagnosis‐ clinical signs , history and serological tests eg immunofluorescence

Treatment and control‐ vaccination. Biosecurity with adequate restriction to farm visitation
and distancing from other flocks. post outbreak hygiene measures may not be adequate as
virus can survive a long time in housing and water.

4.Coccidiosis

Is a common protozoan disease in domestic birds and other fowl characterized by enteritis
and bloody diarrhea

Causative agent‐ eimeria nicatrix and eimeria tenella are the most pathiogenic in chickens

Transmission‐ oocysts are passed in faeces and eaten by other birds which then become
infected. Both clinically infected and recovered birds shed oocysts in their droppings which
contaminate feed, dust, water, litter and soil. Oocysts may transmitted by mechanical
carriers eg equipment clothing insects farm workers and other animals.

Clinical signs‐ severe bloody diarrhea, in layers egg production may fall, loss of body weight,
feed and water consumption are reduced. Increased mortality may accompany outbreaks.

Post mortem‐ in chickens accumulation of blood in the ceca and haemorrhages in the
intestines.

Diagnosis‐ clinical signs history and demonstration of oocysts from droppings/ faeces

Treatment/control‐ use of anticoccidial drugs such as amprolium, sulfamethazine or any

sulphur drugs except in layers where sulphur drugs are discouraged. other drugs include
broad spectrum tetracyclines. Coccidostats are added to feed but the continued use
promotes emergence of drug resistant strains of coccidia.

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5.Fowl cholera

A serious highly contagious disease caused by bacterium Pasteurella multocida in chickens

and turkey. Predisposing factors include high density and concurrent infections such as
respiratory viruses.

Transmission‐ the route of infection is oral or nasal with transmission via nasal exudate
faeces, contaminated soil, equipment and people.

Clinical signs‐ ruffled feathers, loss of appetite, diarrhea, coughing, nasal, ocular and oral
discharge, swollen cyanotic wattles and face, sudden death, swollen joints and lameness

Post mortem‐ enteritis, yolk peritonitis, focal hepatitis, purulent pneumonia, cellulitis of
face and wattles, purulent arthritis consolidated lungs

Diagnosis‐ impression smears, isolation of bacteria

Treatment‐ sulphonamides, tetracyclines, erythromycin, streptomycin, penicillin. The

disease often recurs after medication is stopped necessitating long term medication.

Prevention‐ good rodent control, hygiene and vaccine.

6. Salmonellosis

Disease affecting poultry including chickens turkeys,water fowl and wild birds.

Causative agent‐ Salmonella pullorum and Salmonella gallinarum. The disease affects ages
4 weeks and above

Clinical signs‐ nodules in the myocardium, pericardium.adhesive white nodules in lung,

gizzard, small intestine, enteritis.other signs enlargement of spleen, swelling of joints and
tendon sheaths.

Transmission – is through the eggs and direct contact through other species.

Treatment‐ antibiotics

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7. Internal Parasites

Helminths (worms)

Gapeworm

The gapeworm lives in the trachea of a bird and when eggs are laid, they are coughed
up and excreted to infect the next chicken. The symptoms are snicking or gasping with
throat extended.

Capillaria

These tiny worms (Figure 3), also known as hair worm, live in the intestine. They
quickly cause ill-thrift and can be fatal if not treated.

Heterakis

This worm (Figure 3) lives entirely in the caeca (two blind-ended parts of the large
intestine where some fermentation of plants occurs). It causes ill-thrift but is the vector
for histomonas (see below).

Ascarids

Figure 1. Intestine impacted with ascarids

Also known as roundworms (Figures 1 and 3), these live in the small intestine. If there
are many of them they can impact, and this is fatal.

Trichostrongyles

These live in the intestine and cause severe weight loss.

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 Figure 2. Worm eggs: a) Gizzard worm, b) Trichostrongyle, c) Heterakis, d) Ascarid,
e) Gapeworm, f) Capillaria

Tapeworm

These live in the intestine and cause weight loss and can be fatal.

Gizzard worm

These live in the gizzard and can be fatal in young stock.

Regular use (prophylactic) of a licensed product should avoid the situation where a
bird is so infected with helminths that either impaction results, or when a large burden
of worms is killed, the toxins they release kill the bird.
Most intestinal worms have earthworms or insects as a transport host and wild birds
are also carriers so outdoor birds are always at risk, although a certain amount of
immunity develops. Stress can alter the delicate balance and allow the intestinal
worms to proliferate. Heavily grazed or stocked areas should be rotated to avoid a
build-up of internal parasites.

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 Figure 3. Large dish: Ascarids; top left: Heterakis; top right: Capillaria

Diagnosis and treatment

A parasitic egg count may be done on the faeces (Figure 2) but treatment for helminths
may be instigated immediately with flubendazole (Flubenvet: Janssen) powder (240g-
tub), 10g to 8kg feed for seven days (two teaspoonsful to a 25-kg bag divided into
three black buckets). Recently, a smaller (for 20 hens) size of Flubenvet has been
licensed.
Some powder sticks to pellets but the rest has a tendency to migrate to the bottom of
the feeder, so the mixture needs stirring daily. Prophylactic use of Flubenvet is advised
if stock is on the same ground all year, at least before the breeding season and
possibly every two months or less, depending on stocking density. Toxicity appears
very low.
If selling eggs for human consumption, Flubenvet may be used without withdrawal
provided it is below 30ppm but this negates the effect against tapeworm.

External parasites‐ lice fleas as well as mites are ectoparasites of birds. Dry dipping in
suitable parasiticide is the best solution.

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UNIT 3 DISEASES OF PIGS

1.Greasy pig disease

Also known as exudative dermatitis

The disease is caused by bacterium Staphylococcus hyicus which lives normally on the skin
without causing any illness. It is known so because it flares up and cuases a dermatitis which
oozes greasy fluid. It producs toxins which are absorbed into the system and damages liver
and kidney.

Clinical signs‐ severely affected piglets die, the skin along the flanks belly and between the
legs changes to a brown colour gradually involving the whole body, dirty brown greasy hair,
loss of appetite and drinking, in severe cases the skin turns black due to necrosis and the
piglets die.

Predisposing factors‐ sharp eyevteeth cut the skin around the mouth, abrasions on the
knees from sucking may also trigger it off, fighting and skin trauma at weaning, mange
giving rise to skin damage.

Diagnosis‐ based on the characterisation skin lesions.it is importnant to culture the

organism and carry out antibiotic sensitivity test

Treatment and control‐ review all kind of fighting and increased aggression, check
feed/water space availability, change to more sociable pigs and control skin diseases such as
mange.

2.African Swine Fever

A highly infectious disease of domesticated pigs. The reservoir of this disease are the wild
pigs and warthogs. The disease is characterized by fever, widespread visceral haemorrhages
and death.

Causative agent‐African Swine Fever Virus

Transmission‐ though the vector Ornithodorous moubata from wild animals to

domesticated pigs. It also occurs through pig meat scrapes and processed meats sold on the
market. Once established in the herd the virus spreads rapidly being shed in large quantities
in nasal secretions, feaces and urine.

Clinical signs‐ fever, loss of appetite, lameness or wobbliness, depression, haemorrages on

the skin seen as purplish discolourations especially on tips of ears, bloody faeces, coughing,
nasal dicharges, vomiting and abortion in pregnant sows.

Post‐mortem‐ dark coloured spleen and haemorrhages on all internal organs.

Diagnosis‐ the clinical signs, history and serology tests are done

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Treatment‐ no treatment is done

Control‐ test and slaughter, biosecurity, ban on import and export of live animals and their
by products. Attempts to control the vector have proved difficult.

3.Mange

Mange is a parasitic disease of the skin caused by two mites sarcoptes scabei or demodex
phylloides. Sarcoptic mange is called scabies is by far the most common and important
because it is irritant and uncomfortable for the pig, causing it to rub and damage the skin. It
significantly depresses growth rate and feed efficiency. The life cycle is direct and takes 10‐
15 days from adult to adukt to complete. The mite dies out quickly away from the pig under
most farm conditions. The disease is introduced into the herd by carrier pigs. However, once
it is introduced it tends to become permanently endemic unless control measures are taken.

Clinical signs‐ skin irritation, ear shaking, skin reddening from excessive rubbing which may
lead to bleeding, tiny red pimples over the skin, poor growth.

Diagnosis‐this is confirmed through the demonstration of the mite through skin scrapings or
ear swab examination.

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Treatment

Control‐

Treat the pigs regularly to prevent a build of numbers,Treat boars regularly as there are a
source of infection, housing sows in individual pens reduces spread of disease, leave pens
empty for 3 days when infected pigs are removed and spray the pen.

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4.Cystercercosis

It’s a parasitic disease of pigs cuased by pork tape worm Teania solium. The disease is found
worldwide but especially in countries where pork is undercooked or eaten raw.

The life cycle of Taenia solium

1. The cycle starts with swine eating food or drinking water contaminated with eggs
from human faeces.
2. The enclosed larva in the egg is called the oncosphere. Oncospere hatch in the pigs
intestine, penetrate the gut wall and move into the body’s muscles
3. The oncosphere then changes into a fluid filled pocket called a cysticercus and these
will localize in various tissue sites and in pigs it’s the intramuscular sites.
4. The cysticercus becomes visible in 2‐4 weeeks and develop to their full potential in
60‐70 days and remain infective in the pig upto 2 years.
5. The cysticercus is passed to humans via undercooked or raw meat, processed meats
like ham and polony. Once in the human the mature into adult tape worms
6. The tape worm attaches to human intestine by their head called a scolex. The
tapeworm can grow to 2‐7 metres in length in 5‐12 weeks.
7. One tapeworm can shed upto 300 000 eggs per day. Humans can be infective for up
to 20 years. Cysticercus can localize in the brain, eye and heart.
8. The pig does not show signs of this infection its only discovered at inspection of pork
meat that these cysticercus are noticed.

Control

1. Proper human waste disposal

2. Cooking pork thoroughly
3. Always buy pork from certified suppliers after complete inspection of carcass

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UNIT 4 DISEASES OF DOGS

1.Canine Parvovirus Infection

This is a viral gastro enteritis of dogs characterized by high mortality in young puppies less
than 8 weeks. The disease is characterized by foul smelling diarrhea and vomiting. The virus
is shed in the faeces and susceptible dogs pick it up through the oral route where the virus
will multiply in the intestinal walls. Other clinical signs include fever, lethargy, depression,
anorexia and dehydration which may lead to death. Severe vomiting and bloody diarrhea
may cause a guarded prognosis. Confirmation of the disease is through serology and
isolation of the virus. Symptomatic and supportive therapy are the best methods of
controlling the infection. Fluids given intravenously are used e.g. ringers lactate, anti
emetics given to stop vomiting and broad spectrum antibiotics given to prevent secondary
bacterial infections. Prevention of the infection is achieved through vaccination starting at 8
weeks.

2.Canine Babesiosis

It’s a tick borne protozoal disease caused by Babesia canis or Babesia gibsoni characterized
by progressive anaemia, fever, jaundice and haemoglobinuria. Other signs include
depression, anorexia, pale mucous memebranes, jaundice, lethargy, splenomegaly and
lymphadenopathy. Babesiosis affects all age groups especially the young. Confirmation is
through demonstration of babsia organisms through giemsa stained blood smears. The
condition is treatable by using diminazene aceturate, imidicarb dipropionate. Supportive
treatment includes vitamins, iv fluids and blood transfusion in extreme cases.

3.Sarcoptic Mange

Its also known as canine scabies caused by sarcoptic mites usually around the eyes, ears and
muzzle, ventral thorax and tail of the dog.the entire lifecycle occurs on the host ranging
from 17‐ 21 days. Transmission is through direct contact. Affected dogs bite, scratch or
chew at the site of irritation. Inflammation occurs at site of attachment and affected skin
becomes dry, thickened and wrinkly. If untreated sarcoptic mange leads to emaciation,
debilitation and death of host. Confirmation is through collection of deep skin scrapings
using a scalpel blade. Treatment with ivermectin is done and use of amitraz shampoo to
scrub affected parts of the body is done.

4.Ringworm

A contagious fungal disease of animals caused by Microsporum or Trichophyton species. The

disease is calledringworm because it produces circular lesions . transmission is through
direct contact with affected dogs. Clinical signs include alopecia, scaly patches with broken
hairs or pustules without alopecia. Confirmation is through skin scrapings. treatment by use
of griseovulfin 40‐120mg/kg and ketoconazole is recommended 10‐30mg/kg.

23
UNIT 5 MEAT INSPECTION

The purpose of meat inspection is

I. Elimination of unwholesome meat, adulterayed or mislabelled meat or

products from food supply
II. Protection of consumers from infectious, toxic and physical hazards that may
originate from food animals, the environment or human beings.

Ante‐mortem‐ examination conducted before slaughter of food animals

Post‐mortem‐examination conducted after slaughter of food animals to certify whether the

carcass and organs are fit for consumption.

Meat inspaection is divided into ante mortem, post‐mortem and processing inspection.

Antemortem inspection

Ante mortem inspection is conducted at the abbatoir or slaughter slab on the day of
slaughter to detect and condemn animals that are unfit slaughter and note signs or lesions
pof diseases that may not be apparent after slaughter such as rabies, listeriosis and heavy
metal poisoning. Animals showing signs of injury or recumbency should be examined
thoroughly. During ante mortem inspection particular attention is paid to

I. Posture and gait

II. State of nutrition
III. State of skin and fur/hair
IV. Demeanour
V. Respiration
VI. Mucous membranes
VII. Rumination
VIII. Urine and quality of faeces
It is important that animals are rested sufficiently so that signs important to
inspection are not masked.

Methods of slaughter

Livestock can slaughtered using humane methods such as captive bolt that penetrates the
skull and brain or electric stunning depending on size of animal or the use of an electrode
stunning pole applied at any part of the body.

Bleeding is done following stunning. The anterior vena cava is severed in pigs and cattle.the
carotid artery should be severed in sheep and goats with bleeding lasting 4 minutes.the
animal is hoisted by the leg onto an overhead rialto allow for complete bleeding. A well bled
carcass is red in colour. Poorly bled animals show congestion or pooling of blood in liver,
lungs. After bleeding, carcasses should be flayed and thereafter inspected.
24
Post mortem Inspection

Animals should be inspected immediately after slaughter and evisceration for possible
changes and lesions that indicate unsuitability of the meat for food. It requires observation
of all parts of the carcass, dressing procedures and environmental conditions to
preventcontamination of edible parts. The inspector must make sure that condemned
carcasses and parts are disposed off safely. Rountine post mortem examination should
include the following

I. Carcass
Examine the exposed internal and external surfaces. Palpate the superficial
inguinal or supra mammary and iliac lymph nodes. Examine and palpate the
diaphragm.
Head‐ incise and examine the left and right mandibular, parotid,
suprapharygeal and retropharyngeal lymph nodes. Examine the inner and
external masseter muscles lastly examine and palpate the tongue.
Viscera‐ examine the mesenteric lymph nodes and abdominal viscera.
Examine and palpate the ruminoreticular junction. Examine the oesophagus
and spleen. Incise and examine the anterior, middle and posterior
mediastinal, right andleft bronchial lymph nodes. Examine and palpate costal
and ventral lung surfaces. Incise the heart from the base to the apex through
the interventricular septum and examine the inner and outer surfaces. Incise
and examine the hepatic lymph nodes. Open bile duct in both directions and
observe the congtents. Examine and palpate the liver and kidneys.

25
26
Judgement at post mortem inspection

a. Judgement must protect consumers against food borne infection,

intoxication and hazards associated with residues.
b. Food handlers against occupational zoonoses
c. Livestock against the spread of infections and intoxications, notifiable
diseases, genetic defects andtoxic effectsfrom feed or the
environment
d. Consumers against economic damage from meat of inferior standard
or abnormal properties.

FAO GUIDELINES
MEAT INSPECTION PROCEDURES
The objectives of meat inspection programme are twofold:

a. To ensure that only apparently healthy, physiologically normal animals are

slaughtered for human consumption and that abnormal animals are separated and
dealt with accordingly.
b. To ensure that meat from animals is free from disease, wholesome and of no risk to
human health.

These objectives are achieved by antemortem and postmortem inspection procedures and
by hygienic dressing with minimum contamination. Whenever appropriate the Hazard
Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) principles should be used: The inspection
procedures should be appropriate to the spectrum and prevalence of diseases and defects
present in the particular class of livestock being inspected using the principles of risk
assessment.

ANTEMORTEM AND POST MORTEM INSPECTION OF FOOD

ANIMALS GENERAL PRINCIPLES

Antemortem Inspection

Some of the major objectives of antemortem inspection are as follows:

 to screen all animals destined to slaughter.

 to ensure that animals are properly rested and that proper clinical information, which
will assist in the disease diagnosis and judgement, is obtained.
 to reduce contamination on the killing floor by separating the dirty animals and
condemning the diseased animals if required by regulation.
 to ensure that injured animals or those with pain and suffering receive emergency
slaughter and that animals are treated humanely.
 to identify reportable animal diseases to prevent killing floor contamination.
 to identify sick animals and those treated with antibiotics, chemotherapeutic agents,
insecticides and pesticides.

27
  to require and ensure the cleaning and disinfection of trucks used to transport
livestock.

Both sides of an animal should be examined at rest and in motion. Antemortem examination
should be done within 24 hours of slaughter and repeated if slaughter has been delayed
over a day.

Spread hogs and animals affected with extensive bruising or fractures require emergency
slaughter. Animals showing clinical signs of disease should be held for veterinary
examination and judgement. They are treated as “suspects” and should be segregated from
the healthy animals. The disease and management history should be recorded and reported
on an A/M inspection card. Other information should include:

1. Owner's name
2. The number of animals in the lot and arrival time
3. Species and sex of the animal
4. The time and date of antemortem inspection
5. Clinical signs and body temperature if relevant
6. Reason why the animal was held
7. Signature of inspector

Antemortem inspection should be carried out in adequate lighting where the animals can be
observed both collectively and individually at rest and motion. The general behaviour of
animals should be observed, as well as their nutritional status, cleanliness, signs of diseases
and abnormalities. Some of the abnormalities which are checked on antemortem
examination include:

1. Abnormalities in respiration
2. Abnormalities in behaviour
3. Abnormalities in gait
4. Abnormalities in posture
5. Abnormalities in structure and conformation
6. Abnormal discharges or protrusions from body openings
7. Abnormal colour
8. Abnormal odour

Abnormalities in respiration commonly refer to frequency of respiration. If the breathing

pattern is different from normal the animal should be segregated as a suspect.

Abnormalities in behaviour are manifested by one or more of the following signs:

The animal may be:

a. walking in circles or show an abnormal gait or posture

b. pushing its head against a wall
c. charging at various objects and acting aggressively
d. showing a dull and anxious expression in the eyes

An abnormal gait in an animal is associated with pain in the legs, chest or abdomen or is an
indication of nervous disease.

Abnormal posture in an animal is observed as tucked up abdomen or the animal may stand
with an extended head and stretched out feet. The animal may also be laying and have its

28
head turned along its side. When it is unable to rise, it is often called a “downer”. Downer
animals should be handled with caution in order to prevent further suffering.

Abnormalities in structure (conformation) are manifested by:

a. swellings (abscesses) seen commonly in swine

b. enlarged joints
c. umbilical swelling (hernia or omphalophlebitis)
d. enlarged sensitive udder indicative of mastitis
e. enlarged jaw (“lumpy jaw”)
f. bloated abdomen

Some examples of abnormal discharges or protrusions from the body are:

a. discharges from the nose, excessive saliva from the mouth, afterbirth
b. protruding from the vulva, intestine
c. protruding from the rectum (prolapsed rectum) or uterus
d. protruding from the vagina (prolapsed uterus)
e. growths on the eye and bloody diarrhoea

Abnormal colour such as black areas on horses and swine, red areas on light coloured skin
(inflammation), dark blue areas on the skin or udder (gangrene).

An abnormal odour is difficult to detect on routine A/M examination. The odour of an

abscess, a medicinal odour, stinkweed odour or an acetone odour of ketosis may be
observed.

Since many abattoirs in developing countries have not accommodation station or yards for
animals, Inspector's antemortem judgement must be performed at the admission of
slaughter animals.

Postmortem inspection

Routine postmortem examination of a carcass should be carried out as soon as possible

after the completion of dressing in order to detect any abnormalities so that products only
conditionally fit for human consumption are not passed as food. All organs and carcass
portions should be kept together and correlated for inspection before they are removed from
the slaughter floor.

Postmortem inspection should provide necessary information for the scientific evaluation of
pathological lesions pertinent to the wholesomeness of meat. Professional and technical
knowledge must be fully utilized by:

1. viewing, incision, palpation and olfaction techniques.

2. classifying the lesions into one of two major categories - acute or chronic.
3. establishing whether the condition is localized or generalized, and the extent of
systemic changes in other organs or tissues.
4. determing the significance of primary and systemic pathological lesions and their
relevance to major organs and systems, particularly the liver, kidneys, heart, spleen
and lymphatic system.
5. coordinating all the components of antemortem and postmortem findings to make a
final diagnosis.

29
 6. submitting the samples to the laboratory for diagnostic support, if abattoir has holding
and refrigeration facilities for carcasses under detention.

Carcass judgement

Trimming or condemnation may involve:

1. Any portion of a carcass or a carcass that is abnormal or diseased.

2. Any portion of a carcass or a carcass affected with a condition that may present a
hazard to human health.
3. Any portion of a carcass or a carcass that may be repulsive to the consumer.

Localized versus generalized conditions

It is important to differentiate between a localized or a generalized condition in the

judgement of an animal carcass. In a localized condition, a lesion is restricted by the animal
defense mechanisms to a certain area or organ. Systemic changes associated with a
localized condition may also occur. Example: jaundice caused by liver infection or toxaemia
following pyometra (abscess in the uterus).

In a generalized condition, the animal's defense mechanisms are unable to stop the spread
of the disease process by way of the circulatory or lymphatic systems. The lymph nodes of
the carcass should be examined if pathological lesions are generalized. Some of the signs of
a generalized disease are:

1. Generalized inflammation of lymph nodes including the lymph nodes of the head,
viscera and/or the lymph nodes of the carcass
2. Inflammation of joints
3. Lesions in different organs including liver, spleen kidneys and heart
4. The presence of multiple abscesses in different portions of the carcass including the
spine of ruminants

Generalized lesions usually require more severe judgement than localized lesions.

Acute versus chronic conditions

Acute conditions

An acute condition implies that a lesion has developed over a period of some days, whereas
a chronic condition implies the development of lesions over a period of some weeks, months
or years. A subacute condition refers to a time period between an acute and chronic
condition.

The acute stage is manifested by inflammation of different organs or tissues, enlarged

haemorrhagic lymph nodes and often by petechial haemorrhage of the mucosal and serous
membranes and different organs such as heart, kidney and liver. An acute stage parallels
with the generalized disease complex, when an acute infection tends to overcome the
animal's immune system and becomes generalized.

Each case showing systemic lesions should be assessed individually taking into account the
significance that these lesions have towards major organ systems, especially the liver,
kidneys, heart, spleen and lymphatic system as well as the general condition of the carcass.

30
Chronic conditions

In a chronic condition, inflammation associated with congestion is replaced by adhesions,

necrotic and fibrotic tissue or abscesses. The judgement in the chronic stage is less severe
and frequently the removal of affected portions is required without the condemnation of the
carcass. However, judgement on the animal or carcass judgement tends to be more
complicated in subchronic and sometimes in peracute stages. If generalized necrotic tissue
is associated with previous infection, carcass must be condemned.

GUIDELINES FOR MINIMUM POSTMORTEM INSPECTION

REQUIREMENTS (CATTLE, HORSES, SHEEP & GOATS, PIGS AND
GAME)
HEADS

General View external surfaces. For cattle, horses, pigs and game view the oral and nasal
cavities.

Lymph nodes (Fig. 1)

Submaxillary Incise(a)
Parotid Incise(a)
Retropharyngeal Incise(a)

View and incise by multiple incision or slicing.

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Fig. 1 : Head inspection. Retropharyngeal (No. 1), parotid (No. 2) and submaxillary (No. 3)
lymph nodes are viewed and incised by multiple incisions and slicing.

Fig. 2: Head inspection in buffalo.

Retropharyngeal lymph nodes (No. 1) are viewed and incised by multiple incisions and
slicing.

Tongue View and palpate (view only in calves up to 6 weeks of age).

Other

Cattle - except in calves up to six week of age, the oesophagus of all cattle and calves
should be separated from its attachment to the trachea and viewed.

32
- as part of inspection of all cattle and calves over the age of 6 weeks for Cysticercus bovis,
the muscles of mastication should be viewed and one or more linear incisions made parallel
to the lower jaw into the external and internal muscles of mastication; in addition one incision
into M.triceps brachii, 5 cm behind the elbow, should be made.

Horse - the head should be split lengthwise in the medial line and the nasal septum
removed and examined in all horses that are from areas where glanders is endemic.

Pigs - where there is a risk of Cysticercus cellulosae being present, the outer muscles of
mastication, the abdominal and diaphragmatic muscles and the root of the tongue of all pigs
should be incised and the blade of the tongue viewed and palpated;

Game - inspection cuts for tapeworm cysts are not necessary, as these cysts are generally
not infective for humans.

NOTES

 These are guidelines for inspection requirements, the inspection can be made more
intensive or less intensive depending on the outcome of the examination.
 “incise” means multiple incisions or slicing.
 “palpate” as used above means to view and palpate.

GUIDELINES FOR MINIMUM POSTMORTEM INSPECTION

REQUIREMENTS (CATTLE, HORSES, SHEEP & GOATS, PIGS AND
GAME)
VISCERA

Lungs (Fig. 3)

View and palpate. Except in sheep and goats, the bronchi should be opened up by a
transverse incision across the diaphragmatic lobes. For horses and cattle, the larynx,
trachea and main bronchi should be opened along their length.

Lymph nodes

Bronchial (tracheobronchial) and mediastinal: Incise, (a) (see “Notes”)

33
Fig. 3: Lung inspection - Bronchial left (No. 1) and right (No. 2) and mediastinal (No. 3)
lymph nodes are viewed and incised.

Fig. 4: Lung inspection in buffalo - Open trachea and incised bronchial and mediastinal
lymph nodes.

Heart (Fig. 5)

View after the removal of the pericardium. Additional inspection requirements for cattle as
per (b).

Additional inspection requirements for pigs as per (c).

34
Fig. 5: Heart inspection - Lengthwise incisions (minimum four) from base to apex into the
heart muscles. Observe cut surfaces.

Liver (Fig. 6)

View and palpate entire surface(both sides). View the gall bladder. For cattle over 6 weeks
of age, incise as deemed appropriate to detect liver flukes. Open large bile ducts. For sheep,
pigs and game, incise as deemed appropriate for parasite.

Lymph nodes

Portal (hepatic), view and incise

35
Fig. 6: Liver inspection - Incised portal (hepatic) lymph nodes (No. 1) and opened large bile
duct (No. 2).

Spleen (Fig. 7)

Palpate

36
Fig. 7: Stomachs and spleen inspection - Viewing of rumen and viewing and palpation of
spleen.

Gastrointestinal tract (Fig. 8)

View (a)

Mesenteric lymph nodes (Fig. 9), View (a,d)

37
Fig. 8: Viewing of rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum.

38
Fig. 9: Viewing and incision of the mesenteric lymph nodes. In this case an incision was
performed to demonstrate the mesenteric lymph nodes chain.

39
Kidneys

View after enucleation. In grey and white horses - Incise.

Uterus (adults), View

NOTES

 These are guidelines for inspection requirements, the inspection can be made more
intensive or less intensive depending on the outcome of the examination.
 “incise” means multiple incisions or slicing.
 “palpate” as used above means to view and palpate.
 (a) view only in calves up to 6 weeks of age.
 (b) the heart of all cattle and calves over the age of 6 weeks should be inspected for
Cysticercus bovis either by making one or more incisions from base to apex or by
everting the heart and making shallow incisions that enable the cardiac valves and
muscle tissue to be inspected; this inspection of the heart should also be undertaken
in calves up to 6 weeks of age that are from areas where Cysticercus bovis is
endemic.
 (c) the heart of all pigs derived from areas where there is a risk of Cysticercus
cellulosae being present, should be opened up and the deep incision made into the
septum.
 (d) incise if any lesion were observed in the submaxillary lymph nodes.

GUIDELINES FOR MINIMUM POSTMORTEM INSPECTION

REQUIREMENTS (CATTLE, HORSES, SHEEP & GOATS, PIGS AND
GAME)
CARCASS

General

Examine carcasses (including musculature, exposed bones, joints, tendon sheaths etc.) to
determine any signs of disease or defect. Attention should be paid to bodily condition,
efficiency of bleeding, colour, condition of serous membranes (pleura and peritoneum),
cleanliness and presence of any unusual odours.

Lymph nodes1

Superficial inguinal (male) (Fig. 10) - Palpate Supramammary (female) - Palpate (a) External
and internal iliac (Fig. 10, Fig. 11) - Palpate (b) Prepectoral (Fig. 12) - Palpate Popliteal (Fig.
13) - Palpate (only sheep/goats and game/antelope) Renal (Fig. 12) - Palpate (cattle,
horses, pigs) or incise if diseases is suspected. Prescapular (Fig. 14) & prefemoral - Palpate
(only sheep and goats)
1
In all animals in which systemic or generalized disease is suspected, in all animals positive to a diagnostic test for
tuberculosis, in all animals in which lesions suggestive of tuberculosis are found at postmortem inspection, the main carcass
lymph nodes being the precrural, popliteal, anal, superficial inguinal, ischiatic, internal and external iliac, lumber, renal, sternal,
prepectoral, prescapular and atlantal nodes, as well as the lymph nodes of the head and viscera, should be incised and
examined.

Other

40
The muscles and the lymph nodes (lymphonodi sub-rhomboidei) beneath one of the two
scapular cartilages of all grey or white horses should be examined for melanosis after
loosening the attachment of one shoulder.

NOTES

 These are guidelines for inspection requirements, the inspection can be made more
intensive or less intensive depending on the outcome of the examination.
 “incise” means multiple incisions or slicing.
 “palpate” as used above means to view and palpate.
 (a) incise when udder is or has been in lactation or in case of mastitis.
 (b) means iliac nodes in pigs.

41
Fig. 10: Superficial inguinal and internal and external iliac lymph nodes in a pig. Viewed and
palpated on routine P/M examination.

42
Fig. 11: Medial view of the hind quarter. Superficial inguinal, internal and external iliac and
lumbar lymph nodes are palpated and incised in systemic or generalized disease.

43
Fig. 12: Medial view of the fore quarter with intercostal, suprasternal, presternal and
prepectoral lymph nodes. Presternal and prepectoral lymph nodes are incised.

44
Fig. 13: Popliteal lymph nodes in a pig. These nodes are incised if a systemic or general
disease is suspected.

45
46
Fig. 14: Lateral view of the carcass. Precrural and prescapular lymph nodes are incised in
systemic or generalized disease.

Fig. 15: Medial view of carcass with relevant lymph nodes

47
ANTEMORTEM AND POSTMORTEM INSPECTION OF POULTRY
Antemortem inspection of birds presents some difficulties if the birds are placed in crates or
liners, and hence only a superficial inspection of their general condition is carried out. The
remainder of the poultry examination should take place after the birds have been hung in
shackles and before they are bled. The records of antemortem inspection are mandatory
and should include date and time of inspection, truck number, species, the total number of
birds and the name of the owner. The objectives of antemortem examination are:

 to determine the general condition of the birds

 to establish if a disease or condition requires particular handling such as segregation
of diseased birds, delayed slaughter or adjustment of line speed.

In inclement weather, particular in winter, birds require immediate slaughter. In the summer,
the steady change of air in the truck or in the holding area should be maintained. In cases of
reportable disease, such as avian influenza or Newcastle disease, a veterinarian should be
informed and all pertinent information should be recorded. Some diseases have similar signs
on A/M inspection. For example, infectious bronchitis may be confused with Newcastle
disease. A differential diagnosis is required in such cases.

Postmortem inspection in poultry refers to inspection techniques and inspection of carcasses

and viscera. P/M examination consist of viewing, palpation and smell. The colour, shape,
and consistency of organs and tissues must be observed singly or in combination. The
colour of the poultry carcass depends on age, sex, nutrition and the scalding temperature
during slaughter.

Carcasses must be suspended at 2 or 3 points depending on the class of poultry. Intestinal

tract, liver, spleen, and heart (viscera) must be exposed for visual examination and
palpation. A poultry inspector (Fig. 16) should be able to look inside the carcass and detect
any pathological lesions such as airsac inflammation, peritonitis, oviduct inflammation
(salpingitis) etc. Contamination by faeces and bile should also be observed. During the
examination of viscera and carcass, both hands should be used. External lesions on the
carcass include the swelling of the sinuses, nasal and ocular discharge (if the head is
present), skin lesions, joint swellings etc.

Judgement : Localized lesions could be disposed by an inspector, however the final

judgement of the carcass should be done by a veterinarian. The condemnation of carcass is
usually for pathological, non pathological and aesthetic reasons.

48
Fig. 16: Inspection of the viscera and carcass in a broiler.

49
SLAUGHTER AND INSPECTION OF GAME ANIMALS FOR MEAT
Some parts of the world continue to be blessed with large, thriving populations of game
animals, in Africa particularly antelopes such as impala, kudu and eland, in the Southern part
of Latin America hares and some deer and antelope species and in Eastern Europe red and
roe deer. Controlled cropping of these herds can provide a significant, sustainable source of
supplementary protein especially in rural areas.

In ideal circumstances and in case of the game meat is for export, two basic systems of
culling and carcass preparation can be used.

1. The first system is one of night shooting on foot using spotlights. Animals which
appear healthy are shot, immediately bled and the stomachs and intestine
eviscerated on the spot. After a number of carcasses have been collected on an
accompanying vehicle, they are then transferred to a central, permanent abattoir
facility suitable for their dressing, inspection and refrigeration. Since antemortem
inspection is performed by hunters, they should be trained in basic antemortem
procedures in order that they may be able to select healthy from sick animals.
2. In the second system animals are rounded up and herded into a temporary, funnel
like structure. The animals are rested and antemortem inspection is carried out much
more objectively. Animals are then shot at point blank range, bled and eviscerated
immediately and removed to a temporary butchery for dressing, inspection and
refrigeration. Ante and postmortem inspection can be objectively carried out with this
system, although hygiene could be somewhat compromised. A judicious combination
of features form both these systems, which can be modified, can be used to suit a
variety of circumstances in the field.

Antemortem and postmortem inspection procedures

The inspection procedures that are most appropriate to any particular type of game animal
or carcass will vary not only according to species, but also according to whatever other
information may be available about the wildlife population from which they are harvested.
Minimum inspection procedures as set out in the Joint FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius
Commission's Code of Hygienic Practice for Game, are useful commencing points in
developing appropriate procedures.

Judgement categories

The decision at inspection is classed into the following categories of Judgement:

1. Approved as fit for human consumption.

When the inspection and any other information available has revealed no evidence of
any unacceptable disease or defect, and if the dressing has been implemented in
accordance with hygienic requirements, the game carcass and offal should be
approved as fit for human consumption without restriction provided no animal health
restrictions are otherwise applicable.

2. Totally unfit for human consumption.

The game animal and all offal should be condemned or otherwise disposed of for
inedible purposes if:

50
 a. they are hazardous for food handlers, consumers and other animals;
b. they show decomposition, extensive injury, swelling edema, emaciation or
contamination;
c. they show signs consistent with natural death, death by trapping or a moribund state.
d. there are unacceptable deviations, form normal game meat, detectable by sensory
means.

3. Partially condemned.

Where lesions are localized, affecting only part of the carcass or offal, the affected parts
should be removed and the unaffected parts conditionally or unconditionally passed.

Conditions affecting antelope

The antelope is perhaps the most preferred and frequently hunted species of game animal in
Africa for the specific purpose of providing meat for human consumption. The impala is the
easiest of the antelope to cull on a large scale, although the eland is almost as easy to
manage as some domestic cattle. Favourable features of antelope are their apparent good
herd-health and lack of pathological and parasitic conditions found at meat inspection.
Causes of condemnation of the carcass, meat and offal in impala in Africa seem to fall into
two categories:

a. Management related
b. Disease related

Management related:

trauma - due to gunshot wounds.

contamination - chiefly gross dirt attained from the environment during bleeding and de-
gutting or intestinal contents during careless evisceration.

spoilage and putrefaction - wastage for these reasons can be considerable in Africa if
operations are carried out during summer daytime. These losses can be minimized if hunting
and dressing are done during the winter months, at night and during lower ambient
temperatures.

Disease related:

Parasites

“measles” - tapeworm cysts of various kinds have been found in game carcass such as
impala, kudu, bushbuck, reedbuck, sable, wildebeest (gnu, antelope) and warthogs. The
cysts vary in size from that of a pea to a golf ball and are often seen in the peritoneal cavity,
loosely attached to the serosa, viscera or in the musculature. There are no special
predilection sites of the muscular cysts. Routine inspection incisions for measles in domestic
animals are of no value in determining presence or degree of infestation in game animals.
Serosal affection can be successfully trimmed before release but muscular parasites make
the carcass aesthetically unacceptable. In the latter carcass can be boiled or used for
manufacturing purposes. These cysts do not seem to affect humans.

Sarcocysts - these are frequently seen in the skeletal muscle of impala (mostly microscopic
however); the carcass may have to be condemned if severely affected.

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Stilesia - this tapeworm may be found in the liver of small antelope and seem to be
widespread in Africa. Trimming is required.

Cooperoides hepatica - this is a small brown filarial worm which occurs coiled up in a cyst in
the liver, most frequently in impala. It is often associated with stilesia. Trimming is required.

Cordophillus - a filarial worm found encysted in the heart muscle of kudu. 25% of these
animals are affected. This parasite is occasionally found in other muscle and may also occur
in the heart muscle of domestic cattle. Affected tissue should be trimmed.

Hydatid - these cysts have been seen in the lungs and livers of impala, zebra, giraffe and
warthog. If slight infestation is present affected tissue should be trimmed.

Pathological conditions - the incidence of septicemic/bacteremic conditions and pneumonia

were extremely low.

SLAUGHTER AND INSPECTION OF FARMED GAME

Red deer and fallow deer and some of the antelopes mentioned above are the main species
which are farmed for meat production. In particular in New Zealand, but also in Europe and
some other regions game farming has become an important source of supplying the
domestic and export markets with venison.

Farmed game is in many cases slaughtered in special premises and is therefore subject to
antemortem and postmortem inspection. Game farmers are now experienced enough to
arrange for live animal transports on trucks to the game slaughterhouses. These abattoirs
have specific lairages, where the animals can be rested. Slaughter takes place by using
captive bolt pistols for stunning and bleeding, deboning evisceration and carcass dressing is
similar to cattle slaughter, however carcass splitting is usually not performed.

Antemortem and postmortem inspection procedures and conditions affecting the farmed
game are similar to the situation described for wild game. However, residues in meat
(veterinary drugs, pesticides), parasitic diseases or infectious diseases such as tuberculosis
may pose major problems than it is the case in wild game.

SLAUGHTER AND INSPECTION OF OSTRICHES

The slaughter of farm ostriches is fast becoming a commercial enterprise and may provide
an important source of lean, high-protein meat for human consumption. The slaughter and
dressing procedures consist essentially of stunning, bleeding defeathering and dressing.
These operations are carried out in separate rooms.

a. - Stunning. The bird is stunned electrically using 90 volts at 1.5 amperes for
approximately 20 seconds.
 Bleeding. The neck and vessels are severed behind the jaw.
 De-feathering. This is done manually in order to avoid damage to the skin
follicles.
b. - Dressing is done in a manner similar to that of small ruminants. Organs are
eviscerated in one set.

Antemortem inspection :

The following are characteristics of apparently healthy ostriches:

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 1. Alert and inquisitive with a bright eye and erected neck; occasionally lowering and
then raising head.
2. Walks with a springy gait and may sometimes be aggressive.
3. Pecks inquisitively at shiny objects.
4. Produces thick, white clear urine and firm faeces.
5. The feathers are fluffed up and the body appears well rounded. The tail is well
perked.

The following are characteristics of sick ostriches:

1. Lethargic and drooping neck and wings. It may sit down frequently or become
recumbent. This clinical sign may also be observed in the stressed bird.
2. The eyes are half closed
3. The mucosa of the mouth may be very congested; the ostriches peck at food but do
not swallow.
4. The abdomen may sometimes be bloated and blue/purple.
5. The urine may be green or brown and the faeces fluid or pasty.
6. The feathers appear bedraggled; the wings and tail drop.

Postmortem inspection:

It will be necessary for the head, pluck (heart, pericardium, liver, spleen, and lung if
possible), alimentary tract, genitalia and carcass (with neck and kidney) to be properly
identified and presented separately for inspection. The ostrich, like other avian species is
lacking an organized lymphatic system. Since many viral and bacterial infections tend to be
of a generalized nature, sound and professional meat inspection examination and judgement
of the birds and carcass is of great importance.

Lungs not removed during dressing procedures should be examined visually and by
palpation in the thorax. To expose the lungs, two cuts above the lungs on the each side of
the ribs should be made.

Head
Visual examination of the mouth, palate, eyes, lips and sinuses for icterus, sinusitis, crusting
of eyelids and thrush (oral Candida infection)

Pluck
Lungs - visual and palpation for haemorrhage, edema and pneumonia.

Heart - visual and palpation for haemorrhages; expose valves for endocarditis.

Pericardium - visual, and incision if necessary; for pericarditis.

Liver - visual and palpation; incise if necessary; for icterus, discolouration, adhesions,
degeneration, abscess, fibrosis, inflammation and toxic conditions Spleen - visual and
incision if necessary; for enlargement, haemorrhages and signs of febrile or septic
conditions.

Kidney - visual and palpation; for haemorrhages, degeneration, urate crystals.

Intestinal tract

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Oesophagus/proventriculus, gizzard - visual and palpation; for foreign body penetration,
impaction, inflammation and ulceration and parasitic conditions (nematode-Libyostrongylus)
in glands of proventriculus.

Small intestine - visual and palpation; impaction, volvulus, necrotic and catarrhal enteritis
and small tapeworm (Houttynia).

Large intestine - visual and palpation for faecal impaction, stones, inflammation and
nematode (Condiostomum).

Reproductive organs - visual for egg retention, rupture, prolapsed penis; Atrophic organs are
found during non-breeding season.

Carcass

Visual inspection of external and internal carcass surfaces, limbs and joints. Observe for
contamination, inadequate bleeding, bruising, haemorrhages, lacerations, fracture,
dislocation, twisted legs, adhesions, icterus, arthritis, peritonitis, air sacculitis, abscesses
(injection sites), foreign bodies.

Judgement

Carcass should be condemned if affected with any of the following: death from any cause
other than slaughter, extensive bruising and haemorrhages, general contamination,
putrefaction, emaciation, edema, icterus, septicemia, aspergillosis, toxoplasmosis, malignant
or multiple tumours, leucosis, poisoning. The parts of the carcass which show localized
lesions may be trimmed and the rest of the carcass would then be approved.

SUPERVISION OF HYGIENIC DRESSING OF CARCASSES

1. During dressing the carcass is exposed to contamination from:

a. Abattoir environment including implements used, and the hands of the operators. A
variety of bacteria, fungi and yeasts are in the abattoir environment. Studies in
abattoirs indicate that salmonella counts in the implements used may vary from 0 –
270 per cm2 or more in each implement, depending on their regular cleaning and
sanitation the scabbards having the highest numbers.
b. Hides of the animals

Hides are heavily contaminated parts and can reach up to 3 × 106 bacteria per cm2 or
more.

c. Stomach and gastrointestinal contents

Gastrointestinal contents have the heaviest load of microorganisms. Faeces contain

up to 9.0 × 107 bacteria per gram, and various numbers of yeast and mould. The
ruminal contents have only slightly lower numbers of micro-organisms.

2. Therefore, during meat inspection it is an important duty of the inspecting officer to ensure
that:

a. the implements used during slaughtering, dressing and meat inspection are well
sanitised periodically or whenever they are likely to be contaminated;

54
 b. during cutting into the hide and exposure of the carcass, the external surface of the
hide does not contact the carcass meat;
c. the viscera are not accidentally opened during the dressing procedures or during
evisceration.

3. If a carcass or part is contaminated with faeces or visceral contents such areas should be
trimmed off. The opened viscera would have to be separated from the rest of the carcass as
quickly as possible.

4. The introduction of a Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) concept can be
helpful to maintain high standards of slaughter and dressing hygiene based on an
assessment of the risks to human and animal health

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UNIT 6 IMMUNOLOGY

The immune system is system of many biological structures and processes within an
organism/body that protects against disease. To function properly, an immune syatem must
detect a wide variety of agents, known as pathogens, from viruses to parasitic worms, and
distinguish them from the organism/body own healthy tissue.

There are two arms or branches of immunity. The first being the Natural or Innate immunity

Natural immunity refers to the host/organism own body defence mechanisms that fight off
unwanted and foreign pathogens. The body uses microbiological, chemical and physical
barriers to fight the infection e.g. skin, hair or fur, mucous membranes, eyelids. The
chemical barriers include tears, sweat, mucous, vaginal/seminal secretions . other barriers
initiated by host include phagocytosis, complement and natural killer cells to fight off the
unwanted pathogens.

The second branch is the Adaptive or Acquired immunity

Acquired immunity is immunity conferred/ transferred on a host from another immuned

host. In this case the host only receives the protection from another host. The host does not
play any role in producing immunity for itself.

Acquired immunity can further be divided into active and passive immunity.

Passive immunity describes immunity passed on from an immune host to the unprotected
host. The first example is that of newly borne animals dependent on their mothers for
protection. The mother in this case produces milkwhich is taken by the calf in the first 24
hours of birth. The milk is rich in immunoglobulins G( Ig G) and immunoglobulins A (Ig A). in
the passive colostral immunity the protective effect appears immediately after ingestion of
antibodies.its only for a short duration and these antibodies are broken down.this transfer
of protection is described as the natural passive immunity.

The artificial passive immunity is the immunity which is given through serum. Serum of
protected aniamls is collected and stored away for future use. This is also a temporary way
of protection lasting 1‐2 weeks.

Active immunity is conferred on a host following exposure to disease causing

organisms/pathogens. Antibodies are produced after some time after initial contact with
the pathogen. Immunity may come several weeks after first exposure. Active immunity last
longer and the host animal responds more quickly and strongly to infection challenge. this is
the natural active immunity.

The artificial active immunity is introduction of the antigen/pathogen/organism into the

host and the host produce antibodies in turn that fight infection.an example is that of
immunization/vaccination.

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Summary

Active immunity

1. Direct contact with pathogen is required

2. A time period is required for immunity development
3. Antibodies are produced within the body in response to pathogen
4. Immunity lasts a long time
5. Immunological memory may result in life long immunity

Passive immunity

1. No direct contact with the pathogen. Antibodies are introduced.

2. Immunity develops immediately
3. It lasts for a few days.

Vaccination

Vaccination or immunization or inoculation is theproduction of immunity against a disease

using a vaccine. Vaccines are either microbes or their products capable of stimulating
production of corresponding antibodies. Vaccines can either be presented as freez dried or
liquids. There are two types of vaccines live(activated) or dead(inactivated) vaccines. A table
of the the characteristics of vaccines

dead live
Amount of antigen Large small
Safety Assured Less certain
Quality of produced Variable but satisfactory Ususally good
immnunity
Adjuvants Often necessary Not needed
Number of doses required Generally 2 Only 1

Characteristics of Ideal Vaccine

1. Should confer prolonged strong immunity in vaccinated animal

2. Should be free from adverse effects
3. Should be affordable
4. Should be stable
5. Should be adaptable to mass vaccination

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UNIT 7 ANTIBIOTICS

Antibiotics are chemical compounds that are used to kill or inhibit growth of infectious
organisms.

Antibiotics refered to as bactericidal refer to the killing effect of the drugs

Antibiotics refered to as bacteriostatic refer to the inhibition effect of the drugs.

Antibiotic families exist which are penicillins, macrolides, cephalosporins, tetracyclines,

quinolones, sulphonamides and aminogylcosides.

Antibiotics are grouped based on chemical structure and antibiotics are classified based on
their effectiveness, allergic potential and their toxicity. The highest classification is based on
bactericidal or bacteriostatic abilities while others look at the spectrum of activity. The
spectrum of activity would be the wide range of bacteria, if the antibiotic is broad spectrum
it deals with many organisms put as gram positive and gram negative. The narrow spectrum
deals with a single group of bacteria e.g gram negative bacteria only.

Antibiotics are given in the following forms

1. The first form is that of liquids, tablets and capsules. These are given orally to the sick
animal to swallow.
2. The second form is that creams, sprays, lotions, drops and ointments. These are
applied on the skin for skin infections.
3. The injectables through iv ,im or sc routes. A drug is introduced intravenously through
direct puncturing through a vein or in a drip to facilitate transfer of the drug into the
animal. Usually these routes are advised for serious infections.

Class Discussion: factors that influence the choice of antibiotics and antibiotic
resistance.

1.Penicillins

a. Benzyl penicillins (Pen G and Pen V)‐ only gram positive e.g. Bacillus anthracis,
staphylococcus and streptococcus.
b. Amino penicillins‐ e.g. ampicillin and amoxycillin
c. Carboxypenicillins e.g. carnicillin
d. Isoxazolyl penicillins e.g. cloxacillin and oxacillin used to treat skin, soft tissue and
cases of mastitis.
Side effects include indigestion, skin rashes, anaphylactic shock and diarrhea.

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2. Aminoglycosides

a. Streptomycin‐ medium spectrum for gram –ve bacteria, it works works in synergy
with penicillins e.g. penstrep.
Its bactericidal and greatly used for wounds and minor surgeries.
b. Neomycin‐medium spectrum, bactericidal. Its used in enteric infections and dry cow
therapy
c. Gentamycin‐ mediun spectrum, bactericidal.its used in urinary tract infections,
respiratory tract infections and topically for eye and ear infections.

3. Tetracyclines‐ this group of antibiotics are broad spaectrum and bacteriostatic

examples include chlortetracycline, oxytetracyclines, tetracycline and doxycycline
this drugs are incompatible with bactericidal drugs.
Ther are used in respiratory infections and protoa diseases. Enormaous doses may
cause liver damage

4. Sulfonamides
This group includes drugs like sulfamethazine, sulphafurazole, sulphamethaxazole
and sulphadimethoxine.
Ther are broad spectrum. They are effective against urinary tract, alimentary, poultry
protozoal disease and meningitis.

5. Macrolides‐ bacteriostatic antibiotics examples include erythromycin and tylosin.

These drugs are used in respiratory poultry diseases and urinary tract infections.

6. Cephalosporins‐ include e.g. cephalosporins, cefloxin and ceftraxione.

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References

RECOMMENDED TEXTBOOKS

1. SOULSBY, Bailliere,Tindall and Cassell Helminths, Arthropods and Protozoa of

Domesticated Animals.
2. Thomas J. Divers 2008, DISEASES OF DAIRY CATTLE Second Edition, SAUNDERS
3. Bacha W, Bacha, L, 2000, second edition Veterinary Histology
4. Fraser , Bergeron J, Mays A 1995 The MERCK Manual 6th edition
5. Blood DC1995, Veterinary Medicine, 7th edition, Bailliere Tindall Ltd
6. Radostitis, O.Metal (1995), Veterinary Medicine A textbook of diseases of cattle,
sheep, pigs, goats and horses; The Bath Press, Avon.
7. FAO, Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases Control, Meat Inspection guidelines
8. Hall H.T.B., Diseases and Parasites of livestock in the Tropics, 2nd Edition.

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