ASSESSMENT IN LEARNING 2 3.

AuthenticAssessment - It refers to the use of

assessment strategies or tools that allow learners to
Assessment is generally defined as the process of perform or create a product that is meaningful to the
gathering quantitative and/or qualitative data for the learners as they are based on real-world contexts.
purpose of making decisions. ❑This is considered tobe the most popular model for
Traditional assessment typically uses objective (e.g. alternative assessment
multiple choice) and subjective (e.g. essay) CRITERIA FOR AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT
paper-and-pencil tests to assess students 1. Be built around topics or issues of interest to the
Alternative assessment refers to the use of students.
non-traditional assessment strategies or tools to collect 2. Replicate real-world communication contexts and
information on student learning. situations.
- At the core of alternative assessment is the need to 3. Involve multistage tasks and real problems that
design and implement assessment tasks or activities require use of language rather than simple repetition.
that refrain from using traditional paper-and-pencil tests. 4. Require learners to produce quality products or
FEATURES OF ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT performance.
1. Assessment is based on authentic tasks that 5. Introduce the students to the evaluation criteria and
demonstrate the learner's ability to accomplish standards.
communication goals. 6. Involve interaction between assessor and person
2. Instructors and learners focus on communication, not assessed
right and wrong answers. 7. Allow for evaluation and self-correction as they
3. Learners help to set the criteria for successful proceed.
completion of communication tasks. PRINCIPLES IN ASSESSING LEARNING USING
4. Learners have opportunities to assess themselves ALTERNATIVE METHODS
and their peers.
MODELS OF ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT PRINCIPLE 1: Assessment is both process- and
1. Emergent Assessment - the assessment focuses on product oriented- alternative assessment methods give
determining the “effects” of instruction on students. value to the process the students have undergone to
Under this model, the emphasis is on the assessment develop the product.
intended of both unintended effects and learning PRINCIPLE 2: Assessment should focus on
outcomes. -This model is not only concerned if the higher-order cognitive outcomes. ❑For assessment
intended learning outcomes are met or not, but also if to be valid and authentic, it should focus on requiring
the unintended learning outcomes are positive or students to demonstrate their knowledge.
negative ❑The use of nontraditional or alternative methods of
Emergent assessment examines how and what the assessment allows the assessment of both lower-order
educational program and instruction are doing to and higher-order cognitive outcomes in ways that are
address the needs of students. more authentic.
➢With this model, assessment is more qualitative and PRINCIPLE 3: Assessment can include a measure of
the assessor uses multiple records to record all data noncognitive learning outcomes.
accurately and determine their importance and quality ❑Traditional assessment focuses on knowledge and
2. Developmental Assessment - This model focuses other cognitive learning outcomes.
on determining the extent to which students have ❑Nontraditional assessment tools like rubrics, scales,
developed their competencies from instruction. and checklists allow the measure of noncognitive
❑It involves a comparison of what students can do at learning outcomes for more complete assessment of
points at different times and/or different contexts if there student learning
is progress. PRINCIPLE 4 Assessment should reflect real-life or
❑It is said to be more useful for assessing learning real-world contexts
outcomes based on students’ development rather than ❑The assessment should closely, if not fully
the final product. approximate real-life situations or experiences.
❑Authenticity of assessment can be thought of as a
continuum from least authentic to most authentic, with problem-solving, decision making, and other tasks that
more authentic tasks expected to be more meaningful require mental skill.
for students SKILLS TARGET This is the use of knowledge and
PRINCIPLE 5 Assessment must be comprehensive reasoning to perform physical skills.
and holistic PRODUCT TARGET The use of knowledge, reasoning,
❑Assessment should be performed using a variety of and skills in creating a concrete or tangible product
strategies and tools designed to assess student learning AFFECTIVE TARGET This refers to affective
in a more integrative way. characteristics that students develop and demonstrate
❑Nontraditional methods of assessment allow the because of instruction.
possibility of multiple assessors, including the use of self
and peer assessment. PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT-It is an assessment
PRINCIPLE 6 Assessment should lead to student activity or set of activities that requires students to
learning. generate products or performances that provide direct or
❑This means that assessment should be like classroom indirect evidence of their knowledge, skills, and abilities
instruction. in an academic content domain.
❑This principle is consistent with the concepts of ➢It provides teachers with information about how well a
assessment for learning and assessment as learning. student understands and applies knowledge and goes
beyond the ability to recall information.
LEARNING TARGETS FOR PERFORMANCE AND ➢It is used for assessing learning outcomes that
PRODUCT ORIENTED ASSESSMENT involve designing or creating projects such as research
papers, art exhibits, reflective essays, and portfolios.
Educational objectives are specific statements of student
performance at the end of an instructional unit . NOTE: - Performance task based assessment may
❑They are sometimes referred to as behavioral include actual performance of making those
objectives typically stated with the use of verbs and are . products.
❑Educational objectives are usually based on Bloom’s
Taxonomy which consists of the following domain:
cognitive , psychomotor . effective.
A learning target is a statement on what students are
supposed to learn and what they can do because of
instruction .
❑Learning targets are more specific compared with
educational goals, standards, and objectives.
❑The purpose of learning targets is to effectively inform
students of what they should be able to do as evidence
of their learning.

KNOWLEDGE TARGET This refers to factual ,

conceptual , and procedural information that students
must learn in a subject or content area
REASONING TARGET This pertains to
knowledge-based thought processes that students must
learn. It involves application of knowledge in
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD PERFORMANCE Three Essential Features of a Rubric
ASSESSMENT 1. Criteria or the aspects of performance that will be
1. It is authentic, that is, it includes performance tasks assessed.
that are meaningful and realistic. 2. Descriptors or the characteristics associated with
2. It provides opportunities for students to show both each criterion.
what they know and how well they can do what they 3. Performance levels that identify students' level of
know. mastery within each criterion.
3. It allows students to be involved in peers' performance
and output. Types of Rubric
4. It assesses more complex skill 1. General/Generic Rubric
5. It explains the task , required elements in the process ➢This contains criteria that are general .
of evaluating them , and scoring criteria to the students ➢This can be applied across tasks .
before the start of the activity and the assessment. ➢This is the most convenient for teachers who do not
have the time and skills in developing different types of
GUIDELINES IN DESIGNING PERFORMANCE rubric as they can reuse rubrics for several tasks or
ASSESSMENT assignments. ➢Disadvantage. Teachers may not be
1. What are the outcomes to be assessed? able to accurately assess a student's performance for a
2. What are the capabilities/skills implicit or explicit in particular task.
the expected outcomes (e.g. problem-solving, 2. Task – specific rubric
decision-making, critical thinking, communication skills)? ➢This contains criteria be assessed.
3. What are the appropriate performance assessment ➢This is best that are unique for instruction to a specific
tasks or tools to measure the outcomes and skills? and formative performance task to assessment since it
4. Are the specific performance tasks aligned with the will provide the students feedback work need to be
outcomes and skills interesting, engaging, challenging, improved. on what aspects of their performance or
and measurable? ➢Disadvantage. Developing this type of rubric is
5. Are the performance tasks authentic and teachers.
representative of real world scenarios? 3. Holistic Rubric
6. What criteria should be included to rate students’ ➢In this type of rubric, a student's performance or output
performance level? is evaluated by applying all criteria simultaneously, thus
7. What are specific performance indicators for each providing a single score based on an overall judgment
criterion? about the quality of student's work.
ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS ➢It does not provide a score on each individual criterion.
1. The choice of teaching and learning activities is also ➢Advantage. It can be quickly developed and used by
of utmost importance in choosing the performance the teachers.
assessments to use. ➢Disadvantage. It does NOT inform students about their
2. There should also be an alignment among the specific strengths and weaknesses, and thus, may not
learning outcomes, the teaching learning activities, and be as sufficient and helpful in guiding them in improving
assessment tasks. their performance.
4. Analytic Rubric
RUBRICS FOR ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT ➢A Student's work is evaluated by using each criterion
It is an assessment tool that specifies the performance separately, thus providing specific feedback about a
expectations for any kind of student work. It is used in: student's performance or product along several
1. Portfolio dimensions.
2. outputs or projects ➢This is most applicable for assessing a complex
3. performances performance or product.
4. collaborative work ➢Advantage. It identifies the student's strengths and
5. research areas for improvement based on the criteria identified.
Characteristics of a good rubric
1. Explicit
➢A rubric should contain criteria and performance
indicators that are clear, concrete, observable, and
relevant.
➢It should apply to the performance task to be
assessed.
➢Each benchmark and point value should also have
delineated indicators, differentiating the expected quality
of work for each performance level.
2. Aligned
➢The rubric contains criteria that are aligned with the
expected quality of performance for a particular task or
assignment, as well as with the intended level of learning
outcomes in the subject.
3. Authentic
➢The rubric include criteria and performance indicators
or descriptors that are meaningful and require
application of real-life skills
4. Valid
➢Therubric measures what it intends to measure.
5. Diagnostic
➢The rubric communicates to the students what are
expected of them in the course, allow them to reflect on
their performance, and provide them opportunities to
improve on areas that they did not do well.

Basic Steps in Developing Rubrics

1. Identify the learning outcome and the performance
task to be evaluated.
2. Identify the quality attributes or indicators of the
performance task.
3. Determine the criteria or dimensions.
4. Determine the benchmarks and point values. 5. Write
the benchmark or performance descriptors for quality
work criteria.
TTL 2 - 21st century learners are expected to
Learning Plans in the Context of the 21st demonstrate
Century - 21st century competencies such as
collaboration,digital literacy, critical thinking, and
Republic Act 10533; Enhanced Basic Education Act problem solving to thrive.
of 2013 3. Building Proficiency (Mother-tongue Based
● signed by Benigno Aquino III on May 15, 2013 Multilingual Education, MTB-MLE)
popularly known as K to 12 ● use technological tools in MTB-MLE learners
Why K-12? retain ethnic identity, culture, heritage, and
To get the Ph. Ed. Sys. at par with the values
international standards -productive employment, 4. Ensuring Integrated and Seamless Learning
entrepreneurship, higher education studies (Spiral Progression)
● K to 12 graduates are ready to go into different ● basic to complex and sophisticated concepts
paths-higher education, employment, or through TPACK strengthen retention and
entrepreneurship. enhance mastery of topics and skills learn topics
● K to 12 graduates are also expected to be and skills appropriate to their developmental and
equipped with 21st century skills cognitive skills
● information, media and technology skills, 5. Gearing Up for the Future
● learning and innovation skills,effective ● K-12 Curriculum is aligned with the College
communication skills, and life and career skills. Readiness Standards and General Education
Curriculum Framework Curriculum hence students are college-ready
● Technology for Teaching and Learning aims to Academic
enable teachers to discover the power of 6. Nurturing the Holistically Developed Filipino
computer technologies as teaching tools for (College and Livelihood Readiness, 21st Century
greater learning. Skills)
● Salient Features of the K-12 Curriculum ● K-12 graduates are ready for different paths
-considered to ensure that Teacher Education (higher education, employment, or
Programs meet the demands of the 21st century entrepreneurship)
classrooms. ● equipped with ICT skills; learning and innovation
SALIENT FEATURE OF K12 skills; effective communication skills; and life and
1. Strengthening Early Childhood Education career skills.
(Universal Kindergarten) Teacher’s roles as Curriculum Designers
access to early childhood education through 1. Knower -As a teacher, one has to master what is
technological tools available for teaching and included in the curriculum. It is acquiring academic
learning. knowledge both formal (disciplines,logic) or informal
2. Making Curriculum Relevant to Learners (derived from experiences, vicarious, and unintended).
(Contextualization and Enhancement) 2. Writer -The teacher writes books, modules,
"Do I need to know these to live a meaningful laboratory manuals, instructional guides, and reference
Life?" "How is this relevant to me?" -craft daily lessons materials in paper or electronic media as a curriculum
that are of good use to personal well-being and writer or receiver.
professional Preparation 3. Planner -It is the role of the teacher to make a yearly,
Tips for Engaging and Relevant Learning monthly or daily plan of the curriculum. This will serve as
(Briggs, 2014) a guide in the implementation of the curriculum.
● Use suspense and keep it fresh 4. Initiator -Initiating a new curriculum requires the open
● Make it student-directed mindedness of the teacher, and the full belief that the
● Connect it to their lives and their prior curriculum will enhance learning.
knowledge 5. Innovator -A curriculum is always dynamic, hence it
● Provide utility value keeps on changing and one cannot find a single eternal
● Build relatedness curriculum that would perpetually fit.
6. Implementor - gives life to the curriculum plan. Pedagogical Design -proper selection of
7. Evaluator -An evaluator assesses whether the content and related activities
curriculum is working or not, the points that need to be Topic: Use and Maintenance of Cleaning
modified or terminated. Tools, Materials and Equipment
ICT-Pedagogy Integration in Science Activity: Discussion and demonstration on
Learning Plans Integrating Technology in Instruction the use and maintenance of cleaning tools
1. John Pisapia (1994) Social Interaction -learning events should allow
● technology in teaching -to introduce, reinforce, students to interact with others and
supplement, and extend skills technology in demonstrate skills and competencies that are
curriculum -CSC, CAI, CEI; matching software being developed.
with basic skill competencies; word processing Technological Component -support learning
and presentation tools activities through technological tools both f2f
2. International Society for technology in and online.
Education (ISTE) C. Categories for ICT in Teacher Training
● students must be able to select tech tools in ICT supports the development of HOTS and
timely manner, analyze and synthesize promote collaboration
information, and present professionally
3. Qiyun Wang and Huay Lit Woo (2007)
● ICT can happen in three areas: curriculum,topic,
and lesson
4. Bernard Bahati (2010)
● ICT integration has to be underpinned by sound
pedagogical principles
5. UNESCO (2005)
● Teachers must be able to organize the
classroom in a way that ICT resources become
automatic and natural response to the needs of
the learning environment
Using ICT Integration Frameworks in TLE Learning
Plans D. UNESCO ICT Competency Framework for
A. Conversational Framework (Laurillard, 2002) Teachers
● Way of presenting teaching and learning in
terms of events: acquisition, discovery, dialogue,
practice, and creation.

B. Three Fundamental Elements of ICT

Integration (Wang, 2008)
ASTRONOMY Length of day -time for Sun to make one full
What are the inquiry skills? circuit.
● asking questions about the world Length of month - Moon’s cycle of phases.
● identifying and controlling variables Seven days of the week -seven “planets” of
● employing different strategies to obtain ancient times. (Planet - "planetes" meaning
information "wanderer")
● collecting and organizing data Sundials -used to tell time during the day.
● designing and conducting investigations Moon and constellations -used to tell time at
● analyzing and evaluating information, night.
procedures,and claims AM & PM -Egyptians divided daytime and
● make decisions based on sound judgment and nighttime into 12 equal parts each (ante
logical reasoning meridiem & post meridiem)
● communicating results

What are the scientific attitudes?

Critical thinking -developed through inquiry activities
that students engage in and through their attempts to
explain the outcomes of their investigations using
evidence and logical argument.
Curiosity -a person who desires to know or to learn
which leads to action.
Creativity -a person who is always trying to cook up
something new or different.
Intellectual honesty -being truthful and not claiming
someone else's work; recording each and every
observation and not selecting only those that support Stonehenge - an astronomical device and a
one’s hypothesis. social and religious gathering place.
Accuracy -careful record-keeping for the results to be Templo Mayor -from the vantage point of a
reliable. royal observer watching from the opposite
Objectivity -a person who deals with facts or conditions side of the plaza, the Sun rose through the
as they are, without being swayed by his personal notch between the temples on the equinoxes.
feelings, prejudices, and expectations. The Sun Dagger -three large slabs of rock
Independent thinking -a person who tries to answer are arranged so that a dagger of sunlight
questions on his own, using his own observations and pierced the carved spiral only at noon on
experiences. the summer solstice.
Active listening - one should listen actively, not simply Solar calendar -synchronized with the seasons so that
wait for others to finish so that he can jump in and seasonal events (solstices and equinoxes) occur on
resume talking. approximately the same dates each year.
Assuming responsibility -responsible person will not
simply accomplish what he is assigned to do. He will
carry it out to the best of his ability.
Taking initiatives -sees something that needs to be
done, he does not go and look for someone to do it.
Perseverance -someone who persists despite
difficulties, who keeps on trying in the face of failures,
who carries on regardless of disappointments.
Practical Benefits of Astronomy
Observations of the sky to keep track of the time
and seasons and as an aid in navigation.
Lunar calendars -synchronized with the lunar cycle (29 Conceptual Models
1⁄2-day cycle of phases), so that the Moon’s phase is ● Flat Earth under a dome-shaped sky.
always the same on the first day of each month. ● Pythagoras envisioned Earth as a sphere
Chinese - began recording astronomical floating at the center of the celestial sphere.
observations at least 5000 years ago. ● Aristotle cited observations of Earth’s curved
Peruvian - etched hundreds of lines and shadow on the Moon during lunar eclipses as
patterns in the sand of the Nazca desert. evidence for a spherical Earth.
Inca Empire - The World Heritage Site of ● Greek philosophers therefore adopted a
Machu Picchu has structures aligned with geocentric model of the universe with a
sunrise at the winter and summer solstices. spherical Earth at the center of a great celestial
Polynesian - being travelers and navigators sphere.
used a detailed knowledge of astronomy for
their broad navigational sense, and a deep From Ancient Greece to Renaissance
understanding of wave and swell patterns to
locate precise landing points ● Greek philosophies were passed to Europe,
Ancient Greek Science where it ultimately grew due to the conquest of
● Greece rose to power in the Middle East (800 Alexander the Great .
BC, est. 500 BC). It is a crossroad for travelers, ● Alexander founded the city of Alexandria in
merchants, and armies from northern Africa, Egypt , and his successors founded the
Asia, and Europe. renowned Library of Alexandria.
● Diverse ideas from many cultures, Greek ○ Housing up to a half million books
philosophers began to understand the world written on papyrus scrolls ,most were
from mythological to rational. ultimately burned, their contents lost
Three Philosophical Innovations forever.
● Developed a tradition of trying to understand ○ Few books survived and preserved by
nature without relying on supernatural Muslim scholars
explanations, and of working communally to ● Islamic leader Al-Mamun established the
debate and challenge each other’s ideas. "House of Wisdom" in Baghdad.
● Used mathematics to give precision to their ○ Islamic scholars at the House of
ideas, which allowed them to explore the Wisdom synthesized Greek, Indian, and
implications of new ideas in much greater depth Chinese knowledge, advancing
than would have otherwise been possible. mathematics with algebra and
● While much of their philosophical activity astronomy with new observation
consisted of subtle debates grounded only in techniques. Their collaboration with
thought and was not scientific in the modern Hindu scholars facilitated this exchange,
sense, the Greeks also saw the power of evident in the Arabic-derived names of
reasoning from observations. They understood many stars, such as "Aldebaran" and
that an explanation could not be right if it "Algol."
disagreed with observed facts. How did the Greeks explain the Planetary
Motion?
Models of Nature ● Heavenly Spheres - model s Earth is at rest in
● Scientific Model Earth' s Climate explains and the center. The Moon, the Sun, and other
predicts climate changes such as those that may planets have their own spheres . The outermost
happen due to global warming. sphere holding the stars . However, this model
● Scientific models may not fully explain our does not explain the retrograde motion of the
observations of nature. Nevertheless , even the planets.
failings of a scientific model can be useful, ● Greeks (i.e. Plato) believed in "heavenly
because they often point the way toward perfection" , heavenly objects could move only in
building a better model. perfect circles . But how could the planets
 sometimes go backward in our sky if they were ● In 1577, he observed a comet and showed that
moving in perfect circles ? it lay in the realm of heavens (not in the
● Paradigm shift into the Sun-centered model as atmosphere -where it was argued to be situated)
proposed by Aristarchus of Samos in 250 BC, ● King Frederick II of Denmark sponsored the
however it was not supported due to lack of construction of an observatory. He was later
detectable stellar parallax. supported by Rudolf II of Prague.
● Claudius Ptolemy amended the geocentric ● His accurate naked-eye observations provided
model by introducing epicycles and deferents to the data needed to improve the Copernican
account for the retrograde motion of planets system.
creating the Ptolemaic Model. It was ● Advocated a model where the Sun orbits Earth
mathematically complex and tedious ,however it while all other planets orbit the Sun.
thrived for 1500 years . His works were Johannes Kepler
translated by Arabic scholars and titled it ● An apprentice of Brahe to whom he begged to
"Almagest "(The Greatest Work) make sense of his observations .
● Kepler was a religious man and believed in
perfect circles .
● After years of effort, he found a set of circular
orbits that matched most of Tycho's
observations quite well. Even in the worst cases,
which were for the planet Mars, Kepler's
predicted positions differed from Tycho's
observations by only about 8 arcminutes .
● He thought that this might be an error of Tycho's
but trusted his works. He then abandoned the
Nicolaus Copernicus idea of circular orbits and adapted an ellipse
● Born in Poland on February 19, 1473.
● Started studying Astronomy in his late teens,
part of which is because of the inaccuracy of the
Ptolemaic model.
● Adapted Aristarchus' heliocentric idea but added
mathematical details such as the geometrical
relationships that allowed him to calculate the
orbital period of planets and their relative
distance from the sun. Three Laws of Planetary Motion
● De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium FIRST LAW - The orbit of each planet about
● Copernicus’s Sun-centered model was based on the Sun is an ellipse with the Sun at one
the right general ideas, but its predictions were focus.
not substantially better than those of Ptolemy’s Planet's distance varies during its orbit:
Earth centered model. ● Perihelion - point when a planet is
● Only a few people were willing to throw out closest from the Sun
thousands of years of tradition for a new model ● Aphelion - point when a planet is farthest from
that worked just as poorly as the old one. the Sun
Tycho Brahe ● The average of a planet’s perihelion and
● Provided quality data from his compilation of aphelion distances i s the length of its
carefully observed stellar and planetary semimajor axis.
positions in the sky. SECOND LAW - as a planet moves around
● In 1572, he observed a supernova, which then its elliptical orbit, it moves faster when it
was called "nova" meaning "new star". is nearer the Sun and slower when it is
farther from the Sun, sweeping out equal
areas in equal times.
THIRD LAW - More distant planets orbit the Sun at
slower average
speeds , obeying the relationship p2=a3.
P - orbital period (years)
a - average distance from the Sun (au)
● Because Kepler’s third law relates orbital
distance to orbital time (period), we can use the
law to calculate a planet’s average orbital speed

REJECTIONS
● First, Aristotle had held that Earth could not be
moving because, if it were, objects such as
birds, falling stones , and clouds would be left
behind as Earth moved along its way.
● Second, the idea of non circular orbits
contradicted Aristotle’ s claim that the heavens
-the realm of the Sun, Moon, planets , and stars
-must be perfect and unchanging.
● Third, no one had detected the stellar
parallax that should occur if Earth orbits
the Sun.

Galileo Galilei
● First Objection - Moving object remains in
motion unless a force acts to stop it.
○ Objects that share Earth’s motion
through space -such as birds, falling
stones, and clouds -should stay with
Earth rather than falling behind as
Aristotle had argued.
● Second Objection - Galileo shattered the idea of
heavenly perfection after he built a telescope in
late 1609.
○ Sunspots and mountains and valleys on
the Moon's surface. If the heavens were
in fact not perfect, then the idea of
elliptical orbits (as opposed to “perfect”
circles) was not so objectionable.
● Third Objection - The Milky Way resolved into
countless individual stars.
○ This discovery helped him argue that
the stars were far more numerous and
more distant than Tycho had believed.
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE • Unregulated exploitation causes resource depletion
• Grazing lands, forests, air, water
Environment: the total of our surroundings • No one has the incentive to care for a resource.
• All the things around us with which we interact with • Everyone takes what he or she can until the
living and non- living things. resources are depleted.
• Humans exist within the environment and are part of
nature. The “ecological footprint”
- Our survival depends on a healthy, functioning • The environmental impact of a person or population
planet. - Amount of biologically productive land + water
• The fundamental insight of environmental science is - For resources and to dispose/recycle waste
that we are part of the natural world. • Overshoot: humans have
- Our interactions with its other parts matter a surpassed the Earth’s capacity to
great deal. support us
• Humans depend completely on the environment for Environment – impacts– Humans
survival. • Its goal: developing solutions to environmental
- Enriched and longer lives, increased wealth, problems
health, mobility, leisure time • An interdisciplinary field
• But natural systems have been degraded -Natural sciences: information about the natural world
-Pollution, erosion, and species extinction - Environmental Science programs
- Environmental changes threaten long-term -Social sciences: study human interactions and behavior
health and survival. - Environmental Studies programs
• Environmental science is the study of:
- How the natural world works Environmental science
- How the environment affects humans and vice • The pursuit of knowledge about the natural world
versa • Scientists try to remain objective
• With environmental problems come opportunities for Environmentalism
solutions. • Environmental activism
• A social movement dedicated to protecting the natural
Natural resources = substances and energy sources world
needed for survival
• Renewable resources: Science:
-Perpetually available: sunlight, wind, wave energy - A systematic process for learning about the world and
- Renew themselves over short periods of time: timber, testing our understanding of it
water,soil - The accumulated body of knowledge that results from
- These can be destroyed a dynamic process of observation, testing, and discovery
• Non-renewable resources: can be depleted
- Oil, coal, minerals • Science is essential:
• Thomas Malthus - To sort fact from fiction
• Population growth must be - Develop solutions to the problems we face
controlled, or it will outstrip food production.
• Starvation, war, disease Application of Science
• Neo-Malthusians • Scientists examine how the world works by observing,
• Population growth has measuring, and testing
disastrous effects. - Involves critical thinking and skepticism
• Paul and Anne Ehrlich, The • Observational (descriptive) science: scientists
Population Bomb (1968) gather information about something not well known or
• Agricultural advances have that cannot be manipulated in experiments.
only postponed crises. - Astronomy, paleontology, taxonomy, molecular biology
• Garret Hardin’s “tragedy of the commons” (1968)
• Hypothesis-driven science: research that proceeds in Theory And Paradigm Shift
a structured manner using experiments to test • A consistently supported hypothesis becomes a theory,
hypotheses through the scientific method. a widely accepted explanation of one or more
cause-and-effect relationships
Testing Predictions • Has been extensively and rigorously tested, so
confidence in a theory is extremely strong
Experiment: an activity that tests the validity of a • Differs from the popular meaning of theory, which
hypothesis suggests a speculative idea without much substance
• Variables: conditions that can be manipulated and/or • With enough data, a paradigm shift — a change in the
measured dominant view — can occur.
-Independent variable: a condition that is
manipulated • Ethics: the study of good and bad, right and wrong
- Dependent variable: a variable that is affected - The set of moral principles or values held by a person
by the manipulation of the independent variable or society that tells us how we ought to behave
• Controlled experiment: one in which all variables are - People use criteria, standards, or rules when making
controlled judgments.
- Control: the unmanipulated point of - Different cultures or worldviews lead to different
comparison values, which lead to different actions.
- Treatment: the manipulated point of • Relativists: ethics vary with social context
comparison • Universalists: right and wrong remains the same
• Data: information that is generally quantitative across cultures and situations
(numerical) • Ethical standards: criteria that help differentiate right
• Manipulative experiments yield the strongest from wrong.
evidence - Utility: something right produces the most
- Provides the strongest type of evidence benefits for the most people
- Reveal causal relationships: changes in • Environmental ethics: application of ethical standards
independent variables cause changes in to relationships between human and non-human entities
dependent variables - Hard to resolve; depends on the person’s ethical
- But many things can’t be manipulated: standards
long-term or large-scale questions (i.e., global - Depends on the person’s domain of ethical concern
climate change)
• Natural experiments show real-world complexity Three ethical perspectives
- Only feasible approach for ecosystem or
planet-scale • Anthropocentrism: only humans have rights
- Results are not so neat and clean, so answers - Costs and benefits are measured only according to
aren’t simply black and white their impact on people
Peer-review: other scientists provide comments and - Anything not providing benefit to people has no value
criticism • Biocentrism: certain living things also have value
• Guards against faulty science - All life has ethical standing
• Conference presentations improve the quality of the - Development is opposed if it destroys life, even if it
science creates jobs
• Scientists interact with their colleagues • Ecocentrism: whole ecological systems have value
• Grants and funding come from private or government - Values the well-being of species, communities, or
agencies. ecosystems
• Can lead to conflict of interest if the data show the - Holistic perspective, stresses preserving connections
funding source in an unfavorable light
• The scientist may be reluctant to publish or doctor the Preservation Ethics
Results. • Unspoiled nature should be protected for its own
inherent value.
• We should protect our environment in a pristine state, - Pollution reduction
because it promotes human happiness and fulfillment. - Habitat and species protection
• John Muir (right, with President Roosevelt at Yosemite - Recycling
National Park) had an ecocentric viewpoint. - Fighting global climate change
• A utilitarian standard that calls for prudent, efficient, • Sustainable solutions must meet:
and sustainable resource extraction and use - Environmental goals
• Gifford Pinchot had an anthropocentric viewpoint. - Economic goals
- Social goals
Land Ethic • Requires that humans limit our impact while promoting
• Aldo Leopold believed that humans should view economic well-being and social equity
themselves and the land as members of the same - Apply science to solve problems
community.
• Environmental science, an interdisciplinary
study of how humans interact with the living and
• Ecofeminism: a patriarchal (male-dominated) society nonliving parts of their environment. It integrates
is a root cause of both social and environmental information and ideas from the natural sciences
problems. such as biology, chemistry, and geology; the social
• Female worldview: interrelationships and cooperation sciences such as geography, economics, and
• Male worldview: hierarchies, competition, domination, political science; and the humanities such as
ethics.
and conquest
Environmental justice (EJ)
• Sustainability is the capacity of the earth’s natural
• Involves the fair treatment of all people with respect to systems and human cultural systems to survive,
the environment, regardless of race, income, or ethnicity flourish, and adapt to changing environmental
• The poor and minorities are exposed to more pollution, conditions into the very long-term future.
hazards, and environmental degradation.
• Despite progress, significant inequalities remain. Three Principles of Sustainability
a. Dependence on solar energy
b. Biodiversity
Sustainability
c. Chemical Cycling
• A guiding principle of environmental science Three Sub Themes of Sustainability
• Living within our planet’s means 1. Natural Capital- natural resources and
- The Earth can sustain humans AND other organisms ecosystem services supports human economies
for the future 2. Human activities can degrade natural capital by
- Leaving our descendents with a rich, full world using natural resources.
- Developing solutions that work in the long term 3. Solutions to problems such as degradation of
- Requires keeping fully functioning ecological systems natural capital.
Social Science Principle of Sustainability
Ecological footprints are not all equal 1. Full-cost pricing (for economics)- urges to add
• The ecological footprints of countries vary greatly. harmful environmental and health costs in
- The U.S. footprint is much greater than the world’s producing and using services in market prices.
average. 2. Win- Win solution (Political Science)
- Developing countries have much smaller footprints 3. A responsibility to future generations( from
than developed countries. ethics)
Causes of Environmental Problems
• Sustainable development: using resources to satisfy 1. Population Growth
current needs without compromising future availability of 2. Unsustainable resources use
resources 3. Poverty
• Sustainability involves: 4. Excluding environmental costs from market
- Renewable energy sources prices
-Soil conservation, high-efficiency irrigation, organic 5. Increasing isolation from nature
agriculture
 Core Case Study: A Story About a Forest • Chemical change

• Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in New – Change in chemical composition

Hampshire
• Nuclear change
– Compared the loss of water and nutrients
from an uncut forest (control site) with one – Radioactive decay
that had been stripped (experimental site) – Nuclear fusion
• Stripped site – Nuclear fission
– 30-40% more runoff

– More dissolved nutrients • Whenever energy is converted from one form to

another in a physical or chemical change, two
– More soil erosion changes may happen:

– Revealed that clearing a mature forest – No energy is created or destroyed (first law
degrades natural capital of thermodynamics)

– We need to maintain balance – We end up with lower quality or less-usable

The Effects of Deforestation on the Loss energy than we started with (second law of
of Water and Soil Nutrients thermodynamics)
• Renewable energy:
The Results of Science Can Be Tentative, Reliable,
or Unreliable – Gained from resources that are replenished
• Tentative science, frontier science by natural processes in a relatively short
time
– Not yet considered reliable by the scientific
community • Nonrenewable energy:

• Reliable science – Resources can be depleted and are not

replenished by natural processes within
– Widely accepted by experts human timescales

• Unreliable science Types of Energy

• High-quality energy
– Has not been through peer review or has
been discredited – High capacity to do work

– Concentrated
What Is Matter and What Happens When It
Undergoes Change? – Examples:
• Matter • High-temperature heat, strong
– Consists of elements and compounds, winds, and fossil fuels
which are in turn made up of atoms, ions, • Low-quality energy
or molecules
– Low capacity to do work
• The law of conservation of matter
– Dispersed
– Whenever matter undergoes a physical or Energy Changes Are Governed by Two Scientific
chemical change, no atoms are created or Laws
destroyed • First Law of Thermodynamics: Law of
Matter Undergoes Physical, Chemical, and conservation of energy
Nuclear Changes
• Physical change • Energy is neither created nor
destroyed in physical and chemical
– No change in chemical composition changes
• Second Law of Thermodynamics

– Energy always goes from a more useful to

a less useful form when it changes from
one form to another
• Systems have inputs, flows, and outputs of matter
and energy, and feedback can affect their behavior

• System - Set of components that interact in a

regular way
Examples:
- Human body, the earth, and the economy

• Feedback- Any process that increases or

decreases a change in a system

• Positive feedback loop

– Causes system to change further in the

same direction

– Can cause major environmental problems

• Negative, or corrective, feedback loop

– Causes system to change in opposite

direction
System Effects Can Be Amplified through
Synergy
• Synergistic interaction and synergy

– Two or more processes combine in such a

way that the combined effect is greater
than the two separate effects.
WAVES AND OPTICS (LEC) light, x-ray)
Longitudinal Wave ( compressional wave)-
Hooke’s Law of Deformation
disturbance is parallel to the direction of
Elastic Potential Energy- force result in deformation propagation.(e.g.
only and ni work does to the thermal sound of kinetic Superposition- two or more waves arrive at the same
work then work will only stored in the deformed object. point, and they superimpose themselves on one
another)
Period & Frequency in Oscillation
Period motion- motion that repeats itself at a regular - Constructive interference- crest and troughs of
time interval. two waves are precisely aligned, waves are
Period (T)- one complete oscillation (s) exactly in phase.
Frequency (f)- Gaano kadalas (Hz) - Destructive interference- crests and troughs
Cycle- one complete oscillation of the same wave are not precisely aligned: not
Light- is a form of particle and wave in phase.
Simple harmonic motion (shm)- oscillatory motion for - Partially destructive- crests and troughs are
a system where the net force can be described by not aligned but give a positive product that
Hooke’s Law. results in equality but is not flat.
Simple harmonic oscillator- oscillates with equal
displacement on either side of the equilibrium. Formula:
Amplitude- maximum displacement

SHO is affected by:

a. how stiff the system is (k).

- Stiff system large force constant (k),
faster vibration; smaller period, greater
frequency/ smaller amplitude
- Loose system small force constant (k),
slower vibration, larger period, lesser
frequency/ larger amplitude
b. mass of the oscillating system (m)
- Massive system, slower vibration; longer
period; smaller frequency/ larger
amplitude
- Lighter system, faster vibration, shorter
period, larger frequency/ smaller
amplitude

Waves
Waves- disturbances that propagate, or move from the
source.
Water waves- disturbance in the surface of water.
Soundwaves- disturbance in change in air pressure.
Earthquake- disturbance of the earth’s surface and
pressure disturbances under the surface.
- P waves= compressional waves
- S waves= shear waves
- Body wave
- Surface wave (Rayleugh&love)
Transverse wave (Shear wave)- propagates in the
horizontal direction; disturbance is perpendicular to the
direction of propagation. (e.g. EM waves: radio, visible
WAVES AND OPTICS LABORATORY Attenuation- Gradual loss of intensity by a signal
Geometric Optics-When the light interacts with an Cladding- prevents light from being transmitted between
object that is several times as large as the light fibers in a bundle.
wavelength.
Wave optics- interact with smaller objects, it has Dispersion
prominent wave characteristics such as destructive and - Spreading of white light into its full spectrum
constructive interference. wavelength
Ray- a straight line that originates at some point - Greater n > greater bend of light
Elegtromagnetic wave- can propagate without any - Index refraction increases as the wavelength
medium. decreases
Mechanical waves- need a medium to propagate Isaac Newton- “light can be separated”

Three ways light travels

a. Source through an empty space to the receiver
b. Source through various media to reciever
c. Source to an object then reflected to the receiver
Two Laws Governing Geometric Optics
1. Law of Reflection
2. Law of Refraction

Light may change direction

- Encounters an object
- In passing ti one material to another
Normal Line- use for reference point where to
measure.
Ray Paradigm- Representation of the pattern of light.
Incident Ray-
Reflected Ray-
Diffuse Reflection- Reflect in different directions.
Smooth Reflection- Reflects light at a specific angle
Combination Reflection- When the moon reflects from
the lake.

Law of Refraction
-Light changes its speed in different medium
- light ray directions (loosely called bending) when it
passes through a variation of matter.

“When light travels in less dense to denser medium,

the light refracts toward the normal line”

Total Internal Reflection

-denser to light dense medium
- incident angle should surpass the critical angle.
Critical Angle- 90 degrees reflection ray of light

Total Internal Reflection will only take place if:

- Incident angle > critical angle
- Medium 1(n1) > medium 2 (n2)
METEOROLOGY
Elements of Weather
Humidity- Moisture or vapor in air(%), measure by using
hydrometer.
Relative Humidity- a measure of moisture content in
the air compared to its maximum capacity at a given
temperature expressed as a percentage.
Absolute Humidity- the actual amount of water vapor
present in a given volume of air, usually measured in
grams per cubic meter.
Air pressure- (millibar or inches of mercury) force
exerted by the weight of air molecules above a given
point.
Wind- movement of air from an area of high pressure to
an area of low pressure.
Precipitation- any form of liquid or solid that falls from
the atmosphere and reaches the ground.
Cloud clover- formed from condensed water vapor in
the atmosphere.
Clouds-
Types of Clouds
High
- Cirrocumulus
- Cirrus
- Cirrustratus
Middle
- Alto stratus
- Alto cumulus
Low
- Nimbostratus
- Stratus
- Stratocumulus
Vertical
- Cumulus
- Cumulunimbus