Name: Sean Carlo Suarez

Chem 2065 AY 2023-24

1. Differentiate among the different kinds of lipids according to their

structural components.

Lipids frequently occur in nature. A lipid’s definition is based on its solubility.

Lipids are at best, slightly soluble in water but are very soluble in organic
compounds. In terms of chemistry, lipids are a mixed bag of compounds that
share some properties based on structural similarities, mainly a preponderance
of nonpolar groups.

They are classified according to their chemical nature which fall into two main
categories. One group, which consists of open-chain compounds with polar head
groups and long nonpolar tails. This includes fatty acids, triacylglycerols,
sphingolipids, phosphoacylglycerols, and glycolipids. The second major group
consists of fused-ring compounds, the steroids; an important representative of
this group is cholesterol.

2. Characterize lipids based on fatty acids.

A fatty acid has a carboxyl group at the polar end and a hydrocarbon chain at the
nonpolar tail. These compounds are amphipathic because the carboxyl group is
hydrophilic but the hydrocarbon tail is hydrophobic. The carboxyl group is
ionizable.

3. Describe the characteristics of naturally occurring fatty acids (chain length,

type of unsaturation)

A fatty acid in a living system normally contains an even number of carbon atoms
while the hydrocarbon chain is usually unbranched. A fatty acid is unsaturated if
there are carbon-carbon double bonds, if there are only single bonds, then it is
saturated. In unsaturated fatty acids, the stereochemistry at the double bond is
usually cis rather than trans. The difference between cis and trans fatty acids is
very important to their overall shape. A cis bond puts a kink in the long-chain
hydrocarbon tail, while a trans fatty acid is like that of a saturated fatty acid in its
fully extended conformation. It’s also important to note that these double bonds
are isolated from one another by several single bonds, and fatty acids don’t
normally have linked double-bond systems. The notation used for fatty acids
indicates the number of carbon atoms and the number of double bonds. In this
 system, 18:0 denotes an 18-carbon saturated fatty acid with no double bonds,
and 18:1 denotes an 18-carbon fatty acid with one double bond.

4. Predict the effect of chain length on the mp of fatty acids.

The melting point of a substance is the state in which both liquid and solid phase
are at an equilibrium. Compared to unsaturated fatty acids, saturated fatty acids
are stretched, therefore they have stronger intermolecular interactions, and it
takes more energy to change the phase from a solid to a liquid. Therefore, a
longer chain length results in a greater melting point.

5. Predict the effect of unsaturation on the mp of fatty acids.

Unsaturated fatty acids have lower melting points than saturated fatty acids.
They have lower density since they are more unstacked due to presence of kinks
in double bonds.

6. Describe the structure and function of triacylglycerols.

Glycerol is a simple compound that contains three hydroxyl groups. When all
three of the alcohol groups form ester linkages with fatty acids through
 esterification, the resulting compound is a triacylglycerol, formerly triglyceride.
Note that The polar portion of the molecule is represented by the three ester
groups, while the nonpolar portion is represented by the fatty acid tails. It is usual
for three different fatty acids to be esterified to the alcohol groups of the same
glycerol molecule.

Triacylglycerols do not occur in membranes as compared to other types of lipids

but they accumulate in adipose tissue. and provide a means of storing fatty
acids, particularly in animals. They serve as concentrated stores of metabolic
energy as complete oxidation of fats yield about 9 kcal g-1, compared to the 4 kcal
g-1 for carbohydrates and proteins.

7. Differentiate between fats and oils.

Fats and oils are typical lipids in terms of their solubility. A triglyceride is called a
fat if it is a solid at 25 degrees Celsius and it is called an oil if it is liquid at 25
degrees Celsius temperature. These variations in melting points show the
differences between the constituent fatty acids in terms of chain length and
degree of unsaturation. Animals frequently contain fats, which are made up of
saturated fatty acids and are typically solid at normal temperature. Oils are
typically found in plants and, due to their unsaturation, are liquid at room
temperature.

8. Identify the role of lipases on triacylglycerols

A lipase’s role on triacylglycerols is they hydrolyze its ester linkages for an

organism’s usage. Hydrolysis is a chemical process in which a molecule of water
 is added to the substance which breaks large molecules into smaller ones and
involves catalysis by a proton/hydroxide.

9. Recall the nature of saponification reactions based on your previous

knowledge in organic chemistry.

With the use of acids or bases as catalysts, the same hydrolysis reaction can
occur outside of living things. When a base like sodium hydroxide or potassium
hydroxide is used, the process is known as saponification, and the products are
glycerol and the sodium or potassium fatty acid salts.

10. Draw the structures of various phosphoacylglycerols (phosphatidic acid,

phosphatidyl esters)
 It is possible for one of the OH groups of glycerol to be esterified by a phosphoric
acid molecule rather than by a carboxylic acid. In such lipid molecules, two fatty
acids are also esterified to the glycerol molecule (s (2 different carboxylic acids of
different fatty acids and phosphoric acid). The resulting compound is called a
phosphatidic acid.

Fatty acids are usually monoprotic acids (an acid that will only donate 1 proton)
with only one carboxyl group able to form an ester bond, but phosphoric acid is
triprotic and thus can form more than one ester linkage. Phosphatidyl esters
are formed when phosphoric acids form ester bonds both to glycerol and to some
other alcohol.

11. Explain the amphipatic nature of phosphoacylglycerols based on their

structures.

The nature of the fatty acids in the molecule can vary widely. All these
compounds have long, nonpolar, hydrophobic tails and polar, highly hydrophilic
head groups and thus are markedly amphipathic. In a phosphoacylglycerol, the
polar head group is charged, because the phosphate group is ionized at neutral
pH. A positively charged amino group is also frequently contributed by an amino
alcohol esterified to the phosphoric acid. Phosphoacylglycerols are important
components of biological membranes.

12. Describe the structure and function of waxes.

Waxes are mixtures of esters of long-chain carboxylic acids and long-chain

alcohols. They usually serve as protective coatings for both plants and animals. .
 In plants, they coat stems, leaves, and fruit. Meanwhile, in animals, they are
found in fur, feathers, and skin.

13. Describe the structure and function of sphingolipids and sphingomyelin.

Sphingolipids do not contain glycerol, but they do contain the long-chain amino
alcohol sphingosine. Sphingolipids are found in both plants and animals; they are
particularly abundant in the nervous system.

Sphingomyelins has the primary alcohol group of sphingosine esterified to

phosphoric acid, which, in turn, is esterified to another amino alcohol, choline.
They are amphipathic and they occur in cell membranes in the nervous system.

14. Describe the structure and function of glycolipids (ceramides and

cerebrosides)

Frequently, ceramides are the parent compounds for glycolipids. The glycosidic
bond is formed between the primary alcohol group of the ceramide and a sugar
residue, in most cases it is glucose or galactose, this results in a compound
called cerebroside. As the name indicates, cerebrosides are found in nerve and
brain cells, primarily in cell membranes.

15. Describe the structure and function of glycolipids.

A glycolipid is a compound in which a carbohydrate is bound to an alcohol group

of a lipid by a glycosidic linkage, a type of ether bond that joins a carbohydrate
(sugar) molecule to another group, which may or may not be another
carbohydrate. . Glycolipids are often found as markers on cell membranes and
play a large role in tissue and organ specificity.

16. Describe the structure and function of steroids, especially cholesterol,

testosterone, estradiol.

Steroids are compounds with widely differing functions but have the same
general structure, a fused-ring system which consists of three six-membered
rings, the A, B, and C rings) and one five-membered ring, the D ring. There are
many important steroids, including sex hormones. Cholesterol is also an example
of a steroid. The only hydrophilic group in the cholesterol structure is the single
hydroxyl group. As a result, the molecule is highly hydrophobic. Cholesterol is
widespread in biological membranes, especially in animals, but it does not occur
 in prokaryotic cell membranes. The presence of cholesterol in membranes can
modify the role of membrane-bound proteins. Cholesterol has a number of
important biological functions, including its role as a precursor of other steroids
and of vitamin D3.

Males' main sex hormone and anabolic steroid is testosterone. In humans,

testosterone is essential for the growth of the testes and prostate, as well as for
the promotion of secondary sexual traits including increased bone and muscle
mass and the development of body hair.

Estradiol is an estrogen steroid hormone and the major female sex hormone. It
plays a role in controlling the menstrual and estrous cycles in females. The
growth of secondary female sexual traits including the breasts, widening of the
hips, and a pattern of fat distribution exclusive to women are all brought on by
estradiol. During puberty, adulthood, and pregnancy, it is crucial for the growth
and maintenance of female reproductive structures such the mammary glands,
uterus, and vagina.

17. Describe the important role of biological membranes.

Every cell has a cell membrane or a plasma membrane; eukaryotic cells also
have membrane-enclosed organelles, such as nuclei and mitochondria. The
molecular basis of the membrane’s structure lies in its lipid and protein
components. It separates cells from the external environment (protection through
compartmentalization). It also plays an important role in regulation of what goes
in and out of cells. A number of important enzymes are found in membranes and
depend on this environment for their function.

18. Illustrate how amphipathic molecules like phosphoglycerides and

glycolipids form biological membranes.

Ampiphatic molecules are pretty useful and versatile due to their hydrophobic
and hydrophilic regions. In an aqueous environment, these molecules organize
into a bilayer structure in which hydrophilic ends are on the outside and
hydrophobic ends inward. This forms the very foundation of the cell membrane.

19. Discuss how chain length of the fatty acid components of

phosphoglycerides affects membrane fluidity.
 The length of the fatty acid components of phosphoglycerides impact fluidity of
the membrane in a way that the longer the chain, the more rigid the membrane is
because of intermolecular interactions between the phospholipids' tails which
adds rigidity to the membrane.

20. Discuss how the degree of unsaturation of the fatty acid components of
phosphoglycerides affects membrane fluidity.

The arrangement of the hydrocarbon interior of the bilayer can be ordered and
rigid or disordered and fluid. The bilayer’s fluidity depends on its composition. In
saturated fatty acids, a linear arrangement of the hydrocarbon chains leads to
close packing of the molecules in the bilayer, and thus to rigidity. Unsaturated
fatty acids have a kink in the hydrocarbon chain that does not exist in saturated
fatty acids. The kinks cause disorder in the packing of the chains, which makes
for a more open structure than would be possible for straight saturated chains.

21. Discuss how heat affects membrane fluidity.

When heat is introduced, ordered bilayers become less ordered; bilayers that are
comparatively disordered become even more disordered. This cooperative
transition takes place at a characteristic temperature, like the melting of a crystal,
which is also a cooperative transition. . The transition temperature is higher for
more rigid and ordered membranes than it is for relatively fluid and disordered
membranes

22. Discuss how the presence of cholesterol affects membrane fluidity.

The presence of cholesterol may also enhance order and rigidity. The fusedring
structure of cholesterol is itself quite rigid, and the presence of cholesterol
stabilizes the extended straight-chain arrangement of saturated fatty acids by van
der Waals interactions. Furthermore, the presence of cholesterol is characteristic
of animal, rather than plant, membranes. As a result, animal membranes are less
 fluid (more rigid) than plant membranes, and the membranes of prokaryotes,
which contain no appreciable amounts of steroids, are the most fluid of all.

23. Explain how the natural lipid bilayer asymmetry affects possible membrane
composition (bulkier molecules are found in the outer layer)

The distribution of lipids is not the same in the inner and outer portions of the
bilayer. Because the bilayer is curved, the molecules of the inner layer are more
tightly packed. Bulkier molecules, such as cerebrosides tend to be located in the
outer layer.

24. Characterize the properties of proteins found in biological membranes

according to their location (peripheral proteins. integral proteins,
lipid-anchored proteins)

Peripheral proteins are found on the surface of the membrane. Peripheral

proteins are usually bound to the charged head groups of the lipid bilayer by
polar interactions, electrostatic interactions, or both. They can be removed by
such mild treatment as raising the ionic strength of the medium.

Integral proteins are found within the lipid bilayer. Removing integral proteins
from membranes is much more difficult. It is any protein which has a special
functional region for the purpose of securing its position within the cellular
membrane. In other words, an integral protein locks itself into the cellular
membrane.
 Lipid-anchored proteins is a point of attachment in which proteins anchored to
the lipids via covalent bonds from cysteines or free amino groups on the protein
to one of the several lipid anchors.

25. Describe the fluid-mosaic model of biological membranes.

Currently, the fluid-mosaic model is the most widely accepted description of

biological membranes. It is the model for membrane structure in which proteins
and a lipid bilayer exist side by side without covalent bonds between the proteins
and lipids. Fluid mosaic implies that the same sort of lateral motion that can be
seen in lipid bilayers also occurs in membranes. Membrane proteins tend to have
specific orientation in the membrane.

26. List the three main functions of membranes and membrane proteins.

The three main functions of membranes and membrane proteins are transport,
receptor, and catalysis.

27. Differentiate between passive transport and active transport.

In the passive transport, the movement of a substance is in the same direction as

the concentration gradient, a substance moves from a region of higher
concentration to lower concentration.

In active transport, a substance moves against the concentration gradient, from a

region of low concentration to high concentration, this process requires the cell to
expend energy.
28. Differentiate between simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion across the
biological membrane.

Simple diffusion is the process of passing through a pore or opening in a

membrane without a requirement for a carrier or for the expenditure of energy.
Facilitated diffusion is a process by which substances enter a cell by binding to a
carrier protein; this process does not require energy.

29. Use the mechanism of glucose permease to illustrate facilitated diffusion.

Glucose movement to erythrocyte requires it to pass through a carrier protein

called glucose permease. This process is labeled as facilitated diffusion because
no energy is expended and a protein carrier is used.

30. Explain how the rate of transport against a concentration gradient can be
used to elucidate a facilitated diffusion mechanism.

The transport rate against a concentration gradient is one way to illustrate or

understand a facilitated diffusion mechanism. When you have a transport rate
that rises proportionally with an elevated concentration of a transported
substance, it implies the participation of carrier proteins that aid its movement
through the membrane. This suggests that these carriers or channels selectively
permit the substance’s passage which is a characteristic of facilitated diffusion.

31. Differentiate the structural difference between regular globular proteins

found in the cytoplasm and the intrinsic proteins found in the membrane.

Globular proteins are more compact in shape. Meanwhile, intrinsic or integral

proteins are embedded in the membrane. Globular proteins in the cytoplasm are
larger.

32. Differentiate between primary active transport and secondary active

transport.

In primary active transport, the movement of molecules against a gradient is

directly linked to the hydrolysis of a high-energy molecule, such as ATP. Another
type of transport is called secondary active transport. It is a method of transport
in which the electrochemical potential difference is created by letting hydrogen
ions flow through a permease into the cell with their concentration gradient. This
 process consumes ATP indirectly to generate gradient and this transport is
dependent on primary active transport to establish that hydrogen gradient.

33. Use the mechanism of the sodium-potassium pump as an example to

illustrate primary active transport.

The sodium-potassium pump moves potassium ions into a cell and

simultaneously moves sodium ions out of the cell, both against the concentration
gradient. There can be no transport of ions without hydrolysis of ATP.

34. Use the mechanism of the galactoside permease as an example to illustrate

secondary active transport.

Galactoside permease is an example of secondary active transport. The lactose

concentration inside the bacterial cell is higher than the concentration outside, so
moving lactose into the cell requires energy. The galactoside permease doesn’t
directly hydrolyze ATP. Instead, it harnesses the energy by letting hydrogen ions
flow through the permease into the cell with their concentration gradient. As long
as more energy is available allowing the hydrogen ions to flow than is required to
concentrate the lactose, the process is possible.
35. Use the mechanism of the LDL receptor to illustrate the receptor properties
of cell membranes.

Low Density Lipoprotein is an example of a receptor protein in the membrane.

Binding of the LDL ligand to the LDL receptor induces endocytosis in which a
process of bringing the substance/molecule inside the cell through the formation
of vesicles; hence, LDL releases cholesterol in the cell. An oversupply of
cholesterol inhibits synthesis of the LDL receptor protein. An insufficient number
of receptors leads to elevated levels of LDL and cholesterol in the bloodstream,
which increases the risk of heart attack.

36. Provide an overview of the conversion of beta-carotene into vitamin A

(retinol).
The precursor of vitamin A is beta carotene. Betacarotene is cleaved at the
center by the enzyme action in the liver to produce 2 vitamin A molecules or
retinol.

37. Explain the important role of vitamin A in the primary chemical reaction of
vision.

Beta-carotene is the precursor of vitamin A, which is also known as retinol. A

derivative of vitamin A plays a crucial role in vision when it is bound to a protein
called opsin. The cone cells in the retina of the eye contain several types of opsin
which are responsible for vision in bright light and color. The rod cells in the
retina contain only one type of opsin; they are responsible for vision in dim light.
Vitamin A has an alcohol group that is enzymatically oxidized to an aldehyde
 group, forming a retinal. Two isomeric forms of retinal, involving cis–trans
isomerization around one of the double bonds, are important in the behavior of
this compound in vivo. The aldehyde group of retinal forms an imine (also called
a Schiff base) with the side-chain amino group of a lysine residue in rod-cell
opsin. The product of the reaction between retinal and opsin is rhodopsin. The
outer segment of rod cells contains flat membrane-enclosed discs, the
membrane consisting of about 60% rhodopsin and 40% lipid.

When rhodopsin is active (that is, when it can respond to visible light), the double
bond between carbon atoms 11 and 12 of the retinal (11-cis-retinal) has the cis
orientation. Under the influence of light, an isomerization reaction occurs at this
double bond, producing an all-trans retinal. Because the all-trans form of retinal
cannot bind to opsin, alltrans-retinal and free opsin are released. As a result of
this reaction, an electrical impulse is generated in the optic nerve and
transmitted to the brain to be processed as a visual event. The active form of
rhodopsin is regenerated by enzymatic isomerization of the all-trans-retinal back
to the 11-cis form and subsequent re-formation of the rhodopsin.

38. Explain the important role of vitamin D in the regulation of calcium and
phosphorus.

The several forms of vitamin D play a major role in the regulation of calcium and
phosphorus metabolism. Vitamin D3 is formed from cholesterol by the action of
ultraviolet radiation from the sun. It is further processed in the body to form
hydroxylated derivatives, which are the metabolically active form of this particular
vitamin.

The presence of vitamin D3 leads to increased synthesis of a Ca2+- binding

protein, which increases the absorption of dietary calcium in the intestines. This
process results in calcium uptake by the bones. This process results in calcium
uptake by the bones.

Vitamin D deficiency leads to Rickets, the condition in which the bones of

growing children become soft resulting in skeletal deformities.

39. Provide an overview of the conversion of cholesterol into vitamin D.

Cholesterol is converted by 7-dehydrocholesterol reductase enzymes into 7-

dehydrocholesterol. With ultraviolet radiation cholesterol is cleaved into Vitamin
D3. After the cleavage, electron rearrangements produce vitamin D.
40. Explain why vitamin D does not fit the definition of 'vitamin'.

Vitamin D is actively formed from cholesterol and UV radiation, meaning that it is

a steroid hormone. In addition, with adequate exposure to sunlight, vit D is
acquired which is antimony on the definition of Vitamins in which are obtained
from our diet.

41. Explain how vitamin E plays a role as an antioxidant.

Vitamin E is an antioxidant, it is a reducing agent. It reacts with oxidizing agents

before they can attack other biomolecules. The antioxidant action of vitamin E
has been shown to protect important compounds, including vitamin A, from
degradation in the laboratory; it probably also serves this function in organisms.

42. Explain the important role of vitamin K in blood clotting.

The presence of vitamin K is required in the complex process of blood clotting,

which involves many steps and many proteins and has stimulated numerous
unanswered questions. It is known that vitamin K is required to modify
prothrombin and other proteins involved in the clotting process. Specifically, with
prothrombin. The addition of another carboxyl group alters the side chains of
several glutamate residues of prothrombin. . This modification of glutamate
produces gamma-carboxyglutamate residues. The two carboxyl groups in
proximity form a bidentate (“two teeth”) ligand, which can bind calcium ion (Ca2+).
If prothrombin is not modified in this way, it does not bind Ca2+. Ca2+ is required
for blood to clot.

43. Provide an overview on the structure and functions of prostaglandins,

leukotrienes, and thromboxanes (the eicosanoids).

These are signaling molecules made by the oxidation, enzymatic or not, of

arachidonic acid. Prostaglandins has a five-membered ring. They control blood
pressure, stimulation of smooth muscle contraction, and inhibit aggregation of
platelets. Leukotrienes have three conjugated double bonds. Their properties
include constriction of smooth muscles, and inflammatory properties.
Thromboxanes contain cyclic ethers. Thromboxane A2 induces aggregation of
platelet and smooth-muscle contraction.