Organic compounds typically consist of groups of carbon atoms covalently bonded to hydrogen, usually

oxygen, and often other elements as well. Created by living things, they are found throughout the world,
in soils and seas, commercial products, and every cell of the human body. The four types most
important to human structure and function are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleotides. Before
exploring these compounds, you need to first understand the chemistry of carbon.

An amino acid is a molecule composed of an amino group and a carboxyl group, together with a variable
side chain. Just 20 different amino acids contribute to nearly all of the thousands of different proteins
important in human structure and function. Body proteins contain a unique combination of a few dozen
to a few hundred of these 20 amino acid monomers. All 20 of these amino acids share a similar
structure.

All consist of a central carbon atom to which the following are bonded:

• a hydrogen atom

• an alkaline (basic) amino group NH2

• an acidic carboxyl group COOH

• a variable group

Notice that all amino acids contain both an acid (the carboxyl group) and a base (the amino group)
(amine = “nitrogen-containing”). For this reason, they make excellent buffers, helping the body regulate
acid–base balance. What distinguishes the 20 amino acids from one another is their variable group,
which is referred to as a side chain or an R-group. This group can vary in size and can be polar or
nonpolar, giving each amino acid its unique characteristics. For example, the side chains of two amino
acids—cysteine and methionine—contain sulfur. Sulfur does not readily participate in hydrogen bonds,
whereas all other amino acids do. This variation influences the way that proteins containing cysteine and
methionine are assembled. Amino acids join via dehydration synthesis to form protein polymers.

The unique bond holding amino acids together is called a peptide bond. A peptide bond is a covalent
bond between two amino acids that forms by dehydration synthesis. A peptide, in fact, is a very short
chain of amino acids. Strands containing fewer than about 100 amino acids are generally referred to as
polypeptides rather than proteins.

Peptide Bond

Different amino acids join together to form peptides, polypeptides, or proteins via dehydration
synthesis. The bonds between the amino acids are peptide bonds.

The body is able to synthesize most of the amino acids from components of other molecules; however,
nine cannot be synthesized and have to be consumed in the diet. These are known as the essential
amino acids.
Free amino acids available for protein construction are said to reside in the amino acid pool within cells.
Structures within cells use these amino acids when assembling proteins. If a particular essential amino
acid is not available in sufficient quantities in the amino acid pool, however, synthesis of proteins
containing it can slow or even cease.

Lipids

A lipid is one of a highly diverse group of compounds made up mostly of hydrocarbons. The few oxygen
atoms they contain are often at the periphery of the molecule. Their nonpolar hydrocarbons make all
lipids hydrophobic. In water, lipids do not form a true solution, but they may form an emulsion, which is
the term for a mixture of solutions that do not mix well.

Triglycerides

A triglyceride is one of the most common dietary lipid groups, and the type found most abundantly in
body tissues. This compound, which is commonly referred to as a fat, is formed from the synthesis of
two types of molecules .

A glycerol backbone at the core of triglycerides, consists of three carbon atoms.

Three fatty acids, long chains of hydrocarbons with a carboxyl group and a methyl group at opposite
ends, extend from each of the carbons of the glycerol.

Triglycerides

Triglycerides are composed of glycerol attached to three fatty acids via dehydration synthesis. Notice
that glycerol gives up a hydrogen atom, and the carboxyl groups on the fatty acids each give up a
hydroxyl group.

Triglycerides form via dehydration synthesis. Glycerol gives up hydrogen atoms from its hydroxyl groups
at each bond, and the carboxyl group on each fatty acid chain gives up a hydroxyl group. A total of three
water molecules are thereby released.

Fatty acid chains that have no double carbon bonds anywhere along their length and therefore contain
the maximum number of hydrogen atoms are called saturated fatty acids. These straight, rigid chains
pack tightly together and are solid or semi-solid at room temperature.

Butter and lard are examples, as is the fat found on a steak or in your own body. In contrast, fatty acids
with one double carbon bond are kinked at that bond.

These monounsaturated fatty acids are therefore unable to pack together tightly, and are liquid at room
temperature. Polyunsaturated fatty acids contain two or more double carbon bonds, and are also liquid
at room temperature. Plant oils such as olive oil typically contain both mono- and polyunsaturated fatty
acids.
Fatty Acid Shapes

The level of saturation of a fatty acid affects its shape. (a) Saturated fatty acid chains are straight. (b)
Unsaturated fatty acid chains are kinked.

Whereas a diet high in saturated fatty acids increases the risk of heart disease, a diet high in unsaturated
fatty acids is thought to reduce the risk. This is especially true for the omega-3 unsaturated fatty acids
found in cold-water fish such as salmon. These fatty acids have their first double carbon bond at the
third hydrocarbon from the methyl group (referred to as the omega end of the molecule).

Finally, trans fatty acids found in some processed foods, including some stick and tub margarines, are
thought to be even more harmful to the heart and blood vessels than saturated fatty acids. Trans fats
are created from unsaturated fatty acids (such as corn oil) when chemically treated to produce partially
hydrogenated fats.

As a group, triglycerides are a major fuel source for the body. When you are resting or asleep, a majority
of the energy used to keep you alive is derived from triglycerides stored in your fat (adipose) tissues.
Triglycerides also fuel long, slow physical activity such as gardening or hiking, and contribute a modest
percentage of energy for vigorous physical activity. Dietary fat also assists the absorption and transport
of the nonpolar fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K. Additionally, stored body fat protects and cushions
the body’s bones and internal organs, and acts as insulation to retain body heat.

Fatty acids are also components of glycolipids, which are sugar-fat compounds found in the cell
membrane. Lipoproteins are compounds in which the hydrophobic triglycerides are packaged in protein
envelopes for transport in body fluids.

Phospholipids

As its name suggests, a phospholipid is a bond between the glycerol component of a lipid and a
phosphorous molecule. In fact, phospholipids are similar in structure to triglycerides. However, instead
of having three fatty acids, a phospholipid is generated from a diglyceride, a glycerol with just two fatty
acid chains.

The third binding site on the glycerol is taken up by the phosphate group, which in turn is attached to a
polar “head” region of the molecule. Recall that triglycerides are nonpolar and hydrophobic. This still
holds for the fatty acid portion of a phospholipid compound. However, the head of a phospholipid
contains charges on the phosphate groups, as well as on the nitrogen atom. These charges make the
phospholipid head hydrophilic. Therefore, phospholipids are said to have hydrophobic tails, containing
the neutral fatty acids, and hydrophilic heads, containing the charged phosphate groups and nitrogen
atom.

Other Important Lipids

(a) Phospholipids are composed of two fatty acids, glycerol, and a phosphate group. (b) Sterols are ring-
shaped lipids. Shown here is cholesterol. (c) Prostaglandins are derived from unsaturated fatty acids.
Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) includes hydroxyl and carboxyl groups.

Carbohydrates

The term carbohydrate means “hydrated carbon.” Recall that the root hydro- indicates water. A
carbohydrate is a molecule composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; in most carbohydrates,
hydrogen and oxygen are found in the same two-to-one relative proportions they have in water. In fact,
the chemical formula for a “generic” molecule of carbohydrate is (CH2O)n.

Carbohydrates are referred to as saccharides, a word meaning “sugars.” Three forms are important in
the body. Monosaccharides are the monomers of carbohydrates. Disaccharides (di- = “two”) are made
up of two monomers. Polysaccharides are the polymers, and can consist of hundreds to thousands of
monomers.

Monosaccharides

A monosaccharide is a monomer of carbohydrates. Five monosaccharides are important in the body.

Three of these are the hexose sugars, so called because they each contain six atoms of carbon. These
are glucose, fructose, and galactose, shown in [link]a. The remaining monosaccharides are the two
pentose sugars, each of which contains five atoms of carbon. They are ribose and deoxyribose.

Disaccharides

A disaccharide is a pair of monosaccharides. Disaccharides are formed via dehydration synthesis, and
the bond linking them is referred to as a glycosidic bond (glyco- = “sugar”). Three disaccharides (shown
in [link]) are important to humans. These are sucrose, commonly referred to as table sugar; lactose, or
milk sugar; and maltose, or malt sugar. As you can tell from their common names, you consume these in
your diet; however, your body cannot use them directly. Instead, in the digestive tract, they are split
into their component monosaccharides via hydrolysis.

Three Important Disaccharides

All three important disaccharides form by dehydration synthesis.

Polysaccharides

• Polysaccharides can contain a few to a thousand or more monosaccharides. Three are important to
the body.

• Starches are polymers of glucose. They occur in long chains called amylose or branched chains called
amylopectin, both of which are stored in plant-based foods and are relatively easy to digest.
• Glycogen is also a polymer of glucose, but it is stored in the tissues of animals, especially in the
muscles and liver. It is not considered a dietary carbohydrate because very little glycogen remains in
animal tissues after slaughter; however, the human body stores excess glucose as glycogen, again, in the
muscles and liver.

• Cellulose, a polysaccharide that is the primary component of the cell wall of green plants, is the
component of plant food referred to as “fiber”. In humans, cellulose/fiber is not digestible; however,
dietary fiber has many health benefits. It helps you feel full so you eat less, it promotes a healthy
digestive tract, and a diet high in fiber is thought to reduce the risk of heart disease and possibly some
forms of cancer.

Three Important Polysaccharides

Three important polysaccharides are starches, glycogen, and fiber.

Functions of Carbohydrates

The body obtains carbohydrates from plant-based foods. Grains, fruits, and legumes and other
vegetables provide most of the carbohydrate in the human diet, although lactose is found in dairy
products.

Although most body cells can break down other organic compounds for fuel, all body cells can use
glucose. Moreover, nerve cells (neurons) in the brain, spinal cord, and through the peripheral nervous
system, as well as red blood cells, can use only glucose for fuel. In the breakdown of glucose for energy,
molecules of adenosine triphosphate, better known as ATP, are produced. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
is composed of a ribose sugar, an adenine base, and three phosphate groups. ATP releases free energy
when its phosphate bonds are broken, and thus supplies ready energy to the cell. More ATP is produced
in the presence of oxygen (O2) than in pathways that do not use oxygen. The overall reaction for the
conversion of the energy in glucose to energy stored in ATP can be written:

{\text{C}}_{\text{6}}{\text{H}}_{\text{12}}{\text{O}}_{\text{6}}{\text{ + 6 O}}_{\text{2}}\text{ }\to {\text{ 6

CO}}_{\text{2}}{\text{ + 6 H}}_{\text{2}}\text{O + ATP}

In addition to being a critical fuel source, carbohydrates are present in very small amounts in cells’
structure. For instance, some carbohydrate molecules bind with proteins to produce glycoproteins, and
others combine with lipids to produce glycolipids, both of which are found in the membrane that
encloses the contents of body cells.