PRONOUNS APPROACHES IN LITERARY CRITICISM

Interrogative Pronouns A. New Criticism (Formalism/Structuralism)

New Criticism explores the formal elements and
An interrogative pronoun is used in a question. It structures in literature: genre conventions,
helps ask about something or someone. The character, plot structure, conflict, images, symbols,
interrogative pronouns are: what, which, who, themes etc.
whom, and compound words ending in “ever,”
such as, whatever, whichever, whoever, and New Critics feel literary texts have their own type of
knowledge, and to understand that knowledge,
whomever.
readers must explore the relationships and
Examples: connections between a work's many structures. By
What on earth is that? Who ate the last fig Newton? examining the structures together, New Critics
argue, one can uncover the "intended meaning(s)"
An interrogative pronoun may look like an of a text.
interrogative adjective, but it is used differently in Formalism examines the form of the work as a
a sentence: it acts as a pronoun, taking the place whole, the form of each individual part of the text (the
of a noun. individual scenes and chapters),
Indefinite Pronouns The characters, the settings, the tone, the point of
view, the diction, and all other elements of the text
An indefinite pronoun refers to an indefinite, or which join to make it a single text. After analyzing
general, person or thing. Indefinite pronouns each part, the critic then describes how they work
include all, any, both, each, everyone, few, together to give meaning (theme) to the text.
many, neither, none, nothing, several, some,
and somebody. Common questions to be asked are:
- Who are the protagonist and antagonist? How are
Examples:
they characterized?
Something smells good. Many like salsa with their
chips. - What is the conflict?
- What themes does the work include?
An indefinite pronoun may look like an indefinite
adjective, but it is used differently in a sentence: it - How are symbols, images and other poetic devices
acts as a pronoun, taking the place of a noun. used?
- What role does setting play in the work?
Relative Pronouns
- Trace the plot structure (rising action, climax,
A relative pronoun introduces a clause, or part of a resolution etc.)
sentence, that describes a noun. The relative
pronouns are that, which, who, and whom. - Examine how genre forms affect the content, (i.e.
Examples: how does the short story form/structure affect how
You should bring the book that you love most. the work is written, or how details are arranged)
That introduces “you love most,” which describes the
book. Notable Theorist/s:
Hector is a photographer who does great work. Ferdinand de Saussure is considered the “Father
of Structuralism.” He developed the idea of studying
Literary Criticism the language of literary texts by focusing on the
words and grammar play. Saussure believed
Literary Criticism is an attempt to evaluate and language pre-exists ideas because language is what
understand the literature of an author. Literary births ideas and therefore culture which creates
criticism is a description, analysis, evaluation, or society. His greatest creation of Structuralism is the
interpretation of a particular literary work or an Sign broken down into the idea (the signified) and
author's writings as a whole. image (the signifier) which creates the arbitrary
(given by society) concept of meaning.
Claude Levi- Strauss developed the structuralism to take a historical approach in order to place
idea of studying the common factors in the allusions in their proper classical, political, or biblical
differences of human cultures which links humans background.
together, i.e. myths which are the same overall story
and similar in language, but come from different D. Feminist Approach
cultures. Focuses on female representation in literature,
B. Reader-Response Theory paying attention to female points of view, concerns,
and values.
Reader-Response Theory focuses on the individual
reaction and interpretation of a text by the reader as Three underlying assumptions in this approach are:
it is proposed that only the reader can give a text - Western Society is pervasively patriarchal,
sufficient meaning. Each and every reader will male centered and controlled, and is
interpret a text differently between readings organized in such a way as to subordinate
depending on their intellect or knowledge of the women.
history of which the text describes, mood, personal - The concept of gender is socially
Reader-Response Theory focuses on the individual constructed, not biologically determined;
reaction and interpretation of a text by the reader as - Patriarchal ideology pervades those writings
it is proposed that only the reader can give a text which have been considered great works of
sufficient meaning. Each and every reader will literature.
interpret a text differently between readings Benefits of Theory:
depending on their intellect or knowledge of the
history of which the text describes, mood, personal This theory is constantly incorporating new theories
in order to understand the oppression of women,
Common questions to be asked are: specifically Freud’s Psychoanalysis in which,
- How does the reader feel about the selection? “Psychoanalysis can be used to help understand the
psychological effects of patriarchal ideology as well
- Does a reader’s background knowledge affect as how and why women and men internalize it”
his/her perception of the story? (Tyson 89) and Marxism to “help understand how
economic forces have been manipulated by
- Does the reader find the material relevant in his/her patriarchal law and custom to keep women
life? economically, politically, and socially oppressed as
Notable Theorist/s: an underclass” (Tyson 89). This theory seeks to
provide more realistic portrayals of women in texts.
Louise Rosenblatt coined Transactional Reader-
Response Criticism. She deemed that both the text
and the reader are equally needed to form meaning. Notable Theorist/s:
She is profound like other critics in her area in the Kate Millett argued gender is socially constructed
belief that between the reader and the text occurs a as it is performed, taught and reinforced into the
“transaction” based on personal associations. concepts of masculinity and femininity.
C. Historical and Biographical Criticisms Simone de Beauvoir argued men are considered
Historical / Biographical critics see works as the essential subjects (independent selves with free
reflection of an author’s life and times (or of the will), while women are considered contingent beings
characters’ life and times). (dependent beings controlled by circumstances).

This approach deems it necessary to know about the E. Marxist Approach

author and the political, economic, and sociological Examines the relationship of a literary product to the
context of his times in order to truly understand the actual economic and social reality of its time and
work(s). place including:
Benefit of Theory: - Class stratification
This approach works well for some works -like those - Class relations
of Alexander Pope, John Dryden, and Milton – which - Dominant ideology
are obviously political in nature. It also is necessary
It tries to understand how POWER, POLITICS, and fundamental concept of governance by the people,
MONEY play role in literary texts and how these highlighting its roots in ancient Greek political
elements impact the society characters in the text thought.

Notable Theorist: 2. History: if relevant and helpful for explaining the

term, discussing the history of the term/ its use/
Karl Marx (1818-1883) is a German philosopher, controversies associated with it.
economist, and social theorist. He Co-authored "The
Communist Manifesto" with Friedrich Engels. Also, Example:
he introduced the concept of historical materialism, Democracy has evolved over centuries, with roots
which emphasizes the role of economic factors in tracing back to ancient civilizations such as Athens
shaping society. He argued that capitalism and Rome. Its modern incarnation emerged during
inherently leads to class struggle and exploitation. the Enlightenment period, fueled by ideas of
individual rights and social contract theory. Since
F. Moralist Approach then, democracy has spread globally, albeit with
To study literature from the moral/intellectual variations in practice and implementation.
perspective is therefore to determine whether a work 3. Cause and Effect: Discussing how the situation
conveys a lesson or message and whether it can came about and what effects it may have.
help readers lead better lives and improve their
understanding of the world. Example: The spread of democracy has been linked
to various social, economic, and technological
Notable theorist: factors. Factors such as increased education,
For Matthew Arnold, literature is a supremely communication technologies, and movements for
important source of moral guidance and spiritual human rights have contributed to the expansion of
inspiration. In seeing literature as a worthy substitute democratic ideals and practices worldwide.
for religion, he takes an extreme position. His Conversely, the absence of democracy in certain
insistence on the moral and religious significance of regions has been associated with political instability,
literature, however, is very much in harmony with human rights abuses, and social unrest.
critical tradition. 4. Description: Listing and defining the component.
Plato believed that literature, along with other forms It answer the question “what is..?”
of art, could indeed foster virtue. According to Plato, Example:
the moral purpose of art is to connect human beings Democracy is a form of government where power is
with a higher ideal. vested in the hands of the people, either directly or
through elected representatives. It emphasizes the
COHERENCE AND COHESION principles of equality, freedom of speech, and the
protection of individual rights.
Coherence is defined as the quality of being logical,
consistent, and able to be understood.
5. Principles of operation: Discussing how topic in
Cohesion refers to the act of forming a whole unit. It
question functions, including special materials or
is effectively a subset of coherence. It is related to
conditions required. - “How it works”
ensuring that the words and sentences you use to
stick together. Example:
The functioning of democracy relies on principles
Expanded Definition are used to define technical
such as free and fair elections, separation of powers,
terms with a very detailed explanation, with the use
and checks and balances. These mechanisms
of examples and visuals.
ensure that government remains accountable to the
Techniques of expanded definition people and prevents the concentration of power in
any single entity.
1. Etymology: explaining origin of the word itself
6. Classification: Showing how topic fits into a
Example: larger category.
The term "democracy" originates from the Greek
Example:
words "demos," meaning "people," and "kratos,"
Democracy can be classified as a form of
meaning "rule" or "power." It reflects the
representative government, distinguishing it from nature of democracy, where individuals have the
direct democracy where citizens directly participate opportunity to voice their opinions and shape
in decision-making processes. It falls within the collective decisions.
broader category of liberal democracies,
characterized by the protection of civil liberties and BIBLIOGRAPHY AND CITATIONS
the rule of law. Bibliography
7. Contrast/Negation: Showing how the topic A list of the sources of information that have been
differs from others in the same class. used by someone when writing.

Example: The Reference List is a list of all sources used in

In contrast to authoritarian regimes where power is your paper. It is different from a bibliography which
concentrated in the hands of a single ruler or elite includes all the sources you consulted in your paper.
group, democracy disperses power among the
populace, ensuring accountability and preventing Why is writing a bibliography important?
tyranny.
- Avoid plagiarism
8. Comparison: Explaining how the topic is similar
to others in the same category or class. - Establishes credibility or understanding of the topic.
Example: - Allows readers to locate sources.
Democracy, like a constitutional monarchy, spreads
- Acknowledgement of intellectual property
power among elected leaders, upholding laws and
encouraging citizens to be involved in making Domain suffixes are clue about the purpose or
decisions. audience of the source website.

9. Analogy: Explaining by comparing two dissimilar - .gov , .org , .com, .net , .edu , .mil
topics where the second one is familiar to the APA AND MLA CITATION
audience.
In-text References in Author-Date Style system
Example: (APA -American Psychological Association)
Democracy can be likened to a well-tended garden, should contain only the following information, in
where diverse plants coexist harmoniously, this order:
reflecting the inclusivity and cooperation among
citizens in nurturing a thriving community through 1) the surname of the author/s
shared responsibility and participation.
2) the year of publication of the text
10. Examples: instances of this term from the real
world 3) the page number/s of the text (usually for
direct quotations, particular ideas and
Example: concepts).
In the expansive landscape of democracy, countries IN TEXT CITATION (APA FORMAT)
like Sweden and Canada serve as flourishing One author: (Smith, 2019)
gardens, where the vibrant tapestry of diverse Two authors: (Johnson & Lee, 2020)
opinions and active civic engagement cultivates an Three or more authors: (DY et al., 2018)
environment of growth, resilience, and collective Group author: (American Psychological Association
prosperity. [APA], 2021)
11. Illustration: Involves painting or imagining a No author: ("Title of the Article," 2017)
vivid and relatable picture using metaphorical
imagery, analogies, or real-world examples to IN TEXT CITATION (MLA FORMAT)
elucidate the complexities of a concept. One author: (Smith 25)
Example: Two authors: (Johnson and Lee 42)
Imagine a town hall meeting where citizens gather to Three/more authors: (DY et al. 72)
discuss and debate important issues affecting their No author: ("Title of the Article" 10)
community. This scene exemplifies the participatory
 Doe, J., et al. (2023). The impact of technology on
education. Education Today.
https://www.educationtoday.com/technology-
education
MLA FORMAT WITH NO/ UNKNOWN AUTHOR
1. “Title of Work.”
2. Website, *(italicized)*
APA FORMAT WITH NO/ UNKNOWN AUTHOR 3. Day Month Year of publication,
1. Title of work. *(italicized)* *if not indicated remove, if the year is only indicated
2. (Year, Month day of publication). write the year*

*if not indicated write n.d., if the year is only indicated 4. URL.
write the year* Ex.:
3. Website. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), 20 Dec.
4. https://URL 2022, https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-
ncov/index.html.
Ex:
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022, MLA FORMAT WITH AUTHOR/S
December 20). Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-
19). https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019- 1. Author’s Last Name, First Name.
ncov/index.html 2. “Title of Work.”

APA FORMAT WITH AUTHOR/S 3. Website, *(italicized) *if not indicated

remove, if the year is only indicated write the
1. Author’s Last Name, Initial(s). year*
2. (Year of publication). *if not indicated write 4. Date of Publication,
n.d., if the year is only indicated write the
year* 5. URL.

3. Title of work.*italicized* Ex.:

4. Website. Doe, John, The impact of technology on education.

Education Today. 23 Aug., 2023
5. https://URL https://www.educationtoday.com/technology-
Ex.: education

Doe, J. (2023). The impact of technology on Doe, John, & Johnson, Kim, The impact of
education. Education Today. technology on education. Education Today. 23 Aug.,
https://www.educationtoday.com/technology- 2023 https://www.educationtoday.com/technology-
education education
Doe, John, Johnson, Kim, & Smith, Angela, The
Doe, J. & Johnson, K. (2023). The impact of impact of technology on education. Education
technology on education. Education Today. Today. 23 Aug., 2023
https://www.educationtoday.com/technology- https://www.educationtoday.com/technology-
education education
Doe, John, et al. The impact of technology on
Doe, J., Johnson, K., & Smith, A. (2023). The impact education. Education Today. 23 Aug., 2023
of technology on education. Education Today. https://www.educationtoday.com/technology-
https://www.educationtoday.com/technology- education
education
 ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS C.Noun as Adjective Modifier
Adjectives are words that describe the qualities of In some special expressions, nouns can modify
nouns: wonderful, silly, huge, fun, slow. They can adjectives.
also describe the quantity of nouns: many, few,
millions, eleven. Examples: a. stone cold b. sea green

Note: Adjectives do not modify verbs or adverbs or D.Verb as Adjective Modifier

other adjectives. An adjective can be modified by a verb in present
* Adjectives modify or describe nouns. participle form (-ing) that usually precedes the
adjective.
1. Shane wears a colorful hat to the pie-eating
contest. Examples: a. freezing cold b. boiling hot

2. Furry dogs may overheat in the summertime. E. Adjective as Adjective Modifier

3. My cake should have eighteen candles. In special expressions, an adjective can modify
another adjective.
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other
adverbs. They commonly describe how, when, or Example: a. icy cold b. dark blue
where the action of a verb took place. How refers to F. Prepositional Phrases as Adjective Modifier
the way or manner an action occurred. When Prepositional phrases that function as adjective
addressing the time of the action. Where modifiers usually follow the adjective.
investigates the place or location the action took
place. Example: a. easy on the eyes b. stronger than
ever
Examples:
1.The boys ran noisily down the stairs. ADVERB as HEAD
2.We went down last night. A. Qualifiers as Adverb Modifier
3.He delivered pizza locally. Examples: a. very easily b. rather slowly
c.happily enough
Structures of Modification (Adjective and
Adverb) B. Adverbs as Adverb Modifier

The structure of modification is composed of a Example: Abdullah finished his test somewhat hastily.
head and modifier. C. Noun as Adverb Modifier
Head- is the first grammatical element. Example: a meter away
Modifier- is the accompanying element. D. Prepositional Phrases as Adverb Modifier
ADJECTIVE as HEAD ADJECTIVES Example: My family is away for a week.
A. Qualifier as Adjective Modifier
A word that modifies an adjective is called a qualifier.
Words like very, rather, enough, etc. are qualifiers.
Examples: a. She is very pretty.
b. The sound was loud enough.
B. Adverb as Adjective Modifier
An adverb that modifies an adjective ends in {-ly}
Examples: a. The widely famous singer.
b. It was a fiercely competitive game.