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Civil Engineering Materials

Lecture 2 – Mechanical Properties A

Course delivery team

Dr. ‘Nwendu Ogwuda Dr. Chu, May Yen Dr. Ceren Ince
e: [email protected] e: [email protected] e: [email protected]

D28MA Civil Engineering Materials

D28MA Civil Engineering Materials
Mechanical properties A - Content

Over the next few weeks the topics that we will cover are the
following:
2.1 Loading & Strength
2.2 Stress and Strain
2.3 Modulus of elasticity & Shear Modulus
2.4 Elasticity and Plasticity
2.5 Poisson’s Ratio
2.6 Strain Energy, Resilience & Toughness
2.7 Creep
2.8 Fatigue
2.9 Hardness
 2.1 Loading and Strength

Different types of forces are imposed on materials by their own weights, service
loads, fabrication, and thermal changes. These forces are:
1. Compressive forces: Forces that try to bring the material into closer contact
2. Tensile forces: Forces that tend to separate the material
3. Shear forces: Forces that implement a cutting effect similar to that of a pair
of scissors.

Figure 2.1: (a) Compressive forces; (b) Tensile forces; (c) Shear forces
2.1 Loading and Strength

(a) Compressive forces; (b) Tensile forces; (c) Shear forces

2.1 Loading and Strength

4. Loading by bending involves applying a load in a manner that causes a

material to curve and results in compressing the material on one side and
stretching it on the other.
Force

Figure 2.2: Bending

5. Torsion is the application of a force that causes twisting in a material.

Figure 2.3: Torsion

 2.1 Loading and Strength

Forces or loads acting on the body of a material may be static or dynamic.

Static forces remain essentially constant or change very slowly without exhibiting
any repetitive characteristics.
Dynamic forces can be impact forces, alternating forces such as those occurring
during vibration, or repeated forces alternating between two limits.

Static forces Dynamic forces

2.1 Loading and Strength

Strength is the ability of materials to carry forces. It depends according to the

geometry of the structural element produced from the considered material, the
type of loading and the material itself.

According to the type of loading induced to a structural element strength can be

classified to:
• Compressive strength
• Tensile strength
• Bending strength
• Shear strength
• Torsion strength
2.1 Loading and Strength

Compressive Strength is the capacity of a material or a structure to withstand

loads tending to reduce size, whereas tensile strength is the capacity of a
material or a structure to withstand loads tending to elongate.

Figure 2.4(a): Compressive and tensile

strength
2.1 Loading and Strength

Tension and Compression

Figure 2.4 (b): Compressive and tensile

strength
2.1 Loading and Strength

Tension and Compression

Figure 2.4 (c): Compressive and tensile

strength
2.1 Loading and Strength

Bending

Figure 2.5: Bending

 2.1 Loading and Strength

Shear

Figure 2.6: Shear

2.1 Loading and Strength

Torsion

Figure 2.6: Tacoma Narrows Bridge

(Torsion)
 2.2 Stress and strain

2.2.1 Stress
When a certain type of a force is applied on a material, internal forces are
developed in that material to resist the effect of the applied force. The magnitude
of the internal resisting forces (develop in the material) gets higher as the
magnitude of the applied forces gets higher. The material does not break as long
as the magnitude of the applied forces does not exceed its capacity to develop
internal resisting forces.
In engineering, it is more common to speak of the magnitude of the force acting
on the a unit area or intensity of the force.
The intensity of the reaction force at any point in the body of the material is
called stress.
Stress:

P
= σ; Stress (MPa or kgf/cm2)
(Units; Pa=N/m2 (Pascals or Newtons/square meter, MPa=N/mm2)
A P; Force acting on an area of a plane
A; Cross-sectional area of a plane
 2.2 Stress and strain

The stresses created by the compressive, tensile and shear forces are called
compressive stresses, tensile stresses and shear stresses respectively.
Any static force or load on a body can be described in terms of three mutually
perpendicular principal stresses:
1. Uniaxial tension or compression: when stress is acting in one direction only
2. Bi-or triaxial tension and compression: when the stress is acting in two or
three perpendicular direction
3. Shear: when the forces are parallel to an imaginary plane at a point.
 2.2 Stress and strain

Stress can be classified according to the direction of

the imposed loading to:
• Nominal stress
The load (tensile or compressive) is perpendicular to
the area imposed and stress (σ) is calculated as:
σ =F/Ao with A being the area perpendicular to the F

tensile compressive

▪ Shear stress Area resisting shear

The load is parallel to the area imposed and the shear
stress (τ) is calculated as:
τ=F/A with A being the area resisting shear
2.2 Stress and strain

Units

Stress is equal to force divided by an area.

Therefore, the S.I. units of stress are Newton's per square metre (N/m2)
which are equal to Pa.
However, the following units of stress may also by used:
▪ N/mm2 equal to MPa
▪ kN/mm2 equal to GPa
 2.2 Stress and strain

2.2.2 Strain
All materials deform and their original dimensions and shapes changes under the
effect of applied forces or loads.
A material shows elongation under tensile stresses and shortening under
compressive stresses.
A material can also show deformation as a result of change in temperature. It
expands upon heating and contracts upon cooling.
 2.2 Stress and strain

Deformation per unit length of a body is called “strain”. It is dimensionless (eg.

cm/cm).
Depending on the type of stress, the strain takes place in the body is called tensile
strain, compressive strain, or shear strain.

Tensile strain is the elongation per unit length. Compressive strain is the
shortening per unit length. These strains are shown in Figure 2.7.

Figure 2.7: (a) Tensile strain ΔL/L0 with corresponding lateral strain Δd/d
(b) Compressive strain ΔL/L0 with corresponding lateral strain Δd/d
 2.2 Stress and strain

Tensile and compressive strains are calculated as follows:

L − L0 L L0 − L L
t = = c = =
L0 L0 L0 L0

εt= Tensile strain

εc= Compressive strain
L0=Original length of the specimen
L= length of the specimen after being deformed
ΔL= Deformation of the original length
 2.2 Stress and strain

Tensile stresses acting along an axis cause elongation of the material in the same
direction of the applied tensile stresses. On the other hand, tensile stresses acting
along an axis create a compression effect and thus shortening in a perpendicular
direction (lateral direction). Similarly, while the axial compressive stresses cause
a shortening in the axial direction, they also cause an elongation laterally.
Lateral strain caused by an axial stress is measured using the following formula:

d ε1= Lateral strain

 l= d= Original diameter or width of the specimen
d Δd= Deformation of the original diameter or width

Shear stresses cause sliding of a certain plane in a body or twisting of the body.

Figure 2.8: Shear strain γ=aa1/ad

2.2 Stress and strain

A shear stress, τ, produces a shear strain, γ, which is

defined as:
γ=δ/b
where: δ = the deflection element
b = distance over which deflection occurs.
 2.2 Stress and strain

Figure 2.9 shows the shear strain of a certain plane subjected to shear stresses.
The angle “γ” may be taken as equal to the ratio of “aa1/ad” where “aa1” is the
horizontal sliding of the side “ab” with respect to the side “dc”.
Thus the shear strain is expressed as γ= aa1/ad.
Twisting a circular body by tangential forces
and creating torsion leads to the
development of pure shear strain (Figure
2.9). Shear strain in pure torsion, γ, is
expressed in radians.

BC r
= =
AB L
γ= Shear strain
AB= Length of the circular body subjected to
twisting
Figure 2.9: The angle θ is the angle of
BC=θr
twist of the line AB to a position AC.
r= Radius of the circular body
 2.3 Modulus of elasticity

2.3.1 Hooke’s Law

Hooke’s law states that the stress in an elastic body is proportional to strain and
independent of time. It applies to most engineering materials for very small stains.
Generalised Hooke’s law for an anisotropic body without any symmetry can be
expressed as

[σ]=[C][ε].

Elastic constants are called moduli of elasticity.

2.3.2 Elastic constants

Four fundamental types of elastic constants are used in defining the most
engineering materials. These are:

1. Modulus of elasticity (Young’s Modulus)

2. Modulus of compressibility (Bulk Modulus)
3. Modulus of rigidity (Shear Modulus)
4. Poisson’s ratio
 2.3 Modulus of elasticity

1. Modulus of Elasticity (Young’s Modulus), E

When an elastic material is subjected to an axial force in tension or in compression, the
magnitude of the deformation produced in the direction in which the load is applied
(axial or longitudinal) is directly proportional both to the magnitude of the force and to
the length of the specimen; the change in the length of the specimen is inversely
proportional to the cross-sectional area of the specimen:

P= Axial force on the specimen

PL
L = L= Original length of the specimen
AE A= Cross-sectional area of the specimen
ΔL= Change in length of the specimen
E= Modulus of Elasticity

Since P/A=σ and ΔL/L=ε  = E

Thus the modulus of elasticity in tension (Et) and compression (Ec):

t c σ=Stress
Et = Ec =
t c ε= Strain
 2.3 Modulus of elasticity

E is the slope of
the plot in the
elastic region

27
 2.3 Modulus of elasticity

2. Modulus of Compressibility, K
The modulus of compressibility (bulk modulus) is defined as the ratio of the
hydrostatic pressure on the body to its volumetric strain.

K= Modulus of compressibility
Hydrostatic Pr essure h V0= Original Volume
K= = V= Volume of the specimen
VolumetricStrain V / V0
ΔV= V0 -V
σh= Hydrostatic pressure

3. Modulus of Rigidity, G
The modulus of rigidity (shear modulus) is defined by the following relationship:


G= G= Modulus of Elasticity
 τ= Shear stress
γ= Shear strain
2.3 Modulus of elasticity

Shear Modulus, G

 x


z


 
A shear stress, t, produces a shear strain, g, which is defined as the displacement
of one surface with respect to another divided by the distance between them:
x
Shear Strain,  = tan =
z
Hence, = G where G is the shear modulus
E
Also, G = v= Poisson’s ratio
2(1 +  )
 2.3 Modulus of elasticity

4. Poisson’s Ratio, μ
As can be seen in Figure 2.2, a tensile stress causes contraction and a compressive
stress causes elongation perpendicular to its own direction. Thus a lateral strain is
caused by an applied stress in the axial or longitudinal direction.

Poisson’s ratio, μ, is defined as follows:

𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝐵𝑦 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝐴𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

𝜇=
𝐴𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

 lateral
=
 axial
 2.3 Modulus of elasticity

2.3.3 Typical values for Elastic Constants

Elastic constants are important characteristics properties of materials. Table 2.1
shows the typical values of elastic constants for some materials.

Modulus of elasticity for typical materials are:

Steel: 210 kN/mm2 = 210,000 MPa
Concrete: 30 kN/mm2 = 30,000 MPa (compression)
Timber:10 kN/mm2 = 10,000 MPa

Steel
Concrete

Stress
Rubber

Strain
 2.4 Elasticity and plasticity

2.4.1 Elastic Behaviour

A material is called elastic if the deformation produced by the effect of a force
totally disappears after the removal of that force. A material showing linear
proportionality between stress and strain and keeping its original shape after the
stress is removed is usually called “perfect elastic material”. (Figure 2.10)

Figure 2.10: Perfect elastic behaviour

 2.4 Elasticity and plasticity

All elastic materials do not have to exhibit perfect elastic behaviour. A material
such as soft rubber is an elastic material although there is no linear proportionality
between the stress and strain. (Figure 2.11)

Figure 2.11: Elastic behaviour of soft rubber

Material can be completely elastic or show elastic behaviour up to a certain stress

level but might act as an inelastic material if that stress level is exceeded.
 2.4 Elasticity and plasticity

2.4.2 Derivations from Perfect Elastic

Behaviour
In perfect elastic behaviour, increase in strain is
proportional to the increase in stress and that
the body recovers its original dimensions after
the removal of stress (Fig. 2.10).
Only very few engineering materials behave as
perfectly elastic bodies because of structural
imperfections. Hooke’s law usually applies to
very small deformations, but as the Figure 2.10: Perfect elastic behaviour
deformations get larger the linear relationship
between the stress and strain no longer exists.

Heating or cooling of materials as a result of deformation has also an important

effect in having different loading and unloading stress-strain curves.
 2.4 Elasticity and plasticity

2.4.3 Plasticity
Many materials exhibit elasticity up to
certain minimum stress and show
permanent (non-recoverable) deformation
if that minimum stress is exceeded.
Permanent deformation of a material is
described as “plastic deformation”.
The minimum stress at which a material
starts to show permanent deformation is
called “yield stress”. Figure 2.12: Ideal plastic deformation
preceded by ideal elastic deformation.

Plastic deformation results from the permanent displacement of atoms, or

molecules, or group of atoms and molecules, from their original position in the
structure of the material. The displaced atoms or molecules do not return to their
original position after the removal of the stress that is beyond the yield stress.
 2.4 Elasticity and plasticity

Figure 2.12: Ideal plastic deformation preceded by ideal elastic deformation.

In most engineering materials there are deviations from perfect elastic and ideal
plastic behaviour, and the relationship between stress and strain is not linear. Figure
2.13 shows the plastic deformation preceded by elastic deformation in rigid bodies.
 2.4 Elasticity and plasticity

Figure 2.13: Elastic and plastic deformation of rigid bodies.

 2.4 Elasticity and plasticity
2.4.4 Stress – Strain Curves
Stress – strain relationships of materials under tensile and compressive stresses are
investigated by conducting laboratory tests on standardised specimens.
In order to find the stress-strain relationship of a material, the material is subjected to
increasing loads and the deformation corresponding to each load level is measured.
Loading is continued until the specimen breaks. Since the original length Lo and the
original cross-sectional area Ao of the specimen are known, the strain (ε=∆L/Lo)
corresponding to each stress level (σ=P/Ao) is found.
The relationship between the stresses applied on a material and the strains that occur at
each stress level is plotted on a diagram, called a “stress-strain diagram”.
Stress-strain curves serve to find the strain that a material undergoes at a certain stress
level, the strength of material, and some additional properties such as stiffness, ductility
(or brittleness) and capacity to absorb energy on the elastic range (resilience) or in the
plastic range (toughness).

The stress-strain relationship of ductile materials such as steel, plastics and fibers is
investigated under tensile stresses, and concrete, clay bricks and cast iron is
investigated under compressive stresses.
 2.4 Elasticity and plasticity

2.4.4 Stress – Strain Curve for Steel

In order to find the stress-strain diagram of a steel rod, the steel rod is firmly
attached to the upper and lower platens of a testing machine. Axial tensile forces
are applied on the steel rod as the upper and lower platens start to move apart from
each other. Gages are attached to the surface of the steel rod to measure the
deformation at each stress level. (Figure 2.14).

Figure 2.14: Set-up for tensile test of a steel rod.

 2.4 Elasticity and plasticity

The test is continued until the steel rod breaks. Thus the stress-strain (load-
deformation) relationship is obtained. Figure 2.15 shows the stress-strain curves for
mild steel and hard steel. Point F and εf on those curves represent the stress level at
which breaking occurs and the amount of strain at breaking, respectively.

Figure 2.15: Stress-strain curves for steel.

 2.4 Elasticity and plasticity

2.4.5 Proportional limit, elastic limit, yield point, strain hardening, ultimate
strength, and breaking strength for steels
Some important properties of steel such as proportional limit, elastic limit, yield
point, strain hardening, ultimate strength, and breaking strength can be easily
determined with the help of their stress-stain curves. These properties are
determined using a typical stress-strain curve for mild steel shown in Figure 2.16.

Figure 2.16: Typical stress-strain diagram for mild steel in tension

 2.4 Elasticity and plasticity

Proportional limit
Figure 2.16 shows a straight-line relationship between point O and A. The stress
corresponding to point A is the upper limit of stress up to which the strains are
proportional to stress.
Proportional limit is defined as the maximum stress level that can be applied on a
material where Hooke’s law applies and hence stress is proportional to strain.

Elastic limit
This is point B on the curve in Figure 2.16. At this stage, material behaves
elastically and no permanent deformation takes place after the removal of the
stress.
Elastic limit is defined as the maximum stress level that can be applied on a
material which does not cause any permanent deformation (material recovers to its
original dimensions). Portion AB is not an straight-line.
Most engineering materials have an elastic limit although they do not have a
proportional limit.
 2.4 Elasticity and plasticity

Yield point
This is point C on Figure 2.16 which is very slightly higher than the one at B. At
this stage material starts to exhibit an appreciable deformation although the applied
stress remains constant. The crystalline nature of the steel starts to exhibit slip
along the slip planes.
Yield point or yield strength is the minimum stress at which the material starts to
show large inelastic deformation without an increase in stress.
Point C= upper yield point
Point D= lower yield point

Strain Hardening
When the yield stress is reached, slip starts and inelastic deformation takes place
even though the amount of stress in the material is not increased. As the amount of
slip increases, further deformation becomes more and more difficult and finally the
plastic flow caused by the yield stress ceases. This phenomenon is called “strain
hardening” or “work hardening”. Further slip occurs at a greater stress level.
Strain hardening is the increase in strength by inelastic deformation.
Point between D and U is the inelastic zone that shows the increase in plastic
deformation with the increase in stress – represent strain hardening.
 2.4 Elasticity and plasticity

Ultimate Strength
When the steel rod under tension is strained beyond its yield point, the stress
increases toward a maximum point U. This is called ultimate strength.
Ultimate strength is defined as the maximum stress that can be developed in the
material as determined from the original cross-section of the specimen.
 u = Pmax / Aoriginal

Some further plastic deformation takes place beyond point U at relatively smaller
stresses than the ultimate stress. Finally, the material breaks at point F.

Breaking Stress
Breaking stress, σb, is the stress under which the breaking of a material takes place.
It is the stress corresponding to point F.
Breaking stress=Load/Original cross-sectional area
Fracture stress (Point F) < Ultimate stress (Point U) ???
The specimen neck down at ultimate stress and the cross-sectional area decreases at
a very fast rate until it breaks. As the cross-sectional area decreases at a faster rate
after point U, lower amount of tensile stress are needed to produce plastic
deformation and fracture (than shown in Figure 2.16).
 2.4 Elasticity and plasticity

2.4.6 True Stress-Strain Curves

The stress-strain curve of mild steel used in engineering is like the one shown in
Figure 2.17. However, such a curve does not portray an accurate indication of actual
stress and strain in the plastic zone, because it is based on the original cross-
sectional are and original gage length.
The true stress is the stress obtained by dividing the load by the cross-sectional area
of the specimen at the instant that the load is affecting.
True Stress =P / Aints
The true strain can be obtained by integration of the strain increments of all past
deformations. If a differential element of strain is denoted as dε, then
dε=dL / L (L=instantaneous length)

Figure 2.17: True stress-strain curve

and nominal stress-strain curve
 2.4 Elasticity and plasticity

2.4.7 Ductility and Brittleness

Ductility is the capacity of the load resisting material to undergo large permanent
deformation while resisting a load. Brittleness is the tendency to break or shatter when
subjected to a stress exceeding the elastic limit.
Mild steel is ductile while hard steel and concrete are brittle.

Figure 2.18: Plastic deformation

in mild steel and hard steel.

Ductility is an important property of materials since a material with high ductility will
considerable deformation before fracture takes place. If a material does not have
sufficient ductility, an unforeseen overload may cause fracture in a very short time
period. Ductile materials show better resistance against impact loads and do not break as
do the brittle materials.
2.4 Elasticity and plasticity

2.4.7 Ductility and Brittleness

Ductility is the ability of the material to stretch or bend permanently

without breaking.
The material is said to be brittle if it goes to failure without providing
sufficient plastic deformation.

Examples of ductile
materials include:
low carbon steel and
aluminium.
Which one would you prefer to
use in a structure and why?
Examples of brittle
materials are:
glass, cast iron
2.4 Elasticity and plasticity

2.4.8 Determination of the Yield Points of Hard Steel and Some Brittle Metals by
the Offset Method
The yield point of a ductile (mild) steel can easily be found from the shape of its stress-
strain curve. On the other hand, many materials such as hard steel, cast iron, aluminium and
copper do not show characteristics yield points that can be easily detected from their stress-
strain curves. The yield stress of a brittle material is determined by a method called the
“offset method or proof stress”.

In offset method, first a certain amount of strain such as

OT is marked on the horizontal axis of the stress-strain
diagram. Then a straight line TC parallel to OA
(proportional limit) is drawn as far as its intersect the
curve. Intersection C is the yield stress.

0.002cm/cm or 0.2% strain is the commonly used value

for finding the yield stress of steel.

Figure 2.19: Determination of the yield strength of hard

steel by the offset method.
 Appendix
Schematic diagram of stress/strain curve: Tensile Test
Elongation measured over a gauge length (normally 50mm)
(MPa)
Stress

Ultimate Tensile Strength

Critical Fracture
stress

Elastic Plastic Strain %

 Appendix
Schematic diagram of stress/strain curve: Tensile Test

From the plot it is clearly seen that, the initial portion of the stress – strain curve
(for most of materials used in engineering structures) is a straight line, known as
the elastic region, followed by a further non-elastic region.

The linear region, OA, is

known as the elastic
region, where the material C
behaves elastically. D
B
The non-linear region, BC, A
is known as the plastic
region, where the material
behaves as a plastic
material .
O

Typical curve
 Appendix
Schematic diagram of stress/strain curve: Tensile Test

In the elastic region, elastic deformation is produced.

Elastic deformation is the deformation produced in a material which is fully
recovered when the stress causing it is removed

If the material is loaded beyond a critical stress, plastic deformation is the

permanent deformation produced in a material after the load is removed.

C D
B
A

Typical curve
 Appendix
Schematic diagram of stress/strain curve: Tensile Test

• A: is the limit of
proportionality
C D • B: is the yield point,
B which corresponds to
A yield stress
• C: is the point which
corresponds to ultimate
stress / strength
O • D: is the fracture point

Typical curve
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