PYTHON

PROGRAMMING
 INDEX
CHAPTER PAGE
TOPICS
NO NO
1 PYTHON ─ Introduction. 1
2 PYTHON ─ Get Started 2
3 PYTHON ─Syntax 4
4 PYTHON ─Variables 5
5 PYTHON ─Numbers 7
6 PYTHON ─Casting 9
7 PYTHON ─Strings 10
8 PYTHON ─Operators 12
9 PYTHON ─If…Else 17
10 PYTHON ─While Loops 20
11 PYTHON ─For Loops 22
12 PYTHON ─Functions 25
13 PYTHON ─Lambda 26
14 PYTHON ─ Lists 28
15 PYTHON ─Tuples 33
16 PYTHON ─Sets 36
17 PYTHON ─Dictionaries 41
18 PYTHON ─Arrays 46
19 PYTHON ─Classes/Objects 50
20 PYTHON ─Iterators 53
21 PYTHON ─Modules 56
22 PYTHON ─Dates 59
23 PYTHON ─JSON 62
24 PYTHON ─PIP 65
25 PYTHON ─Try…Except 68
26 PYTHON ─ MYSQL 70
 PYTHON
Python is a programming language.
Python can be used on a server to create web applications.
What is Python?
Python is a popular programming language. It was created in 1991 by Guido
van Rossum.
It is used for:
 web development (server-side),
 software development,
 mathematics,
 system scripting.
What can Python do?
 Python can be used on a server to create web applications.
 Python can be used alongside software to create workflows.
 Python can connect to database systems. It can also read and modify files.
 Python can be used to handle big data and perform complex mathematics.
 Python can be used for rapid prototyping, or for production-ready
software development.
Why Python?
 Python works on different platforms (Windows, Mac, Linux, Raspberry
Pi, etc).
 Python has a simple syntax similar to the English language.
 Python has syntax that allows developers to write programs with fewer
lines than some other programming languages.
 Python runs on an interpreter system, meaning that code can be executed
as soon as it is written. This means that prototyping can be very quick.
 Python can be treated in a procedural way, an object-orientated way or a
functional way.

1
Good to know
 The most recent major version of Python is Python 3, which we shall be
using in this tutorial. However, Python 2, although not being updated
with anything other than security updates, is still quite popular.
 In this tutorial Python will be written in a text editor. It is possible to
write Python in an Integrated Development Environment, such as
Thonny, Pycharm, Netbeans or Eclipse which are particularly useful
when managing larger collections of Python files.
Python Syntax compared to other programming languages
 Python was designed to for readability, and has some similarities to the
English language with influence from mathematics.
 Python uses new lines to complete a command, as opposed to other
programming languages which often use semicolons or parentheses.
 Python relies on indentation, using whitespace, to define scope; such as
the scope of loops, functions and classes. Other programming languages
often use curly-brackets for this purpose.
2.Python Getting Started
Python Install
Many PCs and Macs will have python already installed.
To check if you have python installed on a Windows PC, search in the start bar
for Python or run the following on the Command Line (cmd.exe):
C:\Users\Your Name>python --version
To check if you have python installed on a Linux or Mac, then on linux open
the command line or on Mac open the Terminal and type:
python --version
If you find that you do not have python installed on your computer, then you
can download it for free from the following website: https://www.python.org/

2
Python Quickstart
Python is an interpreted programming language, this means that as a developer
you write Python (.py) files in a text editor and then put those files into the
python interpreter to be executed.
The way to run a python file is like this on the command line:
C:\Users\Your Name>python helloworld.py
Where "helloworld.py" is the name of your python file.
Let's write our first Python file, called helloworld.py, which can be done in any
text editor.
helloworld.py
print("Hello, World!")
Simple as that. Save your file. Open your command line, navigate to the
directory where you saved your file, and run:
C:\Users\Your Name>python helloworld.py
The output should read:
Hello, World!
The Python Command Line
To test a short amount of code in python sometimes it is quickest and easiest not
to write the code in a file. This is made possible because Python can be run as a
command line itself.
Type the following on the Windows, Mac or Linux command line:
C:\Users\Your Name>python
From there you can write any python, including our hello world example from
earlier in the tutorial:
C:\Users\YourName>python
Python 3.6.4 (v3.6.4:d48eceb, Dec 19 2017, 06:04:45) [MSC v.1900 32 bit
(Intel)]onwin32
Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
>>>print("Hello, World!")
Which will write "Hello, World!" in the command line:
C:\Users\YourName>python
Python 3.6.4 (v3.6.4:d48eceb, Dec 19 2017, 06:04:45) [MSC v.1900 32 bit
3
(Intel)]onwin32
Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
>>>print("Hello,World!")
Hello, World!
Whenever you are done in the python command line, you can simply type the
following to quit the python command line interface:
exit()
3.Python Syntax
Execute Python Syntax
As we learned in the previous page, Python syntax can be executed by writing
directly in the Command Line:
>>>print("Hello,World!")
Hello, World!
Or by creating a python file on the server, using the .py file extension, and
running it in the Command Line:
C:\Users\Your Name>python myfile.py
Python Indentations
Where in other programming languages the indentation in code is for readability
only, in Python the indentation is very important.
Python uses indentation to indicate a block of code.
Example
if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")
Python will give you an error if you skip the indentation:
Example
if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")
Comments
Python has commenting capability for the purpose of in-code documentation.
Comments start with a #, and Python will render the rest of the line as a
comment:

4
Example
Comments in Python:
#This is a comment.
print("Hello, World!")
Docstrings
Python also has extended documentation capability, called docstrings.
Docstrings can be one line, or multiline.
Python uses triple quotes at the beginning and end of the docstring:
Example
Docstrings are also comments:
"""Thisis a
multiline docstring."""
print("Hello, World!")
4.Python Variables
Creating Variables
Unlike other programming languages, Python has no command for declaring a
variable.
A variable is created the moment you first assign a value to it.
Example
x=5
y = "John"
print(x)
print(y)
Variables do not need to be declared with any particular type and can even
change type after they have been set.
Example
x = 4 # x is of type int
x = "Sally" # x is now of type str
print(x)

5
A variable can have a short name (like x and y) or a more descriptive name
(age, carname, total_ Variable Names
volume). Rules for Python variables:
 A variable name must start with a letter or the underscore character
 A variable name cannot start with a number
 A variable name can only contain alpha-numeric characters and
underscores (A-z, 0-9, and _ )
 Variable names are case-sensitive (age, Age and AGE are three different
variables)
Remember that variables are case-sensitive
Output Variables
The Python print statement is often used to output variables.
To combine both text and a variable, Python uses the + character:
Example
x = "awesome"
print("Python is " + x)
You can also use the + character to add a variable to another variable:
Example
x = "Python is "
y = "awesome"
z= x+y
print(z)
For numbers, the + character works as a mathematical operator:
Example
x=5
y = 10
print(x + y)
If you try to combine a string and a number, Python will give you an error:

6
Example
x=5
y = "John"
print(x + y)

5.Python Numbers
Python Numbers
There are three numeric types in Python:
 int
 float
 complex
Variables of numeric types are created when you assign a value to them:
Example
x = 1 # int
y = 2.8 # float
z = 1j # complex
To verify the type of any object in Python, use the type() function:
Example
print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Int
Int, or integer, is a whole number, positive or negative, without decimals, of
unlimited length.
Example
Integers:
x=1

7
y = 35656222554887711
z = -3255522
print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Float
Float, or "floating point number" is a number, positive or negative, containing
one or more decimals.
Example
Floats:
x = 1.10
y = 1.0
z = -35.59
print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))
Float can also be scientific numbers with an "e" to indicate the power of 10.
Example
Floats:
x = 35e3
y = 12E4
z = -87.7e100
print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Complex
Complex numbers are written with a "j" as the imaginary part:
Example

8
Complex:
x = 3+5j
y = 5j
z = -5j
print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

6.Python Casting
Specify a Variable Type
There may be times when you want to specify a type on to a variable. This can
be done with casting. Python is an object-orientated language, and as such it
uses classes to define data types, including its primitive types.
Casting in python is therefore done using constructor functions:
int() - constructs an integer number from an integer literal, a float literal (by
rounding down to the previous whole number), or a string literal (providing the
string represents a whole number)
float() - constructs a float number from an integer literal, a float literal or a
string literal (providing the string represents a float or an integer)
str() - constructs a string from a wide variety of data types, including strings,
integer literals and float literals
Example
Integers:
x = int(1) # x will be 1
y = int(2.8) # y will be 2
z = int("3") # z will be 3
Example
Floats:
x = float(1) # x will be 1.0
y = float(2.8) # y will be 2.8

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z = float("3") # z will be 3.0
w = float("4.2") # w will be 4.2
Example
Strings:
x = str("s1") # x will be 's1'
y = str(2) # y will be '2'
z = str(3.0) # z will be '3.0'
7.Python Strings
String Literals
String literals in python are surrounded by either single quotation marks, or
double quotation marks.
'hello' is the same as "hello".
Strings can be output to screen using the print function. For
example: print("hello").
Like many other popular programming languages, strings in Python are arrays
of bytes representing unicode characters. However, Python does not have a
character data type, a single character is simply a string with a length of 1.
Square brackets can be used to access elements of the string.
Example
Get the character at position 1 (remember that the first character has the position
0):
a = "Hello, World!"
print(a[1])
Example
Substring. Get the characters from position 2 to position 5 (not included):
b= "Hello,World!"
print(b[2:5])
Example
The strip() method removes any whitespace from the beginning or the end:

10
a= "Hello,World!"
print(a.strip()) # returns "Hello, World!"

Example
The len() method returns the length of a string:
a= "Hello,World!"
print(len(a))
Example
The lower() method returns the string in lower case:
a= "Hello,World!"
print(a.lower())
Example
The upper() method returns the string in upper case:
a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.upper())
Example
The replace() method replaces a string with another string:
a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.replace("H", "J"))
Example
The split() method splits the string into substrings if it finds instances of the
separator:
a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.split(",")) # returns ['Hello', ' World!']
Command-line String Input
Python allows for command line input.
That means we are able to ask the user for input.
The following example asks for the user's name, then, by using
the input() method, the program prints the name to the screen:

11
Example
demo_string_input.py
print("Enter your name:")
x = input()
print("Hello, " + x)
Save this file as demo_string_input.py, and load it through the command line:
C:\Users\Your Name>python demo_string_input.py
Our program will prompt the user for a string:
Enter your name:
The user now enters a name:
Linus
Then, the program prints it to screen with a little message:
Hello, Linus
8.Python Operators
Python Operators
Operators are used to perform operations on variables and values.
Python divides the operators in the following groups:
 Arithmetic operators
 Assignment operators
 Comparison operators
 Logical operators
 Identity operators
 Membership operators
 Bitwise operators
Python Arithmetic Operators
Arithmetic operators are used with numeric values to perform common
mathematical operations:

Operator Name Example

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+ Addition x+y

- Subtraction x-y

* Multiplication x*y

/ Division x/y

% Modulus x%y

** Exponentiation x ** y

// Floor division x // y

Python Assignment Operators

Assignment operators are used to assign values to variables:

Operator Example Same As

= x=5 x=5

+= x += 3 x=x+3

-= x -= 3 x=x-3

*= x *= 3 x=x*3

/= x /= 3 x=x/3

%= x %= 3 x=x%3

//= x //= 3 x = x // 3

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**= x **= 3 x = x ** 3

&= x &= 3 x=x&3

|= x |= 3 x=x|3

^= x ^= 3 x=x^3

>>= x >>= 3 x = x >> 3

<<= x <<= 3 x = x << 3

Python Comparison Operators

Comparison operators are used to compare two values:

Operator Name Example

== Equal x == y

!= Not equal x != y

> Greater than x>y

< Less than x<y

>= Greater than or equal to x >= y

<= Less than or equal to x <= y

Python Logical Operators

Logical operators are used to combine conditional statements:

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Operator Description Example

and Returns True if both statements are true x < 5 and x < 10

or Returns True if one of the statements is true x < 5 or x < 4

not Reverse the result, returns False if the result is not(x < 5 and x <
true 10)

Python Identity Operators

Identity operators are used to compare the objects, not if they are equal, but if
they are actually the same object, with the same memory location:

Operator Description Example

is Returns true if both variables are the same x is y

object

is not Returns true if both variables are not the x is not y

same object

Python Membership Operators

Membership operators are used to test if a sequence is presented in an object:

15
Operator Description Example

in Returns True if a sequence with the specified value is x in y

present in the object

not in Returns True if a sequence with the specified value is not x not in
present in the object y

Python Bitwise Operators

Bitwise operators are used to compare (binary) numbers:

Operator Name Description

& AND Sets each bit to 1 if both bits are 1

| OR Sets each bit to 1 if one of two bits is 1

^ XOR Sets each bit to 1 if only one of two bits is 1

~ NOT Inverts all the bits

<< Zero fill left Shift left by pushing zeros in from the right and let the
shift leftmost bits fall off

16
>> Signed right Shift right by pushing copies of the leftmost bit in from
shift the left, and let the rightmost bits fall off

9.Python If ... Else

Python Conditions and If statements
Python supports the usual logical conditions from mathematics:
 Equals: a == b
 Not Equals: a != b
 Less than: a < b
 Less than or equal to: a <= b
 Greater than: a > b
 Greater than or equal to: a >= b
These conditions can be used in several ways, most commonly in "if
statements" and loops.
An "if statement" is written by using the if keyword.
Example
If statement:
a = 33
b = 200
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
In this example we use two variables, a and b, which are used as part of the if
statement to test whether b is greater than a. As a is 33, and b is 200, we know
that 200 is greater than 33, and so we print to screen that "b is greater than a".

Indentation
Python relies on indentation, using whitespace, to define scope in the code.
Other programming languages often use curly-brackets for this purpose.
Example

17
If statement, without indentation (will raise an error):
a = 33
b = 200
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a") # you will get an error

Elif
The elif keyword is pythons way of saying "if the previous conditions were not
true, then try this condition".
Example
a = 33
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
elif a == b:
print("a and b are equal")
In this example a is equal to b, so the first condition is not true, but
the elif condition is true, so we print to screen that "a and b are equal".

Else
The else keyword catches anything which isn't caught by the preceding
conditions.
Example
a = 200
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
elif a == b:
print("a and b are equal")
18
else:
print("a is greater than b")
In this example a is greater to b, so the first condition is not true, also
the elif condition is not true, so we go to the else condition and print to screen
that "a is greater than b".
You can also have an else without the elif:
Example
a = 200
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
else:
print("b is not greater than a")

Short Hand If
If you have only one statement to execute, you can put it on the same line as the
if statement.
Example
One line if statement:
if a > b: print("a is greater than b")
Short Hand If ... Else
If you have only one statement to execute, one for if, and one for else, you can
put it all on the same line:
Example
One line if else statement:
print("A") if a > b else print("B")
You can also have multiple else statements on the same line:
Example
One line if else statement, with 3 conditions:
print("A") if a > b else print("=") if a == b else print("B")
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And
The and keyword is a logical operator, and is used to combine conditional
statements:
Example
Test if a is greater than b, AND if c is greater than a:
if a > b and c > a:
print("Both conditions are True")

OR
The or keyword is a logical operator, and is used to combine conditional
statements:
Example
Test if a is greater than b, OR if a is greater than c:
if a > b or a > c:
print("At least one of the conditions are True")
10.Python While Loops
Python Loops
Python has two primitive loop commands:
 while loops
 for loops
The while Loop
With the while loop we can execute a set of statements as long as a condition is
true.

Example
Print i as long as i is less than 6:
i=1
while i< 6:
20
 print(i)
i += 1
Note: remember to increment i, or else the loop will continue forever.
The while loop requires relevant variables to be ready, in this example we need
to define an indexing variable, i, which we set to 1.

The break Statement

With the break statement we can stop the loop even if the while condition is
true:
Example
Exit the loop when i is 3:
i=1
while i< 6:
print(i)
if i == 3:
break
i += 1
The continue Statement
With the continue statement we can stop the current iteration, and continue with
the next:
Example
Continue to the next iteration if i is 3:
i=0
while i< 6:
i += 1
if i == 3:
continue
print(i)

21
 11.Python For Loops
Python For Loops
A for loop is used for iterating over a sequence (that is either a list, a tuple, a
dictionary, a set, or a string).
This is less like the for keyword in other programming language, and works
more like an iterator method as found in other object-orientated programming
languages.
With the for loop we can execute a set of statements, once for each item in a
list, tuple, set etc.
Example
Print each fruit in a fruit list:
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
for x in fruits:
print(x)
The for loop does not require an indexing variable to set beforehand.

Looping Through a String

Even strings are iterable objects, they contain a sequence of characters:
Example
Loop through the letters in the word "banana":
for x in "banana":
print(x)
The break Statement
With the break statement we can stop the loop before it has looped through all
the items:
Example
Exit the loop when x is "banana":
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
for x in fruits:
print(x)
if x == "banana":
22
 break

Example
Exit the loop when x is "banana", but this time the break comes before the print:
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
for x in fruits:
if x == "banana":
break
print(x)
The continue Statement
With the continue statement we can stop the current iteration of the loop, and
continue with the next:
Example
Do not print banana:
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
for x in fruits:
if x == "banana":
continue
print(x)
The range() Function
To loop through a set of code a specified number of times, we can use
the range() function,
The range() function returns a sequence of numbers, starting from 0 by default,
and increments by 1 (by default), and ends at a specified number.
Example
Using the range() function:
for x in range(6):
print(x)
Note that range(6) is not the values of 0 to 6, but the values 0 to 5.

23
The range() function defaults to 0 as a starting value, however it is possible to
specify the starting value by adding a parameter: range(2, 6), which means
values from 2 to 6 (but not including 6):
Example
Using the start parameter:
for x in range(2, 6):
print(x)
The range() function defaults to increment the sequence by 1, however it is
possible to specify the increment value by adding a third parameter: range(2,
30, 3):
Example
Increment the sequence with 3 (default is 1):
for x in range(2, 30, 3):
print(x)
Else in For Loop
The else keyword in a for loop specifies a block of code to be executed when
the loop is finished:
Example
Print all numbers from 0 to 5, and print a message when the loop has ended:
for x in range(6):
print(x)
else:
print("Finally finished!")
Nested Loops
A nested loop is a loop inside a loop.
The "inner loop" will be executed one time for each iteration of the "outer
loop":
Example
Print each adjective for every fruit:
adj = ["red", "big", "tasty"]
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

24
for x in adj:
for y in fruits:
print(x, y)
12.Python Functions
A function is a block of code which only runs when it is called.
You can pass data, known as parameters, into a function.
A function can return data as a result.

Creating a Function
In Python a function is defined using the def keyword:
Example
def my_function():
print("Hello from a function")
Calling a Function
To call a function, use the function name followed by parenthesis:
Example
def my_function():
print("Hello from a function")
my_function()

Parameters
Information can be passed to functions as parameter.
Parameters are specified after the function name, inside the parentheses. You
can add as many parameters as you want, just separate them with a comma.
The following example has a function with one parameter (fname). When the
function is called, we pass along a first name, which is used inside the function
to print the full name:
Example
def my_function(fname):
print(fname + " Refsnes")

25
my_function("Emil")
my_function("Tobias")
my_function("Linus")
Default Parameter Value
The following example shows how to use a default parameter value.
If we call the function without parameter, it uses the default value:
Example
def my_function(country = "Norway"):
print("I am from " + country)
my_function("Sweden")
my_function("India")
my_function()
my_function("Brazil")

Return Values
To let a function return a value, use the return statement:
Example
def my_function(x):
return 5 * x
print(my_function(3))
print(my_function(5))
print(my_function(9))
13.Python Lambda
A lambda function is a small anonymous function.
A lambda function can take any number of arguments, but can only have one
expression.

Syntax
lambda arguments : expression
The expression is executed and the result is returned:
Example
26
A lambda function that adds 10 to the number passed in as an argument, and
print the result:
x = lambda a : a + 10
print(x(5))
Lambda functions can take any number of arguments:
Example
A lambda function that multiplies argument a with argument b and print the
result:
x = lambda a, b : a * b
print(x(5, 6))
Example
A lambda function that sums argument a, b, and c and print the result:
x = lambda a, b, c : a + b + c
print(x(5, 6, 2))
Why Use Lambda Functions?
The power of lambda is better shown when you use them as an anonymous
function inside another function.
Say you have a function definition that takes one argument, and that argument
will be multiplied with an unknown number:
def myfunc(n):
return lambda a : a * n
Use that function definition to make a function that always doubles the number
you send in:
Example
def myfunc(n):
return lambda a : a * n
mydoubler = myfunc(2)
print(mydoubler(11))
Or, use the same function definition to make a function that always triples the
number you send in:

27
Example
def myfunc(n):
return lambda a : a * n
mytripler = myfunc(3)
print(mytripler(11))
Or, use the same function definition to make both functions, in the same
program:
Example
def myfunc(n):
return lambda a : a * n
mydoubler = myfunc(2)
mytripler = myfunc(3)
print(mydoubler(11))
print(mytripler(11))
Use lambda functions when an anonymous function is required for a short
period of time.
14.Python Lists
Python Collections (Arrays)
There are four collection data types in the Python programming language:
 List is a collection which is ordered and changeable. Allows duplicate
members.
 Tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable. Allows
duplicate members.
 Set is a collection which is unordered and unindexed. No duplicate
members.
 Dictionary is a collection which is unordered, changeable and indexed.
No duplicate members.
When choosing a collection type, it is useful to understand the properties of that
type. Choosing the right type for a particular data set could mean retention of
meaning, and, it could mean an increase in efficiency or security.

28
List
A list is a collection which is ordered and changeable. In Python lists are written
with square brackets.
Example
Create a List:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
print(thislist)
Access Items
You access the list items by referring to the index number:
Example
Print the second item of the list:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
print(thislist[1])
Change Item Value
To change the value of a specific item, refer to the index number:
Example
Change the second item:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist[1] = "blackcurrant"
print(thislist)
Loop Through a List
You can loop through the list items by using a for loop:
Example
Print all items in the list, one by one:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
for x in thislist:
print(x)
You will learn more about for loops in out Python For Loops Chapter.

29
Check if Item Exists
To determine if a specified item is present in a list use the in keyword:
Example
Check if "apple" is present in the list:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
if "apple" in thislist:
print("Yes, 'apple' is in the fruits list")
List Length
To determine how many items a list have, use the len() method:
Example
Print the number of items in the list:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
print(len(thislist))
Add Items
To add an item to the end of the list, use the append() method:
Example
Using the append() method to append an item:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.append("orange")
print(thislist)
To add an item at the specified index, use the insert() method:
Example
Insert an item as the second position:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.insert(1, "orange")
print(thislist)
Remove Item
There are several methods to remove items from a list:
Example
30
The remove() method removes the specified item:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.remove("banana")
print(thislist)
Example
The pop() method removes the specified index, (or the last item if index is not
specified):
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.pop()
print(thislist)
Example
The del keyword removes the specified index:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
del thislist[0]
print(thislist)

Example
The del keyword can also delete the list completely:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
del thislist
print(thislist) #this will cause an error because "thislist" no longer exists.
Example
The clear() method empties the list:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.clear()
print(thislist)
The list() Constructor
It is also possible to use the list() constructor to make a list.
Example
Using the list() constructor to make a List:
31
thislist = list(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-brackets
print(thislist)
List Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on lists.

Method Description

append() Adds an element at the end of the list

clear() Removes all the elements from the list

copy() Returns a copy of the list

count() Returns the number of elements with the specified value

extend() Add the elements of a list (or any iterable), to the end of the current list

index() Returns the index of the first element with the specified value

insert() Adds an element at the specified position

pop() Removes the element at the specified position

remove() Removes the item with the specified value

32
reverse() Reverses the order of the list

sort() Sorts the list

15.Python Tuples
Tuple
A tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable. In Python tuples are
written with round brackets.
Example
Create a Tuple:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
print(thistuple)

Access Tuple Items

You can access tuple items by referring to the index number, inside square
brackets:
Example
Return the item in position 1:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
print(thistuple[1])
Change Tuple Values
Once a tuple is created, you cannot change its values. Tuples are unchangeable.
Example
You cannot change values in a tuple:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
thistuple[1] = "blackcurrant"

33
# The values will remain the same:
print(thistuple)
Loop Through a Tuple
You can loop through the tuple items by using a for loop.
Example
Iterate through the items and print the values:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
for x in thistuple:
print(x)
You will learn more about for loops in out Python For Loops Chapter.
Check if Item Exists
To determine if a specified item is present in a tuple use the in keyword:
Example
Check if "apple" is present in the tuple:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
if "apple" in thistuple:
print("Yes, 'apple' is in the fruits tuple")
Tuple Length
To determine how many items a list have, use the len() method:
Example
Print the number of items in the tuple:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
print(len(thistuple))
Add Items
Once a tuple is created, you cannot add items to it. Tuples are unchangeable.
Example
You cannot add items to a tuple:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
thistuple[3] = "orange" # This will raise an error
34
print(thistuple)
Remove Items
Note: You cannot remove items in a tuple.
Tuples are unchangeable, so you cannot remove items from it, but you can
delete the tuple completely:
Example
The del keyword can delete the tuple completely:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
del thistuple
print(thistuple) #this will raise an error because the tuple no longer exists
The tuple() Constructor
It is also possible to use the tuple() constructor to make a tuple.
Example
Using the tuple() method to make a tuple:
thistuple = tuple(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-
brackets
print(thistuple)
Tuple Methods
Python has two built-in methods that you can use on tuples.

Method Description

count() Returns the number of times a specified value occurs in a tuple

index() Searches the tuple for a specified value and returns the position of
where it was found

35
 16.Python Sets
Set
A set is a collection which is unordered and unindexed. In Python sets are
written with curly brackets.
Example
Create a Set:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
print(thisset)
Note: Sets are unordered, so the items will appear in a random order.
Access Items
You cannot access items in a set by referring to an index, since sets are
unordered the items has no index.
But you can loop through the set items using a for loop, or ask if a specified
value is present in a set, by using thein keyword.
Example
Loop through the set, and print the values:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
for x in thisset:
print(x)
Example
Check if "banana" is present in the set:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
print("banana" in thisset)
Change Items
Once a set is created, you cannot change its items, but you can add new items.
Add Items
To add one item to a set use the add() method.
To add more than one item to a set use the update() method.
Example

36
Add an item to a set, using the add() method:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
thisset.add("orange")

print(thisset)
Example
Add multiple items to a set, using the update() method:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
thisset.update(["orange", "mango", "grapes"])

print(thisset)

Get the Length of a Set

To determine how many items a set have, use the len() method.
Example
Get the number of items in a set:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
print(len(thisset))

Remove Item
To remove an item in a set, use the remove(), or the discard() method.
Example
Remove "banana" by using the remove() method:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
thisset.remove("banana")

print(thisset)
Note: If the item to remove does not exist, remove() will raise an error.
Example
Remove "banana" by using the discard() method:
37
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
thisset.discard("banana")
print(thisset)
Note: If the item to remove does not exist, discard() will NOT raise an error.
You can also use the pop(), method to remove an item, but this method will
remove the last item. Remember that sets are unordered, so you will not know
what item that gets removed.
The return value of the pop() method is the removed item.
Example
Remove the last item by using the pop() method:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
x = thisset.pop()
print(x)

print(thisset)
Note: Sets are unordered, so when using the pop() method, you will not know
which item that gets removed.

Example
The clear() method empties the set:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
thisset.clear()

print(thisset)
Example
The del keyword will delete the set completely:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
del thisset
print(thisset)

38
The set() Constructor
It is also possible to use the set() constructor to make a set.
Example
Using the set() constructor to make a set:
thisset = set(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-brackets
print(thisset)

Set Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on sets.

Method Description

add() Adds an element to the set

clear() Removes all the elements from the set

copy() Returns a copy of the set

difference() Returns a set containing the difference between two

or more sets

difference_update() Removes the items in this set that are also included
in another, specified set

discard() Remove the specified item

39
intersection() Returns a set, that is the intersection of two other sets

intersection_update() Removes the items in this set that are not present in
other, specified set(s)

isdisjoint() Returns whether two sets have a intersection or not

issubset() Returns whether another set contains this set or not

issuperset() Returns whether this set contains another set or not

pop() Removes an element from the set

remove() Removes the specified element

symmetric_difference() Returns a set with the symmetric differences of two

sets

symmetric_difference_update() inserts the symmetric differences from this set and

another

union() Return a set containing the union of sets

update() Update the set with the union of this set and others

40
 17.Python Dictionaries
Dictionary
A dictionary is a collection which is unordered, changeable and indexed. In
Python dictionaries are written with curly brackets, and they have keys and
values.
Example
Create and print a dictionary:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
print(thisdict)

Accessing Items
You can access the items of a dictionary by referring to its key name, inside
square brackets:
Example
Get the value of the "model" key:
x = thisdict["model"]
There is also a method called get() that will give you the same result:
Example
Get the value of the "model" key:
x = thisdict.get("model")
Change Values
You can change the value of a specific item by referring to its key name:
Example
Change the "year" to 2018:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",

41
 "year": 1964
}
thisdict["year"] = 2018

Loop Through a Dictionary

You can loop through a dictionary by using a for loop.
When looping through a dictionary, the return value are the keys of the
dictionary, but there are methods to return the values as well.
Example
Print all key names in the dictionary, one by one:
for x in thisdict:
print(x)
Example
Print all values in the dictionary, one by one:
for x in thisdict:
print(thisdict[x])
Example
You can also use the values() function to return values of a dictionary:
for x in thisdict.values():
print(x)
Example
Loop through both keys and values, by using the items() function:
for x, y in thisdict.items():
print(x, y)

Check if Key Exists

To determine if a specified key is present in a dictionary use the in keyword:
Example
Check if "model" is present in the dictionary:
thisdict = {

42
 "brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
if "model" in thisdict:
print("Yes, 'model' is one of the keys in the thisdict dictionary")

Dictionary Length
To determine how many items (key-value pairs) a dictionary have, use
the len() method.
Example
Print the number of items in the dictionary:
print(len(thisdict))
Adding Items
Adding an item to the dictionary is done by using a new index key and
assigning a value to it:
Example
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict["color"] = "red"
print(thisdict)

Removing Items
There are several methods to remove items from a dictionary:
Example
The pop() method removes the item with the specified key name:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",

43
 "year": 1964
}
thisdict.pop("model")
print(thisdict)
Example
The popitem() method removes the last inserted item (in versions before 3.7, a
random item is removed instead):
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.popitem()
print(thisdict)
Example
The del keyword removes the item with the specified key name:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
del thisdict["model"]
print(thisdict)
Example
The del keyword can also delete the dictionary completely:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
del thisdict
print(thisdict) #this will cause an error because "thisdict" no longer exists.
Example
The clear() keyword empties the dictionary:

44
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.clear()
print(thisdict)

The dict() Constructor

It is also possible to use the dict() constructor to make a dictionary:
Example
thisdict = dict(brand="Ford", model="Mustang", year=1964)
# note that keywords are not string literals
# note the use of equals rather than colon for the assignment
print(thisdict)

Dictionary Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on dictionaries.

Method Description

clear() Removes all the elements from the dictionary

copy() Returns a copy of the dictionary

fromkeys() Returns a dictionary with the specified keys and values

45
get() Returns the value of the specified key

items() Returns a list containing the a tuple for each key value pair

keys() Returns a list contianing the dictionary's keys

pop() Removes the element with the specified key

popitem() Removes the last inserted key-value pair

setdefault() Returns the value of the specified key. If the key does not exist: insert
the key, with the specified value

update() Updates the dictionary with the specified key-value pairs

values() Returns a list of all the values in the dictionary

18.Python Arrays
Note: Python does not have built-in support for Arrays, but Python lists can be
used instead.
Arrays
Arrays are used to store multiple values in one single variable:
Example
Create an array containing car names:

46
cars = ["Ford", "Volvo", "BMW"]

What is an Array?
An array is a special variable, which can hold more than one value at a time.
If you have a list of items (a list of car names, for example), storing the cars in
single variables could look like this:
car1 = "Ford";
car2 = "Volvo";
car3 = "BMW";
However, what if you want to loop through the cars and find a specific one?
And what if you had not 3 cars, but 300?
The solution is an array!
An array can hold many values under a single name, and you can access the
values by referring to an index number.

Access the Elements of an Array

You refer to an array element by referring to the index number.
Example
Get the value of the first array item:
x = cars[0]
Example
Modify the value of the first array item:
cars[0] = "Toyota"

The Length of an Array

Use the len() method to return the length of an array (the number of elements in
an array).
Example
Return the number of elements in the cars array:

47
x = len(cars)
Note: The length of an array is always one more than the highest array index.

Looping Array Elements

You can use the for in loop to loop through all the elements of an array.
Example
Print each item in the cars array:
for x in cars:
print(x)

Adding Array Elements

You can use the append() method to add an element to an array.
Example
Add one more element to the cars array:
cars.append("Honda")

Removing Array Elements

You can use the pop() method to remove an element from the array.
Example
Delete the second element of the cars array:
cars.pop(1)
You can also use the remove() method to remove an element from the array.
Example
Delete the element that has the value "Volvo":
cars.remove("Volvo")
Note: The remove() method only removes the first occurrence of the specified
value.

48
Array Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on lists/arrays.

Method Description

append() Adds an element at the end of the list

clear() Removes all the elements from the list

copy() Returns a copy of the list

count() Returns the number of elements with the specified value

extend() Add the elements of a list (or any iterable), to the end of the current
list

index() Returns the index of the first element with the specified value

insert() Adds an element at the specified position

pop() Removes the element at the specified position

remove() Removes the first item with the specified value

49
reverse() Reverses the order of the list

sort() Sorts the list

Note: Python does not have built-in support for Arrays, but Python Lists can be
used instead.
19.Python Classes and Objects
Python Classes/Objects
 Python is an object oriented programming language.
 Almost everything in Python is an object, with its properties and
methods.
 A Class is like an object constructor, or a "blueprint" for creating objects.

Create a Class
To create a class, use the keyword class:
Example
Create a class named MyClass, with a property named x:
class MyClass:
x=5
Create Object
Now we can use the class named myClass to create objects:
Example
Create an object named p1, and print the value of x:
p1 = MyClass()
print(p1.x)
The __init__() Function
The examples above are classes and objects in their simplest form, and are not
really useful in real life applications.

50
To understand the meaning of classes we have to understand the built-in
__init__() function.
All classes have a function called __init__(), which is always executed when the
class is being initiated.
Use the __init__() function to assign values to object properties, or other
operations that are necessary to do when the object is being created:
Example
Create a class named Person, use the __init__() function to assign values for
name and age:
class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age
p1 = Person("John", 36)
print(p1.name)
print(p1.age)
Note: The __init__() function is called automatically every time the class is
being used to create a new object.
Object Methods
Objects can also contain methods. Methods in objects are functions that belongs
to the object.
Let us create a method in the Person class:
Example
Insert a function that prints a greeting, and execute it on the p1 object:
class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age
def myfunc(self):
print("Hello my name is " + self.name)
p1 = Person("John", 36)

51
p1.myfunc()
Note: The self parameter is a reference to the class instance itself, and is used to
access variables that belongs to the class.
The self Parameter
The self parameter is a reference to the class itself, and is used to access
variables that belongs to the class.
It does not have to be named self , you can call it whatever you like, but it has to
be the first parameter of any function in the class:

Example
Use the words mysillyobject and abc instead of self:
class Person:
def __init__(mysillyobject, name, age):
mysillyobject.name = name
mysillyobject.age = age
def myfunc(abc):
print("Hello my name is " + abc.name)
p1 = Person("John", 36)
p1.myfunc()
Modify Object Properties
You can modify properties on objects like this:
Example
Set the age of p1 to 40:
p1.age = 40
Delete Object Properties
You can delete properties on objects by using the del keyword:
Example
Delete the age property from the p1 object:
del p1.age

52
Delete Objects
You can delete objects by using the del keyword:
Example
Delete the p1 object:
del p1
20.Python Iterators
Python Iterators
 An iterator is an object that contains a countable number of values.
 An iterator is an object that can be iterated upon, meaning that you can
traverse through all the values.
Technically, in Python, an iterator is an object which implements the iterator
protocol, which consist of the methods __iter__() and __next__().
Iterator vs Iterable
Lists, tuples, dictionaries, and sets are all iterable objects. They are
iterable containers which you can get an iterator from.
All these objects have a iter() method which is used to get an iterator:
Example
Return a iterator from a tuple, and print each value:
mytuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
myit = iter(mytuple)
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))

Even strings are iterable objects, and can return an iterator:

Example
Strings are also iterable objects, containing a sequence of characters:
mystr = "banana"
myit = iter(mystr)

53
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))

Looping Through an Iterator

We can also use a for loop to iterate through an iterable object:
Example
Iterate the values of a tuple:
mytuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
for x in mytuple:
print(x)
Example
Iterate the characters of a string:
mystr = "banana"
for x in mystr:
print(x)
The for loop actually creates in iterator object and executes the next() method
for each loop.
Create an Iterator
To create an object/class as an iterator you have to implement the
methods __iter__() and __next__() to your object.
As you have learned in the Python Classes/Objects chapter, all classes have a
function called __init__(), which allows you do some initializing when the
object is being created.
The __iter__() method acts similar, you can do operations (initializing etc.), but
must always return the iterator object itself.
The __next__() method also allows you to do operations, and must return the
next item in the sequence.
Example

54
Create an iterator that returns numbers, starting with 1, and each sequence will
increase by one (returning 1,2,3,4,5 etc.):
class MyNumbers:
def __iter__(self):
self.a = 1
return self
def __next__(self):
x = self.a
self.a += 1
return x
myclass = MyNumbers()
myiter = iter(myclass)
print(next(myiter))
print(next(myiter))
print(next(myiter))
print(next(myiter))
print(next(myiter))
StopIteration
The example above would continue forever if you had enough next()
statements, or if it was used in a for loop.
To prevent the iteration to go on forever, we can use
the StopIteration statement.
In the __next__() method, we can add a terminating condition to raise an error if
the iteration is done a specified number of times:
Example
Stop after 20 iterations:
class MyNumbers:
def __iter__(self):
self.a = 1
return self
def __next__(self):
if self.a<= 20:
x = self.a

55
 self.a += 1
return x
else:
raise StopIteration
myclass = MyNumbers()
myiter = iter(myclass)
for x in myiter:
print(x)
21.Python Modules
What is a Module?
Consider a module to be the same as a code library.
A file containing a set of functions you want to include in your application.
Create a Module
To create a module just save the code you want in a file with the file
extension .py:
Example
Save this code in a file named mymodule.py
def greeting(name):
print("Hello, " + name)
Use a Module
Now we can use the module we just created, by using the import statement:
Example
Import the module named mymodule, and call the greeting function:
import mymodule

mymodule.greeting("Jonathan")
Note: When using a function from a module, use the
syntax: module_name.function_name.

56
Variables in Module
The module can contain functions, as already described, but also variables of all
types (arrays, dictionaries, objects etc):
Example
Save this code in the file mymodule.py
person1 = {
"name": "John",
"age": 36,
"country": "Norway"
}
Example
Import the module named mymodule, and access the person1 dictionary:
import mymodule

a = mymodule.person1["age"]
print(a)
Import From Module
You can choose to import only parts from a module, by using
the from keyword.
Example
The module named mymodule has one function and one dictionary:
def greeting(name):
print("Hello, " + name)
person1 = {
"name": "John",
"age": 36,
"country": "Norway"
}

Example
Import only the person1 dictionary from the module:

57
from mymodule import person1

print (person1["age"])

Note: When importing using the from keyword, do not use the module name
when referring to elements in the module.
Example: person1["age"], not mymodule.person1["age"]
Naming a Module
You can name the module file whatever you like, but it must have the file
extension .py
Re-naming a Module
You can create an alias when you import a module, by using the as keyword:
Example
Create an alias for mymodule called mx:
import mymodule as mx

a = mx.person1["age"]
print(a)

Built-in Modules
There are several built-in modules in Python, which you can import whenever
you like.
Example
Import and use the platform module:
import platform
x = platform.system()
print(x)
Using the dir() Function
There is a built-in function to list all the function names (or variable names) in a
module. The dir() function:
Example

58
List all the defined names belonging to the platform module:
import platform

x = dir(platform)
print(x)
Note: The dir() function can be used on all modules, also the ones you create
yourself.

22.Python Datetime
Python Dates
A date in Python is not a data type of its own, but we can import a module
named datetime to work with dates as date objects.
Example
Import the datetime module and display the current date:
import datetime
x = datetime.datetime.now()
print(x)

Date Output
When we execute the code from the example above the result will be:
2018-12-10 14:37:11.527963
The date contains year, month, day, hour, minute, second, and microsecond.
The datetime module has many methods to return information about the date
object.
Here are a few examples, you will learn more about them later in this chapter:
Example
Return the year and name of weekday:
import datetime

x = datetime.datetime.now()

59
print(x.year)
print(x.strftime("%A"))
Creating Date Objects
To create a date, we can use the datetime() class (constructor) of
the datetime module.
The datetime() class requires three parameters to create a date: year, month, day.
Example
Create a date object:
import datetime

x = datetime.datetime(2020, 5, 17)
print(x)
The datetime() class also takes parameters for time and timezone (hour, minute,
second, microsecond, tzone), but they are optional, and has a default value of 0,
(None for timezone).

The strftime() Method

The datetime object has a method for formatting date objects into readable
strings.
The method is called strftime(), and takes one parameter, format, to specify the
format of the returned string:
Example
Display the name of the month:
import datetime

x = datetime.datetime(2018, 6, 1)
print(x.strftime("%B"))
A reference of all the legal format codes:

Directive Description Example

%a Weekday, short version Wed

60
%A Weekday, full version Wednesday

%w Weekday as a number 0-6, 0 is Sunday 3

%d Day of month 01-31 31

%b Month name, short version Dec

%B Month name, full version December

%m Month as a number 01-12 12

%y Year, short version, without century 18

%Y Year, full version 2018

%H Hour 00-23 17

%I Hour 00-12 05

%p AM/PM PM

%M Minute 00-59 41

%S Second 00-59 08

%f Microsecond 000000-999999 548513

%z UTC offset +0100

%Z Timezone CST

%j Day number of year 001-366 365

%U Week number of year, Sunday as the 52

first day of week, 00-53

%W Week number of year, Monday as the 52

first day of week, 00-53

%c Local version of date and time Mon Dec 31

17:41:00 2018

%x Local version of date 12/31/18

61
%X Local version of time 17:41:00

%% A % character %

23.Python JSON
 JSON is a syntax for storing and exchanging data.
 JSON is text, written with JavaScript object notation.
JSON in Python
Python has a built-in package called json, which can be use to work with JSON
data.
Example
import the json module:
import simplejson
Parse JSON - Convert from JSON to Python
If you have a JSON string, you can parse it by using the json.loads() method.
The result will be a Python dictionary.
Example
Convert from JSON to Python:
import simplejson as json
# some JSON:
x = '{ "name":"John", "age":30, "city":"New York"}'
# parse x:
y = json.loads(x)
# the result is a Python dictionary:
print(y["age"])
Convert from Python to JSON
If you have a Python object, you can convert it into a JSON string by using
the json.dumps() method.
Example

62
Convert from Python to JSON:
import simplejson as json
# a Python object (dict):
x={
"name": "John",
"age": 30,
"city": "New York"
}
# convert into JSON:
y = json.dumps(x)
# the result is a JSON string:
print(y)
You can convert Python objects of the following types, into JSON strings:
 dict
 list
 tuple
 string
 int
 float
 True
 False
 None
Example
Convert Python objects into JSON strings, and print the values:
import simplejson as json
print(json.dumps({"name": "John", "age": 30}))
print(json.dumps(["apple", "bananas"]))
print(json.dumps(("apple", "bananas")))
print(json.dumps("hello"))
print(json.dumps(42))
print(json.dumps(31.76))
print(json.dumps(True))
print(json.dumps(False))
print(json.dumps(None))
63
When you convert from Python to JSON, Python objects are converted into the
JSON (JavaScript) equivalent:

Python JSON

dict Object

list Array

tuple Array

str String

int Number

float Number

True true

False false

None null

Example
Convert a Python object containing all the legal data types:
import simplejson as json
x={
"name": "John",
"age": 30,
"married": True,
"divorced": False,
"children": ("Ann","Billy"),
"pets": None,
"cars":
{"model": "BMW 230", "mpg": 27.5},
{"model": "Ford Edge", "mpg": 24.1}

64
}

print(json.dumps(x))

Format the Result

The example above prints a JSON string, but it is not very easy to read, with no
indentations and line breaks.
The json.dumps() method has parameters to make it easier to read the result:
Example
Use the indent parameter to define the numbers of indents:
json.dumps(x, indent=4)
You can also define the separators, default value is (", ", ": "), which means
using a comma and a space to separate each object, and a colon and a space to
separate keys from values:
Example
Use the separators parameter change the default separator:
json.dumps(x, indent=4, separators=(". ", " = "))

Order the Result

The json.dumps() method has parameters to order the keys in the result:
Example
Use the sort_keys parameter to specify if the result should be sorted or not:
json.dumps(x, indent=4, sort_keys=True)

24.Python PIP
What is PIP?
PIP is a package manager for Python packages, or modules if you like.
Note: If you have Python version 3.4 or later, PIP is included by default.
What is a Package?

65
A package contains all the files you need for a module.
Modules are Python code libraries you can include in your project.

Check if PIP is Installed

Navigate your command line to the location of Python's script directory, and
type the following:
Example
Check PIP version:
C:\Users\Your Name\AppData\Local\Programs\Python\Python36-
32\Scripts>pip --version
Install PIP
If you do not have PIP installed, you can download and install it from this
page: https://pypi.org/project/pip/

Download a Package
Downloading a package is very easy.
Open the command line interface and tell PIP to download the package you
want.
Navigate your command line to the location of Python's script directory, and
type the following:
Example
Download a package named "camelcase":
C:\Users\Your Name\AppData\Local\Programs\Python\Python36-
32\Scripts>pip install camelcase
Now you have downloaded and installed your first package!
Using a Package
Once the package is installed, it is ready to use.
Import the "camelcase" package into your project.
Example

66
Import and use "camelcase":
import camelcase

c = camelcase.CamelCase()
txt = "hello world"
print(c.hump(txt))
Find Packages
Find more packages at https://pypi.org/.
Remove a Package
Use the uninstall command to remove a package:
Example
Uninstall the package named "camelcase":
C:\Users\Your Name\AppData\Local\Programs\Python\Python36-
32\Scripts>pip uninstall camelcase
The PIP Package Manager will ask you to confirm that you want to remove the
camelcase package:
Uninstalling camelcase-02.1:
Would remove:
c:\users\Your Name\appdata\local\programs\python\python36-32\lib\site-
packages\camecase-0.2-py3.6.egg-info
c:\users\Your Name\appdata\local\programs\python\python36-32\lib\site-
packages\camecase\*
Proceed (y/n)?
Press y and the package will be removed.

List Packages
Use the list command to list all the packages installed on your system:
Example
List installed packages:

67
C:\Users\Your Name\AppData\Local\Programs\Python\Python36-
32\Scripts>pip list
Result:
Package Version
-----------------------
camelcase 0.2
mysql-connector 2.1.6
pip 18.1
pymongo 3.6.1
setuptools 39.0.1
25.Python Try Except
The try block lets you test a block of code for errors.
The except block lets you handle the error.
The finally block lets you execute code, regardless of the result of the try- and
except blocks.

Exception Handling
When an error occurs, or exception as we call it, Python will normally stop and
generate an error message.
These exceptions can be handled using the try statement:
Example
The try block will generate an exception, because x is not defined:
try:
print(x)
except:
print("An exception occurred")
Since the try block raises an error, the except block will be executed.
Without the try block, the program will crash and raise an error:
Example
This statement will raise an error, because x is not defined:
print(x)

68
Many Exceptions
You can define as many exception blocks as you want, e.g. if you want to
execute a special block of code for a special kind of error:
Example
Print one message if the try block raises a NameError and another for other
errors:
try:
print(x)
except NameError:
print("Variable x is not defined")
except:
print("Something else went wrong")

Else
You can use the else keyword to define a block of code to be executed if no
errors were raised:
Example
In this example, the try block does not generate any error:
try:
print("Hello")
except:
print("Something went wrong")
else:
print("Nothing went wrong")

Finally
The finally block, if specified, will be executed regardless if the try block raises
an error or not.
Example
try:
print(x)

69
except:
print("Something went wrong")
finally:
print("The 'try except' is finished")
This can be useful to close objects and clean up resources:
Example
Try to open and write to a file that is not writable:
try:
f = open("demofile.txt")
f.write("Lorum Ipsum")
except:
print("Something went wrong when writing to the file")
finally:
f.close()
The program can continue, without leaving the file object open.
26.Python MySQL
Python can be used in database applications.
One of the most popular databases is MySQL.

MySQL Database
To be able experiment with the code examples in this tutorial, you should have
MySQL installed on your computer.
You can download a free MySQL database
at https://www.mysql.com/downloads/.
Install MySQL Driver
Python needs a MySQL driver to access the MySQL database.
In this tutorial we will use the driver "MySQL Connector".
We recommend that you use PIP to install "MySQL Connector".
PIP is most likely already installed in your Python environment.
Navigate your command line to the location of PIP, and type the following:

70
Download and install "MySQL Connector":
C:\Users\Your Name\AppData\Local\Programs\Python\Python36-
32\Scripts>python -m pip install mysql-connector
Now you have downloaded and installed a MySQL driver.
Test MySQL Connector
To test if the installation was successful, or if you already have "MySQL
Connector" installed, create a Python page with the following content:
demo_mysql_test.py:
import mysql.connector
If the above code was executed with no errors, "MySQL Connector" is installed
and ready to be used.

Create Connection
Start by creating a connection to the database.
Use the username and password from your MySQL database:
demo_mysql_connection.py:
import mysql.connector

mydb = mysql.connector.connect(
host="localhost",
user="yourusername",
passwd="yourpassword"
)
print(mydb)
Creating a Database
To create a database in MySQL, use the "CREATE DATABASE" statement:
Example
create a database named "mydatabase":
import mysql.connector

mydb = mysql.connector.connect(

71
host="localhost",
user="yourusername",
passwd="yourpassword"
)

mycursor = mydb.cursor()
mycursor.execute("CREATE DATABASE mydatabase")
If the above code was executed with no errors, you have successfully created a
database.

Check if Database Exists

You can check if a database exist by listing all databases in your system by
using the "SHOW DATABASES" statement:
Example
Return a list of your system's databases:
import mysql.connector
mydb = mysql.connector.connect(
host="localhost",
user="yourusername",
passwd="yourpassword"
)
mycursor = mydb.cursor()
mycursor.execute("SHOW DATABASES")
for x in mycursor:
print(x)
Or you can try to access the database when making the connection:
Example
Try connecting to the database "mydatabase":
import mysql.connector

mydb = mysql.connector.connect(

72
host="localhost",
user="yourusername",
passwd="yourpassword",
database="mydatabase"
)
If the database does not exist, you will get an error.
Creating a Table
To create a table in MySQL, use the "CREATE TABLE" statement.
Make sure you define the name of the database when you create the connection
Example
Create a table named "customers":
import mysql.connector

mydb = mysql.connector.connect(
host="localhost",
user="yourusername",
passwd="yourpassword",
database="mydatabase"
)
mycursor = mydb.cursor()
mycursor.execute("CREATE TABLE customers (name VARCHAR(255),
address VARCHAR(255))")
If the above code was executed with no errors, you have now successfully
created a table.

Check if Table Exists

You can check if a table exist by listing all tables in your database with the
"SHOW TABLES" statement:
Example
Return a list of your system's databases:
import mysql.connector

mydb = mysql.connector.connect(

73
 host="localhost",
user="yourusername",
passwd="yourpassword",
database="mydatabase"
)

mycursor = mydb.cursor()
mycursor.execute("SHOW TABLES")
for x in mycursor:
print(x)

Primary Key
When creating a table, you should also create a column with a unique key for
each record.
This can be done by defining a PRIMARY KEY.
We use the statement "INT AUTO_INCREMENT PRIMARY KEY" which will
insert a unique number for each record. Starting at 1, and increased by one for
each record.
Example
Create primary key when creating the table:
import mysql.connector

mydb = mysql.connector.connect(
host="localhost",
user="yourusername",
passwd="yourpassword",
database="mydatabase"
)
mycursor = mydb.cursor()
mycursor.execute("CREATE TABLE customers (id INT AUTO_INCREMENT
PRIMARY KEY, name VARCHAR(255), address VARCHAR(255))")If the
table already exists, use the ALTER TABLE keyword:
Example
Create primary key on an existing table:
74
import mysql.connector

mydb = mysql.connector.connect(
host="localhost",
user="yourusername",
passwd="yourpassword",
database="mydatabase"
)
mycursor = mydb.cursor()
mycursor.execute("ALTER TABLE customers ADD COLUMN id INT
AUTO_INCREMENT PRIMARY KEY")

75
 PYTHON PROGRAMMING
PRACTICE -0
1) Write a Python program to convert degree to radian
2) Write a Python program to calculate the area of a trapezoid.
3) Write a Python program to calculate the area of a parallelogram.
4) Write a Python program to calculate the following.
i.

ii.

iii.

iv.

v.
(a  b  c)2
x
(a 2  b 2  c 2 ) 2

vi.

(x  2)2 / 2
Y= (x  2)  (x  2 )
2 2

vii.

b2  4ab
x= (b  4ab)
2 2
 PRACTICE -1
CONDITIONAL STATEMENT
1. Write a Python program to get a number from the user and print whether it is positive
or negative.
2. Take three numbers from the user and print the greatest number.
3. Write a Python program that reads a floating-point number and prints "zero" if the
number is zero. Otherwise, print "positive" or "negative". Add "small" if the absolute
value of the number is less than 1, or "large" if it exceeds 1,000,000
4. Write a Python program that keeps a number from the user and generates an integer
between 1 and 7 and displays the name of the weekday.
5. Write a Python program to find the number of days in a month.
6. Write a Python program that takes a year from user and print whether that year is a
leap year or not.
7. A company decided to give bonus of 5% to employee if his/her year of service is
more than 5 years.
Ask user for their salary and year of service and print the net bonus amount.
8. A school has following rules for grading system:
a. Below 25 - F
b. 25 to 45 - E
c. 45 to 50 - D
d. 50 to 60 - C
e. 60 to 80 - B
f. Above 80 - A
Ask user to enter marks and print the corresponding grade.
9. Take input of age of 3 people by user and determine oldest and youngest among them.
10. A student will not be allowed to sit in exam if his/her attendence is less than 75%.
Take following input from user
Number of classes held
Number of classes attended.
And print
percentage of class attended
Is student is allowed to sit in exam or not.
11. Write a program to check whether a entered character is lowercase ( a to z ) or
uppercase ( A to Z ).
 PRACTICE 1 ENHANCED
CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS
1. Eligibility to cast vote and contest in election as follows.
Eligible to Vote: Age >=18, Indian resident/NRI. Eligible to Contest: Age>=25, Only
Indian Resident.
Input: Age and Residency. Print: Eligibility for Vote and Contest
2. A company decided to give bonus only to the employee’s year of service is more than
5 years. Based on the following tariff the bonus will be calculated, if the salary bellow
50000 then 5% of bonus, if the salary above 50000 the 4% of bonus, if salary above
1,00,000 then 3% of bonus. Additional bonus of 2% will be given to them irrespective
of salary if they have more than 10 years of service.
Ask user for their salary and year of service and print the net bonus amount.
3. Take input of age of 3 people by user and determine oldest and youngest among them.
If all has same then all are oldest and youngest. This scenario applicable for any two.
4. Print Super Number if the given 2 digit number’s individual digits squares sum is
greater than that Number otherwise Print Normal. Ex: 12 => Normal (1 2+22=5; 5<12)
whereas 89 => Super Number (82+92=145; 145>89)
5. A student will not be allowed to sit in exam if his/her attendance is less than 75%. If
he/she got more than 80% in her/his internal assessment then he/she may be allowed.
Take following input from user Number of classes held, Number of classes attended,
Total mark of the Assessment and mark secured. And print percentage of class
attended Is student is allowed to sit in exam or not.
6. A school has following rules for grading system: Below 25 - F, 25 to 45 – E, 45 to 50
– D, 50 to 60 – C, 60 to 80 – B, Above 80 – A. Note: A if statement should has only
one condition.
Ask user to enter marks and print the corresponding grade. Validate the input too.
 PRACTICE -2
LOOPING
1. Write a program to check whether the given number is Prime of not
2. Write a program to print all whole numbers from M to N
3. Write a program to calculate the sum of first 10 natural number.
4. Write a program that prompts the user to input a positive integer. It should then print
the multiplication table of that number.
5. Write a program to find the factorial value of any number entered through the
keyboard.
6. Two numbers are entered through the keyboard. Write a program to find the value of
one number raised to the power of another. (Do not use built-in method)
7. Write a program that prompts the user to input an integer and then outputs the number
with the digits reversed. For example, if the input is 12345, the output should be
54321.
8. Write a program to enter the numbers till the user wants and at the end it should
display the count of positive, negative and zeros entered.
9. Write a program to enter the numbers till the user wants and at the end the program
should display the largest and smallest numbers entered.
10. Write a program to print out all Armstrong numbers between 1 and 500. If sum of
cubes of each digit of the number is equal to the number itself, then the number is
called an Armstrong number.
For example, 153 = ( 1 * 1 * 1 ) + ( 5 * 5 * 5 ) + ( 3 * 3 * 3 )
11. Write a program to calculate the sum of following series where n is input by user.
1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + 1/4 + 1/5 +… ........... 1/n
12. Compute the natural logarithm of 2, by adding up to n terms in the series
1 - 1/2 + 1/3 - 1/4 + 1/5 ..... 1/n
where n is a positive integer and input by user.
13. Write a program to print following :
i) ********** ii) * iii) *
********** ** **
********** *** ***
********** **** ****
***** *****

iv) * v) 1 vi) 1
*** 222 212
***** 33333 32123
******* 4444444 4321234
********* 555555555 543212345
 PRACTICE -2 ENHANCED
LOOPING
1. Write a program to calculate the sum of all prime numbers from M to N (Note: M<N).
2. Write a program to find the factorial value of any 3 numbers entered through the
keyboard and add the results.
3. Write a program to calculate the sum of following series where n is input by user.
1 + 1/2! + 1/3! + 1/4! + 1/5! +… ............1/n!
where n is a positive integer and input by user.
4. Write a program to find sum of first X numbers between M to N which are divisible
by Y.
5. Write a program to find the sum of all numbers between M to N except the multiples
of X.

PRACTICE – 3
FUNCTION
1) Write a program to find the square of any number using the function.
2) Write a program to swap two numbers using function.
Input: n1=25 n2=50
Output: n1=50 n2=25
3) Write a program to check a given number is even or odd using the function.
4) Write a program to check whether a number is a prime number or not using the
function.
5) Write a program in C to check armstrong and perfect numbers using the function.
Example: The first perfect number is 6, because 1, 2, and 3 are its proper positive
divisors, and 1 + 2 + 3 = 6. Equivalently, the number 6 is equal to half the sum of all
its positive divisors: (1 + 2 + 3 + 6) / 2 = 6. The next perfect number is 28 = 1 + 2 + 4
+ 7 + 14. This is followed by the perfect numbers 496 and 8128.
6) Write a program to find sum of digits of a given number using recursion.
Input: 8753
Output: 23
7) Write a program to find reverse of any number using recursion.
Input: 3452
Output: 2543
8) Write a program to check whether a number is palindrome or not using recursion.
9) Write a program to find factorial of any number using recursion.
10) Write a program to generate nth Fibonacci term using recursion.
 PRACTICE - 4

LIST,TUPLE
1. Write a Python program to get a list element and print in reverse order.
2. Write a Python program to find the maximum and minimum value of a list
3. Write a Python program to sum values of a list.
4. Write a Python program to calculate the average value of list elements.
5. Write a Python program to test if a list contains a specific value.
6. Write a Python program to insert an element (first and last position) into a list.
7. Write a Python program to insert an element (specific position) into a list.
8. Write a Python program to merge two lists
9. Write a Python program to remove a specific element from a list.
10. Write a Python program to find the number of even and odd integers in a given list of
integers.
11. Write a Python program to find prime numbers in a list.
12. Write a Python program to sort a list.
13. Write a program to find the smallest and largest element among first and last elements
of N tuples.
14. Get a list of characters and the how many pair of characters is in that list.
15. Get three lists of numbers and join elements as a single list without duplication of the
elements.
16. Get a list of integers from the user and delete all repeated elements from it and display
the unique element list.
PRACTICE – 5
SET,DICTIONARY

1. Write a Python program to create an intersection of sets.

2. Write a Python program to create a union of sets.
3. Write a Python program to create set difference.
4. Write a Python program to create a symmetric difference on sets.
5. Write a Python program to issubset and issuperset.
6. Get input for 10 students from user as a dictionary and update a particular student
details with user option.
 PRACTICE 6

CLASSES & OBJECTS

1. Write a program to calculate area of rectangle using classes and objects.

2. Write a program to calculate area of square using classes and objects.
3. Create a class named “Account” to get Acc_No, Name, Amount, create methods
“deposit”, “withdraw”, ”display_balance”, “display_userdetails”.
 In deposit method, sum the amount with the given amount value
 In withdraw method check whether the amount is sufficient then withdraw
amount from the account.
 In display_balance method just display the balance amount of the account.
 In display_userdetails method display the user’s Acc_no, Name, amount.
Create a main class and access the Account class.
4. Write a program that would print the information (name, year of joining, salary,
address) of three employees by creating a class named 'Employee'. The output
should be as follows:
Name Year of joining Address
Robert 1994 64C- WallsStreat
Sam 2000 68D- WallsStreat
John 1999 26B- WallsStreat