Python Unit-1 Notes

Introduction to Python Programming
UNIT-1
PYTHON FUNDAMENTALS
History of Python Programming language

Python was conceived in the late 1980s by Guido van Rossum at Centrum
Wiskunde & Informatica (CWI) in the Netherlands as a successor to the ABC
programming language, which was inspired by SETL), capable of exception
handling and interfacing with the Amoeba operating system.
Its implementation began in December 1989. Van Rossum shouldered sole
responsibility for the project, as the lead developer, until 12 July 2018, when
he announced his "permanent vacation" from his responsibilities as
Python's Benevolent Dictator For Life, a title the Python community bestowed
upon him to reflect his long-term commitment as the project's chief decision-
maker. He now shares his leadership as a member of a five-person steering
council.
In January 2019, active Python core developers elected Brett Cannon, Nick
Coghlan, Barry Warsaw, Carol Willing and Van Rossum to a five-member
"Steering Council" to lead the project. Guido van Rossum has since then
withdrawn his nomination for the 2020 Steering council.
Python 2.0 was released on 16 October 2000 with many major new features,
including a cycle-detecting garbage collector and support for Unicode.[43]
Python 3.0 was released on 3 December 2008. It was a major revision of the
language that is not completely backward-compatible. Many of its major
features were backported to Python 2.6.x and 2.7.x version series. Releases of
Python 3 include the 2to3 utility, which automates (at least partially) the
translation of Python 2 code to Python 3.
Python 2.7's end-of-life date was initially set at 2015 then postponed to 2020
out of concern that a large body of existing code could not easily be forward-
ported to Python 3. No more security patches or other improvements will be
released for it. With Python 2's end-of-life, only Python 3.6.x and later are
supported.
Applications of Python programming language
 Web development
 Game Development
 Scientific and numeric applications
 AI and ML
 Desktop GUI
 Software Development
What is Python?
Python is a popular programming language. It was created by Guido van

Rossum, and released in 1991.
It is used for:
 web development (server-side),

 software development,
 mathematics,
 system scripting.
What can Python do?

 Python can be used on a server to create web applications.
 Python can be used alongside software to create workflows.
 Python can connect to database systems. It can also read and modify
files.
 Python can be used to handle big data and perform complex
mathematics.
 Python can be used for rapid prototyping, or for production-ready
software development.
Why Python?
 Python works on different platforms (Windows, Mac, Linux, Raspberry
Pi, etc).
 Python has a simple syntax similar to the English language.
 Python has syntax that allows developers to write programs with fewer
lines than some other programming languages.
 Python runs on an interpreter system, meaning that code can be
executed as soon as it is written. This means that prototyping can be
very quick.
 Python can be treated in a procedural way, an object-oriented way or a
functional way.
Python Syntax compared to other programming languages

 Python was designed for readability, and has some similarities to the
English language with influence from mathematics.
 Python uses new lines to complete a command, as opposed to other
programming languages which often use semicolons or parentheses.
 Python relies on indentation, using whitespace, to define scope; such as
the scope of loops, functions and classes. Other programming languages
often use curly-brackets for this purpose.
Python Indentation
 Indentation refers to the spaces at the beginning of a code line.

 Where in other programming languages the indentation in code is for
readability only, the indentation in Python is very important.
 Python uses indentation to indicate a block of code.
 Python will give you an error if you skip the indentation:
 The number of spaces is up to you as a programmer, but it has to be at
least one.
 You have to use the same number of spaces in the same block of code,
otherwise Python will give you an error:
Python Comments
 Comments can be used to explain Python code.

 Comments can be used to make the code more readable.
 Comments can be used to prevent execution when testing code.
 Comments starts with a #, and Python will ignore them:
 Comments can be placed at the end of a line, and Python will ignore the
rest of the line:
 Comments does not have to be text to explain the code, it can also be
used to prevent Python from executing code:
 Python does not really have a syntax for multi-line comments.

 To add a multiline comment, you could insert a # for each line:
 Or, not quite as intended, you can use a multiline string.

 Since Python will ignore string literals that are not assigned to a variable,
you can add a multiline string (triple quotes) in your code, and place
your comment inside it:
Example
"""
This is a comment
written in
more than just one line
"""
print("Hello, World!")
As long as the string is not assigned to a variable, Python will read the code,
but then ignore it, and you have made a multiline comment.
Constants
A constant is a type of variable whose value cannot be changed. It is helpful to
think of constants as containers that hold information which cannot be
changed later.
You can think of constants as a bag to store some books which cannot be
replaced once placed inside the bag.
Assigning value to constant in Python
In Python, constants are usually declared and assigned in a module. Here, the
module is a new file containing variables, functions, etc which is imported to
the main file. Inside the module, constants are written in all capital letters and
underscores separating the words.
Example: Declaring and assigning value to a constant
Create a constant.py:
PI = 3.14
GRAVITY = 9.8
Create a main.py:
import constant
print(constant.PI)
print(constant.GRAVITY)
Output
3.14
9.8
In the above program, we create a constant.py module file. Then, we

assign the constant value to PI and GRAVITY. After that, we create
a main.py file and import the constant module. Finally, we print the
constant value.
Note: In reality, we don't use constants in Python. Naming them in all capital
letters is a convention to separate them from variables, however, it does not
actually prevent reassignment.
Python Variables
 Variable is a name given to a memory location where the data

is stored.
 Variables are containers for storing data values.
 Unlike other programming languages, Python has no command for
declaring a variable.
 A variable is created the moment you first assign a value to it.
Example
x=5
y = "John"
print(x)
print(y)
Variables do not need to be declared with any particular type, and can even
change type after they have been set.
Example
x = 4 # x is of type int
x = "Sally" # x is now of type str
print(x)
String variables can be declared either by using single or double quotes or

triple quotes:
Example
x = "John"
# is the same as
x = 'John'
Naming Conventions (Rules to be used while specifying variables in
the program)
A variable can have a short name (like x and y) or a more descriptive name
(age, carname, total_volume).
Rules for Python variables:
 The first character of the variable should be a letter or underscore

symbol (_) and can be followed by any number of letters, digits or
underscore symbol.
 No other symbols are allowed other than letters, digits and underscore
symbols.
 Keywords should not be used as variable names.
 Variable names are case-sensitive (age, Age and AGE are three different
variables)
Example
#Legal variable names:
myvar = "John"
my_var = "John"
_my_var = "John"
myVar = "John"
MYVAR = "John"
myvar2 = "John"
#Illegal variable names:

2myvar = "John"
my-var = "John"
my var = "John"
Remember that variable names are case-sensitive

Assign Value to Multiple Variables
Python allows you to assign values to multiple variables in one line:
Example
x, y, z = "Orange", "Banana", "Cherry"
print(x)
print(y)
print(z)
And you can assign the same value to multiple variables in one line:
x = y = z = "Orange"
print(x)
print(y)
print(z)
Output Variables
The Python print statement is often used to output variables.
To combine both text and a variable, Python uses the + character:
Example
x = "awesome"
print("Python is " + x)
You can also use the + character to add a variable to another variable:
Example
x = "Python is "
y = "awesome"
z= x+y
print(z)
For numbers, the + character works as a mathematical operator:
Example
x=5
y = 10
print(x + y)
Global Variables
Variables that are created outside of a function (as in all of the examples
above) are known as global variables.
Global variables can be used by everyone, both inside of functions and outside.
Example
Create a variable outside of a function, and use it inside the function
x = "awesome"
def myfunc():
myfunc()
If you create a variable with the same name inside a function, this variable will
be local, and can only be used inside the function. The global variable with the
same name will remain as it was, global and with the original value.
Example
Create a variable inside a function, with the same name as the global variable
x = "awesome"
def myfunc():
x = "fantastic"
myfunc()
The global Keyword
Normally, when you create a variable inside a function, that variable is local,
and can only be used inside that function.
To create a global variable inside a function, you can use the global keyword.
Example
If you use the global keyword, the variable belongs to the global scope:
def myfunc():
global x
x = "fantastic"
myfunc()
Also, use the global keyword if you want to change a global variable inside a
function.
Example
To change the value of a global variable inside a function, refer to the variable
by using the global keyword:
x = "awesome"
def myfunc():
global x
x = "fantastic"
myfunc()
Python Data types:
Built-in Data Types

 Data type defines the type of value being stored in memory
location or address.
 In programming, data type is an important concept.
 Variables can store data of different types, and different types can do
different things.
Python has the following data types built-in by default, in these categories:
Text Type: str
Numeric Types: int, float, complex
Sequence Types: list, tuple, range
Mapping Type: dict
Set Types: set, frozenset
Boolean Type: bool
Binary Types: bytes, bytearray, memoryview
Getting the Data Type
You can get the data type of any object by using the type() function:
Example
Print the data type of the variable x:
x=5
print(type(x))
Python Numbers
There are three numeric types in Python:
 int
 float
 complex
Variables of numeric types are created when you assign a value to them:
Example
x = 1 # int
y = 2.8 # float
z = 1j # complex
To verify the type of any object in Python, use the type() function:
Example
print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))
int
Int, or integer, is a whole number, positive or negative, without decimals, of

unlimited length.
Example
Integers:
x=1
y = 35656222554887711
z = -3255522
print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))
float
Float, or "floating point number" is a number, positive or negative, containing

one or more decimals.
Example
Floats:
x = 1.10
y = 1.0
z = -35.59
print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))
Float can also be scientific numbers with an "e" to indicate the power of 10.
Example
Floats:
x = 35e3
y = 12E4
z = -87.7e100
print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))
complex
Complex numbers are written with a "j" as the imaginary part:
Example
Complex:
x = 3+5j
y = 5j
z = -5j
print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))
Type Conversion
You can convert from one type to another with the int(), float(),
and complex() methods:
Example
Convert from one type to another:
x = 1 # int
y = 2.8 # float
z = 1j # complex
#convert from int to float:

a = float(x)
#convert from float to int:

b = int(y)
#convert from int to complex:

c = complex(x)
print(a)
print(b)
print(c)
print(type(a))
print(type(b))
print(type(c))
Note: You cannot convert complex numbers into another number type.
Random Number
Python does not have a random() function to make a random number, but
Python has a built-in module called random that can be used to make random
numbers:
Example
Import the random module, and display a random number between 1 and 9:
import random
print(random.randrange(1, 10))
Python Casting
Specify a Variable Type
There may be times when you want to specify a type on to a variable. This can
be done with casting. Python is an object-orientated language, and as such it
uses classes to define data types, including its primitive types.
Casting in python is therefore done using constructor functions:

 int() - constructs an integer number from an integer literal, a float literal
(by rounding down to the previous whole number), or a string literal
(providing the string represents a whole number)
 float() - constructs a float number from an integer literal, a float literal or
a string literal (providing the string represents a float or an integer)
 str() - constructs a string from a wide variety of data types, including
strings, integer literals and float literals
Example
Integers:
x = int(1) # x will be 1
y = int(2.8) # y will be 2
z = int("3") # z will be 3
Example
Floats:
x = float(1) # x will be 1.0

y = float(2.8) # y will be 2.8
z = float("3") # z will be 3.0
w = float("4.2") # w will be 4.2
Example
Strings:
x = str("s1") # x will be 's1'

y = str(2) # y will be '2'
z = str(3.0) # z will be '3.0'
Programming Examples:
Write a python program to find the sum of 2 numbers

a=int(input("Enter First Number"))
b=int(input("Enter Second Number"))
sum=a+b
print("Sum of two numbers=", sum)
Write a python program to find the area of rectangle
length=int(input("Enter the value of length"))
breadth=int(input("Enter the value of breadth"))
area=length*breadth
print("Area of rectangle=", area)
Write a python program to find the area of circle

radius=float(input("Enter the radius"))
PI=3.14
area=PI*radius*radius
print("Area of circle=", area)
Write a python program to find the area of triangle

base=float(input("Enter the base"))
height=float(input("Enter the height"))
area=0.5*base*height
print("Area of triangle=", area)
Write a python program to find simple interest

p=float(input("Enter the principal amount"))
t=float(input("Enter the time period"))
r=float(input("Enter the rate of interest"))
simple_interest=(p*t*r)/100
print("Simple Interest=", simple_interest)
Write a python program to convert the degree in Fahrenheit to Celsius

f=int(input("Enter the degree in fahrenheit"))
c=(5/9)*(f-32)
print("Degree in celsius=", c)
Write a python program to find the square root of a number

import math
num=float(input("Enter the number"))
a=math.sqrt(num)
print("Square root of a number=", a)
Write a python program to find area of triangle when 3 sides are given
import math
a=float(input("Enter side1"))
b=float(input("Enter side2"))
c=float(input("Enter side3"))
s=(a+b+c)/2
area=math.sqrt(s*(s-a)*(s-b)*(s-c))
print("Area of Triangle=", area)
Write a python program to exchange the contents of 2 variables

a=int(input("Enter first value"))
b=int(input("Enter second value"))
print("Before swapping, value of a=", a)
print("Before swapping, value of b=", b)
x,y=y,x
print("After swapping, value of a=", a)
print("After swapping, value of b=", b)
Python Operators
Operator is a symbol which specifies the type of operation being

performed on various types of data. Operators are used to perform
operations on variables and values. The value that the operator operates
on is called the operand. A sequence of operands and operators
that reduces to a single value is called expression.
In the example below, we use the + operator to add together two values:
Example
print(10 + 5)
Python divides the operators in the following groups:
 Arithmetic operators
 Assignment operators
 Comparison operators
 Logical operators
 Identity operators
 Membership operators
 Bitwise operators
Python Arithmetic Operators

Operators that are used to perform arithmetic operations are called arithmetic
operators. Arithmetic operators are used with numeric values to perform
common mathematical operations:
Operator Name Example
+ Addition x+y
- Subtraction x-y
* Multiplication x*y
/ Division x/y
% Modulus x%y
** Exponentiation x ** y
// Floor division x//y
Write a python program to demonstrate the usage of arithmetic operators

x=int(input("Enter the first value"))
y=int(input("Enter the second value"))
print("x+y=", x+y)
print("x-y=", x-y)
print("x*y=", x*y)
print("x/y=", x/y)
print("x%y=", x%y)
print("x**y=", x**y)
print("x//y=", x//y)
Python Assignment Operators

The operator which is used to assign the data or result of an
expression into a variable is called an assignment operator.
Assignment operators are used to assign values to variables.
a = 5 is a simple assignment operator that assigns the value 5 on the right to

the variable a on the left.
There are various compound operators in Python like a += 5 that adds to the
variable and later assigns the same. It is equivalent to a = a + 5.
Operator Example Same As
= x=5 x=5
+= x += 3 x=x+3
-= x -= 3 x=x-3
*= x *= 3 x=x*3
/= x /= 3 x=x/3
%= x %= 3 x=x%3
//= x //= 3 x = x // 3
**= x **= 3 x = x ** 3
&= x &= 3 x=x&3
|= x |= 3 x=x|3
^= x ^= 3 x=x^3
>>= x >>= 3 x = x >> 3
<<= x <<= 3 x = x << 3
Write a python program to demonstrate the usage of assignment operators

x=10
print("value of simple assignment =", x)
x+=10
print("x+=", x)
x-=5
print("x-=", x)
x/=5
print("x/=", x)
x%=10
print("x%=", x)
x**=2
print("x**=", x)
x//=4
print("x//=", x)
Python Comparison Operators

Comparison operators are used to compare two values:
Operator Name Example
== Equal x == y
!= Not equal x != y
> Greater than x>y

< Less than x<y
>= Greater than or equal to x >= y
<= Less than or equal to x <= y
Write a python program to demonstrate the usage of comparison operators

a=int(input("Enter first value"))
b=int(input("Enter second value"))
print("a==b is", a==b)
print("a!=b is", a!=b)
print("a<b is", a<b)
print("a<=b is", a<=b)
print("a>b is", a>b)
print("a>=b is", a>=b)
Python Logical Operators
Logical operators are used to combine conditional statements:
Operator Description Example

and Returns True if both statements are x < 5 and x < 10
true
or Returns True if one of the statements x < 5 or x < 4

is true
not Reverse the result, returns False if the not(x < 5 and x <
result is true 10)
Write a python program to demonstrate the usage of logical operators

a=True
b=False
print("a logical and b is", a and b)
print("a logical or b is", a or b)
print("logical not of a is", not a)
Python Identity Operators
Identity operators are used to compare the objects, not if they are equal, but if
they are actually the same object, with the same memory location:

is Returns True if both variables are the x is y
same object
is not Returns True if both variables are not the x is not y

same object
Write a python program to demonstrate the usage of identity operators

x1=5
y1=5
x2='Hello'
y2='Hello'
print("x1 is y1 is", x1 is y1)
print("x2 is y2 is", x2 is y2)
print("x2 is not y2 is", x2 is not y2)
Python Membership Operators

Membership operators are used to test if a sequence is presented in an object:
in Returns True if a sequence with the specified x in y

value is present in the object
not in Returns True if a sequence with the specified x not in y

value is not present in the object
Write a python program to demonstrate the usage of membership operators
x="REVA UNIVERSITY"
print('R' in x)
print('U' in x)
print("reva" not in x)
Python Bitwise Operators
Bitwise operators are used to compare (binary) numbers. Bitwise operators act
on operands as if they were strings of binary digits. They operate bit by bit,
hence the name.
Operato Name Description

r
& AND Sets each bit to 1 if both bits are 1
| OR Sets each bit to 1 if one of two bits is 1
^ XOR Sets each bit to 1 if only one of two bits is 1
~ NOT Inverts all the bits
<< Zero fill left Shift left by pushing zeros in from the right and let the
shift leftmost bits fall off
>> Signed right Shift right by pushing copies of the leftmost bit in from
shift the left, and let the rightmost bits fall off
Write a python program to demonstrate the usage of bitwise operators

a=5
b=3
c=10<<1
d=20>>1
print("bitwise and of a and b is", a&b)
print("bitwise or of a and b is", a|b)
print("bitwise xor of a and b is", a^b)
print("bitwise not of a IS", ~a)
print("Zero fill left shift is", c)
print("Signed right shift is", d)
Order of Evaluation of an Expression:

When we use multiple operators together - Python must know which one to do
first. This is called “operator precedence”. Which operator “takes precedence”
over the others. Consider evaluation of the below expression for example.
Example:
x = 1 + 2 * 3 - 4 / 5 ** 6
The expression is evaluated from left to right, because all the
arithmetic operators are left to right associative operators.
Highest precedence rule to lowest precedence rule
1. Parenthesis
2. Exponentiation (raise to a power)
3. Multiplication, Division (Whichever comes first, that operator will be
evaluated first)
4. Addition and Subtraction (Whichever comes first, that operator will be
evaluated first)
1 + 2 * 3 - 4 / 5 ** 6
1 + 2 * 3 - 4 / 15625
1 + 6 - 4 / 15625
1 + 6 - 0.000256
7 - 0.000256
6.999744
Boolean Values
In programming you often need to know if an expression is True or False.
You can evaluate any expression in Python, and get one of two
answers, True or False.
When you compare two values, the expression is evaluated and Python returns
the Boolean answer:
Example
print(10 > 9)
print(10 == 9)
print(10 < 9)
When you run a condition in an if statement, Python returns True or False:
Example
Print a message based on whether the condition is True or False:
a = 200
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
else:
print("b is not greater than a")
Evaluate Values and Variables
The bool() function allows you to evaluate any value, and give
you True or False in return,
Example
Evaluate a string and a number:
print(bool("Hello"))
print(bool(15))
Example
Evaluate two variables:
x = "Hello"
y = 15
print(bool(x))
print(bool(y))
Most Values are True
Almost any value is evaluated to True if it has some sort of content.
Any string is True, except empty strings.
Any number is True, except 0.
Any list, tuple, set, and dictionary are True, except empty ones.
Example
The following will return True:
bool("abc")
bool(123)
bool(["apple", "cherry", "banana"])
Some Values are False
In fact, there are not many values that evaluates to False, except empty values,
such as (), [], {}, "", the number 0, and the value None. And of course the
value False evaluates to False.
Example
The following will return False:
bool(False)
bool(None)
bool(0)
bool("")
bool(())
bool([])
bool({})
Example
Check if an object is an integer or not:
x = 200
print(isinstance(x, int))
Python Keywords
Keywords are the reserved words in Python. We cannot use a keyword as a
variable name, function name or any other identifier.
The above keywords may get altered in different versions of Python. Some
extra might get added or some might be removed. You can always get the list
of keywords in your current version by typing the following in the prompt.
>>> import keyword

>>> print(keyword.kwlist)
Keywords in Python programming language
False await else import pass
None break except in raise
True class finally is return
and continue for lambda try
as def from nonlocal while
assert del global not with
async elif if or yield

Python Conditions and If statements
Python supports the usual logical conditions from mathematics:
 Equals: a == b
 Not Equals: a != b
 Less than: a < b
 Less than or equal to: a <= b
 Greater than: a > b
 Greater than or equal to: a >= b
These conditions can be used in several ways, most commonly in "if

statements" and loops.
if statement
An "if statement" is written by using the if keyword. It is basically used when

we have one choice or alternative.
Syntax:
if expression:
statements
Example
if statement:
a = 33
b = 200
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
In this example we use two variables, a and b, which are used as part of the if
statement to test whether b is greater than a. As a is 33, and b is 200, we know
that 200 is greater than 33, and so we print to screen that "b is greater than a".
Indentation
Python relies on indentation (whitespace at the beginning of a line) to define

scope in the code. Other programming languages often use curly-brackets for
this purpose.
Example
If statement, without indentation (will raise an error):
a = 33
b = 200
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a") # you will get an error
Programming example:
age=int(input("enter the person age"))

if age>=18:
print("Eligible for vaccination")
if-else statement
It is basically used when we have 2 choices or alternatives.
Syntax:
if expression:
statements
else:
statements
Write a Python program to find the largest of 2 numbers
a=int(input("Enter first number"))
b=int(input("Enter second number"))
if a>b:
print("a is largest")
else:
print("b is largest")
Write a Python program to check whether a number is even or odd
num=int(input("Enter one integer value"))
if num%2==0:
print("Number is even")
else:
print("Number is odd")
Write a Python program to check whether a person is eligible for

voting or not
age=int(input("Enter the person age"))
if age>=18:
print("Eligible to Vote")
else:
print("Not Eligible to Vote")
elif
The elif keyword is python’s way of saying "if the previous conditions were not
true, then try this condition". elif statement is basically used when we have
more than 2 choices or alternatives.
a=int(input("Enter first number"))
b=int(input("Enter second number"))
c=int(input("Enter third number"))
if a>b and a>c:
print("a is the largest")
elif b>a and b>c:
print("b is the largest")
elif c>a and c>b:
print("c is the largest")
else:
print("All the three numbers are equal")
Write a Python program to check whether a number is positive,

negative or zero
num=float(input("Enter a number"))
if num>0:
print("Number is positive")
elif num<0:
print("Number is negative")
else:
print("Number is zero")
Write a Python program to display the grade of a student using the

marks obtained in an exam
marks=float(input("Enter the marks obtained"))
if marks<0 or marks>100:
print("Invalid marks")
elif marks<=35:
print("Grade F")
elif marks>=36 and marks<=50:
print("Grade E")
print("Grade D")
print("Grade C")
print("Grade B")
print("Grade A")
else:
print("Grade O - Outstanding")
Short Hand If
If you have only one statement to execute, you can put it on the same line as
the if statement.
Example
One line if statement:
if a > b: print("a is greater than b")
Short Hand If ... Else

If you have only one statement to execute, one for if, and one for else, you can
put it all on the same line:
Example
One line if else statement:
a=2
b = 330
print("A") if a > b else print("B")
This technique is known as Ternary Operators, or Conditional Expressions.
You can also have multiple else statements on the same line:
Example
One line if else statement, with 3 conditions:
a = 330
b = 330
print("A") if a > b else print("=") if a == b else print("B")
nested-if
An if or if-else statement within another if or if-else statement is called nested-

if statement.
a=int(input("Enter the first number"))
b=int(input("Enter the second number"))

c=int(input("Enter the third number"))
if a>b:
if a>c:
print("a is the largest")
else:
else:
if b>c:
print("b is the largest")
else:
Programming Example
x = 41
if x > 10:
print("Above ten,")
if x > 20:
print("and also above 20!")
else:
print("but not above 20.")
The pass Statement
if statements cannot be empty, but if you for some reason have

an if statement with no content, put in the pass statement to avoid getting an
error.
Example
a = 33
b = 200
if b > a:
pass
Python Looping statements

Statements which are used to execute the block repetitively for ‘n’ number of
times are called looping statements.
Looping statements are also called as repetitive or iterative statements.
Iteration indicates number of times body of the loop is executed.
Python has two primitive looping statements:
 while loop
 for loop
while Loop
With the while loop we can execute a set of statements as long as a condition
is true.
Syntax:
while expression/condition:
Body of while loop
Write a python program to display the series 1 2 3………….n
(Display natural numbers beginning from 1 to n)
n=int(input("Enter the end limit"))

i=1
while i<=n:
print(i)
i=i+1
(Display odd natural numbers beginning from 1 to n)
i=1
while i<=n:
print(i)
i=i+2
(Display even natural numbers beginning from 2 to n)
i=2
while i<=n:
print(i)
i=i+2
Write a python program to display the series 1^2 2^2 3^2………….n^2

(Display squares of natural numbers beginning from 1 to n)
i=1
while i<=n:
print(i**2)
i=i+1
(Display cubes of natural numbers beginning from 1 to n)
i=1
while i<=n:
print(i**3)
i=i+1
Write a python program to find the sum of the series 1+2+3+………n
(find sum of natural numbers beginning from 1 to n)
i=1
sum=0
while i<=n:
sum=sum+i
i=i+1
print("Sum of natural numbers=", sum)
Write a python program to find the sum of the series 1^2+2^2+3^2+………n^2
(find sum of squares of natural numbers beginning from 1 to n)
i=1
sum=0
while i<=n:
sum=sum+(i**2)
i=i+1
print("Sum of squares of natural numbers=", sum)
Example
Exit the loop when i is 3:
i=1
while i < 6:
print(i)
if i == 3:
break
i += 1
The for Loop

A for loop is used for iterating over a sequence (that is either a list, a tuple, a
dictionary, a set, or a string).
This is less like the for keyword in other programming languages, and works
more like an iterator method as found in other object-orientated programming
languages.
With the for loop we can execute a set of statements, once for each item in a
list, tuple, set etc.
Syntax:
for val in sequence:
Body of for loop
Example
Print each fruit in a fruit list:
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in fruits:
print(x)
The for loop does not require an indexing variable to set beforehand.
Looping Through a String
Even strings are iterable objects, they contain a sequence of characters:
Example
Loop through the letters in the word "banana":
for x in "banana":
print(x)
range() Function
To loop through a set of code a specified number of times, we can use
the range() function,
The range() function returns a sequence of numbers, starting from 0 by

default, and increments by 1 (by default), and ends at a specified number.
Example
Using the range() function:
for x in range(6):
print(x)
Note that range(6) is not the values of 0 to 6, but the values 0 to 5.
The range() function defaults to 0 as a starting value, however it is possible to

specify the starting value by adding a parameter: range(2, 6), which means
values from 2 to 6 (but not including 6):
Example
Using the start parameter:
for x in range(2, 6):

print(x)
The range() function defaults to increment the sequence by 1, however it is

possible to specify the increment value by adding a third parameter: range(2,
30, 3):
Example
Increment the sequence with 3 (default is 1):
for x in range(2, 30, 3):

print(x)
else in for Loop

The else keyword in a for loop specifies a block of code to be executed when
the loop is finished:
Example
Print all numbers from 0 to 5, and print a message when the loop has ended:
for x in range(6):
print(x)
else:
print("Finally finished!")
Nested Loops
A nested loop is a loop inside a loop.
The "inner loop" will be executed one time for each iteration of the "outer
loop":
Example
Print each adjective for every fruit:
adj = ["red", "big", "tasty"]

for x in adj:
for y in fruits:
print(x, y)
pass Statement
for loops cannot be empty, but if you for some reason have a for loop with no
content, put in the pass statement to avoid getting an error.
Example
for x in [0, 1, 2]:
pass
break Statement
With the break statement we can stop the loop before it has looped through
all the items: break statement is used to end or terminate the loop when
certain condition is met.
Example1:
Exit the loop when i is 3:
i=1
while i < 6:
print(i)
if i == 3:
break
i += 1
Example2:
for x in fruits:
if x == "banana":
break
print(x)
continue Statement
With the continue statement we can stop the current iteration of the loop, and
continue with the next: continue statement is used to end the current iteration
of the loop.
Example
Do not print banana:

for x in fruits:
if x == "banana":
continue
print(x)
(Display natural numbers beginning from 1 to n)
for i in range(1,n+1,1):
print(i)
(Display odd natural numbers beginning from 1 to n)
print(i)
(Display even natural numbers beginning from 2 to n)
print(i)
(Display squares of natural numbers beginning from 1 to n)
print(i**2)
(Display cubes of natural numbers beginning from 1 to n)
print(i**3)
Write a python program to find the sum of the series 1+2+3+………n
(find sum of natural numbers beginning from 1 to n)
sum=0
sum=sum+i
print("Sum of natural numbers=", sum)
Write a python program to find the sum of the series 1^2+2^2+3^2+………n^2
(find sum of squares of natural numbers beginning from 1 to n)
sum=0
sum=sum+(i**2)
print("Sum of squares of natural numbers=", sum)
Functions
 Functions also called as modules can be defined as set of statements
which are written to achieve a specific task.
 A function is a block of code which only runs when it is called.
 You can pass data, known as parameters, into a function.
 A function can return data as a result.
Syntax of creating a function:
def func_name(parameters):
statements:
Specifying the parameters is not compulsory.
Example
def my_function( ):
print("Hello REVA")
Calling a Function
To call a function, use the function name followed by parenthesis:
Example
def my_function( ):
print("Hello REVA ")
my_function()
Arguments
Information can be passed into functions as arguments.
Arguments are specified after the function name, inside the parentheses. You
can add as many arguments as you want, just separate them with a comma.
The following example has a function with one argument (fname). When the
function is called, we pass along a first name, which is used inside the function
to print the full name:
Example
def my_function(fname):
print(fname + " Kumar")
my_function("Shiva")
my_function("Sachin")
my_function("Praveen")
Arguments are often shortened to args in Python documentations.
Parameters or Arguments?
The terms parameter and argument can be used for the same thing:
information that are passed into a function.
From a function's perspective:
A parameter is the variable listed inside the parentheses in the function

definition.
An argument is the value that is sent to the function when it is called.
Number of Arguments
By default, a function must be called with the correct number of arguments.

Meaning that if your function expects 2 arguments, you have to call the
function with 2 arguments, not more, and not less.
Example
This function expects 2 arguments, and gets 2 arguments:
def my_function(fname, lname):

print(fname + " " + lname)
my_function("Shiva", "Kumar")
If you try to call the function with 1 or 3 arguments, you will get an error:
Example
This function expects 2 arguments, but gets only 1:
def my_function(fname, lname):

print(fname + " " + lname)
my_function("Shiva")
Arbitrary Arguments, *args
If you do not know how many arguments that will be passed into your
function, add a * before the parameter name in the function definition.
This way the function will receive a tuple of arguments, and can access the
items accordingly:
Example
If the number of arguments is unknown, add a * before the parameter name:
def my_function(*students):
print("The youngest student is " + students[1])
my_function("shiva", "vishnu", "krishna")
Arbitrary Arguments are often shortened to *args in Python documentations.

Keyword Arguments
You can also send arguments with the key = value syntax.
This way the order of the arguments does not matter.
Example
def my_function(student3, student2, student1):
print("The youngest student is " + student3)
my_function(student1 = "shiva", student2 = "vishnu", student3 = "krishna")
The phrase Keyword Arguments are often shortened to kwargs in Python

documentations.
Arbitrary Keyword Arguments, **kwargs
If you do not know how many keyword arguments that will be passed into your
function, add two asterisk: ** before the parameter name in the function
definition.
This way the function will receive a dictionary of arguments, and can access the
items accordingly:
Example
If the number of keyword arguments is unknown, add a double ** before the

parameter name:
def my_function(**student):
print("His Last name is " + student[“lname”])
my_function(fname=”shiva”, lname=”kumar”)
Arbitrary Kword Arguments are often shortened to **kwargs in Python
documentations.
Default Parameter Value
The following example shows how to use a default parameter value.
If we call the function without argument, it uses the default value:
Example
def my_function(country = "India"):
print("I am from " + country)
my_function("England")
my_function("USA")
my_function()
my_function("Brazil")
Passing a List as an Argument
You can send any data types of argument to a function (string, number, list,
dictionary etc.), and it will be treated as the same data type inside the
function.
E.g. if you send a List as an argument, it will still be a List when it reaches the
function:
Example
def my_function(food):
for x in food:
print(x)
my_function(fruits)
return statement
To let a function return a value, use the return statement:
Example1:
def my_function(x):
return 5 * x
print(my_function(3))
Example2:
def add(a,b):
return a+b
res=add(10,20)
print("Sum is",res)
pass Statement
function definitions cannot be empty, but if you for some reason have
a function definition with no content, put in the pass statement to avoid
getting an error.
Example
def myfunction( ):
pass
Note: Python does not have built-in support for Arrays, but Python Lists can
be used instead.
Write a python program to find the sum of 2 numbers using user
defined function
We can write the program by using 2 methods, in first method we can read the
input from the user, in second method we will create the function with
parameters and when we invoke or call the function, we can call the function
with the values.
First Method:
Program:
def sum():
a=int(input('Enter first number'))
b=int(input('Enter second number'))
s=a+b
print('sum of 2 numbers is',s)
sum()
Second Method:
Program:
def sum(a,b):
s=a+b
print('sum of 2 numbers is',s)
sum(30,60)
Write a Python program to perform basic arithmetic operations
using user defined functions
def arithmetic(a,b):
sum=a+b
sub=a-b
mult=a*b
div=a/b
mod=a%b
exp=a**b
print('Sum of 2 numbers is',sum)
print('Subtraction of 2 numbers is',sub)
print('multiplication of 2 numbers is',mult)
print('division of 2 numbers is',div)
print('modulus of 2 numbers is',mod)
print('Exponentiation is',exp)
arithmetic(10,3)
Write a python program to find the sum of 2 integers and sum of 2

floating point numbers using user defined functions
def sum1(a,b):
c=a+b
print('sum of 2 integers is',c)
sum1(10,20)
def sum2(a,b):
c=a+b
print('sum of 2 floats is',c)
sum2(10.5,20.5)
Write a Python program to read and print the name, SRN and
Marks obtained by the student using user defined functions
def sdetails():
name=input("Enter the Student Name")
SRN=input("Enter the Student SRN")
marks=float(input("Enter the Marks obtained by the student"))
print("Student Name is",name)
print("Student SRN is",SRN)
print("Marks obtained is",marks)
sdetails()
Python Collections (Arrays)
There are four collection data types in the Python programming language:
 List is a collection which is ordered and changeable. Allows duplicate

members.
 Tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable. Allows
duplicate members.
 Set is a collection which is unordered and unindexed. No duplicate
members.
 Dictionary is a collection which is unordered, changeable and indexed.
No duplicate members.
When choosing a collection type, it is useful to understand the properties of

that type. Choosing the right type for a particular data set could mean
retention of meaning, and, it could mean an increase in efficiency or security.
List
List can be defined as ordered collection of elements.
List is mutable or changeable.
List is indexed.
In Python lists are written with square brackets.
List can contain duplicate values.
Syntax of creating a list:
list_name=[e1,e2,……..en]
Where in e1,e2,…. So on are the elements being inserted into the list.
Example
Create a List:
L1 = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(L1)
Access Items
You access the list items by referring to the index number:
Example
Print the second item of the list:

print(L1[1])
Negative Indexing
Negative indexing means beginning from the end, -1 refers to the last item, -
2 refers to the second last item etc.
Example
Print the last item of the list:

print(L1 [-1])
Range of Indexes
You can specify a range of indexes by specifying where to start and where to
end the range.
When specifying a range, the return value will be a new list with the specified
items.
Example
Return the third, fourth, and fifth item:
L1 = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]

print(L1[2:5])
Note: The search will start at index 2 (included) and end at index 5 (not
included).
Remember that the first item has index 0.
By leaving out the start value, the range will start at the first item:
Example
This example returns the items from the beginning to "orange":

print(L1[:4])
By leaving out the end value, the range will go on to the end of the list:
Example
This example returns the items from "cherry" and to the end:

print(L1[2:])
Range of Negative Indexes
Specify negative indexes if you want to start the search from the end of the
list:
Example
This example returns the items from index -4 (included) to index -1 (excluded)

print(L1[-4:-1])
Loop Through a List
You can loop through the list items by using a for loop:
Example
Print all items in the list, one by one:

for x in L1:
print(x)
List Comprehension
List comprehension offers a shorter syntax when you want to create a new list
based on the values of an existing list.
Example: You want to create a list of all the fruits that has the letter "a" in the
name.
Without list comprehension you will have to write a for statement with a
conditional test inside:
Example
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "kiwi", "mango"]

newlist = []
for x in fruits:
if "a" in x:
newlist.append(x)
print(newlist)
With list comprehension you can do all that with only one line of code:
Example
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "kiwi", "mango"]
newlist = [x for x in fruits if "a" in x]
print(newlist)
The list comprehension is wrapped around square backets, contains one or

more for statements, zero or more if statements, and returns a new list.
Check if Item Exists
To determine if a specified item is present in a list use the in keyword:
Example
Check if "apple" is present in the list:
L1= ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

if "apple" in L1:
print("Yes, 'apple' is in the fruits list")
List Length
To determine how many items a list has, use the len() function:
Example
Print the number of items in the list:

print(len(L1))
Add Items
To add an item to the end of the list, use the append() method:
Example
Using the append() method to append an item:

L1.append("orange")
print(L1)
To add an item at the specified index, use the insert() method:
Example
Insert an item as the second position:

L1.insert(1, "orange")
print(L1)
Remove Item
There are several methods to remove items from a list:
Example
The remove() method removes the specified item:

L1.remove("banana")
print(L1)
Example
The pop() method removes the specified index, (or the last item if index is not
specified):
L1.pop()
print(L1)
Example
The del keyword removes the specified index:

del L1[0]
print(L1)
Example
The del keyword can also delete the list completely:

del L1
Example
The clear() method empties the list:
L1= ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

L1.clear()
print(L1)
Copy a List
You cannot copy a list simply by typing list2 = list1, because: list2 will only be
a reference to list1, and changes made in list1 will automatically also be made
in list2.
There are ways to make a copy, one way is to use the built-in List
method copy().
Example
Make a copy of a list with the copy() method:

L2 = L1.copy()
print(L2)
Another way to make a copy is to use the built-in method list().
Example
Make a copy of a list with the list() method:

L2 = list(L1)
print(L2)
Join Two Lists
There are several ways to join, or concatenate, two or more lists in Python.
One of the easiest ways are by using the + operator.

Example
Join two list:
list1 = ["a", "b", "c"]

list2 = [1, 2, 3]
list3 = list1 + list2

print(list3)
Another way to join two lists are by appending all the items from list2 into
list1, one by one:
Example
Append list2 into list1:
list1 = ["a", "b" , "c"]

list2 = [1, 2, 3]
for x in list2:
list1.append(x)
print(list1)
Or you can use the extend() method, which purpose is to add elements from
one list to another list:
Example
Use the extend() method to add list2 at the end of list1:
list1 = ["a", "b" , "c"]

list2 = [1, 2, 3]
list1.extend(list2)
print(list1)
The list() Constructor
It is also possible to use the list() constructor to make a new list.
Example
Using the list() constructor to make a List:
L1 = list(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-brackets

print(L1)
List Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on lists.
Method Description
append() Adds an element at the end of the list

clear() Removes all the elements from the list
copy() Returns a copy of the list
count() Returns the number of elements with the specified value
extend() Add the elements of a list (or any iterable), to the end of the current
list
index() Returns the index of the first element with the specified value
insert() Adds an element at the specified position
pop() Removes the element at the specified position
remove( Removes the item with the specified value

)
reverse() Reverses the order of the list

sort() Sorts the list
Program:
List1” is a list that contains the “N” different SRN of students read using a user defined
function with the help of input(). SRN of “M” more students are to be appended or
inserted into “List1” at the appropriate place and also return the index of the SRN
entered by user.
# creating an empty list

list1 = []
# number of elemetns as input

n = int(input("Enter number of elements : "))
# iterating till the range

for i in range(0, n):
ele = int(input())
list1.append(ele) # adding the element
print(list1)
m = int(input("Enter some more elements to be added to the list: \n "))
for i in range(0, m):

ele1 = int(input())
list1.append(ele1) # adding the element
print(list1)
p=int(input("enter the index value of the element to be printed: "))

print(list1.index(p))
Tuple
Tuple can be defined as ordered collection of elements.
Tuple is immutable or unchangeable.
In Python tuples are written with round brackets.
Tuple is indexed.
Tuple can contain duplicate values.
Syntax of creating a tuple:
tuple_name=(e1,e2,……..en)
Where in e1,e2,…. So on are the elements being inserted into the tuple.
Example
Create a Tuple:
T1 = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(T1)
Access Tuple Items
You can access tuple items by referring to the index number, inside square
brackets:
Example
Print the second item in the tuple:

print(T1[1])
Negative Indexing
Negative indexing means beginning from the end, -1 refers to the last item, -
2 refers to the second last item etc.
Example
Print the last item of the tuple:

print(T1[-1])
Range of Indexes
You can specify a range of indexes by specifying where to start and where to
end the range.
When specifying a range, the return value will be a new tuple with the
specified items.
Example
Return the third, fourth, and fifth item:
T1 = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")

print(T1[2:5])
Note: The search will start at index 2 (included) and end at index 5 (not
included).
Remember that the first item has index 0.
Range of Negative Indexes
Specify negative indexes if you want to start the search from the end of the
tuple:
Example
This example returns the items from index -4 (included) to index -1 (excluded)
T1 = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")

print(T1 [-4:-1])
Change Tuple Values
Once a tuple is created, you cannot change its values. Tuples

are unchangeable, or immutable as it also is called.
But there is a workaround. You can convert the tuple into a list, change the list,
and convert the list back into a tuple.
Example
Convert the tuple into a list to be able to change it:
x = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

y = list(x)
y[1] = "kiwi"
x = tuple(y)
print(x)
Loop Through a Tuple
You can loop through the tuple items by using a for loop.
Example
Iterate through the items and print the values:

for x in T1:
print(x)
Check if Item Exists
To determine if a specified item is present in a tuple use the in keyword:
Example
Check if "apple" is present in the tuple:

if "apple" in T1:
print("Yes, 'apple' is in the fruits tuple")
Tuple Length
To determine how many items a tuple has, use the len() method:
Example
Print the number of items in the tuple:

print(len(T1))
Add Items
Once a tuple is created, you cannot add items to it. Tuples are unchangeable.
Example
You cannot add items to a tuple:

T1[3] = "orange" # This will raise an error
print(T1)
Remove Items
Note: You cannot remove items in a tuple.
Tuples are unchangeable, so you cannot remove items from it, but you can
delete the tuple completely:
Example
The del keyword can delete the tuple completely:

del T1
print(T1) #this will raise an error because the tuple no longer exists
Join Two Tuples
To join two or more tuples you can use the + operator:
Example
Join two tuples:
tuple1 = ("a", "b" , "c")

tuple2 = (1, 2, 3)
tuple3 = tuple1 + tuple2

print(tuple3)
The tuple() Constructor
It is also possible to use the tuple() constructor to make a tuple.
Example
Using the tuple() method to make a tuple:

T1 = tuple(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-brackets
print(T1)
Tuple Methods
Python has two built-in methods that you can use on tuples.
Method Description
count() Returns the number of times a specified value occurs in a tuple
index() Searches the tuple for a specified value and returns the position of
where it was found
Set
Set can be defined as unordered collection of elements.
Set is mutable or changeable.
Set is unindexed.
In Python sets are written with curly or flower brackets.
Set cannot contain duplicate values.

Syntax of creating a set:
set_name={e1,e2,……..en}
Where in e1,e2,…. So on are the elements being inserted into the set.
Example
Create a Set:
S1 = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

print(S1)
Note: Sets are unordered, so you cannot be sure in which order the items will
appear.
Access Items
You cannot access items in a set by referring to an index or a key.
But you can loop through the set items using a for loop, or ask if a specified
value is present in a set, by using the in keyword.
Example
Loop through the set, and print the values:
for x in S1:
print(x)
Example
Check if "banana" is present in the set:
print("banana" in S1)
Change Items
Once a set is created, you cannot change its items, but you can add new items.
Add Items
To add one item to a set use the add() method.
To add more than one item to a set use the update() method.
Example
Add an item to a set, using the add() method:
S1.add("orange")
print(S1)
Example
Add multiple items to a set, using the update() method:
S1.update(["orange", "mango", "grapes"])
print(S1)
Get the Length of a Set

To determine how many items a set has, use the len() method.
Example
Get the number of items in a set:
print(len(S1))
Remove Item
To remove an item in a set, use the remove(), or the discard() method.
Example
Remove "banana" by using the remove() method:
S1.remove("banana")
print(S1)
Note: If the item to remove does not exist, remove() will raise an error.
Example
Remove "banana" by using the discard() method:
S1.discard("banana")
print(S1)
Note: If the item to remove does not exist, discard() will NOT raise an error.
You can also use the pop(), method to remove an item, but this method will
remove the last item. Remember that sets are unordered, so you will not know
what item that gets removed.
The return value of the pop() method is the removed item.
Example
Remove the last item by using the pop() method:
x = S1.pop()
print(x)
print(S1)
Note: Sets are unordered, so when using the pop() method, you will not know
which item that gets removed.
Example
The clear() method empties the set:
S1.clear()
print(S1)
Example
The del keyword will delete the set completely:
del S1
print(S1)
Join Two Sets
There are several ways to join two or more sets in Python.
You can use the union() method that returns a new set containing all items
from both sets, or the update() method that inserts all the items from one set
into another:
Example
The union() method returns a new set with all items from both sets:
set1 = {"a", "b" , "c"}

set2 = {1, 2, 3}
set3 = set1.union(set2)
print(set3)
Example
The update() method inserts the items in set2 into set1:
set1 = {"a", "b" , "c"}

set2 = {1, 2, 3}
set1.update(set2)
print(set1)
Note: Both union() and update() will exclude any duplicate items.
There are other methods that joins two sets and keeps ONLY the duplicates, or
NEVER the duplicates, check the full list of set methods in the bottom of this
page.
The set() Constructor
It is also possible to use the set() constructor to make a set.
Example
Using the set() constructor to make a set:
S1 = set(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-brackets

print(S1)
Set Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on sets.
Method Description
add() Adds an element to the set
clear() Removes all the elements from the set
copy() Returns a copy of the set
difference() Returns a set containing the difference

between two or more sets
difference_update() Removes the items in this set that are also

included in another, specified set
discard() Remove the specified item
intersection() Returns a set, that is the intersection of two

other sets
intersection_update() Removes the items in this set that are not
present in other, specified set(s)
isdisjoint() Returns whether two sets have a intersection

or not
issubset() Returns whether another set contains this set

or not
issuperset() Returns whether this set contains another set

or not
pop() Removes an element from the set
remove() Removes the specified element
symmetric_difference() Returns a set with the symmetric differences of

two sets
symmetric_difference_update() inserts the symmetric differences from this set

and another
union() Return a set containing the union of sets
update() Update the set with the union of this set and
others
Dictionary
Dictionary can be defined as unordered collection of elements.
Dictionary is mutable or changeable.
Dictionary is indexed.
In Python dictionary is written with curly or flower brackets and they have
keys and value pairs.
Dictionary cannot contain duplicate values.
Syntax of creating a dictionary:
dictionary_name={key1:value1,key2:value2,……..keyn:valuen}
Example
Create and print a dictionary:
D1 = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
print(D1)
Accessing Items
You can access the items of a dictionary by referring to its key name, inside
square brackets:
Example
Get the value of the "model" key:
D1["model"]
There is also a method called get() that will give you the same result:
Example
Get the value of the "model" key:
D1.get("model")
Change Values
You can change the value of a specific item by referring to its key name:
Example
Change the "year" to 2018:
D1 = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
D1["year"] = 2018
Loop Through a Dictionary
You can loop through a dictionary by using a for loop.

When looping through a dictionary, the return value are the keys of the
dictionary, but there are methods to return the values as well.
Example
Print all key names in the dictionary, one by one:
for x in D1:
print(x)
Example
Print all values in the dictionary, one by one:
for x in D1:
print(D1[x])
Example
You can also use the values() method to return values of a dictionary:
for x in D1.values():
print(x)
Example
Loop through both keys and values, by using the items() method:
for x, y in D1.items():
print(x, y)
Check if Key Exists
To determine if a specified key is present in a dictionary use the in keyword:
Example
Check if "model" is present in the dictionary:

D1 = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
if "model" in D1:
print("Yes, 'model' is one of the keys in the d1 dictionary")
Dictionary Length
To determine how many items (key-value pairs) a dictionary has, use

the len() function.
Example
Print the number of items in the dictionary:
print(len(D1)
Adding Items
Adding an item to the dictionary is done by using a new index key and
assigning a value to it:
Example
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
D1["color"] = "red"
print(D1)
Removing Items
There are several methods to remove items from a dictionary:
Example
The pop() method removes the item with the specified key name:
D1 = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
D1.pop("model")
print(D1)
Example
The popitem() method removes the last inserted item (in versions before 3.7, a
random item is removed instead):
D1 = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
D1.popitem()
print(D1)
Example
The del keyword removes the item with the specified key name:
D1 = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
del D1["model"]
print(D1)
Example
The del keyword can also delete the dictionary completely:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
del D1
print(D1) #this will cause an error because "D1" no longer exists.
Example
The clear() method empties the dictionary:
D1 = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
D1.clear()
print(D1)
Copy a Dictionary
You cannot copy a dictionary simply by typing dict2 = dict1, because: dict2 will
only be a reference to dict1, and changes made in dict1 will automatically also
be made in dict2.
There are ways to make a copy, one way is to use the built-in Dictionary
method copy().
Example
Make a copy of a dictionary with the copy() method:
D1 = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
D2 = D1.copy()
print(D2)
Another way to make a copy is to use the built-in function dict().
Example
Make a copy of a dictionary with the dict() function:
D1 = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
D2 = dict(D1)
print(D2)
Nested Dictionaries
A dictionary can also contain many dictionaries, this is called nested

dictionaries.
Example
Create a dictionary that contain three dictionaries:
myfamily = {
"child1" : {
"name" : "Emil",
"year" : 2004
},
"child2" : {
"name" : "Tobias",
"year" : 2007
},
"child3" : {
"name" : "Linus",
"year" : 2011
}
}
Or, if you want to nest three dictionaries that already exists as dictionaries:
Example
Create three dictionaries, then create one dictionary that will contain the other
three dictionaries:
child1 = {
"name" : "Emil",
"year" : 2004
}
child2 = {
"name" : "Tobias",
"year" : 2007
}
child3 = {
"name" : "Linus",
"year" : 2011
}
myfamily = {
"child1" : child1,
"child2" : child2,
"child3" : child3
}
The dict() Constructor
It is also possible to use the dict() constructor to make a new dictionary:
Example
thisdict = dict(brand="Ford", model="Mustang", year=1964)
# note that keywords are not string literals
# note the use of equals rather than colon for the assignment
print(thisdict)
Dictionary Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on dictionaries.
Method Description
clear() Removes all the elements from the dictionary
copy() Returns a copy of the dictionary
fromkeys() Returns a dictionary with the specified keys and value
get() Returns the value of the specified key
items() Returns a list containing a tuple for each key value pair
keys() Returns a list containing the dictionary's keys
pop() Removes the element with the specified key
popitem() Removes the last inserted key-value pair
setdefault( Returns the value of the specified key. If the key does not exist: insert
) the key, with the specified value
update() Updates the dictionary with the specified key-value pairs

values() Returns a list of all the values in the dictionary
Introduction to GitHub and applications

 Open source is a term that originally referred to open-source software
(OSS). Open-source software is code that is designed to be publicly
accessible—anyone can see, modify, and distribute the code as they see
fit. Open-source software is developed in a decentralized and
collaborative way, relying on peer review and community production.
 Git is a distributed version control system designed to track changes in a
project’s files.
 Git was released in 2005 by Linus Torvalds for the Linux kernel.
 Other kernel developers contributed to its development, and it has
become the most popular choice for software teams.
 Git offers strong support for non-linear development and speed.
 GitHub is a platform that can be used to host code online.
 Think of GitHub as a platform that stores the whole codebase in a
remote repository.
 It comes with tools to collaborate on projects of any size.
 By enabling the creation of remote repositories, GitHub allows
developers to have a unified source of truth for their source code.
 This is what makes open source possible.
 To create your repositories on GitHub or contribute to open-source
projects, you will need to create a personal account on GitHub.
 Nearly every open-source project uses GitHub to manage their projects.
Using GitHub is free if your project is open source, and it includes a wiki
and issue tracker that makes it easy to include more in-depth
documentation and get feedback about your project.

Python Unit-1 Notes

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Python Unit-1 Notes

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Introduction to Python Programming

History of Python Programming language

Python is a popular programming language. It was created by Guido van

 web development (server-side),

What can Python do?

Python Syntax compared to other programming languages

 Indentation refers to the spaces at the beginning of a code line.

 Comments can be used to explain Python code.

 Python does not really have a syntax for multi-line comments.

 Or, not quite as intended, you can use a multiline string.

Example: Declaring and assigning value to a constant

In the above program, we create a constant.py module file. Then, we

 Variable is a name given to a memory location where the data

String variables can be declared either by using single or double quotes or

Rules for Python variables:

 The first character of the variable should be a letter or underscore

#Illegal variable names:

Remember that variable names are case-sensitive

The Python print statement is often used to output variables.

To combine both text and a variable, Python uses the + character:

For numbers, the + character works as a mathematical operator:

The global Keyword

Python Data types:

Built-in Data Types

Text Type: str

Numeric Types: int, float, complex

Sequence Types: list, tuple, range

Mapping Type: dict

Set Types: set, frozenset

Boolean Type: bool

Binary Types: bytes, bytearray, memoryview

Getting the Data Type

Print the data type of the variable x:

There are three numeric types in Python:

Int, or integer, is a whole number, positive or negative, without decimals, of

Float, or "floating point number" is a number, positive or negative, containing

Complex numbers are written with a "j" as the imaginary part:

Convert from one type to another:

#convert from int to float:

#convert from float to int:

#convert from int to complex:

Specify a Variable Type

Casting in python is therefore done using constructor functions:

x = float(1) # x will be 1.0

x = str("s1") # x will be 's1'

Write a python program to find the sum of 2 numbers

Write a python program to find the area of circle

Write a python program to find the area of triangle

Write a python program to find simple interest

Write a python program to convert the degree in Fahrenheit to Celsius

Write a python program to find the square root of a number

Write a python program to exchange the contents of 2 variables

Operator is a symbol which specifies the type of operation being

Python divides the operators in the following groups:

Python Arithmetic Operators

Operator Name Example

// Floor division x//y

Write a python program to demonstrate the usage of arithmetic operators

Python Assignment Operators

a = 5 is a simple assignment operator that assigns the value 5 on the right to

Operator Example Same As

&= x &= 3 x=x&3

>>= x >>= 3 x = x >> 3

<<= x <<= 3 x = x << 3

Write a python program to demonstrate the usage of assignment operators

Python Comparison Operators

Operator Name Example

> Greater than x>y

>= Greater than or equal to x >= y

<= Less than or equal to x <= y

Write a python program to demonstrate the usage of comparison operators

Python Logical Operators

Logical operators are used to combine conditional statements:

Operator Description Example

or Returns True if one of the statements x < 5 or x < 4

Write a python program to demonstrate the usage of logical operators