Q.

main features of 73rd constitutional amendment + reasons why panchayati raj

institution have been reduced to paper tigers

The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992, is a landmark legislation that provides a
constitutional framework for the establishment of Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) in India. The
amendment recognizes PRIs as a third tier of government, after the Union and State
governments, and seeks to promote local self-government by providing constitutional
recognition and powers to these institutions. The main features of the 73rd Constitutional
Amendment Act are as follows:

1. Establishment of PRIs: The amendment mandates the establishment of three-tier PRIs

in every state – Gram Panchayats at the village level, Panchayat Samitis at the
intermediate level, and Zilla Parishads at the district level.
2. Elections: PRIs are to be constituted through regular elections, conducted by the State
Election Commission, and held every five years. The amendment provides for
reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), and women in
PRIs.
3. Powers and Functions: PRIs are empowered to prepare plans for economic
development and social justice in their respective areas, and to implement various
schemes related to agriculture, rural development, education, health, and poverty
alleviation, among others. They are also authorized to levy and collect taxes, fees, and
other charges.
4. Devolution of Powers: The amendment provides for the devolution of powers and
functions to PRIs by the State governments, including the transfer of funds and functions
from State governments to PRIs.
5. State Finance Commission: The amendment provides for the establishment of State
Finance Commissions (SFCs) in every state to review the financial position of PRIs and
to make recommendations regarding the allocation of funds to them.
6. District Planning Committee: The amendment provides for the establishment of District
Planning Committees (DPCs) in every district, comprising elected representatives from
PRIs and members of the Parliament and the State Legislature. The DPCs are
responsible for preparing plans for the development of the district, and for ensuring that
the plans prepared by the PRIs are in conformity with the overall plan of the district.
7. Constitutional Status: The amendment provides for the constitutional status of PRIs,
which means that they are not subject to the whims and fancies of the State
governments, and that their existence and powers are protected by the Constitution of
India.
8. Strengthening of Democracy: The amendment aims to strengthen democracy at the
grassroots level by providing opportunities for greater participation of people in
decision-making processes and by promoting decentralization of power.
9. Social Justice: The amendment provides for the reservation of seats for SCs, STs, and
women in PRIs, which is intended to ensure greater representation of marginalized
sections of society in local governance.
 10. Empowerment of Women: The amendment provides for one-third reservation for women
in PRIs at all levels, which is intended to enhance the participation of women in local
governance and to empower them.

In conclusion, the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act is a significant step towards promoting
local self-government in India. By providing constitutional recognition and powers to PRIs, the
amendment seeks to promote democratic decentralization, social justice, and empowerment of
marginalized sections of society. The amendment has been instrumental in strengthening the
democratic fabric of India and promoting grassroots development in the country.

The Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) were established in India with the aim of promoting local
governance and ensuring greater participation of people in the decision-making process.
However, in many cases, they have not been able to fulfill their intended role and have been
reduced to paper tigers. Here are some reasons for this:

1. Limited Powers: The PRIs have limited powers, and most of their decisions are subject
to approval by higher authorities. This restricts their ability to take independent decisions
and execute plans effectively.
2. Lack of Financial Autonomy: The PRIs are largely dependent on grants from higher
authorities, and they have little control over their own finances. This makes them
vulnerable to political pressure and limits their ability to carry out development activities.
3. Lack of Capacity: Many PRIs lack the necessary resources and expertise to carry out
their responsibilities effectively. This results in poor planning, inadequate
implementation, and low-quality services.
4. Political Interference: PRIs are often subject to political interference and pressure from
local politicians. This can undermine their autonomy and ability to function
independently.
5. Inadequate Representation: In many cases, PRIs are not representative of the entire
population, and certain groups may be excluded from decision-making processes. This
can lead to dissatisfaction and alienation, which can further undermine the effectiveness
of the PRIs.
6. Bureaucratic Hurdles: PRIs often face bureaucratic hurdles and red tape, which can
delay decision-making and implementation of plans.

Overall, unless these issues are addressed, the PRIs are unlikely to fulfill their intended role as
effective instruments of local governance, and will remain paper tigers.

Q. suggestion for the better working of panchayati raj insyitution The Panchayati Raj
Institutions (PRIs) are an important instrument of local governance in India. However, in order
for them to function effectively, there are several steps that need to be taken to improve their
functioning. Here are some suggestions for the better working of PRIs:
 1. Strengthening of PRIs: One of the key steps to improve the functioning of PRIs is to
strengthen them by providing them with more powers and resources. This can be
achieved by devolving more functions and finances to PRIs, and by providing them with
technical and administrative support.
2. Capacity Building: PRIs need to be provided with the necessary resources and expertise
to carry out their responsibilities effectively. This can be achieved through capacity
building programs, such as training and skill development programs for elected
representatives and PRIs staff.
3. Use of Technology: The use of technology, such as e-governance and digital platforms,
can improve the functioning of PRIs by making their operations more transparent,
efficient, and accountable.
4. Empowerment of Women: The empowerment of women is crucial for the effective
functioning of PRIs, as women make up a significant proportion of the rural population.
Therefore, it is important to ensure that women are adequately represented in PRIs, and
that they are provided with the necessary support to participate in decision-making
processes.
5. Accountability and Transparency: PRIs need to be more accountable and transparent in
their operations. This can be achieved through the establishment of mechanisms for
citizen participation and feedback, such as public hearings and grievance redressal
mechanisms.
6. Community Participation: Community participation is crucial for the effective functioning
of PRIs, as it ensures that development plans and programs are aligned with the needs
and priorities of local communities. Therefore, it is important to encourage and facilitate
greater community participation in the decision-making processes of PRIs.
7. Strengthening of Institutions: The institutions that support the functioning of PRIs, such
as State Election Commissions, State Finance Commissions, and District Planning
Committees, also need to be strengthened to ensure that they are able to perform their
functions effectively.
8. Political Will: Finally, the effective functioning of PRIs requires political will and
commitment from all stakeholders, including political leaders, bureaucrats, and civil
society organizations. Therefore, it is important to create a conducive political
environment that supports the functioning of PRIs and encourages their development.

In conclusion, the functioning of PRIs in India can be improved by taking a multi-pronged

approach that includes strengthening of institutions, capacity building, use of technology,
community participation, and empowerment of women. It is important to recognize that the
effective functioning of PRIs requires the commitment and support of all stakeholders, and that
sustained efforts are needed to ensure that they are able to fulfill their intended role as
instruments of local governance and development.

Q. 3 transitions taking place in Indian society - economic liberalism, political

decentralization, and social empowerment since the 1990s. Comment
India has undergone significant changes since the 1990s, particularly in the areas of economic
liberalization, political decentralization, and social empowerment. These transitions have had a
profound impact on the country's social, political, and economic landscape, and continue to
shape India's future trajectory.

1. Economic Liberalism: Economic liberalization in India began in the early 1990s with the
opening up of the economy to foreign investment and the removal of restrictions on trade
and investment. This led to an increase in foreign investment and a rise in economic
growth, as well as a transformation of the Indian economy from an agricultural-based
economy to a services and manufacturing-based economy.The impact of economic
liberalization on Indian society has been significant. It has led to the growth of a middle
class, the rise of new industries, and the expansion of the service sector. However, it has
also led to growing income inequality, as the benefits of economic growth have not been
equally distributed among all sections of society.The rise of economic liberalism has also
brought about changes in social attitudes and values, with an emphasis on individualism,
consumerism, and materialism. This has had both positive and negative impacts on
Indian society, as traditional values and practices have come under threat, while new
opportunities and possibilities have also opened up.

2. Political Decentralization: Another important transition taking place in Indian society

since the 1990s has been the move towards political decentralization. This has involved
the devolution of power from the central government to state governments, and from
state governments to local bodies, such as panchayats and municipal corporations. The
73rd and 74th Amendments to the Indian Constitution, passed in 1992, provided the
legal framework for political decentralization in India. These amendments mandated the
establishment of Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) and Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) as
key bodies of local self-government. The impact of political decentralization on Indian
society has been mixed. On the positive side, it has led to the empowerment of local
communities and the democratization of decision-making processes. It has also helped
to address some of the challenges of governance in India, such as corruption and
inefficiency. However, political decentralization has also faced several challenges. These
include the lack of resources and capacity at the local level, the dominance of local elites
and powerful interests, and the limited participation of marginalized communities,
particularly women and minorities.

3. Social Empowerment: The third significant transition taking place in Indian society since
the 1990s is social empowerment. This involves the empowerment of marginalized
communities, such as Dalits, Adivasis, and women, through affirmative action policies
and the provision of education, healthcare, and other social services. Affirmative action
 policies, such as reservations in education and employment, have played a key role in
promoting social empowerment in India. These policies have helped to address historical
injustices and discrimination, and have enabled marginalized communities to access
opportunities and resources that were previously denied to them. The impact of social
empowerment on Indian society has been significant. It has led to the emergence of a
more diverse and inclusive society, with greater opportunities for all sections of society. It
has also helped to address some of the challenges of social inequality, such as caste
discrimination and gender-based violence. However, social empowerment has also
faced several challenges. These include the resistance of dominant groups to affirmative
action policies, the lack of resources and infrastructure to support social empowerment
programs, and the limited participation of marginalized communities in decision-making
processes.

In conclusion, the three significant transitions taking place in Indian society since the 1990s -
economic liberalism, political decentralization, and social empowerment - have had a profound
impact on the country's social, political, and economic landscape. While these transitions have
brought

Q. Analyse the problem of naxalites and suggest some solutions in 1000 words

The Naxalite movement is an ongoing conflict in India that began in the late 1960s. It is a violent
insurgency that has affected large parts of the country, particularly in the states of Chhattisgarh,
Jharkhand, and Odisha. The movement is inspired by the ideology of Maoism and seeks to
overthrow the Indian government through armed struggle. The Naxalites, who are also known
as Maoists or Left-wing extremists, have been responsible for numerous attacks on security
forces, government officials, and civilians. The conflict has resulted in thousands of deaths over
the years and has also had a significant impact on the development of the affected regions.

There are several factors that have contributed to the growth of the Naxalite movement. The
primary driver has been the social and economic inequality that exists in many parts of India,
particularly in the rural areas. The Naxalites have exploited the grievances of the poor and
marginalized communities, who feel left behind by the country's economic growth. These
communities have been subject to land dispossession, displacement, and exploitation by
powerful elites, including landlords, politicians, and corporations. The Naxalites have also taken
advantage of the failure of the state to provide basic services such as healthcare, education,
and infrastructure in these areas.

The Naxalite movement has also been fueled by political factors. The Naxalites believe that the
Indian state is corrupt and serves the interests of the wealthy and powerful. They have been
critical of mainstream political parties and have argued that they do not represent the interests
of the poor and working-class people. The Naxalites have sought to create a parallel system of
governance in the areas they control, providing basic services and justice to the people.
The problem of the Naxalite insurgency is a complex one, and there are no easy solutions.
However, there are several steps that the government and civil society can take to address the
issue.

Firstly, there needs to be a concerted effort to address the underlying causes of the conflict. This
requires a focus on development and ensuring that the benefits of economic growth reach the
poorest sections of society. This can be achieved through policies that promote inclusive growth,
such as investing in education, healthcare, and infrastructure. The government should also take
steps to ensure that land rights are protected, and the poor and marginalized communities are
not subject to exploitation.

Secondly, there needs to be a political solution to the conflict. The government should engage
with the Naxalites and initiate a dialogue to address their grievances. This could involve granting
greater autonomy to the affected regions and addressing the concerns of the local communities.
The government should also work to improve the accountability and transparency of the political
system, to address the Naxalites' concerns about corruption.

Thirdly, there needs to be a focus on improving the capacity of the security forces to deal with
the insurgency. This involves providing them with the necessary training, equipment, and
resources to conduct effective counter-insurgency operations. However, this must be done in a
manner that respects human rights and does not result in the indiscriminate use of force against
civilians.

Fourthly, there needs to be a focus on civil society initiatives that promote peacebuilding and
conflict resolution. This can involve working with local communities and civil society
organizations to promote dialogue, reconciliation, and the resolution of conflicts through
non-violent means. It can also involve promoting the participation of women and marginalized
groups in decision-making processes and addressing their specific concerns.

In conclusion, the Naxalite insurgency is a complex and multifaceted problem that requires a
comprehensive approach to address. The solutions to the problem lie in addressing the
underlying causes of the conflict, initiating a political dialogue with the Naxalites, improving the
capacity of the security forces, and promoting civil

Q. Discuss centre-state relations in recent years

The relationship between the Centre and the State is an essential aspect of the Indian political
system. While the Centre holds the ultimate power in making policies, the States hold significant
autonomy in making their policies to suit their regional requirements. In recent years, there have
been various developments in Centre-State relations that have impacted the functioning of the
Indian political system.

One of the significant changes in Centre-State relations is the shift towards cooperative
federalism. The NDA government under Prime Minister Narendra Modi has emphasized
cooperative federalism, where the Centre and the States work together to make policy
decisions. The creation of the NITI Aayog to replace the Planning Commission is one such step
towards cooperative federalism. The NITI Aayog brings together the Centre and the States to
work towards the common goal of sustainable development. The Aayog has created various
committees with the involvement of State Chief Ministers, which has helped in better
coordination between the Centre and the States.

Another significant development in Centre-State relations is the GST implementation. The GST
(Goods and Services Tax) is a tax reform that aims to bring uniformity in the indirect tax
structure across the country. The GST is administered by both the Centre and the States, and it
requires the Centre and the States to work together for its effective implementation. The GST
Council has been set up to ensure that the tax is implemented effectively across the country.
The GST has resulted in a significant shift in the tax-sharing mechanism between the Centre
and the States. The GST has also brought the States closer to the Centre, as they now have to
work together to ensure that the tax is implemented effectively.

However, there have also been instances where the Centre has tried to encroach upon the
States' powers. One such instance is the controversy surrounding the National Population
Register (NPR) and the National Register of Citizens (NRC). The NPR and the NRC are aimed
at identifying illegal immigrants in the country. However, the implementation of the NPR and the
NRC has been a controversial issue, with some States opposing it. The opposition parties have
argued that the NPR and the NRC are discriminatory and violate the rights of the citizens. The
States have argued that they have the right to decide whether or not to implement the NPR and
the NRC. However, the Centre has argued that it has the power to implement the NPR and the
NRC as they are part of the Union List.

Another issue that has impacted Centre-State relations is the rise of regional political parties.
Regional political parties have gained prominence in recent years, and they have played a
crucial role in determining the Centre-State relations. These parties have demanded more
autonomy for the States and have often been critical of the Centre's policies. For instance, the
Trinamool Congress in West Bengal has been critical of the Centre's policies on various issues,
including the Citizenship Amendment Act and the farm laws. Similarly, the Telugu Desam Party
in Andhra Pradesh has been critical of the Centre's decision to bifurcate the State into two parts.

In conclusion, Centre-State relations have undergone significant changes in recent years. The
shift towards cooperative federalism and the implementation of the GST has brought the Centre
and the States closer together. However, the controversy surrounding the NPR and the NRC
and the rise of regional political parties have impacted Centre-State relations. The Centre and
the States must work together to ensure that the constitutional balance between them is
maintained.

Q. Different challenges to indian democracy since independence

India has faced a number of challenges to its democracy since gaining independence from
British rule in 1947. Here are some of the major ones:
 1. Communalism: Communalism refers to the tendency to view society through the lens of
religion and to promote the interests of one religious group over others. India has a
diverse religious landscape, and this has led to tensions between different communities.
The country has witnessed communal riots and violence, particularly between Hindus
and Muslims.
2. Casteism: Casteism refers to the social stratification of Indian society based on birth.
Despite constitutional provisions for equality, the caste system still persists in various
forms. Discrimination against lower castes and untouchability are major issues that India
faces.
3. Corruption: Corruption is a major challenge to India's democracy. It undermines the rule
of law and weakens institutions. The country has been ranked poorly in global corruption
indices, and cases of corruption involving high-ranking officials have come to light
frequently.
4. Poverty and Inequality: Despite significant progress in economic development, India still
has a large population living in poverty. The country also has significant income and
wealth inequality. This creates social tensions and undermines democracy by limiting
access to political power and economic opportunity.
5. Electoral malpractices: India has a vibrant democracy with regular elections at various
levels. However, electoral malpractices such as vote-buying, booth-capturing, and
intimidation remain a challenge. This undermines the credibility of the electoral process
and weakens democratic institutions.
6. Terrorism and Insurgency: India has been plagued by terrorism and insurgency in
various parts of the country. This poses a serious threat to the security of the nation and
challenges the rule of law.
7. Regionalism: India is a diverse country with many different languages, cultures, and
ethnic groups. This has led to demands for greater autonomy and self-rule by certain
regions, which can create challenges for the central government and lead to conflicts
between different regions.
8. Gender Inequality: Gender inequality is a major challenge in India, with women facing
discrimination and violence in various forms. This limits their access to political power
and economic opportunity, and undermines democracy by excluding a significant portion
of the population from full participation.

Q. Centre has become the periphery. In light of the statement, discuss the centre- state
relations

The relationship between the central government and state governments in India has always
been a complex one. The statement "Centre has become the periphery" implies that the central
government has become less dominant in its relationship with the state governments, and that
the power dynamic between the two has shifted.

Historically, the central government has held a significant amount of power in its relationship
with the states. The Constitution of India gives the central government the power to make laws
on a wide range of subjects, including defense, foreign affairs, and communications.
Additionally, the central government is responsible for collecting taxes and distributing them to
the states.

However, over time, the power dynamic between the central government and state governments
has shifted. One reason for this shift is the growth of regional parties in India. These parties
often have strong bases of support in specific states, and they are able to leverage this support
to demand more autonomy from the central government. Additionally, as India has become
more economically and politically decentralized, state governments have become more powerful
in their own right.

Another factor contributing to the shift in power dynamics between the central government and
state governments is the process of globalization. As India has become more integrated into the
global economy, state governments have become more important players in attracting foreign
investment and promoting economic growth. This has given state governments more leverage
in their relationship with the central government, as they are able to use their economic power to
demand more autonomy and resources.

Despite these shifts in power dynamics, the relationship between the central government and
state governments remains complex. While state governments have more autonomy than ever
before, they still rely on the central government for resources and support. Additionally, the
central government still holds significant power in certain areas, such as defense and foreign
affairs.

One way that the central government has sought to maintain its dominance in the relationship
with the state governments is through the use of constitutional provisions such as Article 356,
which allows the central government to impose President's Rule in a state in the event of a
breakdown of constitutional machinery. Critics argue that these provisions are often used to
undermine state governments that are not aligned with the ruling party at the center.

Another area of tension between the central government and state governments is the
distribution of financial resources. While the central government is responsible for collecting
taxes, it also has a responsibility to distribute these resources fairly among the states. However,
there is often a perception that the central government favors certain states over others, leading
to tensions between the center and states that feel they are not receiving their fair share.

In recent years, there have been several high-profile conflicts between the central government
and state governments. For example, the central government's decision to implement the
Goods and Services Tax (GST) led to protests from some state governments, who felt that the
tax would reduce their revenue. Similarly, the recent protests by farmers in Punjab and Haryana
against the central government's agricultural reforms highlight the tensions between the center
and states over policy decisions.

In conclusion, while the power dynamic between the central government and state governments
in India has shifted in recent years, the relationship remains complex and often contentious.
While state governments have more autonomy than ever before, they still rely on the central
government for resources and support, and the central government holds significant power in
certain areas. As India continues to develop and integrate into the global economy, it is likely
that the relationship between the center and states will continue to evolve, with both sides
seeking to maintain their autonomy and influence.

Q. India is facing a crisis of governablity . comment

India, the world's largest democracy, is currently facing a crisis of governability. The country is
experiencing various political, social, and economic challenges that have made it difficult for the
government to effectively manage the affairs of the nation. In this essay, I will discuss the
various factors that have contributed to the crisis of governability in India.

One of the most significant challenges facing India is the issue of corruption. Corruption is
widespread across various levels of government and has become a significant barrier to
effective governance. The prevalence of corruption has led to a lack of accountability and
transparency, which has eroded the public's trust in the government. The government has failed
to implement effective measures to curb corruption, and this has resulted in a situation where
corrupt practices have become the norm in many parts of the country.

Another factor contributing to the crisis of governability in India is the rise of identity politics. The
country is home to a diverse range of religious, linguistic, and ethnic groups, and the
government has traditionally been tasked with managing these differences and promoting social
harmony. However, in recent years, identity politics has become increasingly prominent, with
various groups competing for power and influence. This has led to the fragmentation of society,
with different groups working against each other rather than towards a common goal.

The issue of regionalism is also a significant challenge to governability in India. India is a vast
country with 29 states and seven union territories, each with its own unique cultural, linguistic,
and political identity. The central government has struggled to balance the needs and
aspirations of these different regions, leading to tensions and conflicts. This has made it difficult
for the government to implement national policies and programs effectively.

The lack of infrastructure is another factor contributing to the crisis of governability in India.
Despite rapid economic growth in recent years, the country still lags behind in terms of
infrastructure development. This has led to issues such as poor road connectivity, inadequate
power supply, and a lack of basic amenities in many parts of the country. These issues have
hindered the government's ability to deliver services and provide a conducive environment for
business and economic growth.

The high level of economic inequality is also a challenge to governability in India. The country is
home to some of the world's wealthiest individuals, but also a significant proportion of the
population living in poverty. The government has struggled to address this inequality, leading to
social unrest and protests. The lack of access to basic services such as healthcare, education,
and employment has also led to a sense of disenchantment among the population, making it
difficult for the government to effectively manage public opinion.

The issue of communal tensions is also a significant challenge to governability in India. The
country has experienced various incidents of communal violence, with different religious groups
clashing with each other. The government has struggled to effectively manage these tensions,
leading to a sense of insecurity and fear among the population.

In conclusion, India is facing a crisis of governability due to various factors, including corruption,
identity politics, regionalism, lack of infrastructure, economic inequality, and communal tensions.
The government needs to take urgent steps to address these challenges and promote social
harmony and inclusive development. It is essential that the government implements effective
measures to curb corruption and increase transparency and accountability. Additionally, it must
work towards promoting regional cooperation and inclusive development to address the issues
of regionalism and economic inequality. Finally, the government must take proactive steps to
manage communal tensions and promote social harmony to create a conducive environment for
economic growth and development.

Q. key features of liberalism

1. Individualism: Individualism is the core principle of liberal ideology. It reflects a belief in

the supreme importance of the human individual as opposed to any social group or
collective body. Human beings are seen, first and foremost, as individuals. This implies
both that they are of equal moral worth and that they possess separate and unique
identities. The liberal goal is therefore to construct a society within which individuals can
flourish and develop, each pursuing ‘the good’ as he or she defines it, to the best of his
or her abilities. This has contributed to the view that liberalism is morally neutral, in the
sense that it lays down a set of rules that allow individuals to make their own moral
decisions.
2. Freedom: Individual freedom, or liberty (the two terms are interchangeable), is the core
value of liberalism; it is given priority over, say, equality, justice or authority. This arises
naturally from a belief in the individual and the desire to ensure that each person is able
to act as he or she pleases or chooses. Nevertheless, liberals advocate ‘freedom under
the law’, as they recognize that one person’s liberty may be a threat to the liberty of
others; liberty may become licence. They therefore endorse the ideal that individuals
should enjoy the maximum possible liberty consistent with a like liberty for all.
3. Reason: Liberals believe that the world has a rational structure, and that this can be
uncovered through the exercise of human reason and by critical enquiry. This inclines
them to place their faith in the ability of indi- viduals to make wise judgements on their
own behalf, being, in most cases, the best judges of their own inter- ests. It also
encourages liberals to believe in progress and the capacity of human beings to resolve
their differences through debate and argument, rather than bloodshed and war.
4. Equality: Individualism implies a belief in foundational equality: that is, the belief that
individuals are ‘born equal’, at least in terms of moral worth. This is reflected in a liberal
commitment to equal rights and entitle- ments, notably in the form of legal equality
 (‘equality before the law’) and political equality (‘one person, one vote; one vote, one
value’). However, as individuals do not possess the same levels of talent or willingness
to work, liberals do not endorse social equality or an equality of outcome. Rather, they
favour equality of oppor- tunity (a ‘level playing field’) that gives all individuals an equal
chance to realize their unequal potential. Liberals therefore support the principle of
meritocracy, with merit reflecting, crudely, talent plus hard work.
5. Toleration: Liberals believe that toleration (that is, forbearance: the willingness of people
to allow others to think, speak and act in ways of which they disapprove) is both a
guarantee of individual liberty and a means of social enrichment. They believe that
pluralism, in the form of moral, cultural and political diver- sity, is positively healthy: it
promotes debate and intellectual progress by ensuring that all beliefs are tested in a free
market of ideas. Liberals, moreover, tend to believe that there is a balance or natural
harmony between rival views and interests, and thus usually discount the idea of
irreconcilable conflict.
6. Consent: In the liberal view, authority and social relationships should always be based
on consent or willing agreement. Government must therefore be based on the ‘consent
of the governed’. This is a doctrine that encourages liberals to favour representation (see
p. 197) and democracy, notably in the form of liberal democ- racy. Similarly, social
bodies and associations are formed through contracts willingly entered into by
individuals intent on pursuing their own self-interest. In this sense, authority arises ‘from
below’ and is always grounded in legitimacy.
7. Constitutionalism: Although liberals see government as a vital guarantee of order and
stability in society, they are constantly aware of the danger that government may
become a tyranny against the individual (‘power tends to corrupt’ (Lord Acton)). They
therefore believe in limited government. This goal can be attained through the
fragmentation of government power, by the creation of checks and balances amongst
the various institutions of government, and by the establishment of a codified or ‘written’
constitution embodying a bill of rights that defines the relationship between the state and
the individual.