Before beginning your paper, you need to decide how you plan to design the study.

The research design refers to the overall strategy that you choose to integrate the different
components of the study in a coherent and logical way, thereby, ensuring you will effectively address
the research problem; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis of
data. Note that your research problem determines the type of design you can use, not the other way
around!
The function of a research design is to ensure that the evidence obtained enables you to effectively
address the research problem as unambiguously as possible. In social sciences research, obtaining
evidence relevant to the research problem generally entails specifying the type of evidence needed
to test a theory, to evaluate a program, or to accurately describe a phenomenon. However,
researchers can often begin their investigations far too early, before they have thought critically
about about what information is required to answer the study's research questions. Without attending
to these design issues beforehand, the conclusions drawn risk being weak and unconvincing and,
consequently, will fail to adequate address the overall research problem.
Given this, the length and complexity of research designs can vary considerably, but any sound
design will do the following things:

1. Identify the research problem clearly and justify its selection,

2. Review previously published literature associated with the problem area,
3. Clearly and explicitly specify hypotheses [i.e., research questions] central to the problem
selected,
4. Effectively describe the data which will be necessary for an adequate test of the hypotheses
and explain how such data will be obtained, and
5. Describe the methods of analysis which will be applied to the data in determining whether or
not the hypotheses are true or false.

Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, Barbara. Part 1, What Is Research Design? The Context of Design. Performance
Studies Methods Course syllabus. New Yortk University, Spring 2006.

Action Research Design

Definition and Purpose
The essentials of action research design follow a characteristic cycle whereby initially an exploratory
stance is adopted, where an understanding of a problem is developed and plans are made for some
form of interventionary strategy. Then the intervention is carried out (the action in Action Research)
during which time, pertinent observations are collected in various forms. The new interventional
strategies are carried out, and the cyclic process repeats, continuing until a sufficient understanding
of (or implement able solution for) the problem is achieved. The protocol is iterative or cyclical in
nature and is intended to foster deeper understanding of a given situation, starting with
conceptualizing and particularizing the problem and moving through several interventions and
evaluations.
What do these studies tell you?

1. A collaborative and adaptive research design that lends itself to use in work or community
situations.
2. Design focuses on pragmatic and solution-driven research rather than testing theories.
 3. When practitioners use action research it has the potential to increase the amount they learn
consciously from their experience. The action research cycle can also be regarded as a
learning cycle.
4. Action search studies often have direct and obvious relevance to practice.
5. There are no hidden controls or preemption of direction by the researcher.

What these studies don't tell you?

1. It is harder to do than conducting conventional studies because the researcher takes on

responsibilities for encouraging change as well as for research.
2. Action research is much harder to write up because you probably can’t use a standard
format to report your findings effectively.
3. Personal over-involvement of the researcher may bias research results.
4. The cyclic nature of action research to achieve its twin outcomes of action (e.g. change) and
research (e.g. understanding) is time-consuming and complex to conduct.

Gall, Meredith. Educational Research: An Introduction. Chapter 18, Action Research. 8th ed. Boston, MA:
Pearson/Allyn and Bacon, 2007; Kemmis, Stephen and Robin McTaggart. “Participatory Action
Research.” In Handbook of Qualitative Research. Norman Denzin and Yvonna S. Locoln, eds. 2nd ed.
(Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2000), pp. 567-605.; Reason, Peter and Hilary Bradbury. Handbook of
Action Research: Participative Inquiry and Practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2001.

Case Study Design

Definition and Purpose
A case study is an in-depth study of a particular research problem rather than a sweeping statistical
survey. It is often used to narrow down a very broad field of research into one or a few easily
researchable examples. The case study research design is also useful for testing whether a specific
theory and model actually applies to phenomena in the real world. It is a useful design when not
much is known about a phenomenon.
What do these studies tell you?

1. Approach excels at bringing us to an understanding of a complex issue through detailed

contextual analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their relationships.
2. A researcher using a case study design can apply a vaiety of methodologies and rely on a
variety of sources to investigate a research problem.
3. Design can extend experience or add strength to what is already known through previous
research.
4. Social scientists, in particular, make wide use of this research design to examine
contemporary real-life situations and provide the basis for the application of concepts and
theories and extension of methods.
5. The design can provide detailed descriptions of specific and rare cases.

What these studies don't tell you?

1. A single or small number of cases offers little basis for establishing reliability or to generalize
the findings to a wider population of people, places, or things.
 2. The intense exposure to study of the case may bias a researcher's interpretation of the
findings.
3. Design does not facilitate assessment of cause and effect relationships.
4. Vital information may be missing, making the case hard to interpret.
5. The case may not be representative or typical of the larger problem being investigated.
6. If the criteria for selecting a case is because it represents a very unusual or unique
phenomenon or problem for study, then your intepretation of the findings can only apply to
that particular case.

Anastas, Jeane W. Research Design for Social Work and the Human Services. Chapter 4, Flexible
Methods: Case Study Design. 2nd ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999; Stake, Robert E. The
Art of Case Study Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 1995; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research:
Design and Theory. Applied Social Research Methods Series, no. 5. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE,
2003.

Causal Design
Definition and Purpose
Causality studies may be thought of as understanding a phenomenon in terms of conditional
statements in the form, “If X, then Y.” This type of research is used to measure what impact a
specific change will have on existing norms and assumptions. Most social scientists seek causal
explanations that reflect tests of hypotheses. Causal effect (nomothetic perspective) occurs when
variation in one phenomenon, an independent variable, leads to or results, on average, in variation
in another phenomenon, the dependent variable.
Conditions necessary for determining causality:

 Empirical association--a valid conclusion is based on finding an association between the

independent variable and the dependent variable.
 Appropriate time order--to conclude that causation was involved, one must see that cases
were exposed to variation in the independent variable before variation in the dependent
variable.
 Nonspuriousness--a relationship between two variables that is not due to variation in a third
variable.

What do these studies tell you?

1. Causality research designs helps researchers understand why the world works the way it
does through the process of proving a causal link between variables and eliminating other
possibilities.
2. Replication is possible.
3. There is greater confidence the study has internal validity due to the systematic subject
selection and equity of groups being compared.

What these studies don't tell you?

1. Not all relationships are casual! The possibility always exists that, by sheer coincidence, two
unrelated events appear to be related [e.g., Punxatawney Phil could accurately predict the
 duration of Winter for five consecutive years but, the fact remains, he's just a big, furry
rodent].
2. Conclusions about causal relationships are difficult to determine due to a variety of
extraneous and confounding variables that exist in a social environment. This means
causality can only be inferred, never proven.
3. If two variables are correlated, the cause must come before the effect. However, even
though two variables might be causally related, it can sometimes be difficult to determine
which variable comes first and therefore to establish which variable is the actual cause and
which is the actual effect.

4. Scales of measurement in research and statistics are the different ways in which
variables are defined and grouped into different categories. Sometimes called the
level of measurement, it describes the nature of the values assigned to the
variables in a data set.

5. The term scale of measurement is derived from two keywords in statistics, namely;
measurement and scale. Measurement is the process of recording observations
collected as part of the research.

6. Scaling, on the other hand, is the assignment of objects to numbers or semantics.

These two words merged together refer to the relationship among the assigned
objects and the recorded observations.

7. What is a Measurement Scale?

8. A measurement scale is used to qualify or quantify data variables in statistics. It
determines the kind of techniques to be used for statistical analysis.

9. There are different kinds of measurement scales, and the type of data being
collected determines the kind of measurement scale to be used for statistical
measurement. These measurement scales are four in number, namely; nominal
scale, ordinal scale, interval scale, and ratio scale.

10. The measurement scales are used to measure qualitative and quantitative data.
With nominal and ordinal scale being used to measure qualitative data while
interval and ratio scales are used to measure quantitative data.

11. Characteristics of a Measurement Scale

12. Identity

13. Identity is defined as the assignment of numbers to the values of each variable in a
data set. Consider a questionnaire that asks for a respondent’s gender with the
 options Male and Female for instance. The values 1 and 2 can be assigned to Male
and Females respectively.

14. Arithmetic operations can not be performed on these values because they are just
for identification purposes. This is a characteristic of a nominal scale.

15. Magnitude

16. The magnitude is defined as the size of a measurement scale, where numbers (the
identity) have an inherent order from least to highest. They are usually represented
on the scale in ascending or descending order. The position in a race, for example,
is arranged from the 1st, 2nd, 3rd to the least.

17. This example is measured on an ordinal scale because it has both identity and
magnitude.

18. Equal intervals

19. Equal Intervals are defined as the scale that has a standardized order. I.e., the
difference between each level on the scale is the same. This is not the case for the
ordinal scale example highlighted above.

20. Each position does not have an equal interval difference. In a race, the 1st position
may complete the race in 20 secs, the 2nd position in 20.8 seconds while the 3rd in
30 seconds.

21. A variable that has an identity, magnitude, and equal interval is measured on an
interval scale.

22. Absolute zero

23. Absolute zero is defined as the feature that is unique to a ratio scale. It means that
there is an existence of zero on the scale, and is defined by the absence of the
variable being measured (e.g. no qualification, no money, does not identify as any
gender, etc.

Levels of Data Measurement

The level of measurement of a given data set is determined by the relationship between
the values assigned to the attributes of a data variable. For example, the relationship
between the values (1 and 2) assigned to the attributes (male and female) of the variable
(Gender) is “identity”. This via. a nominal scale example.

By knowing the different levels of data measurement, researchers are able to choose the
best method for statistical analysis. The different levels of data measurement are:
nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio scales

Nominal Scale

The nominal scale is a scale of measurement that is used for identification purposes. It is
the coldest and weakest level of data measurement among the four.

Sometimes known as categorical scale, it assigns numbers to attributes for easy identity.
These numbers are however not qualitative in nature and only act as labels.

The only statistical analysis that can be performed on a nominal scale is the percentage or
frequency count. It can be analyzed graphically using a bar chart and pie chart.

Nominal Scale Example

In the example below, the measurement of the popularity of a political party is measured
on a nominal scale.

Which political party are you affiliated with?

 Independent
 Republican
 Democrat

Labeling Independent as “1”, Republican as “2” and Democrat as “3” does not in any
way mean any of the attributes are better than the other. They are just used as an identity
for easy data analysis.

Ordinal Scale

Ordinal Scale involves the ranking or ordering of the attributes depending on the variable
being scaled. The items in this scale are classified according to the degree of occurrence
of the variable in question.

The attributes on an ordinal scale are usually arranged in ascending or descending order.
It measures the degree of occurrence of the variable.

Ordinal scale can be used in market research, advertising, and customer satisfaction
surveys. It uses qualifiers like very, highly, more, less, etc. to depict a degree.
We can perform statistical analysis like median and mode using the ordinal scale, but not
mean. However, there are other statistical alternatives to mean that can be measured using
the ordinal scale.

Ordinal Scale Example

For example: A software company may need to ask its users:

How would you rate our app?

 Excellent
 Very Good
 Good
 Bad
 Poor

The attributes in this example are listed in descending order.

Interval Scale

The interval scale of data measurement is a scale in which the levels are ordered and each
numerically equal distances on the scale have equal interval difference. If it is an
extension of the ordinal scale, with the main difference being the existence of equal
intervals.

With an interval scale, you not only know that a given attribute A is bigger than another
attribute B, but also the extent at which A is larger than B. Also, unlike ordinal and
nominal scale, arithmetic operations can be performed on an interval scale.
 A 5 Minutes Interval Time Scale

It is used in various sectors like in education, medicine, engineering, etc. Some of these
uses include calculating a student’s CGPA, measuring a patient’s temperature, etc.

Interval Scale Example

A common example is measuring temperature on the Fahrenheit scale. It can be used in

calculating mean, median, mode, range, and standard deviation.

Ratio Scale

Ratio Scale is the peak level of data measurement. It is an extension of the interval scale,
therefore satisfying the four characteristics of the measurement scale; identity,
magnitude, equal interval, and the absolute zero property.

This level of data measurement allows the researcher to compare both the differences and
the relative magnitude of numbers. Some examples of ratio scales include length, weight,
time, etc.

With respect to market research, the common ratio scale examples are price, number of
customers, competitors, etc. It is extensively used in marketing, advertising, and business
sales.

The ratio scale of data measurement is compatible with all statistical analysis methods
like the measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode, etc.) and measures of
dispersion (range, standard deviation, etc.).

Ratio Scale Example

For example: A survey that collects the weights of the respondents.

Which of the following category do you fall in? Weigh

 more than 100 kgs

 81 – 100 kgs
 61 – 80 kgs
 40 – 60 kgs
 Less than 40 kgs
How to Collect Nominal, Ordinal, Interval & Ratio Data
with Formplus
Formplus is the best tool for collecting nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio data. It is an
easy to use form builder that allows you to collect data with ease. Follow the following
steps to collect data on Formplus

Step 1 – Select Feature

We will be using the radio choice multiple-choice questions to collect data on Formplus
form builder.

 Sign up or log in to your account on https://www.formpl.us/

 Click the “Choice Options” tab in the form builder menu.
 Click on the Radio button.
Step 2 – Edit Form
Nominal Data

 Click on the edit button to edit the form.

 Edit the question and choice options.
 Click the save button to save edits.

Ordinal Data

 Repeat Step 1.
 Click on the edit button to edit the form.
 Edit the question and choice options
  Assign values to the choice options.

 Click the save button to save edits.

Interval Data

 Click on the “+” sign at the bottom to add a new page.

  Repeat Step 1.
 Click on the edit button to edit the form.
 Edit the question and choice options.
 Click the save button to save edits.

Note: The interval data options do not have a zero value.

Ratio Data

 Repeat Step 1.
 Click on the edit button to edit the form.
 Edit the question and choice options.
 Click the save button to save edits.
 Click the save button in the top right corner to save the form.
Note: that the ratio data example has a zero value, which differentiates it from the
interval scale.

Step 3 – Customize and Preview Form

Types of Measurement Scale

There are two main types of measurement scales, namely; comparative scales and non-
comparative scales.

Comparative Scales

In comparative scaling, respondents are asked to make a comparison between one object
and the other. When used in market research, customers are asked to evaluate one product
in direct comparison to the others. Comparative scales can be further divided into pair
comparison, rank order, constant sum, and q-sort scales.

 Paired Comparison Scale

Paired Comparison scale is a scaling technique that presents the respondents with two
objects at a time and asks them to choose one according to a predefined criterion. Product
researchers use it in comparative product research by asking customers to choose the
most preferred to them in between two closely related products.

For example, there are 3 new features in the last release of a software product. But the
company is planning to remove 1 of these features in the new release. Therefore, the
product researchers are performing a comparative analysis of the most and least preferred
feature.

1. Which feature is most preferred to you between the following pairs?

 Filter – Voice recorder

 Filter – Video recorder
 Voice recorder – Video recorder
 Rank Order Scale:

In rank order scaling technique, respondents are simultaneously provided with multiple
options and asked to rank them in order of priority based on a predefined criterion. It is
mostly used in marketing to measure preference for a brand, product, or feature.

When used in competitive analysis, the respondent may be asked to rank a group of
brands in terms of personal preference, product quality, customer service, etc. The results
of this data collection are usually obtained in the conjoint analysis, as it forces customers
to discriminate among options.

The rank order scale is a type of ordinal scale because it orders the attributes from the
most preferred to the least preferred but does not have a specific distance between the
attributes.

For example:

Rank the following brands from the most preferred to the least preferred.

 Coca-Cola
 Pepsi Cola
 Dr pepper
 Mountain Dew
 Constant Sum Scale

Constant Sum scale is a type of measurement scale where the respondents are asked to
allocate a constant sum of units such as points, dollars, chips or chits among the stimulus
objects according to some specified criterion. The constant sum scale assigns a fixed
number of units to each attribute, reflecting the importance a respondent attaches to it.
This type of measurement scale can be used to determine what influences a customer’s
decision when choosing which product to buy. For example, you may wish to determine
how important price, size, fragrance, and packaging is to a customer when choosing
which brand of perfume to buy.

Some of the major setbacks of this technique are that respondents may be confused and
end up allocating more or fewer points than those specified. The researchers are left to
deal with a group of data that is not uniform and may be difficult to analyze.

Avoid this with the logic feature on Formplus. This feature allows you to add a restriction
that prevents the respondent from adding more or fewer points than specified to your
form.

 Q-Sort Scale

Q-Sort scale is a type of measurement scale that uses a rank order scaling technique to
sort similar objects with respect to some criterion. The respondents sort the number of
statements or attitudes into piles, usually of 11.

The Q-Sort Scaling helps in assigning ranks to different objects within the same group,
and the differences among the groups (piles) are clearly visible. It is a fast way of
facilitating discrimination among a relatively large set of attributes.

For example, a new restaurant that is just preparing its menu may want to collect some
information about what potential customers like:

The document provided contains a list of 50 meals. Please choose 10 meals you like, 30
meals you are neutral about (neither like nor dislike) and 10 meals you dislike.
Non-Comparative Scales

In non-comparative scaling, customers are asked to only evaluate a single object. This
evaluation is totally independent of the other objects under investigation. Sometimes
called monadic or metric scale, Non-Comparative scale can be further divided into
continuous and the itemized rating scales

 Continuous Rating Scale

In continuous rating scale, respondents are asked to rate the objects by placing a mark
appropriately on a line running from one extreme of the criterion to the other variable
criterion. Also called the graphic rating scale, it gives the respondent the freedom to place
the mark anywhere based on personal preference.

Once the ratings are obtained, the researcher splits up the line into several categories and
then assign the scores depending on the category in which the ratings fall. This rating can
be visualized in both horizontal and vertical form.

Although easy to construct, the continuous rating scale has some major setbacks, giving it
limited usage in market research.

 Itemized Rating Scale

The itemized rating scale is a type of ordinal scale that assigns numbers each attribute.
Respondents are usually asked to select an attribute that best describes their feelings
regarding a predefined criterion.

Itemized rating scale is further divided into 2, namely; Likert scale, Stapel scale, and
semantic scale.

 Likert Scale

A Likert scale is an ordinal scale with five response categories, which is used to order a
list of attributes from the best to the least. This scale uses adverbs of degree like very
strongly, highly, etc. to indicate the different levels.

 Stapel Scale:

This a scale with 10 categories, usually ranging from -5 to 5 with no zero point. It is a
vertical scale with 3 columns, where the attributes are placed in the middle and the least
(-5) and highest (5) is in the 1st and 3rd columns respectively.

 Semantic Differential Scale

This is a seven-point rating scale with endpoints associated with bipolar labels (e.g. good
or bad, happy, etc.). It can be used for marketing, advertising and in different stages of
product development.

If there is more than one item being inherently investigated, it can be visualized on a
table with more than 3 columns.