Research Project

01 Introduction to Research Project
Basic Research and Applied Research
Basic Research
Basic research, also known as fundamental research, is a form of inquiry aimed at enhancing
comprehension of a specific phenomenon, study, or natural law. This research type analyzes data with the
goal of uncovering the unknown and satisfying intellectual curiosity. Typically, it addresses questions related to
"how," "what," and "why" to elucidate occurrences (IET, 2023).
Below are instances of fundamental research:
 An investigation examining the effects of alcohol consumption on the brain

 An exploration to identify the constituents of human DNA
 An inquiry assessing whether heightened stress levels contribute to increased aggression
 A study examining the potential connection between gender stereotypes and depression
 A research endeavor seeking the causal factors of cancer
Applied research
Applied research involves investigating and identifying practical remedies for current issues,
encompassing problems within work environments, educational settings, and broader societal contexts. This
form of research employs empirical approaches, such as experiments, to gather additional data within a
specific field of study (IET, 2023).
Here are several potential scenarios for applied research:
 An investigation into effective treatments for insomnia in patients

 A study aimed at enhancing patient retention in dental practices
 Research on diagnostic methods for identifying schizophrenia in patients
 An inquiry into solutions for training dogs to stay within their yards
 A study on preventing itching from mosquito bites
 Research to determine effective marketing strategies for use on college campuses
There are research designs that have the same research processes as basic and applied research.
Study these designs including their strengths and weaknesses to help you formulate and construct the
research problem you intend to study.
Different Research Designs: Strengths and Weaknesses
Research is undertaken creatively and systematically aiming to intensify the knowledge accumulated
about a particular idea or subject. This process include gathering, organizing and interpreting data and
information to help individuals or organization understand an issue or topic. A research project may also refer
to the process of developing past works in the field (Research, 2014). Research projects can develop further
knowledge on a topic or for education (Research, n.d.). Research can use the same elements of previously
conducted projects, or even that project as a whole, so that people may test whether the instruments,
procedures of experiments are correct.
Research Designs
A research design's role is to ensure that the data gathered enables the researcher to conduct and
address the research problem logically, unambiguous, and efficient manner.
Obtaining information relevant to the research problem include a number of processes such as
determining the the type of evidence needed to assess a theory, evaluating a program, or accurately
describing and assessing meaning related to an observable phenomenon (Organizing Your Social Sciences
Research Paper, 2021).
To that end, researchers commonly commit an error where they start the research too early while not
thinking critically of what information is needed to address the research problem properly. Thus, the overall
research problem would not be properly solved by not addressing this issue early on. Any conclusion that
stems from the research has a chance of being weak and insufficient.
Consequently, the study's overall validity will be undermined (Organizing Your Social Sciences
Research Paper, 2021).
Action Research Design

The core characteristics of action research designs would follow a characteristic cycle in which an
exploratory approach is first adopted. This approach is where the problem is understood, and steps are
prepared to form an intervention strategy. The intervention is then put into action, hence the action in action in
research design. During this step, observations are collected in a variety of ways. Novel interventional
strategies are then done, which then repeats the cycle until such a point where there is a comprehensive and
sufficient understanding so that the problem may be achieved. This design's nature is cyclic, with the intent to
generate an intensive understanding of the problem at hand. The design starts with conceptualization and
specifying the problem, then passing through multiple interventions and evaluations of data (Organizing Your
Social Sciences Research Paper, 2021).
What do these studies tell you?
1. Useful in work of community situations because of its collaborative and adaptive research design.
2. The design focuses on pragmatic and solution-driven research outcomes rather than testing theories.
3. Action research can, through this method, inherently increase the information learned by researchers
as its cyclic approach can also be referred to as a learning cycle.
4. Studies conducted through action research, often, have direct and tangible importance in improving
practices and advocating change.
5. There are no remote controls or pre-emption of direction by the researcher.
(Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper, 2021)
What do these studies not tell you?
1. It is more challenging to do than conducting conventional research because the researcher takes on
advocating for change and researching the topic.
2. Action research is difficult to put into words since it uses a non-standard way to publish data effectively,
such as when data comes in stories and observations.
3. Research results may be biased due to too much involvement of the researcher.
4. The inherently cyclical characteristic of the research, which intends to achieve the two objectives of
action (such as change) and research (such as understanding), can take too much time and is too
complicated to do.
5. To advocate for change would require approval from the participants of the research.
Case Study Design

A case study refers to an intensive study of a specific research problem. This is done instead of
conducting a statistical survey or a comprehensive inquiry. This type of study is usually used to zero in on a
specific aspect of a field of research into a single or few examples, which can be conducted easily. The case
study design can be useful in testing the real-life application of a specific theory and model. The design can be
especially useful for lesser-known problems and phenomena (Organizing Your Social Sciences Research
Paper, 2021).
1. The case study design is recommended when wanting to understand a complex issue at hand because
of its contextual and detailed analysis of a limited number of events or circumstances and their
relationships.
2. When using this design, research may make use of multiple methods and sources to study the
research problem.
3. The design can either further enrich experiences or strengthen the validity of something already known
in previous work.
4. Researchers in the field of social sciences would commonly use this design so that they can study
modern real-life situations. This also provides a frame of reference to apply concepts and theories while
also extending their methods.
5. A case study may also shine light on cases that are specific and uncommon.
What do these studies do not elucidate?
1. If there are few number of cases, it only provide little evidence in establishing trustworthiness or
abstracting the findings to a broader population of people, places, or things.
2. If the researcher is passionate of the objectives of case, he or she may become partial in the
interpretation of the findings.
3. The research design does not assist in determining and assessing the relationship's cause and effect.
4. The case may be difficult to understand, owing to how critical information is missing.
5. The case may not be indicative nor common for the research's more pressing issue.
6. The case's results and its interpretation may only be applied to that particular study when the criteria in
selecting that case are to show an untypical phenomenon or issue of that study.
Descriptive Design
A descriptive research design is helpful in answering the following questions of the research problem:
who, what, when, where, and how. This design would not be able to answer the why of the problem. This is
useful when the researcher wants to get data about the phenomenon's present state, describing this in a given
set of factors in a certain environment. (Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper, 2021).
1. Observation is undertaken by placing the subject in a natural and unchanged setting. While giving
analyzable data, actual experiments often make adverse effects on the expected behavior of the
subject [a.k.a., the Heisenberg effect which occurs when the measurements of specific systems cannot
be made without impacts on the systems].
2. In most quantitative research designs, descriptive research is often utilized as a predecessor
considering the general overview which provide some of the necessary pointers as to what relevant
variables can be tested quantitatively.
3. The researcher can put in place the appropriate limitations that may serve as a helpful tool in identifying
the focus of the study.
4. Through descriptive studies, researchers can further produce data that pave way to relevant
recommendations in practice.
5. The approach collects a large amount of data for detailed analysis.
1. This design's results could not be used to prove nor disprove a research hypothesis.
2. The results may not be replicated, given that the descriptive design makes use of qualitative methods
and not quantitative methods.
3. The qualitative feature of this design depends on the instrument in order to measure and observe data.
(Ansary, 2017)
Experimental Design
A blueprint of the procedure allows researchers when it comes to the variables that can determine the
result of the research, to control said variables. This enables them to discover which particular variables affect
or even predict the results of the experiment. Experimental design is commonly used when there is a variable
of time. It is the key in determining the cause and effect relationship in the research problem, which is
consistent in a causal relationship (a cause will always lead to the same effect). The magnitude of the
correlation is excellent.
In a traditional classic experimental design, there are two types of groups: experimental and control. The
independent variable is inserted to the latter and not the former, with both groups being measure on the same
variables which are called dependent. Experimental designs later on make use of more groups and
measurements over longer periods of time. Actual experiments must have control, randomization, and
manipulation (Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper, 2021).
1. Experimental design provides researchers with control to a situation, allowing them to answer what
causes something to happen.
2. Experimental design identifies the cause and effect relationships that occur between variables, while
also identifying possible placebo effects from treatment.
3. Experimental design supports researchers by restricting other possibilities that may arise from
experiment and by deducing the cause and effect relationships in the study.
4. The approach provides the highest level of evidence for single studies.
1. The design may be too fabricated, with its results not carrying over well in describing aspects of the real
world.
2. The design, which makes use of controlled settings, could alter the natural behaviors or responses of
its participants.
3. If particular items or facilities are required for the design, it may end up too costly.
4. Due to ethical or technical reasons, various research problems may not be studied through the
experiment.
5. For this type of design, it is difficult to make use of qualitative methods like ethnography.
Field Research Design
This research is also known as participant observation or ethnography which include a number of
interpretative procedures such as observation and interviews. These designs were motivated of the qualitative
approaches to examine participants in individual or group setting while they exist in their natural environment
which is different from designs that utilize impersonal methods of data gathering like survey instruments.
Researchers have to take “field notes” that contain information acquired from observational research.
The process include recording what the researcher observe using their sense of sight and hearing while in the
field. No conclusive statements can be developed from the findings because the study gives more emphasis
on observing behavior and analyzing words. Indeed, the researcher may derive conclusion from interpretations
made from the findings that show superseding ideas, concepts or overriding themes. (ENTREP 1, n.d.).
1. Using field research is critical when the researcher needs to provide answers to the research problem
applied to local conditions or particular groups of people that cannot be determined using the existing
data.
2. Information gathered previously in relation to the research problem are contextualized allowing the
researcher to facilitate the different ways in assessing the origins, scope, and scale of a problem and
measure the phenomenon, the effects and the ways to solve the challenges in as far as deliberate
interaction with people natural inhabited spaces is concerned.
3. Researchers can now verify data through means of collecting more information that may either support
or disprove the findings of previous studies.
4. Since the researcher is integrated in the field, they are able to reflect on the unique cultural context of
their study. They do this by making observations or asking questions.
5. In making actual observations of the investigated setting, it gives researchers the chance to broaden
their horizons or collect new data that may challenge existing theoretical framework or generally
accepted hypotheses found in past studies.
1. A field research study will require an investment in time and resources in order to properly follow the
steps like getting ready for data-gathering, which would include conducting a background check on the
site, getting approval on visiting the site, and building up trust and rapport with those in the site.
2. A field research study will need the utmost commitment of researchers to stay engaged all throughout
their time in the field so that they may properly cover events and behaviors when they do occur.
3. Given that doing work in the field is inherently hard to predict, the data-gathering process of a field
research study will never be completely controlled. Thus, researchers must remain flexible in terms of
their approach to the study since things can change quick and at anytime.
4. Interpreting the findings can be challenging without materials or documents that can facilitate
interpretion and verification since credibility of information gathered form the field has to be confirmed
such as conducting triangulation of data.
5. There are also challenges in choosing the participants in the study who are aware of the research
problem and inhabi in their natural environment. If specific limatations are put in place, it intervenes
how findings are generalized depending on the context or situations and how courses of actions are
interpreted when used in various settings or interactions.
6. When a researcher present the findings of the study, he or she must take note of impacts of the study
on the respondents and on their behaviors.
Mixed-Method Design
1. Mixed methods research refers to a viewpoint, instead of a specific methodology, on how to tackle a
research problem.
2. The mixed-method give emphasis on the problems of the research that entails examination of real-life
contextual understandings, multi-layered perspectives, and diversified cultural influences (Sheppard,
n.d.);
3. It involves a rigoros application of of the principles of quantitative research in order to evaluation the
magnitude and frequency of constructs as well as the laborious qualitative research that looks into the
meaning and understanding of the constructs; and (Sheppard, n.d.),
4. Through this design, there is an objective to make the most out of both qualitative and quantitative data,
providing a more complex and more systemic framework that may lead to new solutions or novel
realizations on the issue at hand. (Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper, 2021).
Proponents of this design, including Tashakkori and Creswell (2007), would argue that the mixed-
method design is much more than having both qualitative and quantitative methods. They would argue that this
represents a third, brand new way of a epistemological paradigm, occupying the conceptual space that lies
between the positivist and interpretist schools. (Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper, 2021).
1. Stories and non-textual information may add value to quantitative data, while quantitative data may
provide clarity to stories and non-textual information.
2. Studies may make use of already existing data, while it would also create and test a grounded theory
approach so that it would provide descriptions and explain the research problem.
3. More complicated, more extensive problems can be tackled since the researcher will not be restricting
to just one method.
4. The design would give stronger and more confident evidence for the conclusion or the
recommendations thereafter.
5. The design may provide new realizations or reveal hidden insights, patterns, or relationships, which a
single approach may not be able to do.
6. Produces complete knowledge and understanding of the research problem that can increase the
generalizability of findings applied to theory or practice.
1. It is not easy to identify which method is ideal for a certain study. Thus, a researcher should be
knowledgeable of the multiple methods that can be applied in examining a research problem and the
research designs that can work well with them together.
2. The study may yield ambiguous findings or conflicting results which is not helpful in attaining a valid
conclusion or put in place a recommended course of action, for example, some of the existing statistical
data are not based on the sample interview responses
3. Complex research designs can be a challenge. Thus, there is a need for an efficient narrative, logical
style in writing and accurate choice of words when reporting the results and findings.
4. The design would involve collaboration between researchers, which means trying to integrate different
approaches to research and styles of writing. This would need more consideration in the entire process
compared to studies that only make use of one approach.
5. Simultaneous convergence of both quantitative and qualitative research would need much more
attention on the following: making sure there are sufficient sample sizes, utilizing samples that are
comparable, and applying a standard unit for analysis. For designs that are sequential in nature, this
may pose problems since a phase in qualitative research builds towards the quantitative research (and
conversely, quantitative to qualitative) decisions such as the following: which data to use from the first
phase should be used for the next, which samples to choose from and determining a sufficient sample,
and how to interpret the results stemming from both phases.
6. This design requires a great investment in time and resources because of the various types of data
needed to collect and analyze, as well as the numerous steps involved in the processes of data
gathering and interpretation.
Observational Design
Observational design ends by comparing the subjects against a control group, in which the researcher
does not exert any control over an experiment. For observational designs, there are two general types: direct
observation, in which people are aware that they are being observed, and unobtrusive measures, in which
people are unaware that they are being observed. This design provides researchers key insight into social
phenomenon while avoiding the difficulties that may arise ethically and practically when it comes to setting up a
complex and large-in-scope research.
(Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper, 2021).
1. Observational studies are non-structured. It can be flexible around a hypothesis. So, the research may
develop data in the process instead of maintaining the same information in every setting.
2. To understand a specific behavior, the study can help gather more detailed information.
3. This study may allow multi-layered dimensions of group interactions to surface in interrelationships.
4. Real-life situations may be related by generalizing the results that were gathered.
5. Through observational research, researchers may be able to discover what variables are needed for
experiments before applying any other methods.
6. The design takes into account how complex group behaviors may be.
1. The reliability of data is low because seeing behaviors occur repeatedly may take time and too complex
to imitate.
2. No generalized conclusions can be inferred to other groups since findings may only show in a unique
sample population during an observational research.
3. The researcher may become bias since they may inadvertently choose to observe or notice what they
want to see.
4. Given how nothing is manipulated as an independent variable, it would be impossible to determine the
causality of a relationship. Participants or data sources may not be of equal credibility. Data collected
may be biased, as a group that is aware that researchers are observing them may lead to changes
from their normal behavior.
02 Identifying Research Topics
Design Flaws to Avoid
Defining your Research Project
Research projects that are rushed due to the writers not carefully thinking about the issues involved are
most likely to fail. The writers must give themselves time to think about their project before moving on to the
next stage, which is planning. The writers can spend their time wisely through careful thought, and energy is
not wasted on inappropriate methods as their research progresses (Dawson, 2009).
When you start crafting your research, consider avoiding the following problems:
1. Lack of Specificity: Do not use overly broad generalities to describe the investigative components of
the study. It is crucial to describe the process of investigation in clear and concise terms. With this,
avoid using vague qualifiers such as extremely, very, entirely, completely, etc. With this, the reader can
understand the intention of the writer (Research Guides, 2021).
2. Poorly Defined Research Problem: Most new research begins with formulating the problem
statement and the development of questions that address the problem at hand. Your paper must outline
and clearly define the problem, as well as what you plan to investigate. This will determine the research
design you will be using, as identifying the research problem always precedes the choice of design
(Research Guides, 2021).
3. Significance: A clear answer to the “so what” question must be included in the research design. The
writer must clearly articulate why their study is important and how it can contribute to the greater body
of knowledge on the subject at hand.
Understanding the 5 W’s
At the beginning of thinking about your research, remembering the five ‘Ws’ is a helpful way to
remember the important questions to be answered.
What?
What is your research? This question needs to be answered as precisely as possible. One of the most
complex parts in the early stages is defining your project. There have been a number of researchers who are
unable to define their project, thus leading it to its failure.
Why?
Why do you want to do the research? What is its purpose? Reasons could include the following
(Dawson, 2009):
 You are interested in the topic.

 You have identified a gap in the literature.
 You want to obtain funding for a particular service or enterprise, and you need to find out whether there
is a demand for what you are proposing.
 You need to conduct some research to aid decision-making.
Whatever the reason, think carefully about why you are researching this, as this will affect your topic,
how you conduct the research, and how you report the results (Sanchez, 2006). Ask yourself does your
proposed research provides the opportunity to reach the required academic standard (Dawson, 2009)? Will
your research generate enough information to write a dissertation of the required length? Will your research
produce too much data that would be impossible to summarize into a report of the required length?
Who?
Who will be your participants? People who take part in research are called participants or respondents.
At this stage of the research process, you do not need to worry about how many respondents will participate in
your research; however, it is important to think about the type of people you will need to get in touch with and
whether it is feasible for you to contact them. If you have to conduct your research within a particular time
scale, there's little point in choosing a topic that would include people who are difficult or expensive to contact
(Dawson, 2009).
Where?
Where do you conduct research? When you ponder on this question, you may consider it within the
geographical domain in order to put in place boundaries on your research topic. Aside from location, as an
efficient researcher, you also need to take note of other resources such as budget, time, and venue. If you're
going to conduct interviews or focus groups, where will you hold them? Is there a room at your institution that
would be free of charge, or will you conduct them in the own homes of your participants? Would it be safe for
you to do so? Would you be comfortable doing so? If you've answered 'no' to either of these last two
questions, maybe you need to think again about your research topic (Dawson, 2009).
When?
When are you going to do your research? Thinking about this question will help you determine whether
the research project you have proposed is possible within your time scale (Sanchez, 2006). This will give you
more time to think about your participants, when you need to contact them and know their availability.
After thinking carefully about the five “Ws”, try to summarize your proposed project in one sentence.
After this, discuss this with other people such as your teacher or tutor and ask them for feedback. Whether
they understand what your research is about. If they do not, ask them to explain what they are confused about
so that you may revise your proposed project. The figure shows the flow chart, which suggests a logical
sequence should be followed before a topic is finally selected (Sanchez, 2006).
Figure 1: The process of Topic Selection
03 Reading on Related Literature and Studies

Discussion
Writing a Review of Related Literature and Study
It is essential to note that the review should not simply describe what others have published in the form
of a set of summaries. Still, it should be written in the style of a critical conversation, demonstrating
understanding and awareness of various arguments, perspectives, and approaches. It should be an analysis
and synthesis of relevant published material, tied to your purpose and rationale at all times. (ResearchWap
Admin, 2020).
Related Studies
Studies, enquiries, or investigations that have already been undertaken and are linked to or similar to the
current proposed study. Manuscripts, theses, and dissertations are common examples of unpublished
materials.
Literature Review
A literature review provides an interpretation of the sources undertaken by scholars on a particular

subject. As a research tool, it explains new knowledge in a broad sense allowing reader to find relevant ideas,
methods and research problems (McCombes, 2019).
Finding beneficial publications (such as books and journal articles), critically examining them, and
summarizing ideas or research gaps identified are undertaken when writing a literature review. There are five
important steps to follow (McCombes, 2019):
1. Search for relevant literature

2. Evaluate sources
3. Identify themes, debates, and gaps
4. Outline the structure
5. Write your literature review
(McCombes, 2019)
A competent literature review does more than merely list sources; it also analyzes, synthesizes, and
assesses them critically to provide a broad picture of the existing state of knowledge on the topic (Literature
review of a project example, n.d.).
Why write a literature review?
To understand the perspective of your research within the existing knowledge when you write a
dissertation, thesis or research, you have to make a literature review. You can use the literature review to
(Literature review of a project example, n.d.):
 Develop a theoretical framework and approach for your research

 Position yourself in relation to other researchers and theorists
 Demonstrate your expertise with the issue and scholarly environment
 Explain the contributions of the research in filling a gap or responding to a debate.
 You have a make a literature review as a separate assignment. This will help you in evaluating the
existing level of research and demonstrate your knowledge of scholarly arguments on a given topic.
The content will differ slightly in each case, but the process of conducting a literature review is the same.
Step 1: Look for relevant literature.

Before you start looking for literature, you must have a well-defined topic (El Profesor, 2021).
If you are writing a dissertation or research paper, you will look for literature that is relevant to your
research problem and questions.
If you are completing the literature review as a separate assignment, you must select a focus and
formulate a central question to guide your research. Unlike a dissertation research question, this one must be
answered without the collection of original data. You should be able to respond to it based solely on a review of
previously published materials.
Step 2: Make a list of keywords.
The keywords on the list should be in congruence with the research question. You may add the key
concepts or variables that you intend to discuss and list of synonyms and related terms. Also, new keywords
learned or in the process of finding literatures can be included to this list (El Profesor, 2021).
Keywords example
 Social media, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, TikTok

 Body image, self-perception, self-esteem, mental health
 Generation Z, teenagers, adolescents, youth
(El Profesor, 2021)
Step 3: Find sources that are necessary to your topic.
It would be better to search for sources with the help of keywords. Some valuable databases to search
for journals and articles include (El Profesor, 2021):
 Your university's library catalog

 Google Scholar
 JSTOR
 EBSCO
 Project Muse (humanities and social sciences)
 Medline (life sciences and biomedicine)
 EconLit (economics)
 Inspec (physics, engineering, and computer science)
Read the abstract to see if an article is relevant to your query. When you find a useful book or article,
look through the bibliography to find additional sources (El Profesor, 2021).
Take note of recurring citations to identify the most important publications on your topic. Authors, books
or articles maybe mentioned many times in your reading, thus, it would be better to find them.
Step 4: Assess and choose sources
You won't be able to read everything that has been written on the subject – you'll have to decide which
sources are most relevant to your questions (El Profesor, 2021).
Here are some of the questions you have to ponder as you go through each publication:
 What issue or question does the author intend to answer in this publication?
 What are the main ideas, and how are they defined?
 What are the basic theories, models, and methods? Is the research based on established frameworks
or takes a novel approach? What are the results and conclusions made?
 How is the publication related to other fields of the literature? Is it confirming, adding to, or challenging
existing knowledge?
 How does the publication help you understand the subject? What are its main points and arguments?
 What are the research's strengths and weaknesses? Make sure your sources are credible, and make
sure you read any landmark studies significant theories in your field of research.
(Entrep 1, n.d.)
The review covers the topic and the discipline. Only recent literature will be reviewed for studies related
to sciences, on the other hand, the researcher needs to consider a long historical perspective, like studying the
evolution of meaning of the certain concept within a specific period of time in the disciplines of humanities.
(Entrep 1, n.d.).
Step 5: Write notes and cite properly.
To avoid plagiarism, it is critical to keep track of your sources with citations. An annotated bibliography,
in which you compile complete citation information and write a paragraph of summary and analysis for each
source, can be useful. This helps you efficiently remember what you read and saves you time later on (Entrep
1, n.d.).
Step 6: Determine the themes, debates, and gaps. To begin organizing the argument and structure of your
literature review, you must first understand how one source you have read is connected and related with each
other. (Entrep 1, n.d.):
 Trends and patterns: Do certain approaches gain or lose popularity over time?
 Themes: What questions or concepts appear repeatedly throughout the literature?
 Disagreements, conflicts, and contradictions: where do sources differ?
 Key publications: Are there any influential theories or studies that have shifted the field's focus?
 Gaps and weaknesses in the literature found
Step 7: Outline the structure of your literature review.
There are several methods for organizing the body of a literature review. Before you begin writing, you
should have a rough idea of your strategy (El Profesor, 2021). You can combine several of these strategies
depending on the length of your literature review. For example, your overall structure could be thematic, but
each theme is discussed separately.
If you aim to discuss the development of the topic within a period of time, you have to be straightforward.
But, this structure must not be presented in simple summary or orderly listing of sources. Instead check if there
are obvious patterns, critical issues or turning points that helps to shape the course of the study (El Profesor,
2021).
Thematic
Observe if the sources illustrate similarities in the themes. You may categorize the literature and create
some subsections. Each section may address various aspect or perspectives of the topic.
For example, if you make a literature review about the imbalance of migrant health outcomes, you may
categorize the themes into healthcare policy, cultural attitudes, language barriers, economic access and legal
status (El Profesor, 2021).
Methodological
You might want to compare the data and conclusions that emerge from different methodologies if your
sources are from different disciplines or fields that use different research methods (El Profesor, 2021).
Theoretical
A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework. You can use it to discuss various
theories, models, and definitions of key concepts (El Profesor, 2021).
You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach or combine various theoretical
concepts to create a framework for your research (El Profesor, 2021).
Step 8: Write your literature review
Like any other academic text, your review should begin with an introduction and end with a conclusion.
Depending on the goal of your literature review, this will state the literature review form you aim to go for.
Introduction: The focus and purpose of the literature review should be established in the introduction (El
Profesor, 2021).
Dissertation literature review: If you are writing the literature review as part of your dissertation or thesis,
reiterate your central problem or research question and summarize the scholarly context.
Stand-alone literature review: If you're writing a stand-alone paper, provide some context for the issue and
its significance, define the extent of the literature you'll be reviewing (for example, the time span of your
sources), and state your goal. What new understanding from the literature will you draw (El Profesor, 2021)?
Body: Depending on how long your literature review is, you may wish to break it up into subsections. Each
theme, time period, or analytical approach might have its own subheading (El Profesor, 2021).
As you write, you can follow these tips:
 Summarize and synthesize: give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into
a coherent whole
 Analyze and interpret: don't just paraphrase other researchers—add your interpretations where
possible, discussing the significance of findings
 Evaluate critically: discuss the strengths and limitations of your sources.
 Use transition words and topic sentences to generate links, parallels, and contrasts in well-structured
paragraphs.(El Profesor, 2021).
04 Reading on Related Literature and Studies, Part 2
Discussion
Researchers develop theories to explain phenomena, draw connections, and make predictions. You explain the
theories that support your research in the theoretical framework, showing that your work is grounded in established
ideas (List of theoretical frameworks in qualitative research, n.d.).
The Goal of a Theoretical Framework
As soon as you plan to start writing your study, you have to explore what theories and models can be applied in
your study. Most of these theories and models are already developed in other studies. A theoretical framework aims to
present and explain this information (List of theoretical frameworks in qualitative research, n.d.).
Various theories can be applied to your topic. These are utilized and discussed in the theoretical framework
through selecting, comparing and evaluating one relevant theory after another. (List of theoretical frameworks in
qualitative research, n.d.).
As the researcher, you have to inform your readers about your assumptions by framing your study within the
bounds that are clear to them. This way, they will be aware of your methods and the reasons why you are interested of
the field you have chosen (List of theoretical frameworks in qualitative research, n.d.).
This part of your dissertation lays the foundations for your analysis, helping you interpret your results and make
broader generalizations (List of theoretical frameworks in qualitative research, n.d.).
Examples of theoretical frameworks in research
You may use various types of theoretical frameworks on similar research topic (Vinz, 2015):
 In literature, the book The Great Gatsby can be interpreted in various ways such as using the postmodernist
literary and the Marxist literary theory.
 In psychology, different methods and propositions can be considered using the behaviorist approach to counter
depression.
 In economics, Keynesian economics and classical economics frameworks can be employed to explain and
interpret wealth inequality in various perspectives.
For each case, you have to elucidate your interpretations and explanations of the data in accordance to a theory (Vinz,
2015).
How to Create a Theoretical Framework
Follow these guidelines when constructing your theoretical framework: (Vinz, 2015).
1. Identify your key concepts
Determine what are the key terms in your study. You can find these in your research questions and problem
statement. The key terms can be defined in multiple ways but to make them relevant, you have to consider your
theoretical framework to make a clear definition (Vinz, 2015).
Example: Problem statement and research questions
Company X encounters a problem. Many of its online customers do not make another purchase after their first purchase.
In order to upturn its sales, the management opted to attain improved customer satisfaction to increase customer
loyalty. In assessing the problem, it is better to plan and identify the problem statement, the research objectives and
questions (Vinz, 2015):
Problem: Decrease of subsequent purchase from numerous online customers.
Objective: To increase customer loyalty.
Research question: How to increase the customer satisfaction of Company X to motivate higher customer loyalty?
The study give emphasis on the concepts “customer loyalty” and “customer satisfaction”. The definition of each
concept will be explained by the theoretical framework, as well as the their relationship with the theories (Vinz, 2015).
2. Evaluate and explain relevant theories
Do a comprehensive literature review by elucidating the process used in other research. Define and make
connections of one key concept to another. In theoretical framework, you discuss the approaches of each author or
researcher you identified through comparison, contrast or evaluation in a critical manner (Vinz, 2015).
You provide the appropriate definitions relevant to the study and explain its rationale after you give a discussion of
the different models and theories. In other research studies with complex approaches, combining theories from various
fields of study are allowed in order to construct a unique framework (Vinz, 2015).
Use theories that are aligned and relevant to the key concepts of the study. Well-established models or theories
may not be applicable to some studies, if this true in your study, you just have to provide a logical reason to explain its
irrelevance to your framework (Vinz, 2015).
3. Explain how your research fits in
Provide an explanation how the theory can be utilized in the project after discussing other people’s theories (Vinz,
2015).
You might aim to do one or more of the following (Vinz, 2015):
 Evaluate the context that the theory holds.
 Intrpret your results using a theory as your basis
 Make a crtical analysis of the selected theory
 Combine different theories in a new manner
Whenever necessary, develop your research hypotheses based on the principles laid down on your theoretical
framework (Vinz, 2015).
The Structure of the Theoretical Framework
Most of the time, theoretical frameworks are found on the literature review chapters in a dissertation or thesis, but
it can also be included as its chapter or section. For research studies with complex theories, a separate theoretical
framework chapter can be established (Vinz, 2015).
If the academe intends to be lenient in writing the theoretical framework, researchers are still required to write it
in a clear and logical manner. Another way of structuring the theoretical framework is to discuss the research questions
by writing each section in relation to each concept or question (Vinz, 2015).
Nevertheless, as you keep writing your study, you have to given credits to the authors of your sources properly to
avoid any chances of plagiarism (Vinz, 2015).
Sample Theoretical Framework
The key concepts are defined and discussed in the theoretical framework. Also, it proposes the connection of one
concept to another and elucidate the relevnt theories in accordance to the principles discussed on the literature review
(Vinz, Sample theoretical framework of a dissertation, 2015).
A solid theoretical framework gives your research direction, allowing you to interpret, explain, and generalize your
findings convincingly. Remember, your problem statement, questions, as well as literature review will be your guide in
writing your theoretical framework (Vinz, Sample theoretical framework of a dissertation, 2015).
(Vinz, Sample theoretical framework of a dissertation, 2015)
Company X have a problem with its online customers. They found out that most of them have lesser number of
subsequent purchases. The management aims to increase their online market through intensifying its customer loyalty
and establishing improvements to increase customer satisfaction in the hope that it will address in achieving this goal
(Vinz, Sample theoretical framework of a dissertation, 2015).
To address the problem, the management has to conduct an investigation by considering its problem statement,
objective, and research questions (Vinz, Sample theoretical framework of a dissertation, 2015):
Problem: Many online customers do not return to make subsequent purchases.
Objective: To increase customer loyalty and thereby generate more revenue.
Research question: ‘How to improve online customer’s satisfaction in order to increase their loyalty to company X?’
Sub-Questions:
‘What is the relationship between the loyalty of the customer and their satisfaction?’
‘What is the level of satisfaction and loyalty of company X’s online customers at present?’
‘What are the impacts of the satisfaction and loyalty of online customers to company X?’
The research has to consider the definition of “loyalty” and “customer satisfaction” in the research study. These
concepts play a significant role in the investigation and will later be measured. They are significant in the study thus, the
meaning of the concept must be defined in the theoretical framework (Vinz, Sample theoretical framework of a
dissertation, 2015).
Sample Theoretical Framework
Here is a simple example of the providing a description and comparing the theories and definitions of the concepts.
In this example, the concept of ‘customer satisfaction will be given emphasis (Vinz, Sample theoretical framework of a
dissertation, 2015).’
2.1 Customer satisfaction
“According to Thomassen (2003, p. 69) customer satisfaction refers to customers’ perception particularly their
experiences which they compare with their expectations consciously or unconsciously.” Kotler & Keller (2008, p. 80)
agreed with Thomassen and further stated that customer satisfaction can be measured based on the contentment or
disappointment of the customers which can be gleaned from their expectations after observing the performance of a
product. Dissatisfaction of the customer usually resulted from performance falling below expectations, on the other
hand, good or excellent customer satisfaction is observed when performance complies with satisfying expectations. In
others words, when a customer’s expectations are addressed they will likely feel pleasant or very satisfied (Kotler &
Keller, 2003, p. 80)” (Vinz, Sample theoretical framework of a dissertation, 2015).
However, Zeithaml and Bitner’s (2003, p. 86) understood customer satisfaction in a slightly different angle. When the
customer feels fulfilled of the performance of a product or service, satisfaction is achieved. The customer judges the
feature or performance of a product and manifest how fulfilled he or she felt or experienced after consuming the same.”
Zeithaml and Bitner highlighted that customer satisfaction can readily be assessed from the purchases that a customer’s
make (Vinz, Sample theoretical framework of a dissertation, 2015).
Based on the aims of this study, the objectives are much aligned with the definition postulated by Thomassen. It gives
mst significance on the unconscious perception of the customer. While, Zeithaml and Bitner agreed with Thomassen that
customer satisfaction is the result of what they experienced, they did not make a contrast on between the impacts of the
conscious and the unconscious perceptions of the customers. Thus, the current study gains more importance from
Thomassen’s statement (Vinz, Sample theoretical framework of a dissertation, 2015).
Thomassen’s View on Customer Satisfaction
According to Thomassen, both the so-called value proposition and other influences have effects on the final customer
satisfaction. In his model (Fig. 1), he stated customer’s need and expectations derive from personal needs, word-of-
mouth, experiences in the past and marketing and public relations. As these factors accumulate, they become lived
experiences which customers compare with their expectations forming a distinct satisfaction level. Through this model,
this study will be able to assess the extent that company X has to undertake to fulfill the expectation of its customers and
identify the improvements that can be done (Vinz, Sample theoretical framework of a dissertation, 2015).
Fig. 1: Customer satisfaction creation (Thomassen, 2007, p.30).

Conceptual Framework
A conceptual framework refers to the idea that can be gained through your research. It explains the key concepts of
your study and demonstrate its relationship with each other (Swaen, 2015).
Before the gathering of data, the researcher has to construct a conceptual framework. It is usually presented in the
study as a visual illustration (Swaen, 2015).
If you want to investigate any relationship between variables, it’s a good idea to create a conceptual framework.
Research example
You want to know if students who study more hours get higher exam scores. To investigate this question, you can use an
experiment or survey to test the relationship between variables.
Before you start collecting data, construct a conceptual framework. This will illustrate the precise variables you have to
quantify and the approaches you have to utilize to relate one variable or concept with the other (Swaen, 2015).
In most studies, you can find the conceptual framework in the literature reviews of other related research studies.
Identifying your variables
Variables are simply the characteristics or properties that you want to study.
In our example, the two key variables are “hours of study” and “exam score (Example of conceptual Framework,
2020).
The conceptual framework will map the expected relationship between them (Example of conceptual Framework,
2020).
Independent and dependent variables
If we want to test a cause-and-effect relationship, we need to identify at least two variables: the independent and
dependent variables. In our example (Swaen, 2015):
The expected cause, “hours of study,” is the independent variable (aka the predictor or explanatory variable). The
expected effect, “exam score,” is the dependent variable (aka the response or outcome variable). In other words, “exam
score” depends on “hours of study (Swaen, 2015).
Causal relationships often involve several independent variables that affect the dependent variable. However, to
keep things simple, we’ll work with just one independent variable, namely “hours of study (Swaen, 2015).”
Designing a conceptual framework
A conceptual framework can be designed in many different ways. The form yours takes will depend on what kinds of
relationships you expect to find (Swaen, 2015).
To visualize our expected cause-and-effect relationship, we will use the essential design components of boxes,
arrows, and lines (Swaen, 2015).
To indicate a causal relationship, each arrow should start from the independent variable (the cause) and point to
the dependent variable (the effect) (Swaen, 2015).
Use a line when you expect a correlation between two variables but no cause-and-effect relationship.
Basic conceptual framework using an independent variable and a dependent variable.
Expanding the Conceptual Framework
As you develop your conceptual framework, you should also identify other variables that might influence the
relationship between your independent and dependent variables. Some standard variables to be incorporated into the
conceptual framework include (Swaen, 2015):
 Moderator variables - alters the effect that an independent variable has on a dependent variable based on the
moderator’s value.
 Mediator variables - It makes it easier to understand how the independent variable affects the dependent
variable and what is governing that relationship.
 Control variables - a variable that is held constant to prevent it from influencing the outcome of a study.
Moderator Variables
A conceptual framework with a moderator variable
(Swaen, 2015)
The moderator thus changes the practical component of the cause-and-effect relationship. This moderation is also
referred to as the interaction effect (Swaen, 2015).
In this example, we establish the relationship the number of hours a student spent in studying and the exam score
they earned: the more you prepare, the higher your score. Now we add the moderator “IQ.” A student’s IQ level changes
the effect that the variable “hours of study” has on the exam score: the higher your IQ, the lesser time you need to study
for the exam. In other words, the “IQ” moderator moderates the effect that the number of study hours has on the exam
score (Swaen, 2015).
Mediator Variables
A conceptual framework illustrating its mediator variable
In this example, the independent variable (“hours of study”) has impacts on the dependent variable (“exam
score”): through this relationship a hypothesize is drawn stating that the more hours a student studies, the better they
will do on the exam (Swaen, 2015).
We add the mediating variable of “number of practice problems completed,” which comes between the
independent and dependent variables. The hours of study impact the number of practice problems, impacting the exam
score (Swaen, 2015).
When the student spends more hours a student in his or her studies, she is expected to complete more practice
problems; when she completes more practice problems, she is expected to get higher exam score. Adding the mediating
variable of “number of practice problems completed,” we help explain the cause-and-effect relationship between the
two main variables (Swaen, 2015).
Control variables
When testing a cause-and-effect relationship, it is essential to consider which among the variables caused the
relationship between the independent and dependent variables. After identifying, you must control this variable so that
your results are as accurate as possible (Swaen, 2015).
Sample conceptual framework with a control variable
Our example framework maps the relationship between “hours of study” (independent variable) and “exam score”
(dependent variable) (Swaen, 2015).
To test whether there is a cause-and-effect relationship between “hours of study” and “exam score,” we also need
to consider other variables that could potentially impact students’ exam scores (Swaen, 2015).
For example, in the event a student feels sick, it is expected that he or she will get a low exam score. Thus, “health”
is included as one of the control variables. That means we should keep the variable “health” constant in our study –
we’ll only include participants in good health on the day of the exam (Swaen, 2015).
06 Writing the Chapter 1 of a Research Paper
Discussion
Introduction
Statement of the Problem
Assumption/ Hypothesis
As they say, the most challenging part of any endeavor is the starting point. This is because the first chapter is
where you ponder on writing your research from the start to the end. It is expected that the gist of your entire research
can be inferred in the content of the Chapter 1. This may include the potential outcomes or results that may arise or
occur. Here are some of the guidelines when drafting or writing Chapter 1.
Introduction
The introduction is part of a document that tries to introduce the document interestingly to the reader. An
introduction is all about what a reader can expect in the document concisely. However, the introduction contains all the
significant points that are covered in the document. The beginning must entice the reader to read the entire document.
It is difficult, if not impossible, to persuade the reader to take up the study paper and read it completely. This compares
well with the movie trailer that highlights the movie's highlights to make it look exciting for the viewer (Difference
Between Introduction and Background, 2012). The introduction bring together the general overview of the work and
answers three key questions for the reader (Research Guides, n.d.):
 What is this?
 Why should I read it?
 What do you want me to think about / consider doing/react to?
Background of the Study
The background of a research paper is written to clarify the importance and the necessity of the paper in the first
place. The study and the primary purpose behind the study are the central questions answered through background
presented with a research paper. The background is also a tool in the writer's inventory for preparing a reader who is
unfamiliar with the concepts mentioned in the paper for the document. Background also aims to prepare the reader
before sending him to read the entire document (Difference Between Introduction and Background, 2012).
It's difficult to expect a reader to read the entire document without first providing context for why the writer
prepared it. Background information is required since many readers want to know about the events that occurred before
to the research. It's like the foundation stone of a building, which later supports the entire structure (Difference Between
Introduction and Background, 2012).
NOTE: Reviewing the introduction and background of the study late in the writing process is typically beneficial. This is
reasonable because the results will not be known until the study is completed. After you've finished writing the body of
the paper, go back and study the opening descriptions of the article's structure, data collection method, results reporting
and analysis, and conclusion. Whenever necessary, the researcher has to review and rewrite the introduction to ensure
that its structure is aligned appropriately with content of final paper (Research Guides, n.d.).
Statement of the Problem
The claim that outlines the problem to be addressed by a study is called the statement of the problem (Bwisa,
2018). The goal of this part of the research is to transform a general problem into a resolvable and specific one
addressed by the research itself. By doing the statement of the problem, you also state your purpose in conducting your
research.
What are the key characteristics of a problem statement?
 The following characteristics should be included in a good research problem:
 It should address a knowledge deficit.
 It must be significant enough to add to the existing body of knowledge.
 It should lead to more investigation.
 The problem should lend itself to data collection as a means of study, considering the researcher’s skills, time
and resources.
 The research methods needed are ethical

(Bwisa, 2018)
What are guidelines in writing the statement of the problem?

A persuasive statement of the problem is usually written in three parts:
 Part A (The ideal): Describes the ideal goal and situation
 Part B (The reality): Describes what prevents the goal, state, or value in Part C (The Experimental) from what is
achieved or realized at the moment the study was conducted; explains why the present situation did not succeed
in hitting its target or goal.
 Part D (The consequences): Explains how are you going to improve the current condition or situation trough a
proposal or solution and put it in relation to the goal or ideal.
(Bwisa, 2018)
Hypothesis
A hypothesis refer to a claim proved or disproved using scientific inquiry. You must write hypotheses before
beginning your experiment or data collection if you wish to test a relationship between two or more things (McCombes,
2019).
A hypothesis declares the expectations of the researcher on the outcome or results of the study. It is a wise
speculation to your research question that is yet to undergo the test. You may need to construct many hypotheses for
some research projects that cover distinct facets of your research subject (McCombes, 2019).
But, a hypothesis is not only a prediction – the claim has to be proven or disproven based on existing theories and
knowledge. It should undergo various number of test in order to formulate claims that can prove or repudiate it through
scientific research methods (such as experiments, observations, and statistical data analysis) (McCombes, 2019).
Developing a hypothesis
1. Ask a question.
When you write a hypothesis, consider the research topic that you aim to answer. Formulate a question that is
specific, focused and researchable within the limitations of your study (McCombes, 2019).
2. Ensure an initial research is conducted.
The first part of your response to the question should be based on what you already know about the subject. Look
for theories and prior research to assist you make educated guesses about what your research will reveal (McCombes,
2019).
3. Come up with a hypothesis.
Now that you have an in-depth understanding of what to expect, provide your initial response to the question.
(McCombes, 2019).
4. Work on refining your hypothesis
Make certain that your hypothesis is both specific and testable. There are several ways to phrase a hypothesis, but
all terminology should have clear definitions, and the hypothesis should include the following (McCombes, 2019):
 The important variables
 The study's specific group
 The experiment's or analysis's projected outcome
5. Write three ways to express your hypothesis
You can create a simple if-then prediction to identify the variables. The independent variable is stated in the first
part of the statement, and the dependent variable is stated in the second portion (McCombes, 2019).
In academic research, hypotheses are usually expressed through identifying relationships or impacts, where you
directly state the predicted relationship between variables. If you make comparison of two groups, write the hypothesis
by stating the dissimilarities that can be inferred from them. (McCombes, 2019).
6. Come up with a null hypothesis.
If a research makes use of statistical hypothesis testing, the researcher is required to make a null hypothesis. The
default view is that there is no relationship between the variables, which is known as the Null Hypothesis. H0 is the null
hypothesis, while H1 or Ha is the alternative hypothesis (McCombes, 2019).
Hypothesis examples
Research Question Hypothesis Null Hypothesis
What are the advantages of eating an Increasing the intake of apple in the Increasing the intake of apple in the
apple a day? over-60s will result in low number of over-60s will not yield impacts on the
reducing the number of doctor's visits. number of doctor's visits.
Which airlines most likely have delayed Airlines that offer cheaper airfare are Airlines that offer cheaper and
flight schedules? more likely to have delayed flights than premium flights are equally likely to
premium airlines. incur delays.
Do flexible work arrangements affect Employees show greater job Flexible work arrangements do not
job satisfaction? satisfaction when they follow flexible motivate improved job satisfaction.
working hours than those who have
fixed-hour schedule.
What is the impact of high school sex Decrease of unplanned pregnancies High school sex education do not
education to the rate of teen among teenagers occur when they influence reduction in teen pregnancy
pregnancies in high school? received sex education lessons rates.
throughout high school than those who
did not attend any sex education
interventions.
What is the impact of frequent use of There is no relationship between the There is a negative relation between
social media on the attention span of attention span of those under 1 year of attention span among those in under-
those under-16 years of age? age and the time they spent on social 16s and their social media use.
media.
(McCombes, 2019)
07 Writing the Chapter 1 of a Research Paper Continuation
Discussion
Significance of the Study

Scope and Delimitation of the Study
Definition of Terms
Significance of the Study
The significance of the study discusses the importance of your research. This must be stated in the introduction
section of your research paper. With this, you must emphasize how your research will benefit the development of
science and society.
You can begin outlining the significance by expressing how your research will contribute to a larger problem in your
respective field, then narrow it down to illustrate the specific group who will get most of the benefits from the study. The
significance of your study should be able to answer the following questions:
 Why should your research be published?
 How will this study contribute to the development of your field?
The significance of the whole study must include explanations or discussions of any or all of the following:
1. The purpose, relevance and necessity of the researcher study to current conditions must be elucidated or
discussed.
2. Possible solutions to the existing problems or improvement to the unsatisfactory conditions.
3. Who are to be benefitted and how they are going to be benefitted. It must be shown who the individuals,
groups, or communities may be placed in a more advantageous position on account of the study
4. Possible contribution to the fund of knowledge
5. Possible implications should be discussed here such as the causes expected of the problems discovered, the
probable impacts of the problems, and the solutions to be undertaken in order to provide address the problems.
As well as the good points of a system that should be continued or improved if possible
Scope and Delimitations of the Study
Scope refers to how in-depth the research topic has been explored and the parameters in with the study will be
operating. This includes the facts and theories about the research topic.
The limitation is the research boundary; they are influences that the researcher cannot control. These are the
problems, circumstances, or influences that may arise and cannot be controlled by the researcher that place restrictions
on your methodology and conclusions. Anything that might influence the results is part of the limitation.
Guidelines in Writing the Scope and Delimitations
1. A brief statement of the general purpose of the study.
2. The subject matter and topics were studied and discussed.
3. The locale of the study, where the data were gathered, or the entity to which the data belong.
4. The population from which the respondents were selected. This must be large enough to make generalizations.
5. The period of the study. This is the time, either months or years, during which the data were gathered.
The Limitation of the study includes the weaknesses of the study beyond the control of the researcher. The
weaknesses spring out of the inaccuracies of the perceptions of the respondents. The following are the importance of
Limitation:
1. Always acknowledge a study's limitations. It is better to identify and acknowledge the study’s limitations rather
than your professor pointing them out. This can lower your grade because it may appear that you simply ignored
these limitations.
2. Acknowledging a study’s limitations is an opportunity to make suggestions and recommendations for further
research. Ensure that you can explain how your suggestions and recommendations can answer those limitations.
3. Acknowledging a study’s limitations provides you an opportunity to demonstrate that you have critically thought
about the research problem. Being aware of the limitations of the study will show that you have knowledge of
the relevant literature published about it and correctly assessed the methods chosen for studying the problem.
Research process aims to discover new knowledge and counter assumptions, and explore what we don't know
(Research Guides, n.d.).
4. When you identify the limitations of your study, you have to undertake a subjective process since you must
assess the effect of the limits that you will put in place. Avoid listing the primary weaknesses and the extent of
the limitations because it will only decrease the the validity of your study. The reader will be confused whether
or in what ways limitation(s) in your study may have affect the outsomes and conclusions. When you explain
your limitations, you have to be critical. Make an overall appraisal and analysis of their impact. Try to ponder on
the possibilities of errors on the problems, methods, validity, etc., eventually matter and, if so, to what degree?
Definition of Terms
An alphabetical list of important terms or acronyms you define, particularly ambiguous terms or those used in a
unique way.
Your Research Project proposal will likely include terms that are not widely known outside of your discipline. These
terms include particular theoretical constructs, formulas, operational definitions that differ from colloquial definitions,
schools of thought, and discipline-specific acronyms. This part of your proposal offers the reader a list of definitions of
these terms.
Guidelines in defining terms:
1. Provide definitions to words, terms, or phrases that illustrate special or unique meanings in the study.
2. Terms should be defined operationally, that is, how they are used in the study.
3. The researcher may develop his definition from the characteristics of the term defined.
4. Definitions may be taken from encyclopedias, books, magazines and newspaper articles, dictionaries, and other
publications, but the researcher must acknowledge his resources. Definitions taken from published materials are
called conceptual or theoretical definitions.
5. Definitions should be as brief, clear, and unequivocal as possible.
6. Acronyms should always be spelled out entirely, especially if it is not commonly known or used for the first time.
08 Choosing a Research Method
Qualitative and Quantitative Research

Dependent Variable and Independent Variable
Recognizing Qualitative and Quantitative Research
1. Qualitative research — interviews and focus groups are used to investigate attitudes, behaviors, and
experiences. It aims to elicit a detailed response from participants. Given that it focuses on attitudes, behavior,
and experiences, fewer people participate in the research, but the contact with these people tends to last
considerably longer than quantitative research.
2. Quantitative research – generates statistics through large-scale survey research by using methods such as
questionnaires and structured interviews. This type of research reaches many more people, but contact with
those people is much quicker than qualitative research.
The term “triangulation” is used when combining qualitative and quantitative forms of inquiry is used.
Data collection methods
Various methods can be used to acquire quantitative and qualitative data. It is critical to employ a data gathering
strategy that will assist you in answering your research topic (s). Many data collection methods are available in both
qualitative and quantitative formats. Your data can be numerically represented (e.g., using rating scales or counting
frequencies) or represented by words in surveys, observations, or case studies (e.g., with open-ended questions or
descriptions of what you observed) (Streefkerk, 2019).
Quantitative data collection methods

 Surveys: list of closed or multiple-choice questions that are distributed to samples (online, in person, or over the
phone)
 Experiments are situations in which variables are controlled and changed in order to determine cause-and-effect
correlations.
 Observations: viewing persons in a natural setting with no influence over variables.(Streefkerk, 2019)
Methods for gathering qualitative data
 Interviews: asking open-ended questions verbally to respondents Interviews: asking open-ended questions
verbally to respondents
 Focus groups: a discussion among a group of people about a topic to gather opinions that can be used for further
research
 Ethnography: spending time in a community or organization for an extended period of time to closely observe
culture and behavior
 Literature review: a survey of other people's published works(Streefkerk, 2019).
When to use qualitative versus quantitative research
The rule of thumb for deciding whether to use qualitative or quantitative data include the following:
 If you want to confirm a theory or hypothesis, use quantitative research.
 If you want to grasp concepts, thoughts, and feelings, qualitative research is the way to go (Streefkerk, 2019).
How to analyze qualitative and quantitative data
Qualitative or quantitative data cannot prove or demonstrate anything but must be analyzed to show its meaning
concerning the research questions formulated. Since they are meant for , they also observe different processes in
analyzing a set of data (Streefkerk, 2019).
Analyzing quantitative data
Quantitative data is based on numbers. Simple math or advanced statistical analysis is used to discover
commonalities or patterns in the data. The results are often reported in graphs and tables. Applications such as Excel,
SPSS, or R can be used to calculate things the following (Streefkerk, 2019):
 Average scores
 The number of times a particular answer was given
 The correlation or causation between two or more variables
 The reliability and validity of the results
Analyzing qualitative data

The analysis of qualitative data is more difficult than that of quantitative data. Instead of numbers, it uses text,
graphics, or videos. Streefkerk (2019) suggests the following methods for assessing qualitative data:
 Tracking the incidence, place, and meaning of words or phrases is referred to as qualitative content analysis.
 Thematic analysis is the process of analyzing data to find the primary themes and patterns.
 Discourse analysis refers to the study of language formation in relation to its social context.
Dependent and Independent Variables
Variables in research are any attributes with multiple values, such as height, age, species, or exam score. We often
seek to investigate the impact of one variable on another in scientific inquiry. Independent and dependent variables are
the variables in a research of a cause-and-effect connection (Remolado, n.d.).
 The independent variable is the cause. Its value is independent of other variables in your study.
 The dependent variable is the effect. Its value depends on changes in the independent variable.
An example of an experimental research is an investigation on whether the change in the minimum wage affected
employment rates by comparing the difference in outcomes between the two states (and accounting for other factors).
On the other hand, identifying the definite cause-and-effect relationship in non-experimental research may be
challenging and tricky, because other variables that you have not measured (called confounding variables) may be
influencing the changes. In more complex research topics, you may want to use different terms for independent and
dependent variables to avoid confusing the reader (SHREELEKHAO8, 2021).
Other names for independent variables
Occasionally, the variable you think is the cause might not be fully independent – other variables might influence
it.
In this scenario, one of the following terms is more appropriate (Thomas, 2020):
 Explanatory variables are variables that can be used to explain something (they explain an event or outcome)
 Predictor variables (Predicts the purpose of the dependent variable)
 Right-hand-side variables (they appear on the right-hand side of a regression equation).
Dependent variables are also known as:
 Outcome variables are variables that respond to changes in another variable (they represent the outcome you
want to measure)
 Variables on the left side (they appear on the left-hand side of a regression equation)(Thomas, 2020).
 Operationalizing variables – how you will define and measure a specific variable as it is used in your study
(Thomas, 2020).
For example, if we are concerned with media violence's effect on aggression, we need to be clear with what we
mean by different terms. In this case, we must state what we mean by the terms “media violence” and “aggression” as
we will study them (citation pending).
Therefore, you can state that “media violence” is operationally defined (in your experiment) as “exposure to a 15-
minute film showing scenes of physical assault,” and “aggression” is operationally defined as “levels of electrical shocks
administered to a second ‘participant’ in another room (citation pending).”
09 How to create a Research Methodology
Research Design
The term "research design" pertains to the structure adopted by the researcher to organize their research and
address their research inquiries. Creating a research design means making decisions about the following:
 The type of data you need
 The location and timescale of the research
 The participants and sources
 The variables and hypotheses (if relevant)
 The methods for collecting and analyzing data
The dependability and accuracy of your study rely on how you gather, measure, analyze, and interpret your data
(Singh, 2023). The research design sets the parameters of your study as it will dictate what will be including and what will
not be including. Additionally, it determines the criteria that will be utilized to evaluate the results and draw conclusions.
The design of a research topic explains the type of research and its sub-type. The types of research are
experimental, survey, correlational, semi-experimental, and review, whereas, the sub-types are experimental design,
research problem, and descriptive case-study.
The type of research problem will dictate the research design to be utilizied and not vice-versa. The design phase
determines which tools to use and how they are used (Singh, 2023).
The preferred outcome in experimental research is a design that minimizes errors. The key components of the
research design include:
- A precise purpose statement
- Approaches for collecting and analyzing research
- The methodology for analyzing gathered information
- The type of research methodology employed
- Anticipated challenges in the research
- Parameters for the research study, including timeline and settings
- Analysis measurement
By employing an effective research design, your study stands a good chance of success. Successful research
endeavors yield accurate and impartial insights. It is essential to formulate a survey that embodies the key characteristics
of a design. According to Narayan (n.d.), there are four pivotal features of research design:
1. Neutrality: When establishing your study, assumptions about the anticipated data may be necessary. The
outcomes foreseen in the research design must remain unbiased and neutral. It is crucial to gather opinions on
the final scores and conclusions from diverse individuals, considering those who endorse the derived results
(Singh, 2023).
2. Reliability: In regularly conducted research, consistency in results is anticipated. Your design should outline how
to frame research questions to ensure result consistency. The attainment of expected results is contingent on the
reliability of your design (Singh, 2023).
3. Validity: Numerous measurement instruments exist, but only those that align accurately with the research
objective assist researchers in evaluating results accordingly. As a result, the questionnaire crafted from this
design will be considered valid.
4. Generalization: The results of your design should be applicable to an entire population rather than a limited
sample. A design with broad applicability suggests that the survey can be conducted on any segment of the
population with comparable accuracy.
These factors influence how respondents address research questions, underscoring the importance of balancing
these characteristics in a well-designed study.
To choose an appropriate model for a study, it is crucial for a researcher to have a clear understanding of various
research designs. Similar to the field of research itself, study designs can broadly fall into quantitative and qualitative
categories
Qualitative Research Design: This approach establishes relationships between collected data and observations through
mathematical calculations. Theories associated with naturally occurring phenomena can be validated or refuted using
statistical methods. Researchers employing qualitative research design focus on addressing "why" a particular theory
exists and gather insights into "what" respondents have to say about it (Stevenson University Library, 2023)
Quantitative Research Design: Reserved for cases where statistical conclusions are essential for actionable insights,
quantitative research employs numerical data to facilitate informed decision-making. Quantitative research design
methods are indispensable for organizational growth, as insights derived from complex numerical data and analysis
prove highly effective in making decisions about the future of the business (Stevenson University Library, 2023)
By far, the types of research design are classified into five groups:
1. Descriptive Research Design: In a descriptive design, the researcher's primary focus is to provide a detailed portrayal
of the situation or case being studied. This theory-based design method involves the collection, analysis, and
presentation of gathered data, offering insights into the "why" and "how" of the research. Descriptive design aids in
enhancing understanding of the research's necessity. If the problem statement is unclear, exploratory research can be
conducted to refine it (Sreekumar, 2023).
2. Experimental Research Design: Experimental research design involves a cause-and-effect relationship in a given
situation. It is a design focused on causation, where the effect of an independent variable on the dependent variable is
examined. For example, one could investigate the impact of an independent variable, such as price, on a dependent
variable such as customer satisfaction or brand loyalty.This method is efficient for problem-solving, as it involves
manipulating independent variables to observe changes in the dependent variable. Commonly used in social sciences,
this design allows researchers to analyze human behavior by studying two groups. Participants can alter their actions,
and researchers can study the reactions of those around them, contributing to a better understanding of social
psychology (Sreekumar, 2023).
3. Correlational Research Design: Correlational research is a non-experimental technique enabling researchers to

establish a connection between two closely related variables. This method involves two distinct groups, and in assessing
the relationship between the variables, there are no assumptions. Statistical analysis techniques are employed to
calculate the relationship between these variables (Sreekumar, 2023).
A correlation coefficient, ranging from -1 to +1, is utilized to determine the correlation between two variables. A
coefficient toward +1 signifies a positive relationship, while -1 indicates a negative relationship between the two
variables.
4. Diagnostic Research Design: In diagnostic design, the researcher investigates the root cause of a specific topic or
phenomenon. This approach aids in gaining a deeper understanding of the factors contributing to challenging situations
(Sreekumar, 2023).
This design has three parts of the research:
 The inception of the issue
 Diagnosis of the issue
 Solution for the issue
5. Exploratory Research Design: Exploratory design involves utilizing a researcher's ideas and perspectives on a subject
to delve deeper into their theories. This type of research seeks to elucidate unexplored facets of a subject, providing
details about the "what," "how," and "why" of research questions (Sreekumar, 2023).
In your thesis, a critical aspect is the discussion of the methods employed for your research. The methodology
chapter elucidates the actions taken and their execution, enabling readers to assess the reliability and validity of the
research. This chapter should encompass details such as the type of research conducted, the data collection and analysis
methods employed, any tools or materials utilized, and the rationale behind selecting these methods (McCombes, 2019).
The methodology section is generally crafted in the past tense to accurately reflect the actions taken during the
research process (McCombes, 2019).
Steps in creating a Research Design
Step 1: Outline your methodological strategy
Commence by presenting your overarching approach to the research. Clarify the research problem or question that
you explored. For example, did you aim to describe the characteristics of something systematically, to explore an under-
researched topic, or establish a cause-and-effect relationship? And what type of data did you need to achieve this aim
(McCombes, 2019)?
 Was there a requirement for quantitative data (numerical) or qualitative data (verbal)?
 Did you have to gather primary data personally, or did you rely on secondary data compiled by another source?
 Did you gather experimental data by controlling and manipulating variables or descriptive data by gathering
observations without intervening?
(McCombes, 2019)
Based on your field of study and methodological approach, you may initiate the discussion by exploring the
reasoning and underlying assumptions guiding your methodology (McCombes, 2019).
 Why is this approach the most appropriate for addressing your research questions?
 Is this methodology widely accepted in your field, or does it necessitate justification?

 Did ethical or philosophical factors come into play?
 What criteria define validity and reliability in this research type? (McCombes, 2019)
In a quantitative experimental investigation, the objective may be to generate knowledge that is applicable to a
broader context regarding the factors contributing to a phenomenon. Sound research necessitates a meticulously
planned study conducted under controlled conditions, with the intention of being reproduced by other researchers
(McCombes, 2019).
In a qualitative ethnographic investigation, the objective might be to create genuine, context-specific insights into
the behaviors, social structures, and shared beliefs of a specific group of individuals. Given the less controlled and more
interpretive nature of this methodology, it becomes essential to contemplate your role as a researcher and examine how
your involvement and perspectives may have impacted the outcomes (McCombes, 2019).
Step 2: Explain your approaches to collecting data
After presenting your general methodological approach, provide comprehensive information about the methods
you employed to collect data (McCombes, 2019).
Quantitative methods
In quantitative research, for valid, generalizable results, you should describe your methods in enough detail for
another researcher to replicate your study (McCombes, 2019). Describe the process of operationalizing concepts and
assessing variables, outline your sampling method or criteria for inclusion/exclusion, and detail the tools, procedures,
and materials employed to collect data (McCombes, 2019).
Surveys: Outline the details of the survey's location, timing, and implementation.
 Explain the design of the questions and their format (e.g., multiple-choice, Likert scale).
 Discuss the sampling method employed to choose participants.
 Specify the mode of survey administration, whether by phone, mail, online, or in-person, and indicate the
response time given to participants.
 State the sample size and response rate.
 Consider attaching the entire questionnaire in an appendix to provide readers with a comprehensive view of the
collected data (McCombes, 2019).
Experiments: Provide comprehensive information about the tools, methodologies, and procedures employed in your
experiment (McCombes, 2019):
 Explain the experimental design.
 Outline the participant recruitment process.
 Detail the methods used to manipulate and measure the variables.
 What tools or technologies did you use in the experiment?

(McCombes, 2019)
It is crucial to give enough detail for another researcher to reproduce your results (McCombes, 2019).
Existing Data: Clarify the process by which you collected and chose material (such as publications or archival data) to be
incorporated into your analysis (McCombes, 2019).
 Where did you source the material?
 How was the data produced initially?
 Which criteria did you employ for material selection? (e.g., date range)?
(McCombes, 2019)
Quantitative methods example
The questionnaire comprised 5 multiple-choice queries and ten questions rated on a 7-point Likert scale. The objective
was to survey 350 customers of Company X at the company's premises in The Hague from July 4th to 8th, 2017, between
11:00 and 15:00. A customer was defined as an individual who made a purchase from Company X on the day of the
survey. Participants were allocated 5 minutes to anonymously complete the survey, resulting in 408 responses. Since not
all surveys were fully completed, the analysis incorporated 371 survey results (McCombes, 2019).
Qualitative methods
In qualitative research, where methods tend to be more adaptable and subjective, it is crucial to contemplate the
approach employed and elucidate the decisions made.
Delve into the criteria guiding the selection of participants or sources, provide insights into the research context,
and clarify your role in data collection (e.g., whether you actively participated or acted as a passive observer)
(McCombes, 2019).
Interviews or focus groups: Provide details on the location, timing, and methodology employed in conducting the
interviews.
 What is the process of finding and selecting participants?
 How many participants involved?
 What is the format of the interviews (structured, semi-structured, unstructured).
 What is the duration of the interviews and the method used for recording them (McCombes, 2019)?
Participant observation: Detail the location, timing, and methodology used in carrying out the observation or
ethnography.
 What group or community is under observation? How did you gain access to the community?
 What is the duration and location of the research?
 What is your role within the community?
 What method was used for recording data (e.g., audiovisual recordings, note-taking) (McCombes, 2019)?
Existing data: Describe the process by which you chose case study materials (such as texts or images) to center your
analysis.
 What type of materials did you analyze?

 How did you collect and select them?
(McCombes, 2019)
Qualitative methods example
To enhance understanding of potential product range improvements, semi-structured interviews were carried out with
eight recurrent customers within the primary target demographic of Company X. A returning customer was defined as an
individual who typically made purchases from Company X at least twice a week. Surveys were utilized to identify
participants within the specified target group (ages 20-45). The interviews took place in a small office adjacent to the
cash register, lasting around 20 minutes each. Responses were documented through note-taking, and with consent,
seven interviews were also recorded. One interviewee chose not to be filmed (Quantitative Research Methodology, n.d.).
Step 3: Describe your methods of analysis
Next, you should indicate how you processed and analyzed the data. Avoid going into too much detail—you should
not start presenting or discussing any of your results at this stage (Quantitative Research Methodology, n.d.).
Quantitative methods
In quantitative research, your analysis relies on numerical data. In the methods section, you could incorporate:
 Steps taken to preprocess the data before analysis (e.g., addressing missing data, excluding outliers, variable
transformations)
 The software employed for data analysis (e.g., SPSS, Stata, or R)
 The specific statistical tests applied (e.g., two-tailed t-test, simple linear regression)
(Quantitative Research Methodology, n.d.)
Quantitative methods example
Prior to analysis, the collected data underwent preparation. The dataset underwent scrutiny for missing data and
outliers, with the "outlier labeling rule" employed for this purpose. Any values falling outside the computed range were
identified as outliers (Hoaglin & Iglewicz, 1987). Subsequently, the data was subjected to analysis using the statistical
software SPSS (McCombes, 2019).
Qualitative Approaches
Analysis in qualitative research rely on language, visuals, and observations, frequently incorporating some form of
textual analysis. Particular methods may comprise (Kuma, 2020):
 Content analysis: sorting and delving into the significance of words, phrases, and sentences
 Thematic analysis: encoding and meticulously scrutinizing data to unveil overarching themes and patterns
 Discourse analysis: investigating communication and its meaning within its social context (Kuma, 2020)
Example:
After conducting the interview, it was transcribed and presented in writing using thematic analysis. This process included
coding all the data, followed by the identification and review of six pivotal themes. Each theme was thoroughly examined
to comprehend participants' perceptions and motivations (Kuma, 2020).
Step 4: Evaluate and justify your methodological choices.
Your methodology should make a case for why you chose these particular methods, especially if you did not take
the most standard approach to your topic. Discuss why other methods were not suitable for your objectives, and show
how this approach contributes new knowledge or understanding (Kuma, 2020).
You have the option to recognize limitations or shortcomings in the chosen approach but provide a rationale for
why these were surpassed by the strengths (Kuma, 2020).
Lab-based experiments can't always accurately simulate real-life situations and behaviors, but they effectively test causal
relationships between variables (Kuma, 2020).
Typically, outcomes from unstructured interviews lack generalizability beyond the specific sample group. However,
they offer a deeper insight into participants' perceptions, motivations, and emotions (Kuma, 2020).

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01 Introduction to Research Project

Basic Research and Applied Research

Below are instances of fundamental research:

 An investigation examining the effects of alcohol consumption on the brain

Here are several potential scenarios for applied research:

 An investigation into effective treatments for insomnia in patients

Different Research Designs: Strengths and Weaknesses

Action Research Design

What do these studies tell you?

What do these studies not tell you?

Case Study Design

What do these studies tell you?

What do these studies do not elucidate?

What do these studies tell you?

What do these studies not tell you?

What do these studies tell you?

What do these studies not tell you?

What do these studies tell you?

What do these studies not tell you?

What do these studies tell you?

What do these studies not tell you?

(Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper, 2021).

What do these studies tell you?

What do these studies not tell you?

Understanding the 5 W’s

 You are interested in the topic.

Figure 1: The process of Topic Selection

03 Reading on Related Literature and Studies

A literature review provides an interpretation of the sources undertaken by scholars on a particular

1. Search for relevant literature

Why write a literature review?

 Develop a theoretical framework and approach for your research

Step 1: Look for relevant literature.

Step 2: Make a list of keywords.

 Social media, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, TikTok

Step 3: Find sources that are necessary to your topic.

 Your university's library catalog

Step 4: Assess and choose sources

Step 5: Write notes and cite properly.

Step 8: Write your literature review

As you write, you can follow these tips:

The Goal of a Theoretical Framework

How to Create a Theoretical Framework

1. Identify your key concepts

Example: Problem statement and research questions

Problem: Decrease of subsequent purchase from numerous online customers.

Objective: To increase customer loyalty.

2. Evaluate and explain relevant theories

3. Explain how your research fits in

You might aim to do one or more of the following (Vinz, 2015):

 Evaluate the context that the theory holds.

 Intrpret your results using a theory as your basis

 Make a crtical analysis of the selected theory

 Combine different theories in a new manner

The Structure of the Theoretical Framework

Sample Theoretical Framework

Problem: Many online customers do not return to make subsequent purchases.

Objective: To increase customer loyalty and thereby generate more revenue.

Sample Theoretical Framework

2.1 Customer satisfaction