CHAPTER 1

ASSUMPTIONS AND MISCONCEPTIONS ON THE NATURE OF ART

I. INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the Chapter, you should be able to:

a. discuss the nature of art’s preliminary expressions;

b. characterize artistic expression based on personal experience with art;
c. clarify misconceptions about art;
d. differentiate art history from art appreciation;
e. differentiate art from nature;
f. categorize the works of art by citing personal experiences; and
g. characterize the assumptions of the arts.

II. LEARNING CONTENTS

Art Imagination and Expression

Art is a part of life. Every now and then, we live with it as we cook, speak, sing, dance,
and write are outcomes of our productive imagination. What is the difference between imagination
and expression in art studies? Imagination is an abstraction of a certain thought or feeling that
produces a food art based on reality or experience (Hollick, 2014); while expression is an
automatic response to it. For instance, when a mother thinks on what food to prepare for her
children’s meal, she imagines the ingredients, the kitchen utensils and the processes to use
before expressing them into the actual cooking. Unexpressed imagination is not art. It is not art
when an individual fails to realize the beauty and utilitarian purpose. When the mother fails in her
imagination in providing a palatable meal for her children, she also fails her art of cooking.

However, expression of art can either be positive or negative. When both means and ends
of art are constructive, its expression enhances not only the individual’s quality of life which is
essential to his or her progress and development but also the life of others and the nation as well.
The expression of art in advertisement found in billboards, magazines, and social media entices
public opinion in patronizing certain brands and in the purchase of products in order to increase
company’s sales, improve employees’ lives and regulate government tax collections. When the
means and ends of art expression are destructive like the art of war, art may result to misery,
hinder progress and development and promote chaos. Thus, this situation may bring imminent
danger to society. The burning of buildings, the looting of goods, the destruction of properties and
the violent protests in some places in the United States brought by racism and COVID-19 related-
issues show concern on how we use art expression more positively. Using this context in the
United States, how do your means and ends of art expression respond to this ferocity? With what
is happening to our environment today, it is imperative to nurture positive and more peaceful
expressions of art rather than the negative. In order to realize this aim, you are asked to nurture
positive self-expression by performing the instructions found in Activity 1.

Etymology and Definition of Art

Do you know that art is derived from a Latin term ars, which means skill, talent or ability?
In a broad sense, art is skill in making or doing something. Art is the expression of the creative
skill and imagination in different genres for appreciation of beauty and emotional power. One

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misconception of art is the belief that someone is an artist and the rest are not. This belief is silly
because every individual has a talent. We are skillful in everything we do that ends with a good
purpose. This ability allows us to claim that we are all artists in our own right, depending on our
preferences and abilities that determine our specific interest in art. The belief that art is only good
for the rich and famous is the second misconception. There is no divergence of art according to
status. God created human beings with equal number of neurons, capable of rationalization
compared to other creation in the animal kingdom. The human brain is capable to think 5,000
thoughts per day (Laboria, 2013), including thinking for the art. We are all gifted with art. The
problem is when we fail to recognize it and the lethargy that dictates us not to do it, because we
want everything easy and instant given to us in a silver platter. It is an urgent call to stop this
complacency. We need exposure to hone our imagination to its maximum potential.

Creativity and Art Appreciation

Do you believe that creativity is the mother of all inventions? While it is true, imagination
remains its grandmother. This metaphor means that imagination allows us to be creative, in order
to create scientific inventions and aesthetic innovations. Creativity is a metacognitive skill – a form
of divergent thinking that allows us to generate relationship, integrate concepts, elaborate
information, brainstorm issues with fluency, flexibility and originality (Johnson, 2010). Thinking
outside the box, creativity is an unstructured free flowing process to capacitate the body and
create art. We appreciate art because art gives us pleasure. Listening to music is a form of
appreciation that makes us enjoy and provides a solution of our day’s tedious work. Art allows us
to imagine our past experiences and draws our feelings to appreciate beauty.

What differentiates art from craft? Art and craft are forms of human creativity. The third
misconception is the belief that art and craft have interchangeable meaning. Inocian et al., (2019)
emphasized that “Art is an expression of feelings and emotions; craft is a form of work with the
use of available materials”. Zulueta (1994) rejoined that art is beautiful rather useful; while craft is
making something useful more than beautiful. Art and craft can be different, but these two can be
similar in some ways. In simpler terms, art is the expression of imagination; craft is the realization
of the expression. Art is tinged with a psychological process; craft provides a utilitarian and
mechanical process of creation. As a form of emotional release, art can stand alone even without
craft as a lighter side of our own humanity. Yet, craft without art is awful with no appreciation. This
is the danger when craft is subjected to a mechanical and systematic routine in industries run by
machines to yield a mass production of goods. The production process is dull and repetitive unless
the artists in the industries shall continue to imagine the latest product innovation, design,
packaging and marketing. These industries will become more sustainable to keep their patrons
and make their business alive. Craft procedures use colors, motifs or decoration to suit market
demands (Coppock, 2000).

How can imagination and expression take place in the world of the visual arts? Primarily,
the artists is honest about his or her feelings on the realities of nature and society, affecting his
or her life and the life of everybody, either reflecting the core or the peripheral context of society
in the artwork. For instance, how can a lonely artist paint on a canvass? The artist imagines,
sensitizes and clarifies the core and peripheral issues of loneliness depicting his or her art. He or
she imagines the core of loneliness, referring to any of these psychological issues: struggling for
acceptance of rejection, scuffling for despair, fighting for pain, fearing of the unknown, lingering
anxiety and facing the uncertainty. These core issues interface with the peripheral, which include
the people’s response to socio-economic, political, environmental, technological and public health
issues.

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 This explicit expression of feelings from the imagined core and peripheral issues is a
‘magic recipe’ of art. The visual quality of the artwork depends on craftsmanship on how the artist
selects the art media, uses the brush, mixes colors on palette, contrasts hues between lighter and
darker values of tints, tones and shades, to enhance the artist’s techniques of painting. Applying
all these into the actual painting proves the artist’s art of painting and craftsmanship to produce
several pieces of artwork for public use. Osborne (2014) specified that tints are the combinations
of white to a color that increases lightness; tones are the combinations of a specific color with
gray to produce its tinting and shading; shades are the combinations of a specific color with black
to increase darkness. These techniques to an artistic craftsmanship are common in the visual arts
more so in the art of painting. This context shows a classic mix of art and craft principles and
techniques in the arts.

The Humanities

As coined from the Latin words humanus and humanitas meaning humans, the field of
humanities provides human being opportunity to think critically and creatively, in order to
understand the values and cultures of the world and to bring clarity to the future (Standford
Humanities Center, 2015). The study of humanities includes philosophy, history, religion, art,
literature, language, and music, which can be remembered through the mnemonics: (PHARLLM
Philosophy, history, art, language, literature, and music) as illustrated in figure 1. However,
Zulueta (1994) included dance and theater as part of the humanities.

Philosophy

History Literature

ART

Language Music

Religion

Figure 1. The Fields of Humanities

Art is the center of the seven fields because this provides the enhancement of the
individual human potential. Linking art and the other fields of humanities is relevant to our religious
customs and lifestyle (Coppock, 2000). Philosophy is derived from the Greek words philos and
philein, which means love and Sophia, which means wisdom. Hence, philosophy is defined is
defined as the love of wisdom. History is derived from the Latin word historia, which means to
scribble and record the events in the past. History intertwines with the development of civics for
democratic citizenship. These two fields enhance either logical or sequential thinking, which is

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essential to the artist’s imagination and expression in the arts. Religion is derived from the Latin
word religare or religio, which means to bind. It is a form of obligation that binds the faithful with
one Divine power. Religion enhances the art of meditation and reflection for discernment, good
judgement, self-control, fortitude and decision-making process of the artist.

Literature is a derivative of the Latin word littera or litteratura, which means letter or
knowledge of books. It concentrates on the study of fiction like myths, epics, folktales, short
stories, poems and drama. Non-fiction deals with prose and narratives in essays, news, research,
technical reports, and other printed media that depict cultural implications of people’s life in the
society. Literature enhances the art of writing and reading of an individual. Not only are these arts
essential indicators to basic literacy of the world’s human population, these also promote
appreciation of beauty of the intangible cultures and urban legends. From the Latin word lingua,
which means tongue, language provides avenues for better communication using art of speaking
and listening. Oration, Declamation, story-telling, news reporting, and public speaking are the
techniques for auditory art.

The auditory art is essential to promote understanding, peace and harmony int eh society
by listening to individual voices either in print or audio media. The power of words in effective
communication can never be underestimated – it heals or it kills. Poor language communication
breaks communities and sound language builds these communities to promote alliances. From
the Greek word mousa, which means muse and the Latin word Musa which denotes the goddess
of music, to represent a song or a poetry for appreciation of beauty brings the etymology of music
(Mansfiled, 1923). Music is the pleasing combination and succession of sounds (Harper, 2020),
with or without the use of musical instruments. This auditory art relaxes the soul and stirs pleasant
and happy emotions by singing, humming, chanting, rapping and engaging in jingles and tonal
rhymes (Inocian, 2018).

Nature and Art History

Elements of art

Line
A line is an identifiable path created by a point moving in space. It is one- dimensional and
can vary in width, direction and length.

Shape
Shape and form define objects in space. Shape has two dimensions, height and width and
are usually defined by lines.

Value
Value describes the brightness or darkness of color; a gradient is a series of values from
darkest to lightest.

Form
Shape and form define objects in space. Forms exist in three dimensions with height,
width and depth.

Space
Space in a work of art refers to a feeling of depth or three dimensions. It can also refer to
the artist’s use of the area within the picture.

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Texture
The surface quality of an object that we sense through touch just like hard, soft, rough,
smooth, leathery, sharp, etc.

Color
Reflected light organized on a color wheel.

To Dante Alighieri, nature is the art of God. As an artistic creation of God, nature comprises
plants, animals, lands, and other features and produce of the earth. It has been used by many
artists as one of their sources of inspiration and subject in art. The seven essential elements of
art: line, color, space, form, shape, texture and value (Ray and Daniel, 2016) are essential to
enhance the sense of aesthetics (Silva, 2010). These aforementioned elements are all seen in
nature. Growing trees show vertical lines; mountains, cliffs, and hills reflect curve, triangular and
zigzag lines; valleys and plains are carved with horizontal lines. Lush vegetation shows the
different tints and shades of green, blooming flowers with bright colors, vast space of deserts,
oceans and skies appear with yellowish brown and blue colors. Bumpy, rocky, protruding, rolling,
sparse and dense places speak for the environment’s natural texture. Daytime and nighttime
provide the values of sharpness between lightness and darkness of colors, the shininess or
dullness of the surface and the clarity of dimness of the surroundings (Beardsley, 1981). The
massive land and water distributions reflect their varied forms and shapes with remarkable
beauty. Art is made my man no matter how close it is to nature (Zulueta, 1994). Before the mass
production of colors by industries, artists and weavers in the past extracted juices from plants as
colors used primarily to dye threads in weaving for cloth. For instance, the Sumbanese women
extracted brown colors from tobacco juices, blue colors from indigo and other plants to produce
different colors for the weaving or spinning of cloth (Forshee, 2001).

Oriental artists use nature with beautiful landscape, seascape and select flora and fauna
as a subject of art. This is typically depicted in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean paintings. The
Sumbanese weavers in Indonesia also featured images of crocodiles, horses, deer, lions, and
sea creatures in the weaving of cloth (Forshee, 2001). The Yakan weavers in Basilan, Philippines
portray peneh kenna-kenna (fish-like design), peneh sawe-sawe (snake-like design), peneh
dawen-dawen (folial design, and peneh kule-kule (turtle-like design) (Pasilan, 2017). This
depiction of nature is associated with animism and other cultural beliefs and traditions shown in
the staging of rituals and
festivities. Like the inner
mystical or psycho-
spiritual dimensions of
Islam, Sufism
emphasizes introspection
and spiritual closeness
with Allah (Asreemoro,
2008). As a renunciation
of worldly things (Issit and
Main, 2014), Moslem
artists do not emphasize
Figure 2. The weaving of Bakat animals and plants in art.
Sufism belief is based on
mysterious principle that reflects simplicity in the use of geometric shapes and forms in Islamic
art, because beauty is objective and self-expresive of the truth (Dabbour, 2012). To Critchlow

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(1984), “Islamic art emphasized geometric figures emanating from the ultimate reality of Allah to
human realities, as one of the most powerful forms of sacred art”.

Hence, in Islamic architecture, the dome represents a cosmic symbol of the arch of heaven
and embellished structure with arabesques combined with repeated patterns of tessellations in
exact measurement and proportions. In the Philippines, the art of weaving observes its utilitarian
purpose by using natural materials in the environment like leaves, vines, and bamboo strips,
which are durable enough to contain the yields of the farm. The Cebuanos weave bakat, a large
basket-like container of braid bamboo strips with a hexagram tessellation – a motif found in the
eyes of the basket in hexagonal patterns that form like a honeycomb (Inocian et al.,2019). The
design of the bakat reflects the animistic belief of Handurawism, a ritual supplication of intimacy
to Laon, a “Supreme Visayan Deity – The Ruler of Time,” in harmony with the kalikupan or nature.

This belief of the bakat art and craft of weaving is similar to the animistic weaving patterns
of puso (hanging rice pouches) into six geometrical designs using tender leaves of palm braided
into kinasing (heart-like shape), binaki (frog-like shape), manan-aw (cascading-like phalaenopsis
shape), binosa (fist-like shape), badbaranay (wad-like shape), and tinigib (chisel-like shape),
using tender and supple palm leaves.

Nocheseda (2009-2011) and Alix (2013) urged for the preservation of this indigenous craft
and art of puso weaving as a cultural treasure of the country.

Figure 3. Photographs of the six designs of Puso in Hikayan

Art Genres

As part of the study of humanities, artists introduce several genres, kind, or type of art
(DiMaggio, 1987). The last misconception of art is its plurality. Art observes no plural form,
insisting to have one creates different meanings. Art refers to the fine arts of painting, drawing
and carving, which is basically a skill. While the arts represent a subject like fashion and cuisine,
sports, commerce, economics, and the humanities are by nature disciplinal.

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Classification of Art
1. Verbal
2. Non-verbal
3. Mixed

The verbal arts include literature and oratory, which use words and language such as
poetry, fiction and essay. The non-verbal arts use no words but motor skills. Motor skills can be
classified into two-fine and gross. Arts utilize the use of the dexterity of the hands and fingers or
fine motor skills demonstrated in musical compositions, drawing, architecture, graphic arts,
fashion design, lithography, painting, engraving, weaving, and other handicrafts while interior
design, ceramics or pottery, film-making, photography arts use gross motor or body skills. The
mixed art utilizes the combined elements of verbal and non-verbal arts such as the advertisement
for commercial purpose, theater and drama, opera, song and dance or the performing arts and
cinema. This combination enhances the auditory art of music and sounds in the performance of
these arts. Mixed art can also be determined in terms of the medium used in the artwork like the
use of disparate elements in a canvas to produce an assemblage.

Art history

Art history begins with the emergence of human beings whose imagination propels an
expression of great legacies that human civilizations have witnessed. Art is as old as history, even
before the discovery of the cuneiform writing in Mesopotamia and the hieroglyphics in Egypt. For
thousands of years, incessant interaction of early humans to the environment paved the
enhancement of imagination that led to the discovery and gradual evolution of the finer aspects
of life. Although culture was unsophisticated, art became a witness in the early human quest for
people’s struggle for power, security, and survival. Though art history has been characterized with
a Eurocentric bias because of power influence and historical control of the West (Chase, 201 4),
art historians and researchers start the inclusion of Oriental perspectives. The obvious bias in the
development of art history between the West and the East is reflected in the art history timeline
created by Warhol (2012).

Pre-historic Period
Regarded as nomads, our early ancestors engaged in primitive art using stone
flakes to produce fire to protect themselves. They joined hunting wild animals for food and
used animal skins to cover their bodies. Like them, the Cro-Magnons made carvings on
wood and rocks and painted the caves to scare wild beasts to protect their families and
bands, who lived in deep and shallow caves and rock shelters (Rafferty, 2020). Art is
integral to the lifestyles and beliefs of many cultures as proven by early cave paintings of
our ancestors (Coppock, 2000). Being part of Europe’s modern men and women, Cro-
Magnons were known in cave paintings that reflected their daily hunting routines. Their
paintings were associated with magic and fertility rituals depicting pregnant women with
large breasts and wide hips. In Southeast Asia, art began since the early appearance of
humans on records in 43,900 year-old cave paintings discovered in Marcos-Pangkep,
Sulawesi, Indonesia (Aubert et al., 2014).

During the Mesolithic age, the art of tool-making was improved like the use of axes
by sharpening the tools using stone flaking and grinding. They learned to use nets and
hooks for fishing. They also learned the art of dog domestication for food. During the
Neolithic age, nomadism ended. They settled permanently and engaged in the art of
farming. They raised barley, wheat, millet, fruits and vegetables. The art of animal
domestication was increased. Aside from dogs, they raised goat, horse, and sheep as a

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potential source for milk, cheese and meat. They learned the art of pottery-making for
water and food containers. Another new development during this age was the polishing
and the putting of handles on stone tools for a comfortable hunting expedition.

Ancient Period
While the pre-historic art is associated with struggle for security and human
survival, art in the ancient period represented the architectural construction of stones and
bricks for temples, fortresses, tombs and palaces that symbolize power and authority. In
2700 BCE, ancient Sumerians constructed the Ziggurat of Ur as a votive offering to Enlil,
their deity. The Gate of Ishar constructed in 575 BCE in Babylon (now Iraq) is one of the
famous citadels in the ancient world (Agustyn et al., 2016). The pyramids built at Giza,
Eqypt served as tombs of the pharaohs in 2000 BCE. The mortuary temples of Queen
Hatshepsut and her family were constructed during the New Kingdom in 1500 BCE. The
carving of the Bust of Nefertiti was a famous contribution of art of sculpting during the
Amarna period in 1300 BCE. Her bust reminds women’s political power and leadership in
the ancient world (2005).

The legacies of the Age of Metals coincided with a significant part of the ancient
world. At the height of the Bronze Age, art of pottery making was more elaborate during
the Minoan (1500 BCE) and the Mycenean (1200 BCE) kingdoms in Ancient Greece. The
Minoan Palace of Knossos and the Lions Gate (Lethaby, 1918) in Mycenae were few of
its greatest contributions in architectural art. According to Coppock (2000), the Minoan
palaces of Crete abounded with brilliantly colored paintings with representation of birds
and animals. Minoan artists depicted sea creatures because of their island location in the
Mediterranean Sea. Greece was able to produce the Parthenon in Acropolis as a symbol
of power and elevated the culture of democracy (Ellis & Esler, 2003). The Greeks spent
their leisure by watching a stage presentation or play at the Theater of Delphi with more
than 5,000 expectant visitors (Cartwright, 2012). The Athenians were also known in slip
or layered clay pots depicting a typical farm life.

The Egyptians were the first group of people to use copper for ornaments during
the Copper Age. The art of mixing of copper and tin resulted in the production of bronze
that transitioned this Age to the Bronze Age. The smelting of iron by the Hittites of Asia
Minor (now Turkey) ushered the introduction of the Iron Age with the creation of chariots.
This casting of iron was introduced when Egypt signed up a treaty between the Hittites to
end their animosities and fighting to maintain peace and brotherhood in the region (Ellis &
Esler, 2003). This discovery facilitated transportation and iron wheels that contributed to
the enhancement of civilization during the ancient times.

Greek art greatly influenced the Etruscan art (600 BCE) by mixing Greek and
Roman styles to create composite columns in sophisticated homes and tombs. The
structure of the Sacrophagus from Cerveteri, Apulu (Apollo) and the Interior of the Tombs
of the Reliefs of Cerveteri reflect their combined sophistication. After the Etruscans were
wiped out in the peninsula, the Romans established a republic in 200 BCE and built an
empire that lasted until 250 CE. Structures of temples, tombs, palaces, colosseums and
aqueducts were inspired by verism or Roman realism in art, which expresses practical
and down-to-earth style and motif. The Romans were also known for their frescoes,
mosaic and murals. Frescoes are mural paintings using watercolor in freshly laid plaster
on walls and ceilings. The Last Supper of Leonardo da Vinci exemplifies one of the
frescoes (Zelazko, 2018). Mosaic is a picture made from colored chips of stone or glass
(Ellis & Esler, 2003). Murals are paintings executed directly on walls. One of the known

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muralists during the Renaissance was Michelangelo (Cohen, 2018). Early Christian art
started in 400 CE, which featured churches and Christian images like the Old St. Peter’s
Basilica, Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, Good Shepherd, Santa Constanza, and St.
Apolinare Nouvo.

The Medieval Period

The Medieval period is divided into two: the early medieval and the late medieval.
The Early Medieval which started from 410 CE to 1024 CE featured the arts of the warlords
(600 CE), Hiberno-Saxon and Carolingian (800 CE), and the Ottonian (900 CE) with
portable works, interlacing patterns, illuminated manuscripts, Cloissonne, burial relics and
animal style jewelries. Its finest works of art include the Palatine Chapel and the Durham
Cathedral the manuscripts of Landisfrance, Ebbo, and Lindau Gospels. This period
features the Byzantine art from 324 CE to 1453 CE, the Islamic Art from 622 CE to 1924
CE, the Romanesque (1100 CE) and the Gothic (1200).

The features of Byzantine art included the architectural design of the Hagia Sophia
and the heavenly Byzantine Mosaic. Aside from the Koran, the arabesques, calligraphy,
and horse-shoe arch, Islamic art also featured the architectural design of the Dome of the
Rock, Mosque of Cordoba, Palace of the Lions and the Mosque of Selim II. Romanesque
architecture is characterized by heavy walls and smaller windows as shown in Pisa and
Durham Cathedrals. Aside from performing pilgrimages, the Romanesque period excelled
to keep relics as exemplified in Reliquary of Sainte-Foy. The architecture of the Gothic
period is characterized by a Rayonnant style with flying buttresses and the use of stained
glasses. This is depicted in the architectural design of the cathedrals of Salibury and Notre
Dame. Despite the Black Death (1347-1351) and Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453), the
Romanesque art survived and ushered to a new development in the late medieval period.

The Late Medieval lasted from 1300 CE to 1500 CE. This period coincided with
the massive development of art during the Renaissance, as a redemption of freedom
curtailed during the early medieval times. During the first part of the early medieval period
(1300 CE), art was also dubbed as late Gothic or Proto Renaissance that served the
transition between these two periods of art history. Within this period, figures started to
have form with shadows and edifices stressed with width and height as depicted in the
Baptistry of San Giovanni Doors at Pisano. Art in the early Renaissance was characterized
with the use of oil painting, extreme detail and symbolism as depicted in the frescoes of
church ceilings. This period was also regarded as the rebirth of classical culture that used
linear perspectives, frescoes and tempera in art. The Medici family who introduced the
Medici neo-platonic academy became the patron of the arts during this period. The
Renaissance art spread to France, Poland, Germany, and England like the works of Dürer,
Bruegel, Bosch, Jan van Eyck and Rogier van der Weyden.

Modern Period

Art in the modern era was enlightened by the following ages: Mannerism (1550),
Baroque (1650), Rococo (1700s), Neoclassical (1800), Romanticism (1800), Realism
(1860), photography (1850), England’s arts and crafts and Paris Art Nouveau (1900),
Impressionism (1865-1885), Post Impressionism (1900), Fauvism and Expressionism
(1910), Cubism, Futurism, Supremativism, Constructivism, and De Stijl (1905-1920),
Dada (1920) and Surrealism (1930). As transition from the Renaissance to the Modern
period, mannerism art broke the rules and emphasized twisted and elongated bodies, as

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shown in the Last Supper (Tintoretto), Entombment of Christ (Pontormo), Madonna with
the long neck (Parmigianino) and the works of El Greco, Bronzino and Cellini.

During the Baroque period, art was used as a weapon for religious wars. Baroque
art was emphasized in the works of Rubens, Caravaggio, Bernini and Gentileschi.
Portraits emphasized still-life like in the works of Claesz, Vermeer, Hals and Rembrandt.
This period was inspired by the religious and political issues of the thirty years war
between the Catholic and the Protestant Church from 1618 to 1648, and the counter
reformation in the Italy by Pope Paul III, together with the active support of Saint Ignatius
de Loyola. The Baroque period was succeeded by the Rocco period, where the theme of
art was highly decorative, more especially during the time of King Louis XIV of France.
During the periods of enlightenment and Industrial revolution (1760-1850), neo-classical
art recaptured Graeco-Roman grace and grandeur.

At the height of the American Revolution (1775-1783) and French Revolution

(1789-1799), romanticism celebrated the triumph of imagination and individuality in art.
Sixty years later, realism art focused its theme to working class and peasants in a rustic
word of painting, more evident in the works of Courbet, Daumier, and Millet, inspired by
the Democratic revolutions of 1848. The art of photography was recognized in 1850 in
daguerreotype and calotype classification. Arts and Crafts received their recognition using
natural forms, repeated designs of floral ang geometric patterns. Capturing the fleeting
effects of natural light was thew subject of impressionism within 20 years in Europe. This
theme was elaborate in the works of Monet, Manet, Renoir, Pissarro, Cassatt, Morisot and
Degas. Fifteen years later, there was a soft revolt against impressionism known as post-
Impressionism in 1900. Some of the known artists in this period were Van Gogh, Gaugin,
Cézanne and Seurat. Ten years later after the post Impressionism, Fauvism,
expressionism in art becomes popular. Art in this period was characterized with the use
of harsh colors and flat surfaces, and emotion distorting form. There were experiments of
new forms to express modern life during the Pre- and Post-World war1. This period
featured in Cubism, Futurism, Supremativism, Contrutivism, De Stijl from 1905 to 1920.
Emphasis on ridiculous art, painting dreams and exploring the unconscious were the
features of the Dada and Surrealism periods.

Contemporary Period

The contemporary period of history marked the beginning of abstract

expressionism in 1945 and Pop art in 1960s. After World War II, art observed pure
abstraction and expressionism without forms. To Zuleta (1994), “Some contemporary
painters have shifted their interest to the work of art as an object in itself, and exciting
combination of shapes and colors that fulfills an aesthetic need without having to represent
images or tell a story”. The use of popular art absorbs a wide demand for consumerism in
advertisements, commercial and entertainment companies. This contemporary period
also paved the way to postmodernism and deconstructivism, since 1970 to the present.
The postmodern and deconstructive period reworked and mixed past styles of art. Art
without a center is the popular mantra among the postmodern and deconstructive artist.

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 CHAPTER 2

FUNCTIONS AND PHILOSOPHY OF ART

I. Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of the Chapter, students are expected to:

1. distinguish between directly functional and indirectly functional art; and

2. apply concepts and theories on beauty and aesthetics in real life scenarios.

II. Learning Contents

A. Functions of Art

Basically, there are three functions of art: 1) personal (utilitarian, public display,
expression) 2) social (used for public display and celebration, used to affect the collective
behavior) and 3) physical (utilitarian). The term ‘utilitarian’ was first coined by Jeremy Bentham
who labored on the notion of happiness. Its simplest formulation is the popular phrase “the
greatest happiness for the greatest number.” It was his student, J.S. Mill, who refined it by
abandoning the strict “calculus of pleasures and pains as too narrow.” Most people are motivated
to do an artwork for personal reasons – e.g. source of income, self-expression, escape boredom,
etc. Others would do it because of long-held traditions and beliefs – fiestas, birthdays,
anniversaries, etc. Still, there are those who are engaged in art to maintain balance of mind and
body: “Mens sana in corpore sano” (a healthy mind in a healthy body).

B. Philosophy of Art

A usual tendency when somebody asks, “What is Philosophy?,” is to answer: “Well, based
on etymology, philosophy is the love of wisdom.” This immediate reply, of course, is based on the
Greek words, philo (love) and Sophia (wisdom), which had come down to us by way of
Pythagoras, who is credited to be the first person to have used the term and by extension, the
first one to have defined it.

Traditionally, art theories date back to the time of the ancient Greeks. For Plato, an artist’s
work is nothing but a copy (a mimesis) of the original object that is to be found in the world of
ideas or forms. As every student of philosophy knows, he was a true-blue idealist who considered
the physical world as just a shadow of the ideal world. For him, whatever is copied cannot match
the prototype. In Book VII of The Republic, Plato intimates the world of art in the following quote:

“And do you see, I said, men passing along the wall carrying all sorts of vessels, and
statues and figures of animals made of wood and stone and various materials, which appear over
the wall” some of them are talking, others silent.”

The images mentioned above are mere reflections on the wall. Already, Plato suggests
that, just like the prisoners in the cave, most of us do not even see the actual statues and figures
except only their shadows. Furthermore, he seems to suggest that the prisoners’ conception of
the products of art (i.e. those figures made of wood and stone and other materials) are twice
removed from reality. In this respect, Plato considers the arts as inferior to science and
philosophy. Over-all, however, Plato’s treatment of painting and poetry in The Republic aims at
developing a philosophy of art. Such tendency to believe in the ‘mysterious’, nevertheless, finds

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its enemies in modern technology as Michael Harris, quoting Harold Innis, suggests: “We know
that the ‘immortal inconclusiveness of Plato was no longer possible’ once the technology of writing
wiped away a certain mystery.” Harris, of course, is referring to the advent of the computers and
the internet which, in a way, has made everything quite open through constant connectivity. Thus,
the loss of mystery an perhaps, even an interest in reading books or printed material occurs.

His student, Aristotle, however disagrees and considers art as a representation of reality.
By representation here is meant an artist’s unique way of capturing an image of reality in his own
terms. In his Poetics, he goes to the extent, particularly in literature, to consider its effect in the
reader or spectator what he calls catharsis – literally, a purgation of one’s emotion. Thus, for
Aristotle, the artist does not simple copy but recreates reality in a manner that alleviates the
audience. In the opening lines of his famous book, the Nichomachean Ethics, Aristotle says:
“Every art, art and every inquiry and similarly every action and choice, is thought to aim at some
good; and for this reason the good has tightly been declared to be that at which all things aim.”
Aristotle’s notion of mimesis puts premium on poetry which can be summarized in the following:

Imitation in poetry is achieved by means of rhythm, language and harmony.

While other arts share some or all these elements – painting imitates visually by
the same means, while dance imitates only through rhythm – poetry is a kind of
vocalized music, in which voice and discursive meaning are combined. Aristotle is
interested primarily in the kinds of poetry that imitate human actions, which fall into
the broad categories of comedy and tragedy.

In saying this, Aristotle is at the same time suggesting that all art in general is an imitation
of human life. Thus, whether he is talking about comedy or tragedy, the purpose is the same: to
mimic how humans live their usual lives:

Comedy is an imitation of worse types of people and actions, which reflect

our lower natures. These imitations are not despicable or painful, but simply
ridiculous or distorted, and observing them gives us pleasure.

The conflict of ideas between the two pillars of Greek philosophy, Plato and Aristotle, finds
perfect interpretation in the famous painting by Raphael, The School of Athens. In this particular
work, Raphael demonstrates how the thoughts of these two philosophers clash. As can be seen
in the picture below, Plato (the one in the left) points his finger to the top while his famous student
Aristotle (the one in the right) points his hand to the ground. Simply put, Plato, the idealist, says
that reality is up there in the world of ideas while Aristotle disagrees by saying that reality is down
here in he world.

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 Figure 4. The school of Athens by Raphael

The German philosopher Immanuel Kant has his own take of the matter by saying that art
is something that is second nature to man. According to him, there is no valid reason why people
engage in art but the act itself. The expression “art for art’s sake” thus becomes his famous battle-
cry. For Kant, art’s purpose is to be “purposeless”. The artist in his view should not have any
justification for his work. In this sense, Kant proposes for freedom in one’s art. In his work,
Groundwork for Metaphysics of Morals, he says: “All industries, crafts and arts, have gained by
the division of labor, viz., one man does not do everything, but each confines himself to a certain
kind of work that is distinguished from all other kinds by the treatment it requires, so that the work
may be done with the highest perfection and with greater ease.” Clearly, Kant suggests that for
one to be successful in any career, he or she must have some focus. Multi-tasking or doing
several things in one instance is out of his vocabulary. Similarly in art, one finds fulfillment in his
craft when he accomplishes it the way he wanted it to be in the first place. Fame and recognition
would only be secondary to it.

There are basically three philosophical themes in art, namely: 1) Integrity, 2)

Proportion/Consonance and 3) Radiance/Clarity. Integrity refers to faithfulness to one’s principles,
proportion or consonance implies balance or consistency of the elements and radiance or clarity
has something to do with the meaning or impact upon the observer. When a person acts with

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integrity, his actions adhere to his values or principles. An artist’s work has integrity if it follows its
own truth or values and is not swayed by other people’s motives. To borrow a statement from
Nassim Nicholas Taleb, “Art is one-sided conversation with the unobserved.” Consequently, one
may fail to appreciate beauty in artist’s work. But the artist feels secure in knowing that: “Beauty
is enhanced by unashamed irregularities; magnificence by a façade of blunder.” Artists use
proportion for effect – that is to emphasize a certain element in the work. For instance, an artist
could enlarge a person’s head and minimize his body in a piece of drawing to drive home a
particular message. It is up to the observer, of course, to interpret it. The third element, radiance
or clarity, is what the term says it is. When a viewer looks at an artwork, for instance, his attention
is caught by the object immediately as he lays his eyes on it. The attraction is instant due to the
fact that the artwork exudes radiance.

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